The Life Course and Life Span Perspectives:

History and Overview

Toni C. AntonucciToni C. AntonucciInstitute for Social ResearchInstitute for Social Research

University of MichiganUniversity of Michigan

Presentation toPresentation to The MacArthur Foundation Aging Society NetworkThe MacArthur Foundation Aging Society Network

New York, New YorkNew York, New YorkSeptember 16-17, 2008September 16-17, 2008

IntroductionIntroduction

Why take a life course and life span Why take a life course and life span perspective on aging?perspective on aging?

A brief history A brief history

Previously Most Social Scientists Previously Most Social Scientists SpecializedSpecialized

InfancyInfancy Race, Class, Ethnicity Race, Class, Ethnicity

Childhood Childhood Organizations Organizations

Adolescence Gender Adolescence Gender

AgingAging Work, Employment Work, Employment

FamilyFamily Generations Generations

Most Developmental Scientists Most Developmental Scientists Specialized, Dichotomizing by AgeSpecialized, Dichotomizing by Age

CHILDHOODCHILDHOOD AGINGAGING

GrowthGrowth DeclineDecline

Increasing Increasing DisorganizationDisorganization

organizationorganization

StructuralStructural DedifferentiationDedifferentiation

differentiationdifferentiation

Why?Why?

In addition to the changing societal In addition to the changing societal demographics and the reshaping age demographics and the reshaping age

distribution …distribution …

The demise of the “Grand Theory”The demise of the “Grand Theory”

A new awareness of the multiple A new awareness of the multiple levels of influencelevels of influence

Integrating TheoriesIntegrating Theories

(Bio)ecological Theory(Bio)ecological Theory

Social and Symbolic InteractionismSocial and Symbolic InteractionismTheoryTheory

Both theories emphasized the dynamic interplay Both theories emphasized the dynamic interplay between person and environmentbetween person and environment

Eventually both theories became life long, Eventually both theories became life long, recognizing the importance of a dynamic life recognizing the importance of a dynamic life course and ongoing life span developmentcourse and ongoing life span development

LINKING MACRO TO MICRO MULTIPLE LEVELS OF LINKING MACRO TO MICRO MULTIPLE LEVELS OF INFLUENCEINFLUENCE

YOU

Family/community

Individual

Environment/Culture/Society

Gene/Biology

Life Span/Life Course SequenceLife Span/Life Course Sequence

Normal Development:Normal Development: Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 3

Under Stress:Under Stress:Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stress Stress Return to Return to

Stage 1 Stage 1 with recovery Return to Stage 2 with recovery Return to Stage 2

Similarly Under Later Stress:Similarly Under Later Stress:Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 3 Stress Stress

Return to Stage 2 Return to Stage 2 with Recovery Return with Recovery Return to Stage 3 to Stage 3

Life Span/Life Course SequenceLife Span/Life Course Sequence

Environment Environment Outcome OutcomeWe came to understand that environment We came to understand that environment

could not explain allcould not explain all

Gene Gene Outcome OutcomeWe them thought that the identification of We them thought that the identification of

the human genome would explain allthe human genome would explain all

It is now pretty clear that most things are It is now pretty clear that most things are best explained bybest explained by

Gene x Environment Gene x Environment Outcome Outcome

DifferencesDifferencesLife Span Life Span Life Course Life Course

IndividualIndividual Groups Groups

ProcessesProcesses Social pathways Social pathways

TrajectoriesTrajectories Roles, transitions Roles, transitions

Endogenous (micro)Endogenous (micro) Exogenous Exogenous (macro)(macro)

Similarities in the Life Span and Similarities in the Life Span and Life Course PerspectivesLife Course Perspectives

Understand Human Experience to be: Understand Human Experience to be: Long-term/life long; Multilevel; Long-term/life long; Multilevel; Contextual;Contextual;DynamicDynamic

Influenced by macro & micro factors Influenced by macro & micro factors Gains and losses; Risks and Gains and losses; Risks and resilienciesresiliencies

