the influence of educational buildings on the development of schoolchildren

8/14/2019 The influence of Educational buildings on the development of Schoolchildren

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University of East London,School of Computing and Technology,Longbridge Road,Dagenham, RM8 2AS

Tel: +44 (0)20 8223 3215

Jason Hawkes MSc Architecture: Advanced Environment and Energy Studies 1


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The influence ofeducational

buildings on the

development ofschool-children



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Preface

The aim of this thesis is to examine the extent to which architecture can play a role in theeducation of our children. While only one of many issues involved in education, the work seeksto place architecture within that wider debate. It seeks to understand the importance of thequality of the internal environment in children's health and to determine which factors are

important in the physical and mental development of the child.In context, the next 10 years will see the third, and possibly last, great school-building period inthe history of state education. It is important that these buildings last well into the future,promoting education for generations to come. The broader aim of this work is to help inform thatprogramme in order that it takes advantage of the increasing research base regarding human,and particularly juvenile interaction with the built environment.A questionnaire is used, asking Year 6 children their opinions of, and responses to, the issuesraised. Analysis of that data, along with evidence from the rest of the work, shows us thatarchitecture has an enormous role to play in the development of our childrens minds and bodies.It summarises how schools can be adaptable and fit for purpose, and constructed according tosound environmental principles regarding the well-being of the child. The extension of theseprinciples within a political framework that addresses, first and foremost, the needs of children,

can have positive effects on the child, the community and the future health and prosperity ofsociety as a whole

With grateful thanks to:

Mike Thompson, for the vision of AEES and to whom a great deal is owed by many people.Also to the other tutors and many friends that the course introduced me to.Chris Scott for his energy, ideas and guidance in helping put this thesis together.All of the staff and children at NHP, and in particular to Melissa, Hannah, Naz, Bal and Stellawho have let me get on with it and supported, or at least listened politely to, my, perhapswackier, ideas and suggestions.To Chloe Halfhide, Mindy Hadi, Andrew Williams, Geoff Hardwick, David Ross and Robin Hall ofthe BRE for their help and guidance during my research.To Jim and Julie, my partners, for, respectively, kicking my backside and providing a shoulder tocry on.My Dad, as always; the guiding light in my life and the best man in the world.And, finally, to my beautiful Melissa for her love and support (and for not making my hair fall out

any quicker than it already is.)



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Contents

List of Illustrations, Tables and Graphs Page 5

List of abbreviations 7

Introduction- The importance of architecture in school buildings 8

Chapter 1- A brief outline of historical developments in education, 10buildings and research

Chapter 2- The qualitative psychology of schools and the 15classroom

Chapter 3- The internal environment and its effect on children 26

Chapter 4- Spatial design and child psychology 40

Chapter 5- A brief note regarding other influences relating to 45health in schools

Chapter 6- Questionnaire for Year 6 pupils 48

Chapter 7- Analysis and discussion 63

Chapter 8- Conclusions 90

Appendix 1 Proposal for research experiment 93

Appendix 2 Tally sheets for Questionnaire 94

Appendix 3 BUPA Factsheet- Glue Ear. 100

Appendix 4 Notes from Learning Environments Forum, 105Sept.2005



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List of illustrations, tables and graphs

Chapter 1

Figure 1. A Robson school in Manchester, circa 1900 Page 11

Figure 2. A typical church school, circa 1830 12Figure 3. A typical 1960s school 12Figure 4. Alsop Architects Exemplar design 13

Chapter 2

Table 1. OECD Report into PTR 17Table 2. Indicators of change 17Table 3. Colour association with childrens personality 20Figure 1. Kingsdale School. Showing the auditorium, aerial walkways and ETFE roof 21

Chapter 3

Figure 1. The same space, before and after the fitting of Full Spectrum Lighting 28Figure 2. Noise map of Hounslow 30Table 1. Reaction to noise intensity 31Table 2. Addition of two different sound intensities 32Table 3. Interaction of various health-related factors with differing levels of RH 34Figure 3. A Peace Lily (Spathyphillum) 35Table 4. Health effects of indoor pollutants 35Table 5. Sources of Indoor Air Pollution 36Table 6. Key recommendations for environmental limits 36

Chapter 4

Figure 1. The Three mountain experiment. 42Figure 2a. The three stages of spatial perception: Egocentric view 43Figure 2b. Fixed view 43Figure 2c. Abstract view 43

Chapter 6

Figure 1. The PV array and Roof garden at North Harringay Primary School 50Figure 2. Class 6d set-up, during the questionnaire 56Figure 3a-d. Class 6D 57

Figure 4. Class 6P set-up during the questionnaire 58Figure 5a-d. Class 6P 59-60

Chapter 7

Figure 1. Tally chart of all responses 64Figure 2. Datalogger graph 65Figure 3. Thermal comfort 66Figure 4. Perception of air quality 67Figure 5. Classroom symptoms 69Figure 6. Frequency of symptoms 69Figure 7. Decoration 70

Figure 8. Lighting 70



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Figure 9a-b. Percentage and tally, respectively, of noise perceptions 71Figure 10. Intelligibility 73Figure 11. School numbers 73Figure 12. Class numbers 74Figure 13. School space 75Figure 14. Activities 76Figure 15. School food 77

Figure 16. Food attitudes 78Figure 17. Classroom wish list 79Figure 18. What the school needs 80Figure 19. Opinions of school 81Figure 20. The future 82Figures 21 a-f, are some annotated sketches of school designs 83-86

Chapter 8

Table 1. Key recommendations for environmental limits (from page 36) 92

Appendix 2

Tally charts for Questions 1-17 95-99

Appendix 3

Figure 1. Illustration showing a cross-section of the ear 100



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List of abbreviations

BB Building Bulletin, issued by DfES BP Blood Pressure BREEAM Building Research Establishment, Environmental Assessment

Method

BSF Building Schools for the Future CCT Correlated Colour Temperature Clo. 1 or Clo. 2 Indicates whether the child was wearing one or two layers of

clothing

CO2 Carbon Dioxide CO Carbon Monoxide CRI Colour rendering index

dBA Measurement of sound intensity, in decibels DfES Department for Education and Schools ESL English as a Second Language ETFE Polyethylenetetrafluoroethylene, a polymer used as a glazing

material

EU European Union FSL Full Spectrum Lighting FY Fiscal Year IAQ Internal Air Quality ICT Information and Communication Technology IEH Institute of Environmental Health KS2 Key Stage 2, Primary school years 3-6 kWh Kilowatt-hour , standard unit of electricity consumed LBS Lasting Benefits Study LEA Local Education Authority NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NHP North Harringay Primary School OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OFSTED Office of Standards in Education PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons ppm parts per million PTR Pupil-Teacher Ratio RH Relative Humidity SAD Seasonal Affected Disorder SBS Sick Building Syndrome SEN Special Educational Needs SES Socio-economic status STAR Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio TOT Time on task UV Ultra-violet VOC Volatile Organic Compound



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Introduction

The importance of architecture in Educational buildings

When one thinks of education, the view of the layperson is that this should mean teaching; thetransfer of knowledge and experience that will aid the pupil in their passage through life. It can

be argued that the education system has evolved through external bodies, such as church, stateand corporate institutions. These have, in turn and concurrently, influenced the system accordingto their own philosophies, wishes and needs, be they to extend religious teaching, realise thepolitical goals of the state or provide for the needs of the business sector (1)

But is this really education? Does it meet the needs of these bodies at the expense of the needsof the pupil? The Latin root of education is the word educo, which means to draw out (2) thatwhich is within. Taken as the real basis for education, this should mean that the pupil isencouraged to find themselves, their true skills and passions and to give them the tools to lead afulfilling life, to realise both their place in the world and the importance and consequences oftheir actions and lives.

It is true that children are not taught by rote any longer, but the content has not significantlychanged over time. It can be argued that any evolution that has occurred still leaves theeducation system in a place where the things we learn are imposed in order to safeguard theeconomic prosperity of the state rather than to foster the spiritual prosperity of the child. Ascynical as this may seem, this point of view is worthy of consideration.

