the kinematic representation of seismic source. the double-couple solution double-couple solution in...
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The kinematic representation of seismic source
The kinematic representation of seismic source
€
ui(r x , t) = dτ
−∞
+∞
∫ Δu j (r ξ ,τ )c ikpqnk
∂
∂ξ q
Gip (r x , t − τ ,
r ξ ,0)
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
€
Gij(r x ,t) =
1
4πρ(3γ iγ j −δ ij )
1
r 3τ
r α
r β
∫ δ (t −τ )dτ
+1
4πρα 2γ iγ j
1
rδ (t −
r
α)−
1
4πρβ 2γ iγ j −δ ij( )
1
rδ ( t −
r
β)
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The double-couple solution
double-couple solution in an infinite, homogeneous isotropic medium.
€
un(r x ,t) = Mpq ∗Gnp, q =
ℑ(γ n ,γ p ,γ q )
4πρ
1
r 4τ
r α
r β
∫ Mpq(t −τ )dτ +
ℑ P(γ n ,γ p ,γ q )
4πρα 2
1
r 2Mpq( t −
r
α)−
ℑ S (γ n ,γ p ,γ q )
4πρβ 2
1
r 2Mpq(t −
r
β)
+γ iγ jγ q
4πρα 3
1
r˙ M pq(t −
r
α)−
γ nγ p −δnp( )
4πρβ 3γ q
1
r˙ M pq(t −
r
β)
€
ℑ(γ n ,γ p ,γ q )
€
ℑP(γ n ,γ p ,γ q )
€
ℑS (γ n ,γ p ,γ q )
RadiationPattern
€
˙ M pq( t) moment rate function
NF
IT
FF
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Far Field representationFar Field representation
€
ui(r x , t) = dτ
−∞
+∞
∫ Δu j (r ξ ,τ )c ikpqnk
∂
∂ξ q
Gip (r x , t − τ ,
r ξ ,0)
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
€
ui(r x , t) = −
1
4πρα 2
∂
∂xq
c ikpq
γ iγ p
rΔu j (
r ξ , t −
r
α)nk
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
+1
4πρβ 2
∂
∂xq
c ikpq
(γ iγ p −δ ip )
rΔu j (
r ξ , t −
r
β)nk
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
€
∂∂ξq
= −∂
∂xq
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Far Field representationhomogeneous, isotropic, elastic mediumFar Field representationhomogeneous, isotropic, elastic medium
€
ui(r x , t) =
c ikpq
4πρα 3rγ iγ pΔ˙ u j (
r ξ , t −
r
α)γ qnk
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
−c ikpq
4πρβ 3
(γ iγ p −δ ip )
rΔ˙ u j (
r ξ , t −
r
β)γ qnk
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
€
∂r
∂xq
= γ q
Neglecting all terms that attenuatewith distance more rapidly than 1/r
Neglecting all terms that attenuatewith distance more rapidly than 1/r
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Far Field representationhomogeneous, isotropic, elastic mediumFar Field representationhomogeneous, isotropic, elastic medium
€
ui(r x , t) =
γ i
4πρα 3ro
c ikpqγ pγ qnk Δ˙ u j (r ξ , t −
r
α)
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
+(δ ip − γ iγ p )
4πρβ 3ro
c ikpqγ qnk Δ˙ u j (r ξ , t −
r
β)
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
If the receiver is far enough away with respect to the linear dimension of fault L, we can assume that the distance and the direction cosines are approximately constant, independent of ξ Thus, the constant or slowly variable factors can be moved outside the integral
If the receiver is far enough away with respect to the linear dimension of fault L, we can assume that the distance and the direction cosines are approximately constant, independent of ξ Thus, the constant or slowly variable factors can be moved outside the integral
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€
Mo = μ Δu(r ξ , t → ∞)
Σ
∫∫ dΣ = μ Δu Σ
Far Field Displacement pulse
€
Ω(r x , t) = Δ˙ u (
r ξ , t −
r
c)
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
€
Δ˙ u j (r ξ , t −
r
α) = ν jΔ˙ u (
r ξ , t −
r
c)
€
Ω(r x ,ω) = Δ˙ u (
r ξ ,ω)exp
iω ro − ( ˆ ξ ⋅ ˆ γ )[ ]
c
⎧ ⎨ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎫ ⎬ ⎪
⎭ ⎪
⎧ ⎨ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎫ ⎬ ⎪
⎭ ⎪Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
€
Ω(r x ,ω → 0) = Δ˙ u (
r ξ ,ω → 0)
Σ
∫∫ dΣ
€
Ω(r x ,ω → 0) = Δu(
r ξ , t → ∞)
Σ
∫∫ dΣ
€
Δ˙ u (r ξ ,ω) = Δ˙ u (
r ξ , t)exp(iωt)dt∫
€
Δ˙ u (r ξ ,ω → 0) = Δ˙ u (
r ξ , t)dt∫ =
Δu(r ξ , t → ∞)
Final slipFinal slip
€
ˆ ξ
€
ˆ γ
€
dΣ
€
ϑ =Ψ
in followingslides