Aging Differs by CohortAging Differs by Cohort

With the demise of the “Grand Theory”With the demise of the “Grand Theory”

comes recognition that people maycomes recognition that people may

experience age differentlyexperience age differently

oror

It might have been the reverse – without It might have been the reverse – without undeniable cohort differences, Grand undeniable cohort differences, Grand Theories seemed less likelyTheories seemed less likely

GEN 1GEN 1

GEN 1

GEN 1

GEN 2

GEN 2

GEN 2

GEN 2

GEN 4

GEN 3

GEN 3

GEN 3

GEN 3

GEN 4

GEN 4

GEN 4

1880

1900

1910

1920

1940

1950

1970

1980

1990

2010

1980 1990 2000 2010

Age

Spa

n

GenerationsGenerations

Major ThemesMajor Themes

Life Course ResearchLife Course Research Life Span ResearchLife Span Research

Age StratificationAge Stratification Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences

Cohort and HistoricalCohort and Historical Adaptivity & PlasticityAdaptivity & PlasticityPeriod EffectsPeriod Effects

Accumulation ofAccumulation of Allocation of ResourcesAllocation of Resources(in)equalities(in)equalities

Linked LivesLinked Lives Self-regulationSelf-regulation

Differential Trajectories and Pathways of AgingDifferential Trajectories and Pathways of Aging

Age StratificationAge Stratification

Normative age structuringNormative age structuring

Age stratificationAge stratification

Social Institutions stratify, segment, Social Institutions stratify, segment, construct livesconstruct lives

Many institutions stratify by age, e.g.Many institutions stratify by age, e.g.education, work, retirementeducation, work, retirement

Age StratificationAge Stratification

Chronologization - saliency of age and Chronologization - saliency of age and timetime

Institutionalization - construction of life Institutionalization - construction of life course by organizationscourse by organizations

Standardization - normativity of life Standardization - normativity of life course patternscourse patterns

Cohort and Historical Period Effect Cohort and Historical Period Effect

People are embedded and shaped by People are embedded and shaped by

time, place and experiencetime, place and experience

These trigger changeThese trigger change

The timeline/cohort figure is illustrativeThe timeline/cohort figure is illustrative

Cohort and Historical Period Effect Cohort and Historical Period Effect

Timing in lives, e.g. Elder’s 4 types:Timing in lives, e.g. Elder’s 4 types:

1. Social pathways 1. Social pathways

2. Trajectories 2. Trajectories

3. Exit transitions3. Exit transitions

4. Transitions 4. Transitions

Accumulation of Advantages and Accumulation of Advantages and Disadvantages Disadvantages

Status disparities Status disparities wealth, knowledge, health, etc.wealth, knowledge, health, etc.

Life course capitalLife course capital

Consistent predictor of opportunities, Consistent predictor of opportunities, accomplishments, exposure to riskaccomplishments, exposure to risk

Cumulative and transgenerationalCumulative and transgenerational

Linked LivesLinked Lives

Linked Directly –Linked Directly –

Father’s employment effects family Father’s employment effects family income/resourcesincome/resources

Linked Indirectly -Linked Indirectly -

Multigenerational effects of the Multigenerational effects of the Feminist Movement or the Great Feminist Movement or the Great DepressionDepression

Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences

Functional ability – intelligenceFunctional ability – intelligence

Social relationshipsSocial relationships attachmentattachment

Disposition – personalityDisposition – personality

Individual Differences areIndividual Differences are

multidirectional multidirectional

multidimensionalmultidimensional

Adaptivity and PlasticityAdaptivity and Plasticity

Adaptation to change –Adaptation to change – both positive and negativeboth positive and negative growth and lossesgrowth and losses

Plasticity –Plasticity –within person variabilitywithin person variability

testing the limitstesting the limits

Self - RegulationSelf - Regulation

Interaction of biological and Interaction of biological and cultural/environmental resourcescultural/environmental resources

Strategies of selection, optimization Strategies of selection, optimization and compensationand compensation

Human Agency/motivationHuman Agency/motivation

Biological

Bioenvironmental

Interactions

Environmental

OntogeneticAge-Graded

EvolutionaryHistory-Graded

Non-Normative

PersonologicalMaturational,

Etc.

