the importance of guizotia abyssinica (niger) for sustainable food security in ethiopia

NOTES ON NEGLECTED AND UNDERUTILIZED CROPS

The importance of Guizotia abyssinica (niger) for sustainablefood security in Ethiopia

Mulatu Geleta • Rodomiro Ortiz

Received: 6 December 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2013 / Published online: 8 May 2013

� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract Niger (noug; Guizotia abyssinica) is an

economically important edible oilseed crop. This

review sought to demonstrate the significance of niger

for sustainable food security in Ethiopia, where it is

produced exclusively by smallholders. In addition to

its edible oil, niger seed is an important source of

proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and fiber that sig-

nificantly contribute to the human diet. The crop has a

wide genetic basis that is reflected in the form of a high

variation in desirable traits, including seed yield, seed

oil content, seed oil quality and photoperiod sensitiv-

ity. However, the wealth of niger genetic diversity has

so far remained largely unexploited and research

efforts have not yet yielded satisfactory results in the

form of new and superior cultivars. The recent

molecular and nutritional quality studies coupled with

pre-breeding work have opened up new opportunities

for the improvement of niger. A high yielding niger

cultivars with oil content of up to 60 % and/or oleic

acid content of up to 70 % can easily be bred based on

Ethiopian niger gene pool through the combined use of

novel genomic tools, traditional breeding and farmer-

participatory approaches. The improvement of niger

will have a significant contribution towards Ethiopia’s

food security and sustainable development in general

and self-sufficiency in edible oil in particular. Overall,

an investment in the niger improvement programs will

likely be of benefit far beyond Ethiopia’s borders and

could potentially lead to the expansion of the crop

outside the regions where it is currently grown.

Keywords Food security � Guizotia abyssinica �Noug � Oil content � Oleic acid � Photoperiod

sensitivity

Introduction

Food security remains a significant challenge for

Ethiopia in spite of its wealth of crop genetic

resources. About 42 % of the country’s GDP is

generated from agriculture; and the majority of its

vast agricultural land is occupied by smallholders

(Wijnands et al. 2007). Unstable incomes for the

farmers and increasing population pressures are pos-

ing the food security challenge in this country

(Devereux 2009). Ethiopian farmers often grow their

crops in poor soil with limited amount of inputs in the

presence of a variety of environmental stresses.

Furthermore, they are farming marginal areas using

techniques that may cause environmental degradation.

Additional challenges to Ethiopian agriculture include

the growing threat of global climate change to food

production and the search for alternative sources of

energy, such as biofuels.

M. Geleta (&) � R. Ortiz

Department of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology,

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,

P. O. Box 101, 230 53 Alnarp, Sweden

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Genet Resour Crop Evol (2013) 60:1763–1770

DOI 10.1007/s10722-013-9997-9

Edible oil crops are among the major sources of

food for the global population. Apart from their oil that

serves as a rich source of calories, they provide

essential proteins, vitamins and micronutrients, and

can serve as a source of bio-energy and industrial oils

(Vollmann and Rjcan 2010). As a result of their

multiple uses, various edible oil crops are widely

cultivated, consumed and sold by smallholders in the

developing world including Ethiopia (Geleta et al.

2002). The international market of edible oilseeds is,

however, dominated by a few crop species such as

soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), rapeseed (Brassica

napus L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). As a

consequence, research-neglected and underutilized

indigenous edible oilseed crops have received little

attention even though they frequently have advantages

over introduced crops as they are well adapted to local

environments, are culturally accepted, and often form

part of traditional farming systems (Dempewolf et al.

2010a).

Ethiopia is not self-sufficient in edible oil regard-

less of the fact that it produces a variety of edible

oilseeds and, thus, this country is heavily reliant on

imports (Wijnands et al. 2007). This situation is

mainly because of a shortage of highly improved

cultivars of locally produced oilseed crops. The major

edible oil crops grown in Ethiopia are sesame (Ses-

amum indicum L.), niger (noug; Guizotia abyssinica

(L. f.) Cass.) and linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.).