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Fraunhofer ApproximationFraunhofer Approximation
€
r =r x −
r ξ = ro 1+
ξ 2
ro2
−2
r ξ ⋅ ˆ γ ( )
ro
= ro −r ξ ⋅ ˆ γ ( ) +
1
2
ξ 2
ro
−
r ξ ⋅ ˆ γ ( )
2
2ro
€
r ≈ ro −r ξ ⋅ ˆ γ ( )
The error in this approximation is
€
∂r =1
2
1
ro
ξ 2
−r ξ ⋅ ˆ γ ( )
2 ⎡ ⎣ ⎢
⎤ ⎦ ⎥<<
λ
4
€
L2 <<1
2λro
€
ro >> L
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DISPLACEMENT FOURIER SPECTRUM
The ground displacement Fourier spectrum is nearly flat at the origin
€
ω 2
€
ω−2
Corner frequency
AccelerationAcceleration
displacementdisplacement
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Far Field representationinhomogeneous, isotropic, elastic mediumFar Field representationinhomogeneous, isotropic, elastic medium
€
vu P (
r x , t) =
ℑ P ˆ t
4π ρ ξ o( )ρ x( )α ξ o( )α x( )
1
α 2 ξ o( )
1
ℜ P (r x ,
r ξ o)
Δ˙ u j (r ξ , t − T P (
r x ,
r ξ )){ }
Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
v u SV (
r x , t) =
ℑ SV ˆ n
4π ρ ξ o( )ρ x( )β ξ o( )β x( )
1
β 2 ξ o( )
1
ℜ S (r x ,
r ξ o)
Δ˙ u j (r ξ , t − T S (
r x ,
r ξ )){ }
Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
v u SH (
r x , t) =
ℑ SH ˆ b
4π ρ ξ o( )ρ x( )β ξ o( )β x( )
1
β 2 ξ o( )
1
ℜ S (r x ,
r ξ o)
Δ˙ u j (r ξ , t − T S (
r x ,
r ξ )){ }
Σ
∫∫ dΣ(ξ )
If the receiver is far enough away with respect to the linear dimension of fault L, we can assume that the distance and the direction cosines are approximately constant, independent of ξ Thus, the constant or slowly variable factors can be moved outside the integral
If the receiver is far enough away with respect to the linear dimension of fault L, we can assume that the distance and the direction cosines are approximately constant, independent of ξ Thus, the constant or slowly variable factors can be moved outside the integral
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Unilateral Rupture propagation
Source time function
Ψ is the angle between the direction of rupture propagation and the direction of the receiver
€
Δu(r ξ , t) = f t −ξ1
vr
⎛ ⎝ ⎜ ⎞
⎠ ⎟
€
Ω(r x , t) = ˙ f t −
ro
c−
ξ1
vr
+ξ1γ1 + ξ 2γ 2
c
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟dξ1dξ 2
0
L
∫0
W
∫ =
W ˙ f t −ro
c−
ξ1
vr
+ ξ1
1
vr
−cos(Ψ)
c
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟dξ1
0
L
∫
€
ξ1
€
ξ2
Aki – Richards, 2002, p.499
The integrand of this equation ranges between and
The pulse is proportional to a moving average of taken over a time interval of duration €
˙ f (t − roc )
€
˙ f [t − roc − L( 1
vr− cos(Ψ)
c )]
€
˙ f (t − roc )
€
T = L( 1vr
− cos(Ψ)c )
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Unilateral Rupture propagation
• Taking Fourier Transform
€
Ω(r x ,ω) = −iωWf (ω)e
iωro
c exp iωξ1
1
vr
−cos(Ψ)
c
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭dξ1
0
L
∫ =
ωf (ω)WLsin(X)
Xexp i
ωro
c−
π
2+ X
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭
.
X = ωL
2
1
vr
−cos(Ψ)
c
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
The term sin(X)/X expresses the effect of fault finiteness on the amplitude spectrum.At high frequency this term is proportional to ω-1. The smoothing effect is weakest in the direction of propagation (=0) and strongest in the opposite direction (=). Thus, we observe more high-frequency in the direction of rupture propagation: that is DIRECTIVITY
The term sin(X)/X expresses the effect of fault finiteness on the amplitude spectrum.At high frequency this term is proportional to ω-1. The smoothing effect is weakest in the direction of propagation (=0) and strongest in the opposite direction (=). Thus, we observe more high-frequency in the direction of rupture propagation: that is DIRECTIVITY
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The effect of finite rise time
t < tr = ξ vr
Tr < t < T + tr
t T + tr
)(tD
t
Tr = rise time
maxD
€
f (t) =
0
Dmax t T
Dmax
⎧
⎨ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
€
Ω(r x ,ω) = WLDmax
sin(X)
X
1− e iωT
ωT.
