the implementation of adaptive methods of assessment
TRANSCRIPT
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ADAPTIVE METHODS OF
ASSESSMENT (PARTICULARLY AMANUENSES)
AT FOUR SCHOOLS IN THE
GAUTENG EAST DISTRICT
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
by
RONELLE DALENE VENTER
THESIS
Submitted in fulfilment of the
full requirements for the degree
DOCTOR EDUCATIONIS
in
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
PROMOTER: DR HELEN DUNBAR-KRIGE
CO-PROMOTER: DR MARTYN VAN DER MERWE
2012
ii
ABSTRACT This study focuses on disability and specific learning difficulties as barriers to
learning. With the introduction of inclusive education in South Africa, the
fundamental rights of learners with disabilities to access educational
opportunities equal to their non-disabled peers, were recognised. Many learners
with physical disabilities and specific learning difficulties started attending
mainstream schools, instead of being referred to special schools. The inclusion
of these learners brought about many challenges to them, as well as to their
teachers. It was now expected from teachers to make instructional, curriculum
and assessment adaptions, in order to support and assist learners with a variety
of disabilities and learning difficulties and to cater for their diverse needs.
Learners with physical-, sensory- or neurological disabilities, as well as those
with specific learning difficulties, may experience reading and writing difficulties
which prevent them from giving a true reflection of their acquired knowledge in
classroom tests and examinations. These barriers to learning are therefore
causing barriers to assessment. The purpose of adaptive methods of
assessment (also called special concessions) is to minimize the effects of a
learner’s intrinsic or extrinsic barriers upon assessment performance and to
place him/her on par with other learners. It provides the opportunity for learners
experiencing barriers to assessment, to participate in the assessment process
and to reach their full potential - which is in accordance to an inclusive learning
community. Therefore, it is imperative that teachers should be familiar with the
various types of disabilities and learning difficulties, as well as the appropriate
special concessions that should be implemented, should a learner experience a
barrier to assessment.
The purpose of this research study was to explore and describe Grade 7
teachers’ understanding and implementation of adaptive methods of assessment
(particularly amanuenses), for learners with reading and writing difficulties. A
qualitative research study from an interpretative research paradigm was
conducted. In this study I used a qualitative case study design. Sixteen teachers
iii
from four primary schools, as well as the four principals of the respective schools
in the district of Gauteng East, were selected purposively as participants. Open-
ended questionnaires, focus group interviews, observations and field notes, as
well as document analysis of the schools’ assessment policies, were used as
methods of data collection. The data was transcribed and analysed, using
Tesch’s method of open coding and was interpreted on the basis of the literature.
The findings of this inquiry revealed four significant themes, with a variety of sub-
themes, which were meaningful in understanding teachers’ knowledge and
implementation of adaptive methods of assessment. The main themes were: the
participants experienced emotional frustration; the mainstream teachers lacked
knowledge of adaptive methods of assessment and amanuenses; the
mainstream teachers experienced several obstacles pertaining to the
implementation of adaptive methods of assessment, and teachers had specific
needs with regard to adaptive methods of assessment.
Based on the findings of the research, supporting and empowering assessment
guidelines were compiled, which can assist teachers in the identification of
barriers to assessment. The various special concessions (particularly
amanuenses) that can be implemented to address the assessment needs of
learners with disabilities and specific learning difficulties were also accumulated.
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iv
DECLARATION
I, Ronelle Dalene Venter, hereby declare that the contents of this thesis
represent my own unaided work and that the thesis has not previously been
submitted for academic examination towards any qualification. Furthermore, it
represents my own opinions and not necessarily those of the University of
Johannesburg.
SIGNED AT................................................ ON............................................
................................................
SIGNATURE
v
RECOGNITION
Recognition is given to the University of Johannesburg for the financial support in
the form of various bursaries. Without it, this study would not have been
possible.
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this study to my late brother, Dr Deon Rautenbach, who passed away
unexpectedly after a brief illness, shortly before the submission of my thesis. His
sincere interest in and excitement about my studies, were my biggest inspiration.
I miss him dearly.
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vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I have been blessed with so many opportunities in my life. One of the greatest
has been the privilege of working with learners with physical disabilities and
learning difficulties. The needs of these learners, which I have observed over a
period of many years, inspired me to embark on the journey of this study. There
have been many people along my path, whose unconditional support has
allowed me to fulfil my dream of contributing towards addressing the needs of
these learners.
I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Helen Dunbar-Krige, for her
unwavering support, encouragement, guidance and her overwhelming positive
outlook. Her belief in me and her positive attitude motivated me to press onwards
towards the goal, when the demands of the study seemed very difficult. My co-
supervisor, Dr Martyn van der Merwe, had the ability to make me reflect deeply
on many issues and he provided me with so much insight. Thank you.
I deeply appreciate the support and encouragement of my husband, Hennie and
daughters, Hanri and Anja, who never stopped believing in me. I wish to express
my sincere gratitude to them - for their patience, sacrifice and understanding, as
there were so many times when I could not put them first.
To my colleagues and friends with whom I could reflect and share my views and
ideas – a sincere thank you. I am particularly indebted to my dear friends
Amanda and Suretha for their continuous encouragement and support, as well
as Marina and Charles, for their friendship, moral support and technical
assistance throughout the study.
And ultimately:
“...to Him who is able to do far more abundantly than all we ask or think, according to the power at work within us, to Him be the glory...” Ephesians 3:20, 21
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT DECLARATION RECOGNITION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS
PAGE ii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
xix
xx
xxi
CHAPTER 1
BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY
5
1.2.1 My observations regarding the implementation of adaptive methods of assessment in mainstream schools
5
1.2.2 Researcher assumptions 9 1.2.3 Motivation for the study and research question 10
1.3 AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 11
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
12
1.4.1 Data collection 13 1.4.2 Method of data analysis 14
ix
1.5 TRUSTWORTHINESS 15
1.6 COMPLIANCE TO ETHICAL STANDARDS
15
1.6.1 The right to self-determination 17 1.6.2 The right to confidentiality and anonymity 18 1.6.3 The right to privacy and dignity 1.6.4 The benefit of the research for the participants and the research community
18 19
1.7 THE PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AS THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
20
1.7.1 Introduction 20 1.7.2 The inclusive education approach 20 1.7.3 A short history of inclusive education 23 1.7.4 The philosophy of inclusive education 1.7.5 The medical and social-ecological discourse
25 31
1.8 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
35
1.8.1 Assessment 35 1.8.2 Adaptive methods of assessment (AMA) 36 1.8.3 Special concessions 36 1.8.4 Barriers to learning 37 1.8.5 Barriers to assessment 37 1.8.6 Support 38
1.9 THE RESEARCH PROGRAM 38
1.10 SUMMARY 39
x
CHAPTER 2
ASSESSMENT IN THE INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM
2.1 INTRODUCTION 40
2.2 THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM STATEMENT ON ASSESSMENT
41
2.3 THE CONCEPT OF ASSESSMENT 42
2.4 THE PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT 44
2.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF ASSESSMENT 47
2.6 THE PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT
48
2.7 THE TEACHER IN THE INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM
51
2.8 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
55
2.8.1 Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests 57 2.8.2 Summative assessment 58 2.8.2.1. Selected-response items 59
2.8.2.2 Constructed-response items 59
2.8.2.3 Advantages of summative assessment 60
2.8.2.4 Criticism on summative assessment 60
2.8.3 Formative assessment 62 2.8.3.1 Authentic assessment 64
2.8.3.2 Performance-based assessment 65
2.8.3.3 Portfolio assessment 66
2.8.3.4 Dynamic assessment 67