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), rapeseed,

groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea L.), soybean, sun-

flower and some other oilseeds are also produced to a

limited extent. Sesame has become one of the most

important oilseeds in Ethiopia being cultivated by both

smallholder and commercial farmers. Smallholders in

the country produced 245 kilotons of sesame during

2011/2012 growing season on about 338 thousand

hectares of land (Table 1). However, only about 10 %

of sesame produced in the country is locally used, as

90 % of the annual production is exported mainly to

Asia and Europe. Linseed is the third most important

oilseed crop in Ethiopia where it is exclusively

produced by smallholders for local consumption.

During 2011/2012 growing season, 113 kilotons of

linseed were produced in the country (CSA 2012).

Niger is indigenous to Ethiopia and is the major

source of edible oil that holds significant promise for

improving rural livelihoods. The objective of this

review is to show the potential contribution of niger to

sustainable food security in Ethiopia. The review

focuses on the crop’s genetic diversity, seed yield,

self-compatibility, oil content, oil quality and photo-

period sensitivity.

Niger, G. abyssinica, is a diploid (2n = 2x = 30)

(Dagne and Heneen 1992; Dagne 1995) oil crop

species in the Asteraceae family. It is an annual crop

with capitulum that consists of six to eight fertile

female ray florets and 40–60 hermaphroditic disk

florets (Getinet and Sharma 1996). The corymbous

cymes of heads, 5 broadly ovate-obovate outer

involucral leaves, 5-nerved paleae and bigger achenes

are its main distinguishing characters from other

Guizotia species (Baagøe, 1974). Niger is a strictly

outcrossing species with a sporophytic self-incompat-

ibility mechanism (Nemomissa et al. 1999; Geleta and

Bryngelsson 2010), and is mainly pollinated by insects

(Geleta et al. 2002). Sexual hybrids can easily be

obtained from crosses between niger and its closely

related wild relatives (Dagne 1994), including its

progenitor G. scabra (Vis.) Chiov. ssp. schimperi

(Sch. Bip.) J. Baagøe (Geleta et al. 2010).

Niger cultivation and consumption are deeply

rooted within the Ethiopian culture and the country’s

local population highly values the crop. It remains the

most popular oil crop for local consumption although

it was recently overtaken by sesame with slight

margins in terms of production volume in the country.

During 2011/2012 growing season, smallholders in

Ethiopia produced 186 kilotons of niger seeds on an

area of about 309 thousand hectares, which is about

2.6 % of the country’s area for grain crop production

(CSA 2012). India is the major producer of niger in the

Asian continent, where 90 kilotons of niger seeds

were produced during 2011/2012 growing season

(IOPEPC 2012). Niger is also cultivated in small scale

in several other African (Sudan, Uganda, Congo,

Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe) and Asian (Nepal,

Bangladesh and Bhutan) countries (Weiss 1983;

Murthy et al. 1993; Getinet and Sharma 1996), where

it accounts for a considerable proportion of edible oil

production.

In addition to its oil, niger offers an important

source of seed proteins carbohydrates, vitamins and

fiber that significantly contribute to the human dietary

intake (Thatte and Lakshmi 2012). It is also used as a

component of birdseed in USA and Europe and for

cultural and medicinal purposes in Ethiopia (Geleta

et al. 2002). Its refined oil has various industrial

1764 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2013) 60:1763–1770

123

applications (Riley and Belayneh 1989; Dutta et al.

1994). Niger is grown mainly from 1,600 to 2,200

m asl in Ethiopia (Getinet and Sharma 1996), but can

be cultivated at altitudes as low as 1,200 m asl and as

high as 2,700 m asl. Niger is suitable for low input

agriculture as production is not dependent on high-

value inputs, such as fertilizers and herbicides. It can

grow on waterlogged, marginal and poor soils where

most other crops fail to grow.