The effect of finite rise time introduces an additional smoothing of the waveform: forhigh frequency it attenuates the spectrum proportional to ω-1. Together with the effect of the term sin(X)/X, the spectrum decays asto ω-2.
The effect of finite rise time introduces an additional smoothing of the waveform: forhigh frequency it attenuates the spectrum proportional to ω-1. Together with the effect of the term sin(X)/X, the spectrum decays asto ω-2.
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Some properties
At ω = 0 it is proportional to WLDmax, which is the seismic moment
At frequency larger than the characteristic frequency given by 1/T or 1/L(1/v – cos(Ψ)/c) the spectrum attenuates as ω-2
If the effect of finite width is taken into account, we have a high frequency spectral decay proportional to as ω-3
€
Ω(r x ,ω) = WLDmax
sin(X)
X
1− e iωT
ωT.
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An example from the 1997 Colfiorito earthquake sequence
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A brief note on earthquake dynamicA brief note on earthquake dynamic
Slip, Slip velocity & Traction evolution
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A brief note on earthquake dynamicA brief note on earthquake dynamic
The Slip Weakening mechanism
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A case study: The 1997 Colfiorito Earthquake
Normal faulting earthquakes
Multiple main shocks of similar size
Moderate magnitudes
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Peak ground motionattenuation
a) Colfiorito eventunilateral NW rupture
b) Sellano eventnearly unilateralSE propagation
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Colfiorito earthquake • Some spectra
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Comparison between predicted and observed PGAColfiorito earthquake
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PREDICTED PGA comparison with data & empirical law
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• Azimuthal variation
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Comparison between predicted and observed data with empirical regression law
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The 2007 Niigata-ken Chuetsu-oki earthquake KKNPP is the nuclear power plant
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Waveform inversion to infer seismic sourceWaveform inversion to infer seismic source
Seismic source models obtained by inverting seismograms and GPS displacements
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Ground Motion Predictionthrough the inferred model
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Some numbers
MAGNITUDE FAULT LENGHT
[Km]
DISLOCATION [m]
RUPTURE DURATION
[s]
4 1 0.02 0.3
5 5 0.05 1
6 10 0.2 3
7 50 1 15
8 250 5 85
9 800 8 250
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Spectral modelsSpectral models
Omega cube model
Omega square model
€
S( f ) =Ωo
1+f
fc
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
2€
S( f ) =Ωo
1+f
fc
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
2 ⎡
⎣ ⎢ ⎢
⎤
⎦ ⎥ ⎥
3 / 2
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Computing earthquake magnitudeComputing earthquake magnitude
M = log (A/T) + F(h,R) + CA – amplitudeT – dominant periodF – correction for depth & distanceC – regional scale factor
M = log (A/T) + F(h,R) + CA – amplitudeT – dominant periodF – correction for depth & distanceC – regional scale factor
€
ML = log(A) + 2.76log(R) − 2.48
MS = log(A20) +1.66log(R) + 2.0
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Seismic Moment & MagnitudeSeismic Moment & Magnitude
From seismic moment we can compute an equivalent magnitude called the moment magnitude
€
MW =2
3log(Mo) −10.73
Mo = μ Dmax Σ = μ Dmax (LW )
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Corner frequency shift with magnitudeCorner frequency shift with magnitude
€
Mo ∝ L2
TR =L
vr
∝ L
Mo ∝ L3 ≈ fc−3
fc = 2.34β
L
fcS = CS
β
R
fcP = CP
α
R
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Scaling of final slip with fault lengthScaling of final slip with fault length
Wells & Coppersmith 1994
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STRESS DROP SCALINGSTRESS DROP SCALING
is a factor depending on fault’s shape
For a circular fault with radius R
€
Δσ ≅μD
L
D =χMo
μL2
Δσ ≅χMo
L3=
χMo
Σ3 / 2
€
Δσ =7
16
Mo
R3∝ Mo fc
3
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Magnitude & Energy
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Stress and Radiated EnergyStress and Radiated Energy
Strain energy release
Seismic efficiency
Apparent stress€
W = σ D Σ
Δσ = σ o −σ 1
E = W − H = σ D Σ −σ f D Σ
σ = σ 1 +1
2Δσ
E =1
2ΔσD Σ + σ 1 −σ f( )D Σ
Eo =1
2ΔσD Σ
€
η =E
W=
1
2
Δσ
σ
σ a = μE
Mo
=1
2Δσ + (σ 1 −σ f )
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A slip weakening model
Energy loss
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τ =τy − τ y −τ f( ) Δu
Dc,⇒ Δu < Dc
τ f ,,⇒ Δu > Dc
⎧ ⎨ ⎪
⎩ ⎪
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σ f ⋅Dtot ⋅Σ
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σ f =1
Dtot
⋅ τ (D )dDo
Dtot∫
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EΣ = G + Q ≅ τ (D)dDo
Dtot∫