2.8.3.5 Self-assessment and peer-assessment 68
2.8.3.6 Observation-based assessment 70
2.8.3.7 Parents as source of information 71
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2.9 CONCLUSION 72
2.10 SUMMARY 73
CHAPTER 3
ADAPTIVE METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
3.1 INTRODUCTION 74
3.2 CLARIFYING THE TERM ADAPTIVE METHODS OF ASSESSMENT 3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF AMA
74
77
3.4 THE PURPOSE AND PRINCIPLES OF AMA 78
3.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS TO ASSESSMENT
81
3.6 INTERNATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF AMA
82
3.7 RESPONSIBILITIES REQUIRED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
86
3.7.1 Requirements with regard to exit phases Grades 9 and 12
86
3.7.2 The school and teachers’ role with regard to AMA 86 3.7.3 The role of the DBST and the DECC
90
3.8 BARRIERS TO LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT
91
3.8.1 Defining barriers to learning and assessment 91
3.9 BARRIERS TO FAIR ASSESSMENT
93
3.9.1 Specific learning difficulties 93
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3.9.1.1 Reading difficulties 94
3.9.1.2 Spelling difficulties 97
3.9.1.3 Writing difficulties 98
3.9.1.4 Difficulties with written expression 99
3.9.1.5 Difficulties with Mathematics 100
3.9.1.6 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 101
3.9.2 Visual impairment 103 3.9.3 Hearing impairment 105 3.9.4 Physical and neurological disabilities 106 3.9.4.1 Cerebral palsy 107
3.9.4.2 Epilepsy 108
3.9.5 Other barriers to assessment 109 3.9.6 Ad-hoc arrangements
109
3.10 ADAPTIVE METHODS OF ASSESSMENT INDICATED FOR SPECIFIC BARRIERS TO ASSESSMENT
109
3.10.1 Specific learning difficulties 110 3.10.2 Visual impairment 111 3.10.3 Hearing impairment 112 3.10.4 Physical disabilities 112 3.10.5 Immigrant learners 113
3.11 DISCUSSION OF THE VARIOUS SPECIAL CONCESSIONS
113
3.11.1 Timing/scheduling format 115 3.11.2 The setting format 117 3.11.3 The presentation format 118 3.11.3.1 The use of a reader 118
3.11.3.2 Large print 119
3.11.3.3 Planning aid 119
3.11.3.4 Rephrasing 120
3.11.3.5 Transcription 121
3.11.3.6 Alternative questions 122
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3.11.3.7 The use of computers and tape recorders 122
3.11.4 The response format 123 3.11.4.1 Computers/word processors 124
3.11.4.2 Dictionary 124
3.11.4.3 Amanuenses 125
3.11.5 A summary of recommended adaptive methods of assessment
125
3.12 AMANUENSES
125
3.12.1 Definition 125 3.12.2 The use of an amanuensis 126 3.12.3 Criteria for amanuenses
126
3.13 GUIDELINES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AMANUENSES
127
3.13.1 Suggested regulations pertaining to the selection of amanuensis
128
3.13.2 Responsibilities of the amanuensis 129 3.13.2.1 General 129
3.13.2.2 Before the commencement of the session 130
3.13.2.3 Instructions to the learner/candidate 131
3.13.2.4 Procedures during the session 133
3.13.2.5 Procedures after the session 134
3.13.2.6 Emergencies/Ad hoc arrangements 135
3.13.3 Tape recording of sessions 135 3.13.4 Discussion of the recommended AMA with the learner/parents
136
3.13.5 Training of learners 136
3.14 DISCUSSION OF IMPORTANT PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 137
3.15 IN SUMMARY 138
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION 140
4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH 142 4.3 INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
145
4.4 THE RESEARCH DESIGN 146 4.5 CASE STUDY DESIGN 147
4.6 THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
150
4.6.1 Selection of participants 150 4.6.2 The setting and context of the research
153
4.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
158
4.7.1 Open-ended qualitative questionnaires 158 4.7.2 Focus group interviews 161 4.7.3 Observations and field notes 165 4.7.4 Document analysis
165
4.8 DATA ANALYSIS 166
4.9 LITERATURE CONTROL 168
4.10 TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE STUDY 168
4.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 172
4.12 CONCLUSION 173
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CHAPTER 5
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION 174
5.2 DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS 174
5.3 THE PROFILE OF THE PARTICIPATING EDUCATORS AND PRINCIPALS
175
5.4 DISCUSSION OF THE QUALITATIVE QUESTIONNAIRES PRESENTED TO THE PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS
177
5.4.1 Participants’ understanding and opinions of inclusion 177 5.4.2 Participants’ implementation of inclusion and challenges experienced
180
5.4.3 The support system at the schools 185 5.4.4 Participants’ understanding of adaptive methods of assessment (special concessions) and amanuenses
187
5.4.5 Participants’ responses on the implementation of AMA at their schools
190
5.4.6 Teachers’ ability to identify learners who need AMA 192 5.4.7 Participants’ opinions on information and training 194 5.4.8 Principals’ awareness of relevant documents on AMA 195 5.4.9 Summary of the findings of the questionnaires for teachers and principals
196
5.5 DISCUSSION OF THE FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
198
5.5.1 Data process and analysis 198 5.5.2 Theme 1: Teachers experience emotional frustration 203 Sub-theme 1.1 Teachers’ experiences regarding the
inclusive approach
203
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Sub-theme 1.2 Teachers’ attitudes towards learners with
barriers to learning
208
5.5.3 Theme 2: Teachers lack knowledge of AMA
212
Sub-theme 2.1 Teachers are confused about AMA 212
Sub-theme 2.2 Teachers’ understanding of amanuenses 219
Sub-theme 2.3 District officials’ knowledge of AMA and
amanuenses
221
Sub-theme 2.4 Teachers’ understanding of the possible benefits
of AMA
225
5.5.4 Theme 3: Obstacles for the implementation of AMA 227
Sub-theme 3.1 Teaching and classroom barriers 227
3.1.1 Work load 227
3.1.2 Time constraints and large classes 229
3.1.3 Behaviour problems and attitudes of other learners
towards peers with barriers to learning
231
Sub-theme 3.2 Collaboration between stake holders 234
3.2.1 Collaboration with parents 234
3.2.2 Collaboration with the School-based Support Team 236
3.2.3 Collaboration with the DBST and DoE 239
Sub-theme 3.3 The implementation of AMA, specifically
amanuenses
242
3.3.1 The lack of implementation of AMA and amanuenses 242
3.3.2 The incorrect implementation of amanuenses 245
3.3.3 Teachers’ willingness/unwillingness to implement
AMA
246
5.5.5 Theme 4: Teachers’ needs on AMA 249 Sub-theme 4.1 Teachers lack the ability to effectively identify
barriers to assessment
249
Sub-theme 4.2 The need for support and resources
Sub-theme 4.3 The need for training of teachers and students
250
252
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5.6 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
256
5.6.1 When to assess 256 5.6.2 What to assess 256 5.6.3 How to assess 256 5.6.4 Why to assess
257
5.7 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS OF ALL THE DATA COLLECTED
259
CHAPTER 6
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANUAL WITH GUIDELINES,
RECOMMENDATIONS, LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSION
6.1 INTRODUCTION 262
6.2 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH 262
6.3 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
263
6.3.1 Participants’ perception and experience of inclusion 264 6.3.2 Participants need support, guidance and training 265 6.3.3 Participants lack understanding and implementation of AMA and amanuenses
268
6.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANUAL WITH SUPPORTIVE AND EMPOWERING GUIDELINES
271
6.4.1 Addressing teachers’ misunderstanding of inclusion 273 6.4.2 Addressing teachers’ lack of understanding and implementation of AMA
273
6.4.2.1 The identification of barriers to assessment 274
6.4.2.2 Description of the various special concessions 275
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6.4.2.3 Administrative procedures with regard to special
concessions
276
6.4.2.4 The purpose of the Concessions Register
276
6.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 277
6.6 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY
278
6.6.1 Recommendations for future research 278 6.6.2 Recommendations and contribution towards policy 279 6.6.3 Contribution towards practice 6.6.4 Contribution towards theory
281 282
6.7 FINAL WORD 283
LIST OF REFERENCES 284
APPENDICES 302
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LIST OF TABLES PAGE Table 1.1 The distinction between integration and inclusion 22
Table 1.2 The rights of learners in inclusive education 26
Table 3.1 Factors giving rise to learning needs 91
Table 3.2 Indicators of reading difficulties 95
Table 3.3 Indicators of auditory and visual perceptual difficulties 96
Table 3.4 Indicators of writing difficulties 99
Table 3.5 Indicators of poor written expression 100
Table 3.6 Indicators of difficulties with mathematics 101
Table 3.7 Indicators of ADHD 102
Table 3.8 Indicators of visual impairments 104
Table 3.9 Indicators of hearing impairments 106
Table 3.10 Main types of cerebral palsy 107
Table 3.11 Indicated concessions for specific learning difficulties 110
Table 3.12 Indicated concessions for visual impairments 111
Table 3.13 Indicated concessions for hearing impairments 112
Table 3.14 Indicated concessions for physical disability 113
Table 3.15 Special concessions on the official application form 114
Table 3.16 Summary of recommended special concessions 125
Table 4.1 The research process 141
Table 5.1 Abbreviation used for participants and schools 175