In the wider context of the educational system as a whole there are a number of ongoingdebates regarding many parts of the entire structure. It can be argued that these considerationsfall into the following broad categories:

Physical environment

Building management and energy efficiency

School design and use Physical education and external space

The effects of the building on the health of the occupantsHuman environment

Waste and cleaning. The effects of waste strategies and use of chemicals in schools

Food. Nutrition and the physiological effects of foods on childrenSocial environment

Environmental education. The wider interaction between child and outside world

Community participation. The wider role and standing of the schoolPolitical environment

Politics in education. The role of the state and different regimes

The curriculum. Subject matter and content School times. The debate about start and end times

This list is by no means exhaustive, but is merely a broad representation of factors that theauthor considers to be relevant.

The role of the built environment in education has been historically understated, but there is nowa body of research to suggest that design considerations have a considerable impact on thehealth and educational attainment of children. Whilst clearly understood, as will be shown inChapters 2 and 3, by researchers and psychologists, this knowledge has yet to be widelydisseminated and utilised by those who design and build school buildings.

The broad aim of this work is to draw together existing research, add to it and attempt to make



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design recommendations. By comparing best practice with the existing norm it will suggestimprovements that could be made within the built environment that reflect alternatives to currentor past practice. There is no intention to debase the system or mark it as a failure, but rather tohighlight its shortcomings, and reinforce its strengths. This work will attempt to answer thequestion of whether we are doing enough of the right things to ensure our children reachadulthood with their bodies and minds in healthy condition.

It is important to understand the timeliness of any study that is undertaken now. TheGovernment has announced its intention to spend 30 billion over the next 15 years (dependentupon future spending reviews) on the refurbishment and rebuilding of every secondary school inthe country, with each project required to meet a ' Very Good' standard under BREEAM forSchools There is also extra money for new schools and 3 billion in FY2005-6 for LocalEducation Authorities (LEAs) to spend on upkeep and improvement of facilities. This amounts tothe largest educational construction programme for 50 years (3)

In order to examine these issues further, this thesis will undertake to cover the following topics:

Chapter 1 gives a brief overview of the evolution of school architecture and design,followed by an examination of the history of research regarding school children and the

built environment. Chapter 2 seeks to establish how the relationship between a child and school can affect

educational outcomes. It looks at such issues as school size and dcor, parentalinvolvement and the physical quality of the building.

Chapter 3 seeks to understand the complex relationship between child and physicalenvironment in architectural terms, examining issues such as quality of light, ventilationand noise levels, temperature and relative humidity.

Chapter 4 examines how children understand space and how these perceptions changeas the child grows and seeks to explain that this may be of great importance whendesigning schools.

Chapter 5 briefly examines the wider context of this work, in order to understand that

there are many aspects of school operation that need to be examined when seeking tounderstand the health of the occupant. Issues such as food and the external environmentare included in this chapter.

Chapters 6 and 7 underline the methodology of the questionnaire used to test theassumptions made in the previous chapters, and then analyses the responses to thosequestions from a Year 6 group.

Chapter 8 concludes this work with some final discussion and recommendations forfurther research.

The research element in Chapters 6 and 7 will aim to draw upon existing research regarding thehealth impacts of the school environment by giving a questionnaire to Year 6 pupils to helpdetermine their own relationship with the school environment.

There is an element of psychology and physiology in this undertaking and the author has formalqualifications in neither area. There are limitations to the research, especially as a change inschool architecture is only one factor that can affect the behaviour, concentration levels orachievement of a child. This will lead to certain assumptions and conclusions being drawn thatare, quite correctly, open to question.The science of design as a psychological tool, and the quantifying of its effects is still young andrelatively non-empirical and, therefore, any conclusions drawn must be qualified as such

References1. Evans K., The development and structure of the English school system, pp. 1-23, Hodder and

Stoughton, 1985

2. http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm visited 16/01/05

3. Building schools for the future, Launch document, p. 4, DFES, 2004



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Chapter1



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Chapter 1

A brief outline of historical developments in education, buildings andresearch

This opening chapter outlines the events that have taken place that have had a major effect oneducation in the UK. It summarises the differing architectural styles of the last 150 years andcharts the course of research into health and education during that time. A historical bibliographyis given at the end of the chapter

History

The turn of the 19th century heralded a time of great change throughout the developed world interms of education and the pace of change has continued unrelentingly.

The 1833 Factory Act made the provision of two hours a day of instruction for factory childrencompulsory but no real capital expenditure was provided for school buildings. The Elementary

Education Act of 1870 sought to take into account the ideal of children's rights along with theunderstanding that the Industrial Revolution had led to the need for a more literate and numerateworkforce. Its implementation required all children between the ages of 6-11 to be in education.This meant that an enormous number of schools had to constructed, and quickly.

In retrospect, the decision to appoint E.R. Robson, the architect surveyor to the LiverpoolCorporation was of great benefit to this programme, and the fact that many of his schools stillstand today is a testament to their design (Fig 1). His achievement in combining the thinking ofthe architect and of the educator in his designs has stood the test of time and can still beapplauded today, with their common sense approach to housing a large number of children.Classrooms were north facing to avoid direct sunlight affecting lessons, with large windows toallow as much natural light in as possible. Ceilings were high and allowed for excellent air

circulation (it must be remembered that the vast majority of schoolchildren did not have accessto bathing facilities as we understand them today and that, consequently, hygiene standardswere somewhat lower) and there were separate entrances for older and younger children, withdoorway sizes scaled to the size of the children.

Until that time, the experienceof most architects in designinglarge buildings was limited tochurches and factories. Schooldesigns had reflected this, soRobson undertook his ownresearch by travelling to

Germany, Switzerland and theUSA, where public schoolingwas already widespread (Fig 2).Many of his ideas, such as therequirement for high levels ofdaylight, no direct sunlight andgood ventilation are consideredas sound now as they werethen.

Figure 1. A Robson school in Manchester, circa 1900

Source www.manchesteronline.co.uk



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Figure 2. A typical church school, circa 1830Source www.foxearth.org.uk

After the First World War, education flourished as a discipline and many views came forward for

examination. These included open air schooling, differing styles of teaching such as Steiner,where practical education is emphasised, or Montessori with its far less authoritarian approachand the dissemination of Freuds writings. Compulsory schooling ages began to rise and thedevelopment of the child came to be seen as equally important in the system as instruction andthe maintenance of the status quo.

Following the Second World War, architectural thinking began to change to reflect the newfeeling of democracy and freedom. Older schools,(interestingly thought of as 'beacons of light'by the fictional character of Sherlock Holmes) were now regarded as too imposing. Schools weredesigned to encourage social interaction and remove perceived hierarchical and authoritarianbarriers by being built on a more human scale. Capital expenditure, though, was limited to whatthe austere economics of the country could afford, and many post-war schools, whilst well

designed, have suffered from a lack of maintenance and un-enduring build quality (Fig 3)

Figure 3. A typical 1960s school. High levels of prefabrication have made maintenance difficult,

while low insulation and poor build quality have ensured high running costs in this type of

building, although the unassuming design may be more welcoming to the psychology of a child towhom the Robson structures may have appeared somewhat overwhelming

Source www.woolerfirstschool.co.uk



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With the recent advent of higher funding for the education system as a whole and the increasedunderstanding of the role of architecture in education, combined with the poor overall state of thebuilding stock, the time has come for renewal.This has lead to exemplar designs, developed by famous architectural practices (Fig 4), It maybe the case, though, that the closure of county architect offices, which had designed schools formany years, has resulted in a loss of knowledge of school design issues. One potential result ofthis is that contemporary architects have little experience of school design and, after a period of

funding shortages, the amount of new and refurbished capital projects is at a high level. Thisperceived lack of experience could mean that historically understood issues, unique to schoolbuildings, are under-accounted for. Whether this proves to be a costly mistake (or perhaps agreat benefit) remains to be seen.

