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NOTES ON NEGLECTED AND UNDERUTILIZED CROPS
The importance of Guizotia abyssinica (niger) for sustainablefood security in Ethiopia
Mulatu Geleta • Rodomiro Ortiz
Received: 6 December 2012 / Accepted: 8 April 2013 / Published online: 8 May 2013
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Niger (noug; Guizotia abyssinica) is an
economically important edible oilseed crop. This
review sought to demonstrate the significance of niger
for sustainable food security in Ethiopia, where it is
produced exclusively by smallholders. In addition to
its edible oil, niger seed is an important source of
proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and fiber that sig-
nificantly contribute to the human diet. The crop has a
wide genetic basis that is reflected in the form of a high
variation in desirable traits, including seed yield, seed
oil content, seed oil quality and photoperiod sensitiv-
ity. However, the wealth of niger genetic diversity has
so far remained largely unexploited and research
efforts have not yet yielded satisfactory results in the
form of new and superior cultivars. The recent
molecular and nutritional quality studies coupled with
pre-breeding work have opened up new opportunities
for the improvement of niger. A high yielding niger
cultivars with oil content of up to 60 % and/or oleic
acid content of up to 70 % can easily be bred based on
Ethiopian niger gene pool through the combined use of
novel genomic tools, traditional breeding and farmer-
participatory approaches. The improvement of niger
will have a significant contribution towards Ethiopia’s
food security and sustainable development in general
and self-sufficiency in edible oil in particular. Overall,
an investment in the niger improvement programs will
likely be of benefit far beyond Ethiopia’s borders and
could potentially lead to the expansion of the crop
outside the regions where it is currently grown.
Keywords Food security � Guizotia abyssinica �Noug � Oil content � Oleic acid � Photoperiod
sensitivity
Introduction
Food security remains a significant challenge for
Ethiopia in spite of its wealth of crop genetic
resources. About 42 % of the country’s GDP is
generated from agriculture; and the majority of its
vast agricultural land is occupied by smallholders
(Wijnands et al. 2007). Unstable incomes for the
farmers and increasing population pressures are pos-
ing the food security challenge in this country
(Devereux 2009). Ethiopian farmers often grow their
crops in poor soil with limited amount of inputs in the
presence of a variety of environmental stresses.
Furthermore, they are farming marginal areas using
techniques that may cause environmental degradation.
Additional challenges to Ethiopian agriculture include
the growing threat of global climate change to food
production and the search for alternative sources of
energy, such as biofuels.
M. Geleta (&) � R. Ortiz
Department of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology,
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
P. O. Box 101, 230 53 Alnarp, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
123
Genet Resour Crop Evol (2013) 60:1763–1770
DOI 10.1007/s10722-013-9997-9
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Edible oil crops are among the major sources of
food for the global population. Apart from their oil that
serves as a rich source of calories, they provide
essential proteins, vitamins and micronutrients, and
can serve as a source of bio-energy and industrial oils
(Vollmann and Rjcan 2010). As a result of their
multiple uses, various edible oil crops are widely
cultivated, consumed and sold by smallholders in the
developing world including Ethiopia (Geleta et al.
2002). The international market of edible oilseeds is,
however, dominated by a few crop species such as
soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), rapeseed (Brassica
napus L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). As a
consequence, research-neglected and underutilized
indigenous edible oilseed crops have received little
attention even though they frequently have advantages
over introduced crops as they are well adapted to local
environments, are culturally accepted, and often form
part of traditional farming systems (Dempewolf et al.
2010a).
Ethiopia is not self-sufficient in edible oil regard-
less of the fact that it produces a variety of edible
oilseeds and, thus, this country is heavily reliant on
imports (Wijnands et al. 2007). This situation is
mainly because of a shortage of highly improved
cultivars of locally produced oilseed crops. The major
edible oil crops grown in Ethiopia are sesame (Ses-
amum indicum L.), niger (noug; Guizotia abyssinica
(L. f.) Cass.) and linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.).