Table 5.2 Profile of the participating educators 176
Table 5.3 Members of the SBST of the four different schools 186
Table 5.4 Members of the School Assessment Teams 187
Table 5.5 A summary of the findings of the questionnaires for principals and educators 197
Table 5.7 Example of the process of data reduction 199
Table 5.8 Schematic summary of the identified themes and sub-themes 202
Table 5.9 A summary of the findings of the focus group interviews 255
Table 5.10 A summary of the findings of the document analysis 259
Table 5.11 Summary of the findings of all the data collected 260
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Types and forms of assessment 56
Figure 3.1 Procedures to follow when applying for a concession 89
Figure 3.2 Categories of special concessions 115
Figure 6.1 Lay-out of the Guidelines Manual 272
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ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS
AMA - Adaptive methods of assessment
ADHD - Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder
DBE - Department of Basic Education
DBST - District Based Support Team
DECC - District Examinations Concessions Committee
DBE - Department of Basic Education
DoE - Department of Education
ESS - Education Support Services
GDE - Gauteng Department of Education
HOD - Head of department
IDEA - Individual with Disabilities Education Act
ISBE - Illinois State Board of Education
JCQ - Joint Council for Qualifications
LSEN - Learners with special educational needs
NCLB - No Child Left Behind Act
NCLD - National Centre for Learning Disabilities
NSC - National Senior Certificate
NVPIE - Nevada Partnership for inclusive education
NWU - North West University
PECC - Provincial Examinations Concessions Committee
SAP - School Assessment Policy
SAT - School Assessment Team
SBST - School-based Support Team
SLD - Specific learning difficulty
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNISA - University of South Africa
WCED - Western Cape Education Department
1
CHAPTER 1
BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION The inclusive education policy, which was introduced in South Africa in 2001 in
White Paper 6 (Department of Education, 2001)1, promotes the placement of
learners with a range of disabilities and learning difficulties in mainstream
schools, with the expectation that schools and teachers will have to
accommodate and adapt to the diversity of needs of these learners in the
classrooms. Physical, sensory, neurological disabilities and specific learning
difficulties may cause barriers to learning2, with the result that some learners
with these barriers may not be able to achieve to their full potential, due to the
adverse effect of the barriers on their scholastic performance. The placement of
learners with disabilities and learning difficulties in general educational settings,
have the advantage that they can be educated and assessed alongside their
peers without disabilities. However, according to Goh (2004:11), it also brings
about many challenges to these learners, as well as to their teachers. This
author maintains that achieving success in the mainstream classroom is a
challenge in itself for learners with disabilities and learning difficulties, which
becomes even more arduous when it is expected of these learners to achieve
the same high standards as set for their peers without disabilities.
The inclusive education policy maintains that the needs of all learners should
be addressed and that all aspects of the curriculum, including what is taught
and how it is taught and assessed, should be accessible to all learners (DoE,
1997:54). Assessment in an inclusive learning community is both formative and
summative and thus a continuous process of information gathering of
knowledge, skills and values of learners and the recording and reporting of the
1 From this point forward, I will refer to the Department of Education as DoE and to the Gauteng Department of Education as GDE. 2 Donald, Lazarus and Lolwana (2002:340) describe barriers to learning as any factor that is a hindrance or obstacle to learners’ ability to learn. In this study, based on this definition, I refer to intrinsic barriers (physical, sensory, neurological disabilities and specific learning difficulties), as ’barriers to learning’. Intrinsic barriers to learning are discussed in detail in Chapter Three.
2
information gathered. Assessment in such a community is highlighted as “...the
major component of the teaching-learning cycle because it maintains the focus
on the learners, their needs, their progress and their learning outcomes”
(Archer, Rossouw, Lomofsky & Oliver, 1999:97). This focus relates to the true
meaning of the term assessment, which means ‘to sit beside’ and bring out the
potential that exists in a learner (Archer et al., 1999:100; Maree & Fraser,
2004:204).
In South Africa, classroom tests and examinations at the end of a learning
period, is an integral part of the school culture. Classroom tests and summative
assessments are generally compiled to assess all learners in a class in the
same manner in terms of focus (content area being assessed) and procedures
(methods) (Watkins, 2007:23). It is expected of learners to prepare for the
assessment, to study (which requires the ability to read), to read the
examination paper, to write down their answers and to complete the paper in
the allocated time. It is during summative assessments – which are mostly pen-
and-paper tests - where learners are required to show what they have learned.
Although many learners with barriers to learning can be assessed in the same
way as their peers, some with physical, sensory disabilities or specific learning
difficulties may not be able to participate successfully in the assessment
process. These barriers to learning may cause learners to struggle with reading
and writing activities and can therefore be regarded as experiencing barriers to
assessment (DoE, 2008b:94). For learners with barriers to assessment,
classroom tests and examinations often do not provide them the fair
opportunity to demonstrate their competence, abilities, knowledge and skills as
for their mainstream peers. Goh (2004:27) states that this directly affects a
learner’s assessment results, as it often produces an underestimation of the
learner’s true potential and abilities. Learners with barriers to assessment will
therefore require additional support during assessment tasks, in the form of
adaptive measures of assessment (Lloyd, Drew & Utley, 2006:113). Learners
who experience barriers to learning need to be able to exit school with an
appropriate recognition of competence (Department of Basic Education, (DBE),
2011:22)
3
The purpose of accommodating learners in assessment by means of adaptive
methods of assessment (also called special concessions)3, is to minimize the
impact of the learners’ barrier to learning upon assessment performance and to
ensure a true reflection of their potential, without them gaining an unfair
advantage (Goh, 2004:40; Elliot, Ysseldyke, Thurlow & Erickson, 1998:22). For
example, a learner with reading difficulties and/or a writing speed problem may
not be able to demonstrate proficiency in timed tests and will benefit from
receiving additional time. A learner with cerebral palsy or a physical impairment
- which may affect the skilful use of his hands – may benefit from receiving
amanuenses (oral examination - reading and writing for the learner) during
tests and examinations. This support in assessment allows the learner to
display his knowledge efficiently and effectively, as it eliminates the barrier to
fair assessment. Santrock (2011:554) defines ‘fair assessment’ as the equal
opportunity provided to learners to demonstrate their knowledge and skills.
Spinelli (2002:155) states that the adaptive assessment option has been
established to ensure that learners with even the most severe disabilities can
participate in the assessment process, which is in accordance with an inclusive
learning community. Spinelli further maintains that adaptive methods of
assessment are intended to allow learners with specific disabilities or learning
difficulties to participate meaningfully in both instruction and assessment
activities. I argue that adaptions made during the instruction of learners with
disabilities and specific learning difficulties, are of little value if these
adaptations are not acknowledged in the assessment and examination of such
learners.
In my experience, adaptive methods of assessment and special concessions
have been widely implemented in special schools for many years. In special
education, it is regarded and treated as an integral part of teacher-made tests,
school-based assessment tasks and external examinations. Due to a wide
range of barriers to learning - specifically physical disabilities and specific
learning difficulties which may cause barriers to assessment - many learners
are accommodated in special schools, where they receive this specialized
3 See clarification of concepts, subsection 1.8
4
support in assessment. The inclusive education policy as described in White
Paper 6 (DoE, 2001), maintains that support in assessment should also be
rendered to learners in mainstream schools. I argue that it is imperative – in the
light of the mentioned policy – that assessment adaptions are made to assist all
learners, in particular those with barriers to learning, to achieve to their full
potential. In order to do this, teachers have to be cognisant to the diversity of
barriers to learning that may cause barriers to assessment.