Figure 4. Alsop Architects Exemplar designSource: BSF Public Launch Document

Research

In the 85+ years that scientists have studied the health-related aspects of school architecture,there have been many changes in the focus of such studies. In the 19 th Century, the quality ofthe external architecture constantly vied for primacy of thinking with the need for internalorganisation. At the beginning of the 20th century social conditions appeared to be the underlying

context for the need for study. Poor urban hygiene standards were a major consideration indesign, especially with regards to ventilation. A constant supply of fresh air was consideredessential mainly for the purposes of ridding the classroom of bad body odours and to aid theability of the body to regulate its own temperature. Early studies reflected this, even to the pointof fixedly discounting such issues as CO2 levels as unimportant (1)

During the Inter-War years, UK study became more widespread in an attempt to determinewhether building age or style had an effect on educational attainment.While these studies were useful, there was little consideration of demographics and the socio-economic status (SES) of the children involved (2)The Post War years witnessed the emergence of a greater awareness of the relationshipbetween the physical environment and student achievement. This lead to wide ranging studies

that examined the role within the building of such factors as: colours (3), density (4), purpose (5)and setting (6).



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With greater scientific understanding other issues began to emerge that could have an effect onthe performance and health of the occupant such as: Internal Air Quality (7), lighting (8), RelativeHumidity (9), noise (10), class and school size (11), seating arrangements (12), parent andcommunity participation (13), pupil empowerment (14) and the psychology of the language ofspace itself (15).

With few exceptions, recent research has highlighted its own paucity (16) and argued that morestudies must be undertaken with regard to children in particular, especially longitudinal studiesand research into additivity (17) (such as the combined effects of indoor pollutants rather thanspecifically studying one pollutant)

Chapter 2 begins to summarise this research with regard to non-teaching qualitative factors ineducation, such as school and class size, decoration and involvement issues

Historical bibliography

Dewey J., Democracy and Education, Macmillan, 1916 Dudek M., Architecture of schools, Architectural Press, 2000 Evans K., The development and structure of the English school system, Hodder & Stoughton,

1985 Markus T., Buildings and Power, Routledge, 1993 Robson E., School Architecture: Practical remarks on the planning, designing, building and

furnishing of School Houses, London, 1874 Seaborne & Lowe, The English School: its architecture and organisation 1870-1970,

Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977

References

1. New York Commission on Ventilation report, Dutton, 1923

2. Seymour, Heating, ventilation and lighting of school buildings, Oxford, 19393. Ertel H., Blue is beautiful, Gesellschaft fur rationelle psychologie, Munich, Timemagazine, 17/09/73

4. Loo C., The effects of spatial density on behaviour types of children, ERIC, NationalInstitute of Mental Health, 1976

5. Bettelheim, Love is not enough, Free Press, 19536. Hart R., Children's experience of place, Irvington Press, 19797. Myrhvold, Olsen & Lauridsen, Indoor environment in schools, pupils health and

performance in regards to CO2 concentrations, proceedings of 7 th Intl. Conf. on IAQ andclimate, Vol. 4, pp. 369-374, Nagoya, Japan 1996

8. Hathaway W., A study into the effects of types of light on children, in Veitch J., IRCinternal report 659, Institute for Research in Construction, Canada, 1994

9. Arundel et al., Indirect health effects of Relative Humidity in indoor environments,Environmental Health Perspective 65, pp. 351-361, 198610.Bronzaft & McCarthy, The effect of elevated train noise on reading ability, Environment &

Behaviour 7, pp. 517-529, 197511.Barker & Gump, Big school, small school, Stanford UP, 197512.Rist R., Seating, status, achievement, Harvard Education Review 40, 197013.Wolfendale, Parental Involvement, Cassell, 198914.Hallam S., Improving school attendance, Heinemann, 199615.Hart R., Childrens experiences of place, Irvington, 197916.Weinstein C., The physical environment of the school; A review of the research, Review of

Educational Research 49 (4), pp. 577-610, 1979

17.Childhood Health Report, Institute for Environmental Health, Leicester, 2000



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Chapter 2



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Chapter 2

The Qualitative psychology of Schools and the Classroom

School buildings must always lag behind the demands made upon them, sincethey are comparatively changeless, whereas the demands are continually

increasing. But if the idea of the school building is clearly conceived in the mindof the educationalist, its material realisation becomes comparatively easy

W.D. Seymour, author of Heating, ventilation and lighting of school buildings, 1939

This chapter aims to examine ways in which the classroom can be used as a space in order toeffectively meet the needs of those who use it. It also examines the effect of school and classsize and the subject of participation by students and parents, with regards to what effect thesefactors can have on the overall quality of the school.

Whilst termed qualitative, it will highlight studies that suggest there is a quantitative element to

the subject, in terms of academic achievement. It must be stated that a change in the quality ofthe physical environment cannot be taken in isolation as a determining factor in academicimprovement, but must be placed in a wider context. Different teachers, a change in the qualityof a childs home life and better health are just some of many factors that can affect schoolperformance.

It seems reasonable to suggest, however, that both careful macro- (in terms of political systems)and micro- (the environment of the classroom) management can increase the likelihood ofacademic improvement.

Size

There has been a seemingly never-ending debate about size; school size, class size, room sizeetc., have all come under the spotlight to varying degree and with varying relevance in differentparts of the world. In Britain, the size of the school in terms of the number of pupils appears tobe more important while, in Europe and the US, the number of pupils per class is deemed aweightier issue. There is a wealth of research on both topics.

An early, wide-ranging study suggested that smaller schools of fewer than 500 pupils offered:1. Greater opportunity for student participation and responsibility2. More community involvement3. Higher satisfaction4. Less crime5. Increased extracurricular participation (1)

There has been a reduction in the amount of public schools in the USA from c.20,000 in 1940 toc.8,000 in 1990, despite a population rise of 70%. It was noted that, in smaller schools, everystudent was needed to fill teams and clubs etc, but as schools grow, more students, especiallythe more retiring types, are redundant.

A wide ranging research review studied 103 research papers that examined the followingsubjects and found that small schools were superior to large ones in almost every respect andinferior in none. (2)

Achievement - 31 documents

Attitudes (toward school or particular school subjects) - 19

Social behaviour problems (discipline problems, vandalism, drugs/alcohol, etc.) - 14



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Levels of extracurricular participation - 17

Feelings of belongingness vs. alienation - 6

Interpersonal relations with other students and school staff - 14

Attendance - 16Dropout rate - 10

Self-concept (academic and general) - 9

College-related variables (acceptance, completion, etc.) 6

In particular it noted that half of achievement based studies showed no differences betweensmaller and larger schools, whilst the other half suggested a positive impact with smallerschools. One explanation could be that most smaller schools were in rural areas and the ruraleffect was the difference.However, in countering this view, a peer reviewer writes ...evendiscounting the positive effects of rural location, smaller high schools yielded greaterachievement and years of attained education after high school. Thus, smaller schools showedlong-range effects, independent of rural advantages. (3)

A US College of Education study noted that the reconfiguration of large Chicago schools intosmaller schools had a positive impact on attainment and attendance levels (4)

With reference to class size and its effects, there has been much work done in recent years.An OECD report in 2001 showed pupil-teacher ratios (PTR) across member states. Selected

figures from that report are shown in Table 1

PTR

UK Pre-Primary 26.6:1

UK Primary 19.9:1

OECD Ave. Pre-primary 14.8:1

OECD Ave. Primary 16.6:1

Pupils

UK Ave. Primary class size 26

OECD Ave. 21.9

Table 1. OECD Report into PTRSource: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/61/35/33671255.xls

While this may seem cause for concern, there has been progress since 1997.(table 2)

Key indicator 1998 2004

Overall PTR 18.9:1 17.7:1

% of KS1 classes 31 pupils 8.7 1.2

% of KS2 classes 31 pupils 33 21.4% Primary classes 31 pupils 29.1 12.3

Average Primary class size 27.7 26.2

Table 2. Indicators of changeSource: www.europe.eu.int

While it may seem laudable that the Government has a target of no more than 30 pupils in anyone class, this must be put into context. EU figures for 2002 show that Norway, Poland,Luxembourg, Lithuania, Belgium and Italy all had a PTR at Primary level of less than 11:1

It should be noted that PTR is not a defining measure of class size, as it includes support staff of

all types and the breakdown of these numbers is difficult to correlate.