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), rapeseed,
groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea L.), soybean, sun-
flower and some other oilseeds are also produced to a
limited extent. Sesame has become one of the most
important oilseeds in Ethiopia being cultivated by both
smallholder and commercial farmers. Smallholders in
the country produced 245 kilotons of sesame during
2011/2012 growing season on about 338 thousand
hectares of land (Table 1). However, only about 10 %
of sesame produced in the country is locally used, as
90 % of the annual production is exported mainly to
Asia and Europe. Linseed is the third most important
oilseed crop in Ethiopia where it is exclusively
produced by smallholders for local consumption.
During 2011/2012 growing season, 113 kilotons of
linseed were produced in the country (CSA 2012).
Niger is indigenous to Ethiopia and is the major
source of edible oil that holds significant promise for
improving rural livelihoods. The objective of this
review is to show the potential contribution of niger to
sustainable food security in Ethiopia. The review
focuses on the crop’s genetic diversity, seed yield,
self-compatibility, oil content, oil quality and photo-
period sensitivity.
Niger, G. abyssinica, is a diploid (2n = 2x = 30)
(Dagne and Heneen 1992; Dagne 1995) oil crop
species in the Asteraceae family. It is an annual crop
with capitulum that consists of six to eight fertile
female ray florets and 40–60 hermaphroditic disk
florets (Getinet and Sharma 1996). The corymbous
cymes of heads, 5 broadly ovate-obovate outer
involucral leaves, 5-nerved paleae and bigger achenes
are its main distinguishing characters from other
Guizotia species (Baagøe, 1974). Niger is a strictly
outcrossing species with a sporophytic self-incompat-
ibility mechanism (Nemomissa et al. 1999; Geleta and
Bryngelsson 2010), and is mainly pollinated by insects
(Geleta et al. 2002). Sexual hybrids can easily be
obtained from crosses between niger and its closely
related wild relatives (Dagne 1994), including its
progenitor G. scabra (Vis.) Chiov. ssp. schimperi
(Sch. Bip.) J. Baagøe (Geleta et al. 2010).
Niger cultivation and consumption are deeply
rooted within the Ethiopian culture and the country’s
local population highly values the crop. It remains the
most popular oil crop for local consumption although
it was recently overtaken by sesame with slight
margins in terms of production volume in the country.
During 2011/2012 growing season, smallholders in
Ethiopia produced 186 kilotons of niger seeds on an
area of about 309 thousand hectares, which is about
2.6 % of the country’s area for grain crop production
(CSA 2012). India is the major producer of niger in the
Asian continent, where 90 kilotons of niger seeds
were produced during 2011/2012 growing season
(IOPEPC 2012). Niger is also cultivated in small scale
in several other African (Sudan, Uganda, Congo,
Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe) and Asian (Nepal,
Bangladesh and Bhutan) countries (Weiss 1983;
Murthy et al. 1993; Getinet and Sharma 1996), where
it accounts for a considerable proportion of edible oil
production.
In addition to its oil, niger offers an important
source of seed proteins carbohydrates, vitamins and
fiber that significantly contribute to the human dietary
intake (Thatte and Lakshmi 2012). It is also used as a
component of birdseed in USA and Europe and for
cultural and medicinal purposes in Ethiopia (Geleta
et al. 2002). Its refined oil has various industrial
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applications (Riley and Belayneh 1989; Dutta et al.
1994). Niger is grown mainly from 1,600 to 2,200
m asl in Ethiopia (Getinet and Sharma 1996), but can
be cultivated at altitudes as low as 1,200 m asl and as
high as 2,700 m asl. Niger is suitable for low input
agriculture as production is not dependent on high-
value inputs, such as fertilizers and herbicides. It can
grow on waterlogged, marginal and poor soils where
most other crops fail to grow.