The need to develop examination concessionary measures (adaptive methods
of assessment and special concessions) for learners with barriers to learning, is
emphasized in the Discussion Paper on the National Policy on the conduct of
the Senior Certificate Examination (DoE, n.d.(a) and I quote: “It emphasizes the
approach towards addressing barriers in assessment and examination as
central to the provision of an integrated education system, which
accommodates diversity”. Should the needs of learners not be met, learning
breakdown may occur or learners may be excluded from the system (DoE,
1997:v). White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001:24) further emphasizes the fact that many
learners who are experiencing barriers to learning, may drop out of school
because of the “...inability of the system to recognise and accommodate the
diverse range of learners’ needs typically through inaccessible physical plants,
curricula, assessment, learning materials and instructional methodologies”. The
implication of the above-mentioned is that every teacher should become a
skilled assessor – not only on traditional forms of assessment - but also with
regard to the various special concessions made available by the Department of
Education, as this will create expanded opportunities to ensure the
development of learners to their full potential and to cater for their diverse
needs (DoE, 2001:31). I maintain that learners will experience success when
their access to assessment is facilitated through adaptive methods of
assessment and in turn, that it will enhance their motivational levels in the
learning process. By catering for all learners’ diverse needs through learning
support, their right to full and equal educational opportunities is ensured.
The focus in this study will therefore fall on adaptive assessment strategies for
learners with specific barriers to learning, which causes barriers to assessment
5
and the implementation of these strategies in an inclusive educational
environment. The various barriers to assessment are discussed in Chapter
Three.
The motivation for engaging in this research study stemmed from several
observations I have made in recent years, as discussed next.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY
1.2.1 My observations regarding the implementation of adaptive
methods of assessment in mainstream schools As a senior educational psychologist at a special school for learners with
cerebral palsy, physical, sensory and specific learning difficulties in the
Gauteng East district, I have for the last 24 years, been extensively involved
with the implementation of adaptive methods of assessment and special
concessions (specifically amanuenses) for learners from Grade 4 to 12. In
addition, I was responsible for the application for special concessions for these
learners. A large number of these learners needed their work to be put on
tape/compact discs (CDs) for studying purposes (due to a reading difficulty)
and required reading assistance or amanuenses during examinations and class
tests. Due to a lack of staff to implement amanuenses to the large number of
learners requiring this support, a community based support system consisting
of volunteers and parents, was developed to assist the particular school in
question, with the implementation of special concessions during examinations. I
trained these volunteers thoroughly to implement reading assistance and
amanuenses correctly.
I have experienced that there has been, in spite of the inclusive education
policy, a substantial increase in the referrals of learners to special schools
during the last six years, mainly due to their poor reading skills (i.e. poor
reading rate, reading accuracy and reading comprehension), as well as writing
and spelling difficulties. These difficulties caused the learners not to keep up
with the demands of academic work and working pace in the mainstream
6
classroom. The parents of these learners informed me that their children’s
barriers to learning was not addressed in the mainstream schools and that they
preferred their children to be in specialized education4, as they believed that
their children would receive the necessary support in these schools. A number
of parents reported to me that their children’s teachers said that they were ‘not
prepared’ or ‘allowed’ to apply adaptive methods of assessment, even after it
was recommended to them by an educational psychologist. Most of these
learners were in need of tape/CD aid in order to study, as well as reading
assistance, additional time and/or amanuenses during examinations. This
alleged lack of support in assessment was the reason for parents turning to
schools for learners with specific learning disabilities, for placement of their
children.
In 2002 the Department of Education estimated that there were approximately
64,000 learners in special schools and an estimated 400,000 learners
experiencing barriers to learning, who were not catered for in general education
(DoE, 2002a:7). In 2007 it was estimated that the number of learners who were
referred to special schools, increased up to 93,000 in the space of three years
(DoE, 2008a:5). “This number, however, may not reflect the significant number
of learners who repeat grades and drop out because their needs are not met”
(DoE, 2002a:7). In my regular contact with colleagues at the four special
schools in the Gauteng East district5, I obtained confirmation that they had
started waiting lists, as they were too full to accommodate any more learners
that were referred for placement. As special schools became too full to
accommodate more learners, many learners with barriers to learning had no
other choice but to enrol/stay in mainstream schools where, according to White
Paper 6, inclusive education should offer the appropriate support.
4 Specialized education refers to schools that are equipped to deliver specialized education to learners requiring high-intensive educational and other support, such as schools for blind and deaf learners, learners with cerebral palsy, epilepsy and schools for learners with specific learning disabilities. Since a few years ago, the Department of Education started to refer to these schools as ‘special schools’, as opposed to ‘specialized education’. In the past, only pre-vocational schools were referred to as ‘special schools’. 5 The Gauteng Department of Education (GDE) has divided the province into several district regions, each with a district office responsible for the schools in that region. The Gauteng East District is one of the areas to the east of Johannesburg.
7
In a principals’ meeting on assessment (27 February 2007), it was estimated
that 2% of learners in mainstream schools could be considered for special
concessions. However, based on my observations and interaction with parents,
I am of the opinion that the percentage might be much higher than 2%. In many
instances where I have assessed learners with specific learning difficulties and
referred them back to mainstream schools, due to lack of space in schools for
learners with specific learning difficulties6, I have included recommendations
regarding their specific assessment needs, e.g. tape aid, reading assistance,
additional time during examinations and/or amanuenses. These referrals were
in accordance with White Paper 6 and the Department of Education’s (2006c:1)
recommendation, that guidance should be given to mainstream schools by
special schools’ specialised staff. As stipulated in the Framework for the
Development of District-Based Support Teams within an Inclusive and Training
System (DoE, 2005a:3), support and inclusivity “...should become an integral
part of the policies, cultures and practises of all schools” with all staff involved
in support activities and that appropriate support should be organised in such a
way that a range of barriers is uncovered and addressed. However, feedback
from parents, as well as staff members from mainstream schools, was
generally negative regarding the addressing of barriers to assessment. My
observations up to the present were that teachers experienced one or more of
the following:
- Uncertainty about the different types of barriers to learning;
- Uncertainty regarding the identification of a learner who needs support in
assessment;
- Uncertainty on how to handle a learner with barriers to learning;
- Uncertainty about the variety of special concessions including amanuenses;
- Reluctance to apply a special concession due to ‘a lack of time’;
- A shortage of manpower in administering adaptive methods of assessment.
I experienced much negativism and the teachers seemed to consider adaptive
methods of assessment as an added burden to their daily classroom practice.
6 A special school for learners with specific learning difficulties was previously called ‘remedial schools’. Criteria for admission are that learners should have at least an average intellectual ability.
8
In some instances, I noted aggression by the teachers after support in
assessment was recommended. They were of the opinion that attention to
learners, who required specific support, undermined the education of others. I
also had the experience that a principal was concerned about the image of his
school, should it become known that his school granted special concessions to
learners. He was of the opinion that other principals would feel that this was his
way of increasing the learner numbers of his school.
It also appeared that teachers did not know which adaptive method of
assessment was allowed for which barrier to learning. Principals and the
School Management Teams appeared not to be equipped to guide and develop
teachers regarding these issues. Specialised knowledge and certain skills are a
prerequisite for the successful practice of any profession, in particular the
teaching profession (Oosthuizen, 2003:107). As more and more learners with
reading and writing difficulties (which may cause barriers to assessment) have
to be accommodated in mainstream schools, I maintain that teachers should
become knowledgeable and prepared to apply adaptive assessment measures,
in order to address these learners’ needs to fair assessment.