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To help understand the relative importance of class size, it is worth observing the results of thefollowing 3 studies:

Firstly, a research review suggested that class size reductions from 30-20 pupils could result in a6% increase in exam scores. A further reduction from 20-10 pupils could mean another gain of13%. The curve of attainment against class size has, however, not been properly researched,although the review (without a citation) noted a longitudinal study that suggested that a class

size of 15 or less allowed for increased participation at elementary level which lead to staying inschool until a later age (5)

Secondly, the STAR project (Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio) in Tennessee followed 79schools over 4 years and concluded that the greatest increase in attainment occurred in smallerclasses (13-17 pupils) from Kindergarten level through to 2nd Grade (6).

Finally, its follow up project, the Lasting Benefits Study (LBS) noted that the 4,500 STARchildren went on to perform 11-34% better in Grade 4 or above than their contemporaries, whenplaced in larger classes of 22-25 children. This attainment level was consistent acrossgeographical areas and, most significantly, was more profound amongst minority students inurban/suburban areas (7). Checking studies were undertaken in Indiana and Canada and

backed up these findings.

More recently, the STAR pupils were observed at High School level. The students from smallerclasses in the original project were found to be more likely to have passed the StatesCompetency tests in English and Maths than their larger class contemporaries. Additionally,students from larger classes were more likely to have been held-back a year at some point intheir schooling. It was also found that the black/white gap in the amount of students, nationally,who took a college entrance exam halved among the smaller class STAR pupils (8)

The largest study undertaken in the UK was conducted by the Institute of Education and followed10,000 puils from 500 classes in 300 schools from Nursey age until the end of Key Stage 1 andreported that:

There is a disruption effect when children move from reception into a different sizedclass in Year 1, magnified when they move to a bigger class. Therefore, class sizesshould remain stable from reception into future years

Large groupings within classes can have an adverse effect on the amount and quality ofteaching and the quality of pupils work and concentration. Therefore, when dividing largeclasses into groups, it is better for teachers to opt for smaller groups

In smaller classes there is more teacher support for learning and less pupilinattentiveness and off-task behaviour. Children in large classes spend more timeinteracting with each other. But there is no sign that social relations are better in smallclasses.

Children from smaller classes in Reception year do better at Maths and English. This isespecially true when the child has entered school with a low literacy level (9)

The idea that smaller class sizes in early years education has a lasting impact is backed up by aBritish research review. This states that younger children appear to need more intimacy andattention to enable them to adjust to new surroundings and a new period of life and thisespecially true with children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). It also suggests that smallerclasses require less classroom management and that pupils in smaller reception classes go onto be more effective, attentive learners- displaying more effort to learn.



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The same paper also studied the effects of group size within a classroom, suggesting that groupsize should not exceed 6 pupils as this aids control and individual input. As a class sizeincreases so do the number of groups, up to 25 students. After that, only group size increases(10)

An OFSTED report concluded that class size was a significant factor in attainment at Key Stage1 (ages 5-7) but not above this level (11)

A purely anecdotal survey questioned hundreds of teachers throughout the UK and found thatthey firmly believe that smaller classes have better outcomes, especially at a younger age.Teachers also perceive that they have less patience, energy and enthusiasm and more stress asclass size increases, leaving them with less time- both in and out of contact to do their job (12)

The subject of density is difficult to judge, as geographical issues dictate what is possible andwhat is considered normal. If a classroom is too dense, the results can include: aggression,competition, introspection, disengagement and stress.

What seems more readily definable is the use of the space available.Classrooms should be designed with sufficient, well-defined activity areas and sufficient age-

related activities to reduce the ratio of pupils per activity (13)

Classroom arrangement

The arrangement of the classroom is the one area where a teacher has real power to affect thephysical setting in which they work, yet relatively few use that power to its full extent- perhapsnot realising the effect a change in seating or decoration can have. It would appear that generations of trainee teachers have been frustrated by a discipline that should have a profoundimpression on classroom practice, but offers few clear-cut findings that can and have beenutilised (14)

Seating arrangements within a classroom have changed over time. The rows of the Victorianschool, with its method of teaching by rote have given way to a more democratic arrangementof group tables, especially in Primary schools.Some teachers prefer it this way, others have just accepted that that is how it is, while othersstill are more flexible; adapting their classroom to suit the task, or when exam time approachesto help ensure whole-class comprehension.Studies on seating arrangements reveal some interesting data.

A British study noted that time on task (TOT) increases by between 16-24% when seated in rowsrather than groups (15) and this figure is higher for students who normally sit in a group with abelow average TOT level. There is also a positive relationship between TOT and performance(16)

Furthermore, there is an appreciable increase in quality and quantity of work (17) which is moreprofound in individuals who achieved least in a group setting (18)This lead Woodhead (before he became Chief Inspector of Schools) to state, ... the physicalarrangement of grouping in Primary schools has acquired such a powerful doctrinal status thatno other arrangement is even entertained. The collaborative setting of the group and theindividual tasks set within it (may result in the distraction)of pupils from their work (19)

Anecdotal evidence from teachers who practice the more flexible approach suggests that if aclass are well-practiced in 2 or 3 room layouts, the benefits are large and outweigh the time thatmust be spent teaching that transitions. Perhaps it is better to be focussed on a task, whiledeviating from normal practice, and be inventive.



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Decoration and colour

Colours have long been associated with emotions and moods. Colour psychology and colourhealing date back to the ancient Egyptians and Asian cultures, such as the different colour of

each Chakras (defined by the Cambridge dictionary as: 'in yoga and traditional Indian medicine,

one of the seven centres of energy in the human body')

Whilst not widely accepted as a science in its own right, it could be considered too dismissive toignore the potential importance of the role of colour in education.

Research has shown that, as children grow, their colour preferences change from more primarycolours in infant aged children towards more tertiary hues as the teenage years approach

Artists have studied childrens painting and found some consistent associations with personalitytypes (20) They concluded that a joy in the wide use of colours was representative of anemotional child. See table 3 for further conclusions (21)

Colour Personality type

Blue/ Black Self control/ repression of emotion

Yellow Infantile traits/ over-dependence

Green Balanced emotions/ uncomplicated nature

Purple Unhappiness/ sickness

Red Uninhibited expression

Table 3. Colour association with childrens personality

There have been many studies since but Birren, the most widely noted colour psychologist, has

concluded that warm colours (red-orange-yellow end of the spectrum) increased musculartension, respiration rate, pulse, blood pressure, and brain activity in children, while cooler colours(blue-green) induced relaxation, perhaps even sleep (22)

There is also research to show that background music can increase attainment, with over half ofthe 278 students tested showing better reading scores. Boys scores increased more, but themean improvement was 2.5% and the lowest IQ quartile showed the biggest improvement.Unfortunately the study fails to mention what the music was (23)

Decoration can be seen as more about ownership. Anecdotal evidence suggests a child acceptsthe room as being theirclassroom if some of the displayed work was their own creation. TheTeacher has a responsibility here, for not all children are good artists and he/she must ensure abalance between artistic/ aesthetic display quality and the sense of belonging of each individualchild.

Involvement issues

As stated in the introduction, a school should not be viewed by the child as the place they areabandoned in whilst their parents go to work. If this happens the possibility that the child willreject education at an early age is increased. This is, of course, refutable and dependent on thechild. If a child is unhappy at home, the school may be the place they begin to flourish.Whichever is true for the individual, it seems reasonable that the Primary School, at least, shouldbe seen by the child as a sanctuary, a place they belong and a place where they can be

expressive and find (and develop) their own interests.



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To do this the child must feel some sense of ownership of the school, that they are afundamental part of it and that their opinion is valued (or at least recognised)

Whilst this is not an architectural issue as such, there is a growing series of school projectswhere the design process has been inclusive of children, parents and teachers. This could bebecause tenders are won on this basis, or simply that architects dont really understand the

issues involved in creating new schools.There is a body of evidence that suggests positive qualitative and quantitative outcomes withincreased student, parental and community involvement in a school.

The OECD states that pride in creating and being listened to increases pupils sense of respectfor their environment and stimulates a sense of community, in turn increasing well-being and an

enhanced potential for learning (24)

Research has shown that people feel more attached to an environment they have helped tocreate. They will, in turn, manage and maintain it better, thus reducing incidences of vandalismand wastage/ replacement through neglect (25). This theory is now widely accepted, to the pointwhere student inclusion in the design process can now be awarded credits when assessing

BREEAM for Schools.