Genetic diversity and major desirable traits
in niger
The genetic diversity within crop species is an
invaluable genetic resource for farmers, breeders,
scientists and consumers. Genetic diversity is decisive
to maintain and increase agricultural productivity and
product quality and helps to withstand newly emerg-
ing pests and pathogens and, thus, has a direct
contribution to food security. In most cases, the
highest genetic diversity of crop species is found in
regions where it was originally domesticated and
where its evolution has the longest record (Hawkes
1983). Ethiopia, where the highest genetic diversity of
niger exists, is regarded as the center of origin and
domestication of this crop.
The genetic diversity in Ethiopian niger and its wild
relatives has been studied using various molecular
marker techniques (Geleta et al. 2007a, b, c, 2008;
Petros et al. 2007). These studies revealed a high genetic
diversity in niger and its closely related wild relatives.
Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), for exam-
ple, revealed a highly significant differentiation between
niger landrace populations with at least a quarter of the
total genetic variation differentiating the populations.
This implies that each population has unique genetic
properties and is a significant pool for conservation and
breeding. About 75 % of the total genetic variation in
Ethiopian niger is found within populations (Geleta
2007), suggesting that several genotypes of interest
could potentially be found within a single population.
The level of genetic variation within populations is not
associated with location, altitude and extent of cultiva-
tion (Geleta 2007), which makes niger suitable for
adaptation to diverse environmental conditions. These
studies also revealed a significant regional differentia-
tion among populations. The general trend in Ethiopian
niger is that genetic similarity between populations
increases with geographic proximity due to the corre-
sponding increase in rate of gene flow (Geleta et al.
2007a). The crop’s wide genetic basis revealed by
molecular markers is in line with the existing diversity
of locally adapted landraces that are known to have
desirable genetic variants for various traits, including
yield, oil content and oil quality.
Niger breeding should focus primarily on increasing
seed yield, as its low yield makes it less competitive with
other oil crops and hampers its improvement through
breeding. Breeding for oil content and quality is also of a
great interest. The improvement of niger in terms of these
traits will significantly contribute towards Ethiopia’s
food security and sustainable development in general and
self-sufficiency in edible oil in particular. Studies have
suggested that the improvement of niger in various
desirable traits may well be possible both through
conventional breeding and other approaches. A loss of
yield through shattering, for example, can be minimized
Table 1 Production area, total production and yield of the top six edible oil crops in Ethiopia for 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 growing
seasons
Oil crop Production area (1,000 ha) Total production (kilotons) Yield (ton ha-1)
2010/2011 2011/2012 2010/2011 2011/2012 2010/2011 2011/2012
Niger 248 309 145 186 0.59 0.60
Sesame 385 338 328 245 0.85 0.73
Linseed 74 117 65 113 0.89 0.97
Groundnuts 50 64 72 103 1.44 1.61
Rape seed 13 45 19 75 2.87 1.65
Safflower 5 8 5 9 0.92 1.09
Total 775 881 634 731 – –
Source: CSA 2012
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by selecting non-shattering genotypes with determinate
growth habit. Improving oil content and quality is also
possible through selection of desirable genotypes from
the diverse niger gene pool (Geleta et al. 2011).
Lodging, shattering, indeterminate growth habit
and self-incompatibility have been reported as major
factors that contribute to low yield in niger. On
average, Ethiopian niger landraces yield about
0.6 ton ha-1 (CSA 2009), which is significantly lower
than that of improved cultivars of other edible oil
crops, such as sunflower and rapeseed. Studies have
shown that yield increase in niger depends on both the
adoption of best agronomic practices as well as the
supply of improved cultivars to farmers (Weiss 1983;
Kandel et al. 2004). In niger, seed yield is positively
correlated with seed size, number of seeds per
capitula, number of capitula per plant and number of
primary branches (Singh and Patra 1989). Thus, seed
yield can be improved through stepwise selection of
large seed size, a higher number of seeds per capitula,
capitula per plant and branches per plant, as trade-offs
between these traits have not been observed.
Only few improved niger cultivars have been
released in Ethiopia. The performances of these
cultivars are not that much better than the landraces,
in terms of seed yield and oil content and quality
(Getinet and Sharma 1996). Thus, an integrated genetic
resource management and utilization approach that
integrates complementary strategies, such as farmer-
participatory approaches, traditional plant breeding
methods and advanced molecular techniques should be
employed in order to improve niger to a desirable level.