Many special schools have the advantage of trans-disciplinary7 teams to
determine whether a learner should be granted a special concession. The
trans-disciplinary team at special schools normally consists of an educational
psychologist, a speech therapist, an occupational therapist, physiotherapist,
medical nurse and the class teacher, who come together to discuss the learner
and his specific difficulties. These support services are generally not available
at mainstream schools, although some schools employ the services of private
occupational therapists and/or speech therapists. Beckman and de Waal (in
Venter 2007:10) are of the opinion that the challenge of retraining, re-skilling or
re-orienting large numbers of teachers seems to be insurmountable and that
the reason for this “...is the assumed lack of expertise and specialisation in the
mainstream at the moment”. I agree with a statement by the GDE (2006:24)
that teachers seem to find it difficult to educate learners with disabilities, as the
7 A group of professionals with specialised knowledge, working together interactively and sharing their expertise and ideas about a learner (Engelbrecht, 2007:177)
9
range of support needs for each learner differs from the others, in terms of the
learner’s specific needs, as well as the learner’s context. Le Motte and Keet
(2003:8) also maintain that teachers experience difficulties in the
implementation of inclusion in their daily classroom practice.
Based on my observations and experience as described in the previous
paragraphs, I illuminate my assumptions as researcher in the following
paragraphs.
1.2.2 Researcher assumptions
In research, the acknowledgement of assumptions is crucial as it alerts me, as
the researcher, to preconceived ideas and beliefs that I hold, so that it can be
verified during the research process.
As an educational psychologist based at a special school, as well as having
close contact with mainstream school teachers, I have observed that teachers
were bombarded with the theory on the inclusive educational approach, but that
the practical implementation of this philosophy remained a challenge to them. I
observed their extreme frustration in the management of inclusive education,
especially concerning learners with barriers to learning. As mentioned in
subsection 1.2.1, I came to the realization that special concessions appeared to
be an unknown or little practised phenomenon at mainstream schools. It
appeared to me that teachers were so overwhelmed trying to cope with the
demands of the curriculum, that implementing adaptive methods of assessment
did not even occur to them. Taking this into account, I reached the conclusion
that mainstream teachers were not knowledgeable - or very positive - about the
implementation of adaptive methods of assessment. As a result of this
apparent negativism and reluctance to meet the assessment needs of the
learners, the learners were deprived of the opportunity to pursue their learning
potential to the fullest and to display their knowledge through an adapted way.
Based on my observations, I am of the opinion that inclusion does not come to
its right with regard to the assessment of learners with reading and writing
barriers. I agree with Dunbar-Krige and Van der Merwe (2010:170), that
10
teachers’ positive attitudes towards inclusive education and their ability to
address diversity – which should include their knowledge of supportive
measures in assessment - are important for inclusive education to succeed.
Managed in a realistic and effective way, inclusive education can contribute to
a positive culture of learning and teaching in schools (Le Motte & Keet, 2003:8).
1.2.3 Motivation for the study and research questions As discussed in the preceding subsections, more and more learners with
barriers to learning are integrated into mainstream schools, not only in the light
of the inclusive education policy, but also as special schools are so full that
acceptance of learners in these schools becomes increasingly difficult.
Mainstream teachers are increasingly confronted with the diverse needs of
learners, which include reading and writing barriers. Therefore, teachers should
be able to identify barriers to assessment, create greater flexibility in their
assessment of learners and should know when and how to implement the
various adaptive methods of assessment according to learners’ individual
needs. They should also be knowledgeable about the procedures to apply for
special concessions at the Department of Education.
Apart from research done by Alant and Casey (2005) on ‘assessment
concessions’ for learners with little or no functional speech, I could not find any
other research conducted on the implementation of adaptive methods of
assessment and special concessions in the South African educational system. I
searched websites, as well as the data bases of South African universities and
discovered little literature on adaptive methods of assessment and special
concessions relating to the South African context. The research presented here
sought to gain information about teachers’ implementation of adaptive methods
of assessment for learners with reading and writing barriers. My decision to
direct the research towards Grade 7 teachers, was taken firstly in the light of
the fact that these teachers already had the opportunity to identify learners with
reading and writing difficulties and secondly, in the light of the requirements
that these learners should have a history of special concessions when they are
registered for the exit phases Grade 9 and Grade 12 examinations (GDE,
11
2003). Although it is imperative that learners with barriers to learning are
identified as early as possible in order to put in place the necessary
mechanisms, many learners with special needs often go undetected and are
not attended to (GDE, 2006:17). I contend that, by the time learners with
barriers to learning reach their last year in the primary school, their barriers
should already have been identified and addressed.
Against this background, the research question can be posed as follows:
Main question: How do Grade 7 teachers at four primary schools understand and implement adaptive methods of assessment (particularly amanuenses), for learners with reading and writing difficulties? Sub-question: What are the teacher needs with regard to implementing adaptive methods of assessment in the inclusive classroom? In the following subsections an overview is given of the aims of the study, as
well as of the research design and methodology.
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of the research is to investigate and explain how teachers
understand and implement adaptive methods of assessment and special
concessions, in particular amanuenses, for learners with reading and writing
barriers. Based on the findings of the research, a manual with guidelines will be
developed to provide extensive supportive and empowering assessment
guidelines for teachers and educational psychologists, as well as to make
recommendations for training purposes to the Educational Support Services of
the Gauteng Department of Education.
The following subsections merely provide a summarized introduction of the
research design and methodology, in order to contextualise the study at this
point, while the detailed discussion is provided in chapter four of this study.
12
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY A qualitative research study from an interpretive research paradigm was
conducted into teachers’ understanding and implementation of adaptive
methods of assessment. According to McLeod (2001), qualitative research
provides the researcher with the potential to discover, to obtain new insights
into old problems and to allow the experience of each participant in the study to
be explored. One of the most distinctive characteristics of this type of research
is that the set-up is studied as a whole in order to understand the realities
involved (Collins, du Plooy, Grobbelaar, Puttergill, Terre Blanche, Van Eeden,
van Rensburg & Wigston, 2000:89). Breakwell, Hammond, Fife Shaw and
Smith (2006:302) describe interpretive research as the engagement of the
researcher in a process of interpretation and (re)construction of reality, “...that
is to say, it is the role of the researcher to understand the constructed realities
in order to understand the context” (Collins et al., 2000:50). Knowledge is
obtained not only by observable phenomena but also by people’s intentions,
values, perceptions, reasons, meaning making and self-understanding
(Henning, van Rensburg & Smit, 2004:20). A qualitative study supports the
enquiry of how humans experience their surroundings in a natural setting
(Berg, 2004:7). I hoped that, by using a qualitative approach in this study, I
could gain insight into the meaning that teachers give to the experiences in
their classrooms and how they structure their worlds according to these
meanings (Merriam, 2002:4-6).
A qualitative case study design, using a purposive sampling technique, was
used. A case study usually involves the detailed examination of one
individual/school, but may also involve a comparison of a small number of
individuals or schools (Elmes, Kantowitz & Roediger, 2006:89). Nieuwenhuis
(2007:75) maintains that case study research enables the researcher to obtain
greater insight and understanding of the dynamics of a specific situation. For
this reason, Grade 7 teachers in four primary schools in the district of Gauteng
East were used as the participants. The case study design is particularistic, as
it focuses on a particular phenomenon, namely assessment practices or
adaptive methods of assessment for learners with specific learning difficulties
13
and physical disabilities. A case study should provide a rich description of this
phenomenon and should enhance the researcher, as well as the reader’s
understanding of the use of adaptive methods of assessment. In addition, the
qualitative case study design enabled me as researcher to describe the context
in detail. The information obtained from participants in multiple sites allowed me
to identify patterns and similarities in the obtained information. Miles and
Huberman (1994:10) refer to information obtained through investigating
participants in multiple sites, as thick descriptions that are vivid, nested in real
context and have a ring of truth that may have a strong impact on the reader.
Several methods of data collection were used, as discussed next.
1.4.1 Data collection In a case study research design, the researcher can use multiple data
gathering sources (Nieuwenhuis, 2007:76). Firstly, I had an introductory
meeting with each of the principals of the four purposefully selected primary
schools, explaining the purpose of the research. The principals were requested
to assign four teachers from their schools who would be willing to participate in
my research. The teachers had to be those who specifically taught subjects
where a vast amount of reading and writing is required, e.g. a language, Social
Science, Natural Science, Economic and Management Science and Life
Orientation. During a meeting with the principal and his designated teachers, I
again explained the purpose of the research and gave them the consent forms.