Dialetectical

Learning Socialization

Conceptions of Basic Major Antecedent Development Determinants Systems of Change

Time

Figure Adapted from Baltes, Cornelius & Nesselroade, 1978Baltes 1997

Differential Pathways and Differential Pathways and Trajectories of AgingTrajectories of Aging

Subgroup differences in social pathways of Subgroup differences in social pathways of aging e.g. by education, SES, gender, race, aging e.g. by education, SES, gender, race, family, roles, interest in distribution of family, roles, interest in distribution of disparities in trajectories, interindividual disparities in trajectories, interindividual differencesdifferences

Individual differences in trajectories of Individual differences in trajectories of intraindividual change e.g. changes in intraindividual change e.g. changes in behaviors and functioning, intelligence, behaviors and functioning, intelligence, personality, stability and changepersonality, stability and change

Differential Pathways and Differential Pathways and Trajectories of Aging Trajectories of Aging

With age greater Heterogeneity –With age greater Heterogeneity –

with more experience, more with more experience, more differencesdifferences

With age greater Homogeneity – With age greater Homogeneity –

with age selective attritionwith age selective attrition

Contemporary EvidenceContemporary Evidence

Age-stratification of society – Age-stratification of society – changing nature of work and family roles, changing nature of work and family roles, education, gender roleseducation, gender roles

e.g. work and the “Fordist” model versus e.g. work and the “Fordist” model versus “patchwork” model“patchwork” model

e.g. family roles – Father knows best, Betty e.g. family roles – Father knows best, Betty Crocker, the Brady BunchCrocker, the Brady Bunchthe Osborn’sthe Osborn’s

Contemporary EvidenceContemporary Evidence

Attitudes about Aging Attitudes about Aging

increasingly positiveincreasingly positive

divergence of young and olddivergence of young and old

divergence general vs. specific divergence general vs. specific

Effect of Demographics and the Baby Effect of Demographics and the Baby BoomersBoomers

Contemporary EvidenceContemporary Evidence

Cumulative InequalitiesCumulative Inequalities

evidence re SES effects evidence re SES effects

healthhealth

ethnic groups – cohorts/generationethnic groups – cohorts/generation

Civil RightsCivil Rights

Hispanic ParadoxHispanic Paradox

African / Caribbean AmericanAfrican / Caribbean American

Health over the Life CourseHealth over the Life Course

Chronic versus acute stressors Chronic versus acute stressors healthhealth

Stress modelStress modelmoderating effects e.g. social moderating effects e.g. social relations which may attenuate relations which may attenuate influence of stress on healthinfluence of stress on healthmediating effects e.g. social support mediating effects e.g. social support explaining the association between explaining the association between stress and healthstress and health

Social roles of men and womenSocial roles of men and women

Cumulative effects of linked livesCumulative effects of linked lives

Roles (work, family) changing but Roles (work, family) changing but aging is still genderedaging is still gendered

Current cohorts are different from Current cohorts are different from future cohortsfuture cohorts

Implications – e.g. men have material, Implications – e.g. men have material, women have emotional resourceswomen have emotional resources

Flexibility suggests adaptabilityFlexibility suggests adaptability

Changing family and Changing family and intergenerational connectionsintergenerational connections

Changing families –Changing families –structure of familiesstructure of familiestype of support availabletype of support availablequality of relationshipsquality of relationships

But despite changes families seem to But despite changes families seem to maintain same purpose and functionmaintain same purpose and function

Changing family and Changing family and intergenerational connectionsintergenerational connections

Intergenerational relations –Intergenerational relations –

as social capital as social capital

bidirectional transfersbidirectional transfers

Positive and Negative influences, Positive and Negative influences, exchanges, resourcesexchanges, resources