Genetic diversity and major desirable traits

in niger

The genetic diversity within crop species is an

invaluable genetic resource for farmers, breeders,

scientists and consumers. Genetic diversity is decisive

to maintain and increase agricultural productivity and

product quality and helps to withstand newly emerg-

ing pests and pathogens and, thus, has a direct

contribution to food security. In most cases, the

highest genetic diversity of crop species is found in

regions where it was originally domesticated and

where its evolution has the longest record (Hawkes

1983). Ethiopia, where the highest genetic diversity of

niger exists, is regarded as the center of origin and

domestication of this crop.

The genetic diversity in Ethiopian niger and its wild

relatives has been studied using various molecular

marker techniques (Geleta et al. 2007a, b, c, 2008;

Petros et al. 2007). These studies revealed a high genetic

diversity in niger and its closely related wild relatives.

Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), for exam-

ple, revealed a highly significant differentiation between

niger landrace populations with at least a quarter of the

total genetic variation differentiating the populations.

This implies that each population has unique genetic

properties and is a significant pool for conservation and

breeding. About 75 % of the total genetic variation in

Ethiopian niger is found within populations (Geleta

2007), suggesting that several genotypes of interest

could potentially be found within a single population.

The level of genetic variation within populations is not

associated with location, altitude and extent of cultiva-

tion (Geleta 2007), which makes niger suitable for

adaptation to diverse environmental conditions. These

studies also revealed a significant regional differentia-

tion among populations. The general trend in Ethiopian

niger is that genetic similarity between populations

increases with geographic proximity due to the corre-

sponding increase in rate of gene flow (Geleta et al.

2007a). The crop’s wide genetic basis revealed by

molecular markers is in line with the existing diversity

of locally adapted landraces that are known to have

desirable genetic variants for various traits, including

yield, oil content and oil quality.

Niger breeding should focus primarily on increasing

seed yield, as its low yield makes it less competitive with

other oil crops and hampers its improvement through

breeding. Breeding for oil content and quality is also of a

great interest. The improvement of niger in terms of these

traits will significantly contribute towards Ethiopia’s

food security and sustainable development in general and

self-sufficiency in edible oil in particular. Studies have

suggested that the improvement of niger in various

desirable traits may well be possible both through

conventional breeding and other approaches. A loss of

yield through shattering, for example, can be minimized

Table 1 Production area, total production and yield of the top six edible oil crops in Ethiopia for 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 growing

seasons

Oil crop Production area (1,000 ha) Total production (kilotons) Yield (ton ha-1)

2010/2011 2011/2012 2010/2011 2011/2012 2010/2011 2011/2012

Niger 248 309 145 186 0.59 0.60

Sesame 385 338 328 245 0.85 0.73

Linseed 74 117 65 113 0.89 0.97

Groundnuts 50 64 72 103 1.44 1.61

Rape seed 13 45 19 75 2.87 1.65

Safflower 5 8 5 9 0.92 1.09

Total 775 881 634 731 – –

Source: CSA 2012

Genet Resour Crop Evol (2013) 60:1763–1770 1765

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by selecting non-shattering genotypes with determinate

growth habit. Improving oil content and quality is also

possible through selection of desirable genotypes from

the diverse niger gene pool (Geleta et al. 2011).

Lodging, shattering, indeterminate growth habit

and self-incompatibility have been reported as major

factors that contribute to low yield in niger. On

average, Ethiopian niger landraces yield about

0.6 ton ha-1 (CSA 2009), which is significantly lower

than that of improved cultivars of other edible oil

crops, such as sunflower and rapeseed. Studies have

shown that yield increase in niger depends on both the

adoption of best agronomic practices as well as the

supply of improved cultivars to farmers (Weiss 1983;

Kandel et al. 2004). In niger, seed yield is positively

correlated with seed size, number of seeds per

capitula, number of capitula per plant and number of

primary branches (Singh and Patra 1989). Thus, seed

yield can be improved through stepwise selection of

large seed size, a higher number of seeds per capitula,

capitula per plant and branches per plant, as trade-offs

between these traits have not been observed.

Only few improved niger cultivars have been

released in Ethiopia. The performances of these

cultivars are not that much better than the landraces,

in terms of seed yield and oil content and quality

(Getinet and Sharma 1996). Thus, an integrated genetic

resource management and utilization approach that

integrates complementary strategies, such as farmer-

participatory approaches, traditional plant breeding

methods and advanced molecular techniques should be

employed in order to improve niger to a desirable level.

