the indus river basin as an emergent gardenthe indus river basin as an emergent garden james l....
TRANSCRIPT
The Indus River Basin as an Emergent Garden
James L. Wescoat Jr., Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, MIT – LUMS Indus Conference – 29 January 2017
Problem Statement
• Late-20th c. concepts of Indus water management:
– “Indus Waters”
– “Great Indus food machine”
– “Indus Basin Irrigation System” (IBIS)
– “Integrated Water Resources Management” (IWRM)
– “Water-energy-food nexus”
– “Political economies & political ecologies”
• Something seems to be missing …
• The Indus River Basin as a Garden?
Paper Outline
GARDEN CONCEPTS
1. Mughal gardens -----------------
2. Colonial gardens -----------------
3. Late 20th c. garden research --& conservation
4. 21st c. “gardens” ---------------
WATER CONCEPTS
Mughal waterworks & subahs
Colonial irrigation landscapes
Indus Basin development, modeling & management
21st c. Indus River basin regionalism & placemaking
Scales of Garden Ideology in Mughal Culture
Mughal garden sites and spatial metaphors Babur laying out the Bagh-i wafa near Jalalabad
“My Garden is Hindustan!” (Ebba Koch, 2007)
Revenue Survey of the Mughal Empire, ~1595 CE
Map: Shireen Moosvi
Political Economy of Mughal CultivationSources: Irfan Habib, Agrarian System of Mughal India (1999); Shireen Moosvi, Economy of
the Mughal Empire, c. 1595 (1987); Panniker et al. (2002); and related essays.
1. Agricultural production: 2/3 of GNP from agriculture (higher yields in 1600 than 1872). Mainly well irrigation.
3. Population: 145 million (~22 million urban)
2. Land revenue: tax = 50% of gross production; (~30% needed for food, leaving a margin of ~20%).
4. Local claims to agricultural surplus: zamindari; rich peasants; farm labourers & intra-family transfers.•
Mughal Watercourse & Landscape Maps
Mughal map of the Indus & its Tributaries Painted map of irrigation canal landscape
Sultanate &Mughal Canalson the Plains
Sultanate canals
Mughal canals [Ali Mardan Khan and others].
Well & floodplain farming.
After Habib, 1982
Gardens & Rivers in Mughal Poetic Manuscripts
“It’s a Day for the Garden” -- Mahesh “A Sinner’s Plea before God” -- Sadi
Part 2. Intersections between Colonial Gardens & Canal Irrigation
“Hindoostan divided into Soubahs according to the Ayeen Ackbaree,” R. Wilkinson, 1815
Irrigated Gardens & Landscapes of the Indus
Alexander Burnes, Memoir on the Indus, 1830s Sketch map of canals 1850s
Agri-Horticultural Society of the Punjab
• On Tree Planting in the Punjab – proposed tree & shrub plantings along canals and roads.
• Agriculture in the Punjab – some references to irrigation and gardens in district reports.
• Horticulture in the Punjab – more references to gardens in district reports.
• Wool and Silk manufactures – high-value products
• On Plant Introductions – collection & testing.
Part III: Indus River, Indus Basin, Indus River Basin, Indus Waters
1960
Brief references to gardens in the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960
National Basin Modeling: Water, Climate, Energy & Food Security Planning
WB Indus Basin Model Agroclimatic Zones & Canal Commands
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0.000
5.000
10.000
15.000
20.000
25.000
30.000
35.000
Irri
ga
ted
Are
a (
Wh
ea
t) [
10
00
he
cta
res
]
Pu
nja
b C
an
al D
ivers
ion
s (
Rab
i) [
MA
F]
CanalDiversions (MAF)
Estimated Pumpage Irrigated Area
Decreasing surface water supplies have led to increased ground water pumping Increased energy input for irrigated agriculture.
Further Developments: Water-Energy-Food NexusBridging the Water Supply Gap with Pumped Water
Electric Pumps (2008-09) Diesel Pumps (2008-09)
1 Dot = 100 Pumps
Return to Groundwater & Conjunctive Water Management
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
19
87
-88
19
88
-89
19
89
-90
19
90
-91
19
91
-92
19
92
-93
19
93
-94
19
94
-95
19
95
-96
19
96
-97
19
97
-98
19
98
-99
19
99
-00
20
00
-01
20
01
-02
20
02
-03
20
03
-04
20
04
-05
20
05
-06
20
06
-07
20
07
-08
20
08
-09
20
09
-10
20
10
-11
Tho
usa
nd
To
nn
es
Food Crops Cash Crops Edible Oilseeds Vegetables Fruits Pulses
Source: Agricultural Statistics of Pakisan
Food in the Water-Energy-Agriculture Nexus
y = 1414.4e0.0456x
R² = 0.9545
y = 2036e0.0278x
R² = 0.9322
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Th
ou
san
d t
on
nes
Edible Oilseeds Vegetables Fruits Pulses Expon. (Vegetables) Expon. (Fruits)
And Horticulture: Fruits and vegetables show
exponential growth in production in Punjab
Particularly, with precision land leveling, watercourse lining, drip irrigation, grading & marketing.
Future work: Integrated systems dynamics modeling of water, energy, crop production, nutrition & equity
Something still seems to be missing …
Part IV. Synthesis and Prospect: Selected Qualities of Gardens & Gardening Relevant for the Indus
– Care (riʻāyat) for land, plants, animals & people
– Dignity (waqr) of cultivation and (cultivators
– Balance (mizan) & harmony
– Gratitude (shukr) & patience
– Good works (khairat) & sharing
– Beauty (bahar), order, diversity & composition in a garden
– Signs (ayat) in this world
IV. Synthesis and Prospect: The Indus Basin as an Emergent Garden
SRI – System of Rice Intensification – substitution of labor & care
Meeting Plant Water Requirements w/o WasteETlandscape = ETreference * Kcspecies * Kcdensity * Kcmicroclimate
Irrigation Losses and Gains: IE: Assume 50% irrigation efficiency for a “new mali”RH: Assume 80% rainwater harvesting efficiency
Sheesh Mahal Water Requirement Example:Irrigation depth = [(2000mm * 0.5 * 1.0 * 0.75)-310mm]/0.5 = 880 mm/yrIrrigation volume = (0.88 m * 400 m2)-42m3 = 310 m3/yr
IV. Synthesis and Prospect: The Indus Basin as an Emergent Garden
Paraphrasing Dr. Abubakr Muhammad: Imagine how a gardener meticulously takes care of plants. Such attention to detail on a vast,
basin-wide scale is possible with water informatics and related water technologies … values, policies, and politics.