I re-assured them of confidentiality and anonymity and that pseudonyms would
be used to protect their identity. Open-ended qualitative questionnaires were
given to the participants, containing specific questions on adaptive methods of
assessment and specifically amanuenses as a special concession. Initial
questions on their views of inclusion were added, as support in assessment is a
fundamental component of the inclusive approach. The schools that were
selected for the purpose of this research were one Afrikaans medium primary
school, one English medium primary school, one township primary school and
a special school catering for learners with physical, sensory and neurological
disabilities and specific learning difficulties.
14
Secondly, after I derived answers from the questionnaires, I conducted focus
group interviews with the four teachers of every school. A focus group interview
is an interview with a group of people who share a similar type of experience
(Kelly, 1999b:388), because they have a particular knowledge and experience
of interest in the topic. The focus group interviews were video-taped, as well as
audio-taped, for data analysis purposes. A rich contextual description of the
schools was used as part of the data collection process.
Thirdly, as a researcher and practising educational psychologist, I made
observations of the respondents’ non-verbal behaviour. These were used as
field notes. Non-verbal behaviour, e.g. spontaneity, reluctance, uncertainty, and
even aggression, can reflect much on the meaning that teachers give regarding
a topic of research. I believe that observation of non-verbal behaviour can
motivate a researcher to probe further into the reason for the non-verbal
attitudes reflected. I considered having individual interviews with these
participants, should it prove to be necessary.
Fourthly, the School Assessment Policy documents of the four schools, relating
to concessions and particularly amanuensis, were analysed. I believe that if
schools and teachers are attuned to addressing barriers to learning and
assessment, it would be reflected in their assessment policies.
1.4.2 Method of data analysis All the data collected from each school, was transcribed and the process of
analysis began. Qualitative data analysis is the process a researcher uses to
make sense of and explain the information that was generated during the
research process (Haslam & McGarty, 2002:383). Researchers must define
categories in order to code the data (Cozby, 2001:111). Data collected from the
qualitative questionnaires and interviews was summarized in a table for
interpretation purposes. In this study, I analysed data using Tesch’s open
coding method of analysing descriptive data, as described by Creswell
(2009:186). In the reduction of transcribed data, I identified pertinent patterns,
categories and themes. Clues from the non-verbal and language behaviour of
15
the participants, captured in written field notes and observations, were used for
ensuring interpretation of meaning and to understand how participants made
sense of their reality. Clues could also be found in the way participants phrased
their understanding about a topic. The findings were categorised, tabled and
then compared with each other to ascertain what the comparative themes in all
the schools were. The findings were then matched with theory.
1.5 TRUSTWORTHINESS
The ultimate goal of all science is the search of truth (Mouton, 2001:239). This
can be established by ensuring that credibility and accuracy of the research
process is ascertained. The criteria that reflect the trustworthiness of a
qualitative research paradigm include the following: credibility, transferability,
dependability and confirmability (Henning et al., 2004:147; Marshall &
Rossman, 1995:143).
The following measures to ensure trustworthiness was taken into consideration:
Credibility: This views the actions of the researcher – the way the research
was approached and conducted. To ensure that credibility was maintained, I
adhered to the ethical guidelines as stated in following subsection.
Transferability relates to how the results of the research will be applicable to
similar studies and contexts. In my research, I aimed to discuss the research
process clearly. Dependability: To ensure that gathered data is trustworthy,
data needs to be triangulated by employing different sources of data or
methods of research (Breakwell et al., 2006:145). Dependability requires
continually checking, questioning and theoretically interpreting the findings
(Henning et al., 2004:148). Confirming data during interviews, in order to
ensure information is being recorded correctly, enhances dependability. In
order to ascertain trustworthiness, I planned to triangulate the results of the
interviews, questionnaires, school assessment policies, as well as observations
made.
In the following section, a comprehensive discussion is given on the ethical
measures that were adhered to before, during and after the study.
16
1.6 COMPLIANCE TO ETHICAL STANDARDS In any research process the rights of the participants are of the utmost
importance. As an educational psychologist, I am bound to the Ethical Rules of
Conduct as stipulated in the Health Professions Act of 1974 (Department of
Health, 2006:41-45; Health Professions Council of South Africa, 2005) which
correlate to a great extent with the ethical codes for researchers. Codes of
conduct serve an important function, because they do not only regulate a
particular professional’s behaviour, but also serve to justify behaviour (Collins
et al., 2000:107; Medical Research Council, 2003:4). Ethical principles
therefore provide the framework in which actions and decisions for research
investigations may be taken. I believe that, in any qualitative research process,
a high level of integrity should be maintained as the objects of inquiry are
human beings. Ethical principles ensure that the rights and dignity of the
participants are observed and protected and it maintains the integrity of the
research project (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:469).
The adherence to ethical standards starts when designing the research
programme (Hogg & Vaughan, 2005:18) and the qualitative researcher is also
obliged to adhere to strict codes of conduct during the data collection process.
There are four moral principles that constitute the basis for ethics in research,
namely the principles of non-maleficence, beneficence, autonomy and justice
(UNISA, 2008:31; Wassenaar, 2006:67). Non-maleficence means that the
research should not cause harm to the research participants and that their
physical and emotional welfare should be taken into consideration (Mouton,
2001:245); the principle of beneficence implies that research should make a
positive contribution towards the welfare of people and that the research
participants in a particular situation should benefit from the research (Van der
Zalm & Bergum, 2000:215; Wassenaar, 2006:67); the principle of autonomy
includes the notion that the research must respect and protect the rights,
privacy and dignity of the participants (Strydom, 2005a:61) and lastly, the
principle of justice requires that researchers treat research participants with
fairness and equity during all stages of the research (Wassenaar, 2006:68).
The above principles include that the truth and reason for the research should
17
be communicated to all participants; that they provide informed consent to
participate in the research and that they are provided the opportunity to
withdraw from participating, should they wish to do so (Marshall & Rossman,
1995:75; Strydom, 2005a:58). Finally, researchers have the obligation to
ensure their competence in embarking on a specific course of interest, as well
as the skill to implement the specific test instruments envisaged (De Vos,
1998:31). I endeavoured to apply the ethical standards and principles
consistently throughout the course of the study.
I requested permission from the Gauteng Department of Education to conduct
this research. Permission was granted (Appendix 2) and a copy of this letter
was sent to the Gauteng East District Office. Permission to proceed with the
research was also obtained from the Ethics Committee of the University of
Johannesburg. Informed consent was obtained from the principals of the four
schools where the interviews were conducted. An example of a letter to a
principal is attached as Appendix 3. Only after written permission from the
principals was received (see Appendix 4), could I arrange a first interview with
them and the selected teachers, in order to explain the purpose of my research
and to obtain their consent to participate in the study. An example of a consent
form for participants is attached as Appendix 5.
LoBiondo-Wood and Haber (1994:318) affirmed five fundamental human rights
that are applicable to qualitative research, as discussed below.
1.6.1 The right to self-determination During my first meeting with the principals and teachers, I emphasized that
participation was completely voluntary. The right to self-determination entails
that participants have the right to make an informed decision to participate in a
study and are competent to do so (Strydom, 2005a:56). Participants’ right to
self-determination entails that they will not be persuaded to participate in a
study and that they will not be deceived by withholding information or by giving
wrong information regarding the process of the study (LoBiondo-Wood &
Haber, 1994:322). As the topic of my research had the potential of eliciting
18
feelings of uncertainty and threat, participants were also given the assurance
that they had the right to decline or withdraw at any stage of the research, but
should they be willing to participate, I assured them that I will protect them from
any possible emotional harm by ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, as
discussed in the following paragraph.
1.6.2 The right to confidentiality and anonymity
The participants’ right to confidentiality and anonymity was respected at all
times. It was guaranteed verbally, as well as in the consent form that was given
to them after they agreed to participate. A copy of the signed consent forms
was given to each participant. Participants’ identities were not revealed in the
research data. Pseudonyms were used to protect their identity, as information
described in the research report, had the potential to elicit identification by
others. In this study, confidentiality was considered as a very high priority as
the research problem and information required from participants, had the
potential to cause feelings of discomfort: I have experienced in the past that
mainstream teachers displayed negative feelings with regard to the
implementation of adaptive methods of assessment. I had to guarantee that
their identities will be protected. I therefore also endeavoured to be empathetic
and sensitive to factors that may have influenced their willingness to participate
(Elmes et al., 2006:280).