Farmer-participatory approaches have never been used

in niger, but have shown to be of considerable value for

several other crops, especially in Africa and Asia.

Possibilities for the improvement of niger through

conventional breeding and farmer-participatory

approaches is discussed in the following sections.

Self-compatibility as desirable trait to increase

yield and develop cultivars and inbred lines in niger

Self-incompatibility is the inability to fertilize and set

seed after self-pollination. The strict self-incompatibility

in niger has been suggested as an important factor

contributing to low yield in niger; mainly in relation to

limited efficiency, number and type of pollinating agents,

as well as a limited number of self-incompatibility

alleles in a population. Based on the analysis of self-

incompatibility in niger, Geleta and Bryngelsson (2010)

suggested that mixing seeds from various landrace

populations collected from different locations can

increase the overall compatibility between plants in a

field and, thus, result in an increased yield. This is based

on the likelihood of the introduction of new self-

incompatibility alleles into a target population when seed

samples from other populations are added.

Self-compatibility is a rare trait in niger, and

consequently, no self-compatible niger cultivars have

been bred in Ethiopia. Recently, self-compatible inbred

lines have been developed from the Ethiopian niger

gene pool (Geleta and Bryngelsson 2010). Through the

crossing of the inbred lines, various populations have

been developed. Some of these populations are being

used as mapping populations for genetic linkage and

quantitative trait loci (QTL) analyses. Since the self-

compatibility allele is not expected in most niger

populations, once introduced to target populations, the

allele can easily be spread throughout the populations

and lead to an increase in the compatibility between

individual plants. This approach will generate niger

populations that reproduce by both selfing and out-

crossing and, thus, would result in an overall increase in

compatibility and seed yield.

Self-compatibility in niger may result in some

degree of inbreeding depression and consequently the

seed yield of the inbred lines may be low. However,

the hybrids of the self-compatible lines show hybrid

vigor and outperform parental inbred lines in terms of

yield (Geleta and Bryngelsson 2010), in agreement

with Getinet and Sharma (1996) who viewed niger as

an excellent candidate for the development of hybrid

cultivars. Interestingly, both the inbred lines and their

hybrids developed by Geleta and Bryngelsson (2010)

showed synchronized maturity, which is one of the

highly desirable traits in niger. Therefore, a strategy

for hybrid breeding based on inbred lines may lead to

an increase in seed yield in niger. Planting of different

lines in alternate rows in the field will result in the

production of both self- and hybrid-seeds in the first

generation. In the following generation, hybrids and

parental lines can be manually harvested separately, as

they are morphologically easily distinguishable due to

the fact that hybrids show hybrid vigor (Geleta and

Bryngelsson 2010). The parental lines harvested

separately can be used for the following planting

season following the same procedure. This approach is


123

suitable for smallholders that use manual harvesting.

Overall, parallel breeding programs that make use of

the self-compatible lines, selected self-incompatible

populations and the combination of both are the best

approaches in niger improvement.

Lack of access to genetic material of interest is a

serious limitation for smallholders in Ethiopia. Here,

the important issue is how to provide desirable

landrace populations, improved cultivars and inbred

lines of interest to farmers. The community-based seed

enterprises across the country may be a promising

avenue to secure the sustainable production of niger

seeds of interest over the long-term. The enterprises

should be involved in characterization trials to identify

potentially superior genetic material for direct use by

farmers. In parallel to this, potentially superior seed

material should be used in conventional breeding

programs. The available niger genomic tools (Dempe-

wolf et al. 2010b) and those that are being developed

should be utilized to accelerate breeding efforts

through simultaneous selection and pyramiding of

multiple desirable traits.