The Schoolworks project in Kingsdale School in South London has helped turn a failingcomprehensive school into a place where children want to be. The design process was heavilyinfluenced by pupil participation and, though this can add 20-40% to the costs, a sustainabledesign with low running costs can mitigate this extra expense over its life time (26).

Figure 1: Kingsdale School. Showing the auditorium, aerial walkways and ETFE roof, in

between the existing post-war buildings. The school, previously closing to being consideredfailing has been turned around and is now oversubscribed

Source: Prospect Magazine

Kingsdale may not have been the first project of this kind, but its championing has helped openthe door to many more initiatives, such as joinedupdesignforschools, which partners schoolswho have a design issue they wish to resolve, with architects, designers etc., and use theparticipatory process model. In this way, over 60 projects have been completed or are currentlybeing undertaken- nearly all of which have evolved from student ideas about emotive issuessuch as food, uniforms, facilities etc. (27) Another example is the recent publication detailingScottish case studies of sustainable school design, where several projects involved children in

the design process (28).



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It should be noted, though, that inclusive design does not guarantee good results. The processshould be well thought out, methodical and well-led and, most importantly, have a realistic viewof its potential outcomes. To this end, Schoolworks have published the 'School Works Toolkit', aguide that details how to lead the participatory process, which was developed as a result of theKingsdale project.

Children also want to feel as though the school is providing for their needs. A survey of 2274Year 6 and 7 pupils found that students would feel more valued if there were better wet playfacilities, better school equipment, more exercise opportunities, better playground facilities andmore concerts (29).

Apart from facilities, pupils also react to opportunities and responsibilities. More frequent schooloutings, increased freedom to use school buildings during break time, improved teacherapproachability, more dedicated pastoral staff and higher levels of involvement and responsibilityin general are all found to improve exam results. Displays of work and teacher continuity alsoappear to improve behaviour levels (30)

Parental involvement is an important factor in education, especially with regards to the level of

importance the child places on education and the school.

A research review identified three psychological factors that affected the level of parentalinvolvement. Firstly, the perceptions of the parents of their role and responsibility in theirchildren's education. Middle class parents, for example, feel that they should collaborate withschool efforts. But low-income families often see themselves as being outside the school systemand feel it is the school's responsibility to do the teaching. Secondly, parental feelings ofeffectiveness contribute to their involvement in their children's school. Parents who believe theycan make a difference in their children's education are more likely to visit and participate inschool activities than those who feel ineffective. Thirdly, some schools are perceived as morewelcoming than others, and the extent to which schools make individual parents feel comfortableand valued is a contributory factor (31)

While existing research shows mixed results, there is a tendency to suggest that increasedparental involvement in school contributes to higher results, reduction in drop-out rates andimproved attendance and behaviour.

With regard to Community involvement the school has become a less integral part of the localein most respects. Teachers and staff have less spare time with which to improve communityengagement, but this is changing.

The DfES Five Year Strategy for Children and Learners includes provisions for increasedfunding to help all schools to become extended schools. This will mean that schools can offerextra childcare facilities, community learning and activity centres (such as for ESL, ICT, sports,

art etc.) study support, family centres, social and welfare support services and increasedparental and community involvement in general. The first part of the scheme will fund 1000Primary and 240 Secondary schools to become full service extended schools and provide moneyfor other schools to begin the process (32) Credits are also awarded under BREEAM for Schoolsif there are shared community facilities.

This will obviously place great burdens on schools in terms of logistics, access, maintenance,funding and staffing and without consistent and practical LEA and Government support thescheme is likely to fall down.

This will also entail that there are more variables to consider when designing schools, especiallyin the fields of Child protection, site security and access routes in school hours.



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Another consideration is economics, as many schools will undoubtedly need to refurbish theirfacilities for the reasons already mentioned (a Headteacher is unlikely to allow after-hoursaccess to, say, a Gym if it means the rest of the school is left wide-open). The Government iscurrently re-examining the VAT rules with regard to school refurbishment.BuildingsThe condition and age of buildings may also have an effect on children at school, although what

little research there is proves far from conclusive. A research review cited many examples ofstudies showing a negative correlation of building age with attainment, although no mention wasmade of socio-economic status (SES), building condition or style. It also cited studies suggestingthat modernised older buildings, with SES taken into account, have higher attainment levels (33)One of the studies cited stated that, with SES accounted for, schools that refurbished theirfacilities from poor to normal quality could expect attainment levels to increase by an average5%, and from poor to excellent by up to 11% (34).

Another, large scale, study, however, states that there is no performance effect that isdependent upon building age, size or condition but, interestingly, suggests that any improvementis due to the care taken by schools to respond to that environment (35).

New buildings are no guarantee in themselves of an improvement in school quality, especially inthe eyes of the pupils. Bishop Black School in Somerset was moved to a new building after the60 year old existing school proved unable to cope with the demands made upon it. After themove, pupils noted that Teachers mindsets had altered to the point where they would overlyprotect the building and admonish pupils for the most minor of occurrences (such as leaning ona newly decorated wall.) Children also noticed that the materials used soon showed signs ofwear and tear. Lockers were only provided for 1/3 of the children and there was poor internaltraffic circulation. Indoor/outdoor spaces were inadequate, leading to crowds of pupils undersmall shelters in the rain. The results of this were plain to see as the pupils soon stopped caringand litter started to appear (the bins were in the wrong places) This is a new school and theeffects on achievement levels have yet to be studied (36)

As a footnote, Bridgemary secondary school in Hampshire is about to embark upon a radicalscheme whereby the traditional yearly progression through school is abandoned to make way forcross-year streaming. This means pupils will study in a subject class according to their ability,rather than their age.

The school has a lower than average academic record and it is hoped that this experiment willresult in higher achievers being able to progress at a suitable pace. Children of lower ability willstudy in a class of their academic peers in an attempt to ensure they cant become bored andfrustrated by falling behind. They will also receive extra coaching sessions. While this may notbe a national blueprint, Ofsted have welcomed the move as Bridgemary is a struggling school inan economically deprived area, with only 1.4% of parents having undergone higher educationand nearly 500 of its 1200 pupils classified as having Special Educational Needs (SEN) (37)

Key findings and recommendations

Adaptation of school space is probably the most important element in school design. The needsof yesterdays schools are not the needs of today and, in turn, will not be the needs of tomorrow.

The building designer has a role to play in this element of education, as he or she must show anunderstanding of education itself and provide the tools that enable educators to use spaceswisely and to adapt those spaces when necessary. The sustainability of any design can be partlymeasured by its adaptability to future needs and by its inherent ability to deal with the demandsof a high-density, high-use building.

Apart from the inevitable rise in the use of ICT (Information and Communication Technology)



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and all this will entail, the future will depend, mainly, upon politics and the policies of anyincumbent Education Minister.

The designer, therefore, must create a space that will fulfil its roles today and be flexible enoughto deal with whatever needs the future (perhaps more than 100 years) sheds light upon. It seemsreasonable to suggest that these spaces should take into account:

changes in technology- each desk should have a child-friendly plug socket in close reach

as it expected that all children will use a laptop within the next 15 years potential changes in class size- if class sizes are reduced to the same as, say, Italy,

classrooms should be designed so that retrofitting a partition is possible and that thischange does not affect the quality of either room

the changing role of teaching- the increased use of teaching assistants means that workwith smaller groups is more possible, but often these groups have nowhere to go

activity based areas within the classroom, with lighting and decoration to match the task

changes in use- the ability to separate the main school from those areas that willbecome more the domain of the community, both in and out of school hours

adequate facilities- such as lockers and indoor/outdoor spaces to make the child feelthat some worth is attached to their place in school

'future-proofing' the design against climate change.

The Teacher should understand that there is more to effective teaching than just teaching. Theability to adapt the environment of the classroom is a powerful tool in increasing schooleffectiveness and pupil motivation and development. Increasing pupil involvement,empowerment and responsibility should also be a key aim in schools. The design and use of aschool building can help achieve these aims by ensuring that every child has a role in theoperation of that school, even if it is just to know the various layouts of a classroom and beintegral in arranging those layouts.