The participants were fully informed that audio- and video recordings would be
made during the focus group interviews. They were re-assured that
confidentiality and anonymity will be respected and maintained and that nobody
besides myself, had access to the obtained information. All data obtained from
participants, photocopied documents and writing activity materials will be kept
under lock and key for a period of two years after the completion of the
research project and will then be destroyed.
1.6.3 The right to privacy and dignity Closely related to confidentiality and anonymity is my commitment as
researcher to respect participants’ privacy and dignity. The methods of data
19
collection was planned and conducted in a manner that did not expose
participants to harm and exploitation. I endeavoured to avoid invasive and
uncomfortable questions that could have caused loss of dignity or feelings of
distress or embarrassment. According to Burns and Grové (2001:203), privacy
and dignity refers to the right of participants to decide the time, extent and
general circumstances under which they will share or withhold private or
personal information pertaining to their attitudes, behaviour, beliefs, opinions
and records. Participants were continually informed that they had the right to
withhold information or opinions, should they feel threatened or uncomfortable
by sharing it during the focus group interviews. I emphasized and re-
emphasized that the information obtained will be for my use only, for
transcribing purposes and solely for the purpose of the research.
1.6.4 The benefit of the research for the participants and the research community
The research participants have the right to what is due or owing to them. I
informed the participants that they would be kept informed on the progress of
the research, the findings as well as on the published outcome. During the
initial interview and explanation on the purpose of the research, the participants
were informed about the possible benefits that the research holds for them. I
observed a certain amount of tension by two of the participating schools’
teachers, when I talked about my research on adaptive methods of
assessment. It appeared that they were uncertain about the term and only after
I simplified it with a more familiar description such as ‘addressing learners’
reading and writing problems during examinations’, they relaxed noticeably and
one teacher verbalized their need for guidance in the form of a workshop.
All ethical measures were applied consistently throughout the research
process. As a novice researcher, I was fully committed to the highest standards
of research planning, implementation and reporting. I tried to cultivate an open,
unbiased, empathetic and objective attitude in conducting and reporting the
research. Any preconceived notions that could get in the way of objectivity and
empathetic understanding, were bracketed and put to one side (UNISA,
2008:7). Participants were not deceived in any way and no plagiarism or
20
unethical manipulation of data was committed. I remained committed to
approach the participants with an attitude of goodwill and acceptance. All
research findings were reported. I planned to make the findings available to the
participants in a workshop, after completion of the study.
In order to appreciate how inclusion underpins assessment, I decided to use
the philosophy of inclusion as my theoretical framework, which is discussed
next.
1.7 THE PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AS THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.7.1 Introduction The theoretical framework involves the theory underpinning the research topic.
According to Henning et al. (2004:12), a researcher sets out to investigate an
issue and this is done from a position of knowledge. This knowledge frames the
inquiry. The theoretical framework provides the basis of research (Kaniki,
2006:20) and complements the practical component of the research, which is
the implementation of adaptive methods of assessment. In the following
paragraphs, I discuss the inclusive education approach, as well as the history
and philosophy of inclusive education.
1.7.2 The inclusive education approach The term ‘inclusion’ was initially described as an educational model in which
students with ‘special needs’ receive their education in a general educational
setting (Watkins, 2007:16). In other words, it was recommended that learners
with barriers to learning should be educated along with their peers, rather than
being educated in separate institutions and therefore being excluded from
mainstream education. The term ‘inclusion’ has itself been on a journey since it
was initially introduced within an educational context and Watkins (2007:16)
states that, earlier, the term was characterized by the belief that learners
should have ‘access to the curriculum’, which implied that the curriculum was
fixed and static. Watkins further states that the current use of the term
‘inclusion’, starts from the proposition that learners with ‘special needs’ have a
21
right to a curriculum that is appropriate to their needs and that education
systems have a duty to provide this. Recent developments in South Africa and
in literature on inclusion emphasize not only disability as an issue, but also
other barriers to learning and development such as socio-economic
background and poverty (McKenzie & Loebenstein, 2007:190).
Mittler (2000:vii) maintains that inclusive education is not about placing learners
in mainstream schools, but that it is about changing schools in order to make
them more responsive to the needs of ALL learners. It concerns all learners
who might not be benefiting from schooling and not only those who are labelled
as having ‘barriers to learning’. A second very important component of inclusive
education is emphasized, namely that of the rendering of support in all spheres
of educational activities, in particular teaching, learning and assessment (DoE,
2005a). In the context of this study, I define the concept of support as the focus
on addressing barriers to learning and development through capacity building
in the area of individual support for learners and teachers, as well as the
adaption of assessment methods and techniques, in order to enhance learner
performance. Inclusion is therefore a process in which the diversity of needs of
all learners is addressed (Nel, 2008). Diverse learning needs refer to a wide
spectrum of causes and/or problems, whether these are internal or external
barriers, related to a learner’s educational development. Diversity further
suggests that every person is different, unique and valuable for who they are
and that - in schools that value diversity – all learners are valued as individuals
so that the differences between them can be acknowledged without prejudice
(Wedell, 2008:176).
The inclusive education approach emphasizes that the nature and the intensity
of support will vary from learner to learner (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana,
2002:24; Mittler, 2000:11). Various levels and kinds of support to learners
should continuously be considered in order to address the diversity of needs.
The inclusion of a diversity of needs entails that all aspects of the curriculum,
including what is taught and how it is taught and assessed, the teaching and
learning materials, as well as the learning environment, should be accessible to
all learners (DoE, 1997:54). Learners should therefore be supported to be able
22
to access the curriculum effectively, as every child has the right to an
education, which should be directed towards the development of the child’s full
potential (Barry, 2006:439 in African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the
Child). It is not enough, however, that learners are supported to have access to
what is available. I agree with Mittler (2000:4) that the essence of inclusion is
that there must be scrutiny of what is available and to ensure that it is relevant
and accessible to a whole range of learners in the school, in order to assist
them to reach their full potential. I argue that an inclusive learning community
will support the development of this potential in an educational environment,
where equal opportunities are provided for all learners to learn and succeed.
It is important to clarify the concepts of ‘integration’ and ‘inclusion’, in order to
eliminate confusion in this respect. White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001:17) and Mittler
(2000:10) identify several points which distinguish these concepts, as tabled
below:
Table 1.1 The distinction between integration and inclusion
‘Integration or mainstreaming’ ‘Inclusion’
Integration involves placing learners in mainstream (‘ordinary’) schools and to ‘fit in’ a particular kind of system or integrating them into this existing system.
Inclusion implies a radical reform of schools in terms of curriculum, assessment, pedagogy and grouping of learners. It is based on a value system that welcomes and celebrates diversity arising from gender, nationality, race, language of origin, social background and disability.
The learner must adapt to the school and there is no necessary assumption that the school will change to accommodate the diversity of learners. The focus is on the changes that need to take place within learners so that they can ‘fit in’.
The school must adapt to the diversity of learners and be concerned with overcoming barriers to participation that may be experienced by any learner. The focus is on the adaptation of and support systems available in the classroom.
Mainstreaming is about giving some learners additional support, so that they can ‘fit in’ or be integrated into the ‘normal’ classroom routine.
Inclusion entails the support of all learners, educators and the system as a whole, so that the full range of learning needs can be met. The emphasis is on the development of good teaching strategies that will benefit all learners.
23
A short history of inclusion is discussed in the following subsection.
1.7.3 A short history of inclusive education In America and Europe in the 1950s, special education public programs were
offered in many schools, but many authorities agreed that segregated special
classes were not an appropriate educational setting for most learners with
special needs. The Nevada Partnership of Inclusive Education (NVPIE, n.d.)
states that, at the same time, the Civil Rights Movement was in its great surge
and equal rights and non-discriminatory laws were being culminated, which in
turn influenced “…the thinking about people with disabilities”. During the 1960s
and 1970s, the traditional segregation of learners with special needs in
separate schools was increasingly challenged (Engelbrecht, 1999:7).