The oil content of niger landrace populations

and breeding for high oil content

The success of oilseed crops is partly measured by their

high seed oil content and quality. Commonly, the oil

content of niger seeds is within the range of 27–47 % of

dry seed weight (Dutta et al. 1994; Seegeler 1983;

Alemaw and Teklewold 1995; Dagne and Jonsson

1997) with an overall mean of about 35 %. Alemaw and

Teklewold (1995) reported a mean of 43 % and a range

between 39 and 47 % oil content in Ethiopian niger

accessions. A recent study revealed that the oil content

in niger landrace populations from Ethiopia varied from

27 to 56 % with an overall mean of 40 % (Geleta et al.

2011). The niger populations used in this research

represent all altitudinal ranges and regions in the country

where the crop is currently cultivated. About 7 % of the

populations have oil content of more than 50 % whereas

47 % of them have oil content of less than 40 %.

Oil yield is determined by the seed oil content and

seed yield per unit area. Seed oil content is a complex

trait that is determined by the combination of

environmental and genetic factors. However, the trait

has a rather high heritability (Geleta et al. 2011;

Mokrani et al. 2002). Similarly, the heritability in seed

yield-related traits is also high in niger (Getinet and

Sharma 1996; Pradhan et al. 1995). Therefore,

replacing low oil landrace populations with those

with high oil content would potentially result in an

overall increase in production volume of niger oil in

Ethiopia without increasing the acreage. An up to

20 % increase in annual niger oil production in

Ethiopia is possible through this approach. However,

low/medium oil content landrace populations should

be conserved both in situ and ex situ as they might

have desirable traits that do not exist in the high oil

content populations.

Interestingly, the high oil content landrace popula-

tions are distributed across all niger producing regions

in Ethiopia (Geleta et al. 2011). This spread facilitates

the multiplication and distribution of locally adapted

high oil content populations in their corresponding

favorable local environments. Mixed cultivation of

high yielding and high oil content populations would

definitely further increase the oil yield per hectare. In

parallel to this, developing high oil content inbred

lines through crossing the recently developed niger

inbred lines (Geleta and Bryngelsson 2010) and the

high oil genotypes followed by selection is an

interesting breeding approach to develop stable high

oil content niger cultivars.

Fatty acid composition in niger seed oil

and the significance of developing high oleic acid

cultivars

Triacylglycerol in edible seed oils serves as an

important source of fatty acids in the human diet.

The composition and relative proportions of fatty

acids in the seed oil determine the flavor, stability and

nutritional value of the oil (Mensink et al. 1994;

Monteros et al. 2008). The predominant fatty acid in

niger seed oil is linoleic acid (C18:2), which varies

between 51 and 80 % in Ethiopian landrace popula-

tions (Geleta et al. 2011). C18:2 is recognized as an

essential fatty acid in the human diet, which makes the

niger oil nutritionally highly valuable. However, high

levels of C18:2 in the seed oil can reduce the oxidative

stability of the oil and consequently lead to a reduced

shelf life (Wanasundara and Shahidi 1994; Dehghani

et al. 2012). The oxidative stability of niger seed oil

was reported to be relatively low (Ramadan and

Morsel 2004), which is partly explained by its high


123

C18:2. This may limit the utilization of niger oil in

processed and fortified foods as well as nutritional

supplements.

Oleic acid (C18:1) is the second major unsaturated

fatty acid in niger seed oil, which commonly accounts

for 5–13 % of the fatty acids. Vegetable oils with high

C18:1 has a higher thermostability than those with

high C18:2. The thermostability of C18:1 makes a

high C18:1 oil superior in terms of high temperature

cooking and as a biolubricant (Urie 1985; Javidfar

et al. 2006). Therefore, the development and cultiva-

tion of a high C18:1 niger cultivars diversifies the use

of niger seed oil and helps to reduce the import of high

oleic acid oil.

A high C18:1 niger strain that constitute genotypes

with up to 86 % C18:1 in their seed oil was developed

through breeding under day/night temperatures of

25/18�C (Petros et al. 2009). Similarly, (Geleta et al.