Overall, there is good reason to suggest that the Government strive to reduce school and classsizes and ensure, through legislation if necessary, that schools are designed with the above

mentioned principles in mind.

Chapter 3 will now go on to examine the issues involved with the physical environment of theschool, and seek to understand how variables such as temperature and light can impact onpupil health and achievement.

References

1.Barker and Gump, Big school, small school, Stanford UP, 1964

2. Cotton K., School size, school climate and student performance, School Improvement Research

Series,19963. Walberg & Walberg, Losing Local Control, Educational Researcher 23, no.5, pp. 19-26,

4. Wasley et al., Small schools, great strides, College of Education, 2000

5. Lackney & Moore, Educational facilities for the 21st Century, Univ. of Wisconsin, 1997

6. Word et al., The state of Tennessees student/teacher achievement ratio (STAR): Final

summary

report 1985-1990, Tennessee State Education Department, 19907. Achilles et al., Lasting benefits study, North Carolina Association for Research in Education,

1993

8. Krueger & Whitmore, The effect of attending a small class in the early grades on college

attendance plans, Princeton UP, 1999

9. Blatchford P. et al., The Class size debate: Is smaller better?, OUP, 2003

10.Blatchford & Martin, The effects of class size on classroom processes, British Journal ofEducational Studies 46, pp. 118-137, 1998



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11.Class size and the quality of education, OFSTED report PN33/95, HMSO, 1995

12.Jamison, Johnson & Dickson, Every pupil counts, NFER, 1998

13.White R., The impact of density and the definition and ratio of activity centres on children in

childcare classrooms, http://www.whitehutchinson.com/children/articles/ratio.shtml, visited27/04/05

14.Hastings & Schwieso, New directions in Educational Psychology 2, p. 1, Falmer, 1987

15.Hastings & Schwieso, Tasks and tables, Educational Research 37, pp. 279-291, 199516.Stallings, J., Allocated Academic Learning Time Revisited, or Beyond Time on Task.

Educational Researcher 9, pp. 11-16, 1980

17.Bennett & Blundell, Quantity and quality of work in rows and groups, Educational Psychology3, p. 93-105, 1983

18.Wheldall et al., Rows v. Tables, Educational Psychology 1, pp. 27-44, 1981

19.Alexander, Rose & Woodhead, Curriculum organisation and class practice in Primary schools,

DFES, 1992

20.Rice A., What research knows about colour in the classroom, Nations Schools, pp. 1-8, Nov.

195321.Alschuler & Hattwick, Painting and personality; A study of young children, Chicago UP, 1947

22.Birren F., Colour it colour, Progressive Architecture, pp. 129-133, 197723.Hall J., The effect of background music on the reading comprehension of 278 8th and 9th grade

students, Journal of Educational Psychology 45, pp. 151-158, 1952

24.OECD programme on Educational Building, The quality of the physical environment of the

school and the quality of education, OECD, 1990

25.Lackney J., 33 educational design principles for school as community learning centres,Mississippi State Univ., 2000

26.Seymour et al., School works tool kit, Schoolworks, 2001

27. www.joinedupdesignforschools.com , visited 27/04/05

28.Building our future: Scotlands school estates, Scottish Executive, 2003

29.Keys, Harris & Fernandez, Attitudes to school, NFER. 1995

30.Rutter et al., Fifteen thousand hours, PCP, 199431.Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, Why do parents become involved in their childrens education?,

Review of Educational Research 67, pp. 3-42, 1997

32.Five year strategy for children and learners, DfES, The Stationery Office, 2004

33.McGuffey C., Facilities, in Walberg H., Improving educational standards and productivity,

McCutcham, 1982

34.. Berner M., Building conditions, parental involvement and student achievement in the

DC public school system, Urban Education 29 (1), pp. 6-29, 199335.Rutter et al., Fifteen thousand hours, PCP, 1994

36.Golby & Appleby, New school, new era? Univ. of Exeter, 1997

37.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/4496911.stm, visited 10/05/05



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chapter 3



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Chapter 3

The internal environment and its effect on children

Must we wait until we prove every link in the chain of causation? In protectinghealth, absolute proof comes late. To wait for it is to invite disaster or to prolong

suffering unnecessarilyWilliam H. Stewart, US Surgeon General, 1969

As has already been stated, there is a growing realisation that architecture is not just about formand function. The places and spaces that are designed for people to use have a much moreprofound effect than simply meeting a need or being aesthetically pleasing.So, what architectural considerations affect the internal environment of a school, and whateffects do these variables have on children; both physiologically and psychologically?

This Chapter examines the issues involved, summarises the research that has been done in this

area and makes recommendations both for future research and design standards

Lighting

The theory that natural light has beneficial health effects is not new, but the benefits appear tobe greater than merely better mineral metabolism by absorption and generation of vitamin D, orthe avoidance of what has become known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) whereby thenegative psychological effects of reduced daylight in winter are now widely acknowledged.

In 1973, a study by Dr. J. Ott of the Environmental Health and Light Research Institute in Florida,(1) appeared to prove that hyperactive children calmed down and academic levels went up whenfull spectrum lighting (FSL) was installed. The study was undertaken in a school with 4

windowless 1st grade classrooms. Two were fitted with FSL and two with fluorescent tubes. Thefluorescent classes took longer to settle and experienced hyperactivity symptoms. When thestudy was reversed, the same thing occurred.

Dr. Ott has been researching for over 40 years and his findings are now backed by the NationalInstitute of Mental Health in Maryland.Dr. Ott has also demonstrated lower muscular function under standard indoor lightingconditions. In a separate study done concurrently, the Sarasota Dental Society concluded thatchildren schooled under FSL had 1/3 the dental cavities of those in classrooms with fluorescentlighting.

FSL uses the full wavelength of the visible spectrum, plus UV, rather than standard lighting

which is concentrated around the red-yellow-orange spectral area.

FSL generally operates at a colour rendering index (CRI) above 95 and a Kelvin rating of above5500K, compared with a fluorescent CRI of 60-65 and rated at 2700-4200K. The CRI denoteshow close objects appear to their natural colour under a light source, whilst the Kelvin index (alsoknown As Correlated Colour Temperature (CCT)) can indicate the mood of the light given off. Alow K rating, such as given off by incandescent bulbs is richer in the red-yellow area of thespectrum and is considered warm, while a higher rating is richer in blue and is cooler. (See Fig1)

As light hits the eyes, photoreceptors trigger the endocrine system, which regulates bodychemical functions. It is argued that the greater the available wavelength, the better the

endocrine system can perform and this, in turn, can help the immune system to function.



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Fig 1. The same space, before and after the fitting of Full Spectrum Lighting

A further study was conducted in Canada, following 327 grade 4 students over two school years,studying under 4 different light types (2); FSL, FSL with additional UV, cool white fluorescent andhigh pressure sodium. The study was conducted blindly and in a small geographical area toreduce the effects of socio-economic status (SES)

As would be expected, the high pressure sodium lamps performed worst by all measuresstudied. Poor Colour rendering, a low K-rating and high point-source intensity make themunsuitable for non-industrial applications (Source: PG&E).

Other results included:

Attendance: (as measured by the number of absences)1st - FSL with UV inhibitedJoint 2 nd - FSL with UV supplemented, cool white

Achievement: (measured by exam result improvements over time)

1st -FSL2nd - FSL with UV3rd - Cool white

Development

Height and weight gain1st FSL with UV2nd FSL3rd cool white

Fat % gain

1st FSL2nd FSL with UV3rd Cool white

Another interesting result was that, when compared with a large scale study, the onset ofmenarche age was lowered significantly (by between 3-9 months on average) under FSLlighting, and was raised under High pressure Sodium.

The subject of UV is problematic given underlying attitudes towards UV exposure. There isconflicting evidence of the dangers and health benefits of exposure to the different types of UVand it can be hypothesised that there is not a level playing field in this area and that somestudies expounding the need to hide from UV have been given more weight than, perhaps, they

are due.