Farmer-participatory approaches have never been used
in niger, but have shown to be of considerable value for
several other crops, especially in Africa and Asia.
Possibilities for the improvement of niger through
conventional breeding and farmer-participatory
approaches is discussed in the following sections.
Self-compatibility as desirable trait to increase
yield and develop cultivars and inbred lines in niger
Self-incompatibility is the inability to fertilize and set
seed after self-pollination. The strict self-incompatibility
in niger has been suggested as an important factor
contributing to low yield in niger; mainly in relation to
limited efficiency, number and type of pollinating agents,
as well as a limited number of self-incompatibility
alleles in a population. Based on the analysis of self-
incompatibility in niger, Geleta and Bryngelsson (2010)
suggested that mixing seeds from various landrace
populations collected from different locations can
increase the overall compatibility between plants in a
field and, thus, result in an increased yield. This is based
on the likelihood of the introduction of new self-
incompatibility alleles into a target population when seed
samples from other populations are added.
Self-compatibility is a rare trait in niger, and
consequently, no self-compatible niger cultivars have
been bred in Ethiopia. Recently, self-compatible inbred
lines have been developed from the Ethiopian niger
gene pool (Geleta and Bryngelsson 2010). Through the
crossing of the inbred lines, various populations have
been developed. Some of these populations are being
used as mapping populations for genetic linkage and
quantitative trait loci (QTL) analyses. Since the self-
compatibility allele is not expected in most niger
populations, once introduced to target populations, the
allele can easily be spread throughout the populations
and lead to an increase in the compatibility between
individual plants. This approach will generate niger
populations that reproduce by both selfing and out-
crossing and, thus, would result in an overall increase in
compatibility and seed yield.
Self-compatibility in niger may result in some
degree of inbreeding depression and consequently the
seed yield of the inbred lines may be low. However,
the hybrids of the self-compatible lines show hybrid
vigor and outperform parental inbred lines in terms of
yield (Geleta and Bryngelsson 2010), in agreement
with Getinet and Sharma (1996) who viewed niger as
an excellent candidate for the development of hybrid
cultivars. Interestingly, both the inbred lines and their
hybrids developed by Geleta and Bryngelsson (2010)
showed synchronized maturity, which is one of the
highly desirable traits in niger. Therefore, a strategy
for hybrid breeding based on inbred lines may lead to
an increase in seed yield in niger. Planting of different
lines in alternate rows in the field will result in the
production of both self- and hybrid-seeds in the first
generation. In the following generation, hybrids and
parental lines can be manually harvested separately, as
they are morphologically easily distinguishable due to
the fact that hybrids show hybrid vigor (Geleta and
Bryngelsson 2010). The parental lines harvested
separately can be used for the following planting
season following the same procedure. This approach is
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suitable for smallholders that use manual harvesting.
Overall, parallel breeding programs that make use of
the self-compatible lines, selected self-incompatible
populations and the combination of both are the best
approaches in niger improvement.
Lack of access to genetic material of interest is a
serious limitation for smallholders in Ethiopia. Here,
the important issue is how to provide desirable
landrace populations, improved cultivars and inbred
lines of interest to farmers. The community-based seed
enterprises across the country may be a promising
avenue to secure the sustainable production of niger
seeds of interest over the long-term. The enterprises
should be involved in characterization trials to identify
potentially superior genetic material for direct use by
farmers. In parallel to this, potentially superior seed
material should be used in conventional breeding
programs. The available niger genomic tools (Dempe-
wolf et al. 2010b) and those that are being developed
should be utilized to accelerate breeding efforts
through simultaneous selection and pyramiding of
multiple desirable traits.