2011) identified high oleic acid genotypes from

various landrace populations. Analysis of these geno-

types showed that stable high oleic acid niger cultivars

with up to 70 % C18:1 in their oil can easily be

developed through breeding under suitable environ-

mental conditions. Geleta et al. (2011) reported that

7 % of niger landrace populations originating from

several regions in Ethiopia had a C18:1 of greater than

13 %. Interestingly, all populations with an elevated

level of C18:1 were collected from areas below 2,000

masl, despite the fact that 65 % of the populations

studied came from higher altitudes, thereby suggesting

a strong effect of temperature on C18:1 level in niger

seed oil. Generally, the average level of C18:1 is

higher in populations grown at altitudes lower than

2,000 masl when compared to the level obtained from

populations grown at higher altitudes. Thus, the

altitudinal range between 1,400 and 2,000 masl better

suits the high C18:1 niger genotypes. Self-compatible

genotypes that are true breeding for C18:1 can be

developed through crossing the high C18:1 genotypes

with self-compatible inbred lines (Geleta and Bryn-

gelsson 2010). The development of high C18:1

cultivars and inbred lines through breeding based on

these genotypes is a great opportunity for the diver-

sification of niger cultivation in the country as well as

for the supply of different oil qualities.

Niger landrace populations with both high oil and

oleic acid content also exist in Ethiopia, especially in

the northwestern part of the country (Geleta et al.

2011). These populations also have other interesting

characteristics including early maturity and large head

and seeds. Multiplication and distribution of such

populations is a shortcut to provide farmers with

landrace populations having elevated oil and oleic acid

content.

Photoperiod sensitivity

Another interesting trait in niger that may lead to an

increase in the overall annual niger seed production in

Ethiopia is related to photoperiod. Niger is cultivated

only once a year in Ethiopia due to various reasons of

which photoperiod sensitivity is one of the major ones.

Ethiopian niger is sensitive to a long photoperiod, and

flowering is either delayed or absent under a photo-

period of more than 12 h (M. Geleta, unpub.), which

confirms previous research (Seegeler 1983). Photope-

riod sensitivity also limits the expansion of the crop to

parts of the world with long-day summers. We have

identified niger genotypes less-sensitive to long pho-

toperiods as part of multi-directional research on this

crop at the Swedish University of Agricultural

Sciences, where we continue screening a large number

of Ethiopian niger populations for various desirable

traits (Fig. 1). After several rounds of selection, these

genotypes have been shown to flower under up to 16 h

of light. Developing such genotypes into cultivars will

lead to an increase in annual production of niger in

Ethiopia, as it allows double cultivation per year and

more flexibility with regard to planting time. It also

allows the expansion of niger cultivation to other

Fig. 1 Long photoperiod less-sensitive niger strains in a field in

Sweden. Photo taken on 28 July 2011 (day/night length = 16 h

15 min/7 h 45 min)


123

regions worldwide, where it has not yet been culti-

vated. Thus, it is a great opportunity to initiate a new

cultivation system in which niger can be cultivated

twice a year in Ethiopia and, thus, contribute to an

increase in annual niger production and total oil yield.

Conclusions

The improvement of niger’s seed yield and oil content

and quality through various approaches is compelling

for reasons that include a well-documented demand for

oil-seeds in Ethiopia and a well-established cultivation

and use of the crop as a food and cash crop by

smallholders throughout this country. Recent research

findings have clearly shown that the potential of this

crop has not been fully exploited, and its contribution

to sustainable food security is far below its potential.

The crop has a wide genetic basis in Ethiopia, and traits

of interest can easily be found. The utilization of this

wealth of genetic resources ensures direct contribu-

tions to sustainable agricultural development in the

country through the provision of superior planting

material, thereby contributing to food security. If

sufficient focus is given to genetically improve niger, it

will have a great contribution to sustainable food

security not only in Ethiopia but also in other regions

where it is currently grown and could potentially lead

to the expansion of the crop to new areas in the world.

Acknowledgments The research work on niger at Swedish

University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) has been financed by

the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), the

Nilsson-Ehle Foundation, the Einar and Inga Nilsson fund, and

Strategic Grants from the LTJ Faculty, SLU (SS) to which the

authors of this review are highly grateful.

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the importance of guizotia abyssinica (niger) for sustainable food security in ethiopia

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