Changing family and Changing family and intergenerational connectionsintergenerational connections

People adapt as needed, People adapt as needed, socioemotional selectivity e.g. socioemotional selectivity e.g. change investment strategychange investment strategy

People are shaped by the personal and People are shaped by the personal and situational characteristics – convoys situational characteristics – convoys – which provide support and in turn – which provide support and in turn influence their heath and well-beinginfluence their heath and well-being

Life long adaptation and plasticityLife long adaptation and plasticity

Cognitive functioningCognitive functioning

early abilities early abilities later declines later declines

interventions can be successfulinterventions can be successful

behavioral interventions can have behavioral interventions can have

neurological effectsneurological effects

Life long adaptation and plasticityLife long adaptation and plasticity

Personality, motivation, emotion and social Personality, motivation, emotion and social engagementengagement

Some aspects of personality do change and are Some aspects of personality do change and are affected by life eventsaffected by life events

Motivation may be increasingly affected by Motivation may be increasingly affected by social relationssocial relations

Emotional optimization in later lifeEmotional optimization in later life

Social engagement is modifiableSocial engagement is modifiable

Cohort differences in Cohort differences in trajectories of agingtrajectories of aging

Trends in cognitive functioningTrends in cognitive functioning

Trends in physical disabilityTrends in physical disability

Trends in retirementTrends in retirement

Gaps in current knowledge about Gaps in current knowledge about changeschanges

Emerging phases of old ageEmerging phases of old age

Globalization and international migrationGlobalization and international migration

Impact of social movementsImpact of social movements

Efforts to reduce disparitiesEfforts to reduce disparities

Impact of initiatives about successful agingImpact of initiatives about successful aging

Gaps in current knowledge about Gaps in current knowledge about changeschanges

Additional issues:Additional issues:

structural lagstructural lag

limited resourceslimited resources

institutionalization of responsibility institutionalization of responsibility

e.g. of healthe.g. of health

ethics re new technological advancesethics re new technological advances

attitudes re rights and responsibilitiesattitudes re rights and responsibilities

Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention OpportunitiesGlobal – governments, communities to Global – governments, communities to

interveneintervene

widespread education of population widespread education of population

anti-aging/stereotype campaignsanti-aging/stereotype campaigns

limited resourceslimited resources

Societal – social programs, mutual Societal – social programs, mutual responsibility, enhanced intergenerational responsibility, enhanced intergenerational roles, increase trained professionalsroles, increase trained professionals

Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention Opportunities

Community level interventions:Community level interventions:

community based centers both social community based centers both social and medicaland medical

facilitate activity for older adults e.g.facilitate activity for older adults e.g.transportation, lighting, sidewalkstransportation, lighting, sidewalks

roles for elders in the communityroles for elders in the community

Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention Opportunities

Community level interventions:Community level interventions:

community based centers both social community based centers both social and medicaland medical

facilitate activity for older adults e.g.facilitate activity for older adults e.g.transportation, lighting, sidewalkstransportation, lighting, sidewalks

roles for elders in the communityroles for elders in the community

Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention Opportunities

Individual level interventions:Individual level interventions:

cognitive trainingcognitive training

exercise and nutritionexercise and nutrition

interventions re decision-makinginterventions re decision-making

maintain social engagementmaintain social engagement

active family and community rolesactive family and community roles

In summary to address the needs In summary to address the needs of an Aging Society, we must:of an Aging Society, we must:

Take a human development approach that combines the Take a human development approach that combines the strengths of both the life course and the life span strengths of both the life course and the life span perspectivesperspectives

Build on disciplinary strengths, from cellular biology to Build on disciplinary strengths, from cellular biology to demographics, but leave behind our disciplinary biasesdemographics, but leave behind our disciplinary biases

Think of aging from birth to death so thatThink of aging from birth to death so thatlife time experiences inform both research and policylife time experiences inform both research and policy

Consider aging a proactive, interactive, individual, Consider aging a proactive, interactive, individual, intergenerational and societal experienceintergenerational and societal experience