The oil content of niger landrace populations
and breeding for high oil content
The success of oilseed crops is partly measured by their
high seed oil content and quality. Commonly, the oil
content of niger seeds is within the range of 27–47 % of
dry seed weight (Dutta et al. 1994; Seegeler 1983;
Alemaw and Teklewold 1995; Dagne and Jonsson
1997) with an overall mean of about 35 %. Alemaw and
Teklewold (1995) reported a mean of 43 % and a range
between 39 and 47 % oil content in Ethiopian niger
accessions. A recent study revealed that the oil content
in niger landrace populations from Ethiopia varied from
27 to 56 % with an overall mean of 40 % (Geleta et al.
2011). The niger populations used in this research
represent all altitudinal ranges and regions in the country
where the crop is currently cultivated. About 7 % of the
populations have oil content of more than 50 % whereas
47 % of them have oil content of less than 40 %.
Oil yield is determined by the seed oil content and
seed yield per unit area. Seed oil content is a complex
trait that is determined by the combination of
environmental and genetic factors. However, the trait
has a rather high heritability (Geleta et al. 2011;
Mokrani et al. 2002). Similarly, the heritability in seed
yield-related traits is also high in niger (Getinet and
Sharma 1996; Pradhan et al. 1995). Therefore,
replacing low oil landrace populations with those
with high oil content would potentially result in an
overall increase in production volume of niger oil in
Ethiopia without increasing the acreage. An up to
20 % increase in annual niger oil production in
Ethiopia is possible through this approach. However,
low/medium oil content landrace populations should
be conserved both in situ and ex situ as they might
have desirable traits that do not exist in the high oil
content populations.
Interestingly, the high oil content landrace popula-
tions are distributed across all niger producing regions
in Ethiopia (Geleta et al. 2011). This spread facilitates
the multiplication and distribution of locally adapted
high oil content populations in their corresponding
favorable local environments. Mixed cultivation of
high yielding and high oil content populations would
definitely further increase the oil yield per hectare. In
parallel to this, developing high oil content inbred
lines through crossing the recently developed niger
inbred lines (Geleta and Bryngelsson 2010) and the
high oil genotypes followed by selection is an
interesting breeding approach to develop stable high
oil content niger cultivars.
Fatty acid composition in niger seed oil
and the significance of developing high oleic acid
cultivars
Triacylglycerol in edible seed oils serves as an
important source of fatty acids in the human diet.
The composition and relative proportions of fatty
acids in the seed oil determine the flavor, stability and
nutritional value of the oil (Mensink et al. 1994;
Monteros et al. 2008). The predominant fatty acid in
niger seed oil is linoleic acid (C18:2), which varies
between 51 and 80 % in Ethiopian landrace popula-
tions (Geleta et al. 2011). C18:2 is recognized as an
essential fatty acid in the human diet, which makes the
niger oil nutritionally highly valuable. However, high
levels of C18:2 in the seed oil can reduce the oxidative
stability of the oil and consequently lead to a reduced
shelf life (Wanasundara and Shahidi 1994; Dehghani
et al. 2012). The oxidative stability of niger seed oil
was reported to be relatively low (Ramadan and
Morsel 2004), which is partly explained by its high
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C18:2. This may limit the utilization of niger oil in
processed and fortified foods as well as nutritional
supplements.
Oleic acid (C18:1) is the second major unsaturated
fatty acid in niger seed oil, which commonly accounts
for 5–13 % of the fatty acids. Vegetable oils with high
C18:1 has a higher thermostability than those with
high C18:2. The thermostability of C18:1 makes a
high C18:1 oil superior in terms of high temperature
cooking and as a biolubricant (Urie 1985; Javidfar
et al. 2006). Therefore, the development and cultiva-
tion of a high C18:1 niger cultivars diversifies the use
of niger seed oil and helps to reduce the import of high
oleic acid oil.
A high C18:1 niger strain that constitute genotypes
with up to 86 % C18:1 in their seed oil was developed
through breeding under day/night temperatures of
25/18�C (Petros et al. 2009). Similarly, (Geleta et al.