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In a handicapped childrens home in Canada, FSL was installed and found to reducebehavioural problems and stress levels (as measured by a reduced systolic blood pressure (BP)averaging 20 points). When the lighting was changed, symptom regression occurred (3). Highsystolic blood pressure can be a predictor of heart complications and stroke events, as thehigher the systolic BP, the harder the heart is working to pump blood around the body. As can beseen in the Noise section of this Chapter, a high BP reading throughout childhood does not

appear to return to normal levels in adulthood.

In Germany, Fritz Hollwich, Professor Emeritus, Department of Ophthalmology at the Universityof Munster, found high levels of stress hormones in individuals sitting under cool whitefluorescent tubes, but normal levels in people working under FSL. Based on his research, thecool-white fluorescent bulb is legally banned in German hospitals and medical facilities. Anecdotalevidenceof the beneficial effects of FSL continue to abound, but media coveragehas helped to make this a controversial issue. A review of the research has, while notnecessarily discounting the advantages of FSL, criticized the research as inconclusive as mostexperiments took place in the daytime when the principal light source was daylight itself (3a).

Other studies suggest that children can progress up to 26% faster in reading and 20% faster in

numeracy in a classroom requiring no electric lighting for a large portion of the school year, whencompared to a classroom with insufficient daylight for operation without electric lighting (4) andthat children with no daylight in their classrooms suffer hormone disruption and behaviouralproblems (5).

General light levels, daylight factors and lighting design are well researched (i.e., 6) and thereseems no reason to question the recommendations found in Building Bulletins 87, 90 and 95.

BB90 recommends reflectance values on wallsof no less than 0.6 and on ceilings of no lessthan 0.7. Other studies have backed this up while BB95 does also make specific mention of wider-spectrum lighting and room colours, for which there is some (although not contemporary)scientific basis (See Chapter 2).

Noise

The effects of noise on children have been well documented, especially in urban areas and noiseitself can be said to have various effects, both auditory and non-auditory.

Various studies in New York in the 1970s demonstrated the effects of noise on children. Onestated that, unpredictable and uncontrollable high-intensity noise leads to degradation in qualityof task performance, lowered frustration tolerance and impaired ability to resolve cognitiveconflict (7).

Concurrent research suggested that elementary schoolchildren who lived on the lower floors of

apartment buildings close to expressway noise showed greater impairment of auditorydiscrimination and reading achievement than those in higher floors (8)

Research carried out at a New York City elementary school(9) found that the noise from passingelevated trains resulted in an 11% loss of teaching time. This was followed, in the same school,by a famous study carried out between 1975 and 1981(10). The school involved had two towersof classrooms. One tower overlooked the playground; the other was within 80 metres of anexpressway and an elevated train line.

For 30 seconds every 4 minutes, the noise on the train side rose from an average of 59 dBA to89 dBA. In a ten month year reading scores on the noisy side averaged at 4 months lower thanthe average for the quiet side.

On the quiet side, the children cited corridor noise as the main auditory distraction. This was not



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so on the noisy side and there was no geographical explanation for this.

By the time students reached the 6th grade, their reading scores were, on average, 1 year behindthose students on the quieter side. As a result, there was consultation with the Transit Authoritywho agreed to put an experimental rubber damper on the tracks. The school also fitted acousticdampers in the classrooms. The study was revisited in 1981 and reading schools were found tohave levelled out between the two sides of the school (11).

As background, 50% of students in this school lived below the poverty line, and the school wasone of 54 that were within 150 yards of an L-train (overground) in New York. In 1974, this schoolscored 514th of 637 New York City elementary schools in reading scores. L-trains in the vicinityof schools have also been cited as a cause for psychomotor impairment (12).

The effects of internal noise have not been so widely documented. The sole study found on thedifferences between internal and external noise suggests that there are no significant effects onreading scores of 11 year olds when school noise was: quiet, normal, noisy (13).

Aircraft noise is cited as the most common auditory distraction in urban schools. There havebeen several studies undertaken to document this, some of which have revealed disturbing non-

academic effects.

Children who live or attend school near a major airport are more likely to have higher bloodpressure (14), which does not reduce over time(15), elevated neuro-endocrine andcardiovascular measures (16) as well as lower reading scores (17). Fig 2 (below) shows theprevalence of Aircraft noise exposure in parts of Hounslow, West London.

Figure 2. Noise map of Hounslow

Source:www.hounslow.gov.uk

The yellow area exceeds WHO noise guidelines, blue exceeds chronic noise levels and pink willexceed levels if a third runway is built at nearby Heathrow. Coloured dots represent schools inthe area. Hounslow is also criss-crossed by the M25 and M4.

The West London Schools Study looked at 10 schools in the Heathrow vicinity and found thatchronic noise exposure lead to reading problems with difficult items (but no overall reduction inscore) and increased noise annoyance in children and staff (18) A follow up study by the sameauthors noted that the effects were not mediated over time (18a).

Other bodies of research detail further non-auditory effects. It was found that high blood

pressure associated with chronic noise exposure (95-125 dBA) does not reduce over time andcan continue into adulthood (19).



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Nursery aged children have been found to be less likely to persist in problem solving activitiesand may even abdicate choice to other people. (20). It would appear that there are no effects onsimple memory, several studies already cited have suggested this, but attention deficit canbecome an ongoing problem. Children from a noisy home background cope better than thosefrom a quiet background in noisy environments, but this ability reduces with age. Quieterchildren learn to tune out distractions while noisier children may begin to tune out noiseindiscriminately, therefore missing cues and vital clues (21)

BB93 states that ambient classroom noise should not exceed 35dBA and playgroundbackground noise should not exceed 60 dBA. The Federal Interagency Commission on AircraftNoise (FICAN) in the USA also recommended that tolerable levels of ambient classroom noiseshould not exceed 35dbA

A study in 3 London boroughs where aircraft noise was not the dominant form of exposure foundthat noise levels far exceeded these targets. Road noise was cited by 86% of schools as thedominant auditory disturbance, although, even off-flypath, 50% reported aircraft noise as adisturbance. It can be concluded from these studies that single-event, or intermittent chronicexposure above 60 dBA is more annoying and disturbing to children than continuous high levelsof background noise.

In 142 Primary schools in Lambeth, Islington and Haringey, it was found to be difficult tomeasure typical noise levels. Teachers voices ranged from 40dBA to 80dBA, activity levels from40-70dBA and general occupied rooms from 42-94dBA, with an average exposure level inoccupied rooms of 72dBA. See Table 1 to put this into context. One of the main factors in thelevel of disturbance attributed to noise is that of speech intelligibility, namely between teacherand pupils. With such a broad range of sound intensities and frequency levels in Teachersvoices, this issue needs to be better understood.

Tables 1, below, and 2, on the next page, show the effects of different noise intensity levels andthe effect of adding two different intensities.

Table 1. Reaction to noise intensity. It is worth noting that 40dB is not twice as loud as 20dB.Sound intensity doubles with every 3dB increase. Equally important is the fact that total noise

from two noise sources does not equal the sum of those values (see Table 2)

Source: MSc AEES workbook, Unit A5, p. 121



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Table 2. Addition of two different sound intensities. Let us assume an average noise levelfrom a teachers voice of 60dB, and an average activity noise level of 55dB. The numerical

difference is 5dB. This gives an additional intensity of 1.2dB to the higher level and therefore total

exposure is 61.2dB (Source: AEES workbook, Unit A5, p. 122)

Interestingly, it was also found that Victorian schools had a slightly higher average noise level,although the hypothesis that this was due to higher ceilings and more reverberation was nottested as the study sample was considered too small. The report concludes that there is morestudy required, especially in rural and suburban areas. (22)

An American study (23) reported that greater design consideration for noise should beundertaken in areas with a high proportion of students with English as a second language. Thisview was counteracted in the West London Schools Study, which suggested that first languagewas not a significant factor in the effects of chronic noise exposure.

Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation; temperature

Studies in this area are among the oldest found. The older ones are indicative of thecontemporary issues under consideration. For instance, the Seymour report of 1939 argues thatdirty air, low oxygen and high CO2 levels were not harmful,but simply had an adverse effect on the ability of the body to regulate heat losses and gains and

that adequate ventilation was solely to prevent bad odours and prevent the spread of microbialinfection (24). This is, perhaps, a reflection on the times and the prevailing levels of hygiene inworking-class society as a whole.

This followed a 1923 report by the New York Commission on Ventilation regarding roomtemperature and performance (25). It suggested that 20 deg C was the optimum temperature forstudy. At 24 the amount of physical work can decrease by 15% (at Relative Humidity of 50%),and by 30% at 28 (RH 80%). This increase places burdens on the body including: Increasedbody temperature, increased heart rate, increased vasomotor tone (which means the resting

state of the muscles is in contraction) and increased respiration. Fanassisted ventilation wasunderstood to increase room temperature by 1, through mechanical heat gains. Cross-ventilation was stated as the desirable method to control room temperature, although this was

later refuted for unknown reasons, but following corporate complaints,by the same group.



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An early report in the UK into temperature and ventilation found that the highest rate of illnessrelated absenteeism occurred in poorly ventilated schools with absenteeism at 8.9% at 18and11.6% at 13 (winter temperatures). No mention is made, however, of demographics, socio-economic status (SES) or school surroundings (26). This report cited two studies; the BarkingSurvey of 1933 and the Essex Study of 1932 which measured Victorian Primary schools againstthose built in the 1920s for absenteeism, and took SES into account. Both suggested that the

newer buildings had lower occurrences of respiratory and non-respiratory absence.

Incidentally, this report recommended a working temperature of 16-17 whilst a contemporarystudy suggested adults preferred 18.5, concluding that children have a higher metabolic rateand eat more per unit of body surface

There was subsequently a research gap until the 1970s, when newer technology was beinginstalled in schools.

The issue of thermal comfort led to research that suggested that there was a rapid decrease inMaths and reading skills above 23C (27), and suggested that the uptake of carpets andincreased use of climate control systems might be a mistake.

In Sweden, a postal survey of schools in 1985 showed a response that suggested that 21% of627 schools suffered from what we now term Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), with symptomsmore prevalent in schools that were recently built, had higher rates of Relative Humidity, lowerair exchange rates or higher volatile organic compound (VOC) content (28)

The understanding of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) had started to change. The old view thatventilation of buildings was necessary only to disperse odours had become redundant. The issuehad expanded and started to take into consideration the effects (physiological, physical andmental) of poor quality internal air. Such factors as off-gassing of chemicals from internal dcorand fittings came to be recognised as important to the health of building occupants

The fuel-crises of the 1970s engendered the belief that buildings should be constructed withfewer openings and built more tightly to conserve energy. With an increase in the perceivedsymptoms of SBS, this view has been adapted to build tight, ventilate right.

As the understanding of the internal environment grew it became clear that more study neededto be undertaken into its health effects. New studies were undertaken to understand theimportance of CO2 levels especially.

The recommended maximum level of 1000ppm was questioned in 1996 when studies suggestedthat 15 minutes exposure to levels of 1200ppm could lead to: nausea, claustrophobia,headaches, stuffiness and shortness of breath. Long term exposure could lead to a build ofcalcium deposits in body tissues. It also noted that US Navy Submarines allow a maximum long

term exposure of 600ppm, as higher levels could result in fatigue, drowsiness, reducedconcentration and breathing difficulties (29)

A Norwegian study then determined that CO2 levels often exceeded the 1000ppmrecommended limit by up to 500% and these levels, measured on performance data from 900children had a marked effect in slowing reaction times at levels above 1500ppm. It alsosuggested there is a marked correlation between levels above 1500ppm and non-respiratoryhealth problems (30)

UK research also began to concentrate on indoor air. 7 primary schools were examined and itwas found that the average occupied classroom CO2 level was 1957ppm, with the highest rateoff the scale of the measuring equipment at 4000ppm (31)



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These findings have now been duplicated several times, in different countries with the result thatventilation rates of minimum 3 litres/per person/per second in winter and 8 l ppps in summerhave been accepted as standard requirements to maintain CO2 levels at a non-hazardous level.

Many newer classrooms, however, have followed the custom of removing radiators fromunderneath openings as this is seen as energy inefficient. The detrimental effect of this strategy,however, is that incoming air is not preheated and causes cold draughts in winter. There thus

appears to be a potential problem in the relationship between ventilation requirements andthermal comfort, especially during the heating season

Two important studies, particularly regarding Relative Humidity (RH) levels concluded withsimilar recommendations. The first reported that the influenza virus survival rate was highest at20% RH, lowest between 40-60% and rose again above 70%. It recommended thathumidification should be undertaken in areas of low RH and that this practice could reduce levelsof absenteeism and viral transmission rates (32). The second stated that above 65% RH,microbial growth is promoted by the ability of soft furnishings to absorb moisture and above 70%VOCs are emitted at a greater rate. Below 40% RH, symptoms can include: dry and sore noseand throat, nose bleeds, sinus and tracheal irritation, dry eyes, inability to use contact lenses,skin irritation and reduced effectiveness of mucous membranes and therefore recommended

maintenance of RH at 40-60% (33) (See table 3)

Table 3. Interaction of various health-related factors with differing levels of RHSource: www.energysolutionscentre.org

An Institute for Environmental Health report concluded that asthma symptoms in children weremostly triggered by infections, dust mites, pollens and pet danders, but were concerned with theeffects of VOCs, tobacco smoke and nitrogen oxides (34). This followed another IEH report in2000 that declared CO to be a long term, low exposure risk, nitrogen dioxide to be linked withrespiratory illness in children, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH- found in dyes andplastics) to be toxic (See Tables 4 and 5 for a more comprehensive list of indoor pollutants, their

sources and effects).



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The report also showed concern with the lack of study regarding additivity, pollutant synergy,endotoxins, school assessment and research in children generally (35).

NASA has found that common household plants can help to improve IAQ by filtering out suchtoxins as formaldehyde, benzene and nitrogen oxides. (36) A further study recommends that thebest plants to use are those that have a high water use and a high leaf area/pot size ratio, suchas Peace Lily (Figure 3), Kentia palm, Fine-leafed fig, Corn plant and Golden cane palm, but

stressed the need for further study with individual plants and individual pollutants (37).

Figure 3. A Peace Lily (Spathyphillum)Studies suggest this plant can help to reduce levels of

Formaldehyde in the internal environment

Source: www.rainbowpark.co.nz

Table 4. Health effects of indoor pollutantsSource: MSc AEES workbook, Unit A5, p. 75



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Carbon DioxideRespiration

Combustion

Nitrogen OxideCombustion

Cooking

Carbon Monoxide

Combustion

Cooking

VOCs

Wood preservatives

Furnishings

Cleaning materials

Sealants

FormaldehydeInsulation

ChipboardOzone Photocopiers

RadonSoil

Building materialsTable 5. Sources of Indoor Air Pollution

Source: MSc AEES Workbook, Unit A5, p. 72

Key Findings and analysis

Variable Envelope

Artificial lighting FSL, with High CRI and CCT levels

Noise Less than 60dBA for single/ intermittent events

Temperature Between 18-23 deg CCO2 concentrations Below 600ppm

Relative Humidity level Between 40-70%

Table 6. Key recommendations for environmental limits

It is easy to list recommendations, as in Table 6, made by the researchers but it is necessary tounderstand that these factors have been studied mainly in isolation. There is no simple solutionabout how to resolve, say, the contradictory needs to increase ventilation rates and reduce theeffects of external noise, especially in an environmental sense where non-mechanisation ofventilation is desirable. Some modern offices use the 'double-skin' method of construction,where there is a large gap between the two glazing panels with ventilation panels at differentheights on either side .This allows the passage of fresh air, while providing a noise buffer, but isan expensive form of construction.

Which of the two factors is more important to the operation of the classroom? On a noisy site, itwould appear to be acoustic control that mattered more, but is noise alleviation more importantthan Indoor Air Quality? There is a fundamental problem with resolving these issues and that isthe human factor. No two individuals are the same and their own personal environmentalpreferences differ in many ways.

In a single-site, longitudinal study on any given subject, it may be that researchers returned aftera year and found that exam scores had increased. They may put this down to the installation of,say, Full Spectrum Lighting, but it may also be that a new employer has just taken on many of

Jason Hawkes MSc

the influence of educational buildings on the development of schoolchildren

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