2011) identified high oleic acid genotypes from
various landrace populations. Analysis of these geno-
types showed that stable high oleic acid niger cultivars
with up to 70 % C18:1 in their oil can easily be
developed through breeding under suitable environ-
mental conditions. Geleta et al. (2011) reported that
7 % of niger landrace populations originating from
several regions in Ethiopia had a C18:1 of greater than
13 %. Interestingly, all populations with an elevated
level of C18:1 were collected from areas below 2,000
masl, despite the fact that 65 % of the populations
studied came from higher altitudes, thereby suggesting
a strong effect of temperature on C18:1 level in niger
seed oil. Generally, the average level of C18:1 is
higher in populations grown at altitudes lower than
2,000 masl when compared to the level obtained from
populations grown at higher altitudes. Thus, the
altitudinal range between 1,400 and 2,000 masl better
suits the high C18:1 niger genotypes. Self-compatible
genotypes that are true breeding for C18:1 can be
developed through crossing the high C18:1 genotypes
with self-compatible inbred lines (Geleta and Bryn-
gelsson 2010). The development of high C18:1
cultivars and inbred lines through breeding based on
these genotypes is a great opportunity for the diver-
sification of niger cultivation in the country as well as
for the supply of different oil qualities.
Niger landrace populations with both high oil and
oleic acid content also exist in Ethiopia, especially in
the northwestern part of the country (Geleta et al.
2011). These populations also have other interesting
characteristics including early maturity and large head
and seeds. Multiplication and distribution of such
populations is a shortcut to provide farmers with
landrace populations having elevated oil and oleic acid
content.
Photoperiod sensitivity
Another interesting trait in niger that may lead to an
increase in the overall annual niger seed production in
Ethiopia is related to photoperiod. Niger is cultivated
only once a year in Ethiopia due to various reasons of
which photoperiod sensitivity is one of the major ones.
Ethiopian niger is sensitive to a long photoperiod, and
flowering is either delayed or absent under a photo-
period of more than 12 h (M. Geleta, unpub.), which
confirms previous research (Seegeler 1983). Photope-
riod sensitivity also limits the expansion of the crop to
parts of the world with long-day summers. We have
identified niger genotypes less-sensitive to long pho-
toperiods as part of multi-directional research on this
crop at the Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, where we continue screening a large number
of Ethiopian niger populations for various desirable
traits (Fig. 1). After several rounds of selection, these
genotypes have been shown to flower under up to 16 h
of light. Developing such genotypes into cultivars will
lead to an increase in annual production of niger in
Ethiopia, as it allows double cultivation per year and
more flexibility with regard to planting time. It also
allows the expansion of niger cultivation to other
Fig. 1 Long photoperiod less-sensitive niger strains in a field in
Sweden. Photo taken on 28 July 2011 (day/night length = 16 h
15 min/7 h 45 min)
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regions worldwide, where it has not yet been culti-
vated. Thus, it is a great opportunity to initiate a new
cultivation system in which niger can be cultivated
twice a year in Ethiopia and, thus, contribute to an
increase in annual niger production and total oil yield.
Conclusions
The improvement of niger’s seed yield and oil content
and quality through various approaches is compelling
for reasons that include a well-documented demand for
oil-seeds in Ethiopia and a well-established cultivation
and use of the crop as a food and cash crop by
smallholders throughout this country. Recent research
findings have clearly shown that the potential of this
crop has not been fully exploited, and its contribution
to sustainable food security is far below its potential.
The crop has a wide genetic basis in Ethiopia, and traits
of interest can easily be found. The utilization of this
wealth of genetic resources ensures direct contribu-
tions to sustainable agricultural development in the
country through the provision of superior planting
material, thereby contributing to food security. If
sufficient focus is given to genetically improve niger, it
will have a great contribution to sustainable food
security not only in Ethiopia but also in other regions
where it is currently grown and could potentially lead
to the expansion of the crop to new areas in the world.
Acknowledgments The research work on niger at Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) has been financed by
the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), the
Nilsson-Ehle Foundation, the Einar and Inga Nilsson fund, and
Strategic Grants from the LTJ Faculty, SLU (SS) to which the
authors of this review are highly grateful.
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