Strengthening the debate for inclusion was the Salamanca Statement on
Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education, which was signed
by 92 countries in Spain in 1990 during the World Conference in Education for
All and the resolution of the United Nations General Assembly (Naicker,
1999:14). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) is undoubtedly the key UN agency that has promoted global
awareness and actively promoted development in the field op special needs
and inclusive education (Mittler, 2000:20). Other Acts that were introduced,
were the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997 (IDEA), the No
Child Left Behind act (NCLB) of 2001 and the Individual with Disabilities
Education Act of 2004.
South Africa supports inclusion as described in the Salamanca World
Statement on Special Needs Education (DoE, 2001), as is clearly stated in the
National Commission’s report on Special Needs Education and Training
(NCSNET) and the National Committee for Education Support Services’ report
(NCESS). The Department of National Education commissioned the NSCNET
and NCESS to examine and report on all aspects of special needs and support
services in education and training (DoE, 1997; Swart, Engelbrecht, Eloff &
Pettipher, 2002). Their report focused on the development of an inclusive
society, the challenge of redress and the intersectoral collaboration and
24
cooperative governance, as well as on the implementation of policy. The
NCESS report recommended an integrated system of education for both
special and mainstream schools, which were to respond to the diverse needs of
all learners. The findings and recommendations were reported extensively in
the document: Quality Education for All: Overcoming Barriers to Learning and
Development (DoE, 1997). In addition, the South African Schools Act (1996:4)
stipulates that public schools must admit learners with disabilities and
accommodate their education requirements, without unfairly discriminating
against them in any way. Keeping this in mind, I quote from the National
Education Policy Act (1996:14): “The rights and wishes of learners with special
education needs must be taken into account at the admission of the learners to
an ordinary public school”.
Furthermore, the NCSNET and the NCESS emphasizes an inclusive approach
to education where diversity is recognised; the education and training system
should promote education for all and inclusive and supportive centres of
learning should be developed to “…enable all learners to participate actively in
the education process so that they could develop and extend their potential and
participate as equal members of society” (DoE, 2001:5). The Revised National
Curriculum Statement (RNCS) (DoE, 2004b), defines South African education
as one that integrates education and training, promotes learner-centeredness,
establishes a curriculum that is inclusive and provides democratic arrangement
for teaching and learning and school governance. This implies that inclusion
requires diverse learning and assessment strategies and is based on the point
of view that everyone has the ability to learn. These principles include social
justice and human rights, a healthy environment, a high level of skills for all,
progression, integration and inclusivity and are derived from the South African
Bill of Rights (DoE, 2004b:5; South African Constitution, 1996:6-20). The South
African Policy on inclusive education (DoE, 2001) particularly emphasizes the
supportive approach in schools and I argue that support also includes
supportive measures in assessment, through the implementation of adaptive
methods of assessment.
25
Education White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001) was introduced in 2001, promoting
inclusive education that ensures optimal accommodation and the inclusion of
the full variety of educational needs in a single education system, where the
needs of all learners will be addressed (Donald et al., 2002:17, 342). In
particular, White Paper 6 promotes the provision of educational opportunities
for those learners experiencing barriers to learning or who have dropped out of
learning, because of the inability of the educational system to accommodate
their specific learning needs (DoE, 2001:6). A learner-centred approach is
emphasized, which involves identifying and addressing learners’ barriers to
learning. Moreover, White Paper 6 propagates the establishment of school-
based support teams (SBST8) and district-based support teams (DBST), to
provide local and district-wide support to teachers and learners (Bouwer,
2005:63; DoE, 2001:19). It is also recommended in White Paper 6 that
teachers of special schools provide their professional expertise in supporting
mainstream schools in curriculum, assessment and instruction (DoE, 2001:20).
In order to understand the essence of inclusive education, the philosophy of
inclusion is discussed in the next paragraph.
1.7.4 The philosophy of inclusion The philosophy of inclusion advocates the democratic values of human dignity,
the advancement of human rights, social justice and equality, as well as the
recognition and accommodation of diversity and the rights of all members of the
community (Sands, Kozleski & French, 2000:5; Swart & Pettipher, 2001:30;
UNESCO, 2005:11). Put differently, inclusion is a philosophy of acceptance
and flexibility, respect and relevance (Donald et al., 2002:19; NVPIE: n.d.). I
summarize the core of learners’ rights in inclusive education as stated by Mittler
(2000:114) and the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994):
8 In some policy documents, the SBST is referred to as ILST (Institution-level Support Team).
26
Table 1.2 The rights of learners in inclusive education It is the fundamental right of each learner to have access to education, to preferably attend their neighbourhood school in a regular class and to receive the appropriate support; to be given the opportunity to achieve and to maintain an acceptable level of learning; Every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs; Education systems should be designed and educational programmes implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs; All teachers should accept responsibility for all learners, receiving appropriate support and have opportunities for professional development; Schools should rethink their values and restructure their organization, curriculum and assessment arrangement; to overcome barriers to learning and participation and to cater for the full range of learners in their school and in their community; Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes and creating welcoming communities.
Inclusive education is a practice of accommodating and supporting all learners,
irrespective of talent, disability, age, gender, language and cultural background
(Sands et al., 2000:11; UNESCO, 1994:6). However, while access and
presence in ‘mainstream’ classrooms is a necessary step towards inclusive
education, it is not entirely enough – it is what happens in the classrooms and
schools that are equally critical to achieving true inclusive education (Wiebe
Berry, 2006, cited by Barnes, 2011:22). Therefore, conditions should be
created in schools so that all learners can be accommodated and supported in
the educational process, in order for them to flourish and eventually as adults,
contribute effectively in society and the economy of the country (DoE, 2001:5;
UNESCO, 2007:7) and where diversity is taken for granted and valued (Green
& Engelbrecht, 2007:8). Based on the rights that learners have, including those
with disabilities and learning difficulties, no mainstream school may turn any
learner away based on any discrimination and the needs of most learners with
barriers to learning should be met within mainstream schools. Green (2001:4)
emphasizes that “Inclusive education is the term used to describe educational
policies and practices that uphold the right of learners with disabilities to belong
and learn in mainstream education”. The principle of participation is
27
highlighted in this statement and Green (2001:12) concurs that inclusive
education includes disability, as well as the rights of learners with disabilities.
Mittler (2000:7) maintains that inclusion is ultimately a human rights issue. He
states that disability is part of the common experience of humanity and should
be a central issue in the planning of any human service, thereby enabling
people with disabilities and learning difficulties to enter the world as equals.
Inclusion is about the rights of all children irrespective of their individual
disability or difficulty in learning. I agree with Donald et al. (2002:263) that
learners with disabilities and learning difficulties have the right to be accepted
and treated as normally as possible and to have their individual needs met
within the mainstream environment, as far as this is possible. Mittler (2000:177)
emphasizes that inclusion is not only for a few learners, but for all learners
where an environment is created to benefit everyone, where they can enjoy
access to quality education, as well as have opportunities to experience
success in the curriculum - to eventually become full and valued members of
the school and society.
Learners experiencing barriers to learning such as reading and writing
difficulties should have equal access to education in an inclusive education
system. This system should therefore be responsive to their diverse needs,
taking full account of individual differences and situations. It is the learners’
right that schools should make organisational arrangements; provide technical
strategies and utilize appropriate resources and support services, in order to
accommodate their barriers to learning, which will enable them to reach their
full potential. Moreover, this will prevent learning breakdown, exclusion and
isolation (DoE, 1997:11; Mittler, 2000:viii). The aim of inclusion is to put a
learner in the ‘least restrictive environment’ that still affords him the opportunity
to learn effectively (Donald et al., 2002). Several authors and policies maintain
that, although attending a mainstream school is the ideal, there may be many
learners who might not benefit from this, as it may not be the least restrictive
environment for them. Placement in a special school/school for learners with
specific learning difficulties, will be more beneficial for learners when the nature
or severity of their barriers to learning is such that education in mainstream
28
classes, even with supportive aids and services, cannot be achieved
satisfactorily (DoE, 2001:15; DoE, 2008b). Mastropieri and Scruggs
(2004:16,18) concur that the least restrictive environment may be further
removed from the general education class, as the needs of a learner with a
disability increases.
The Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994) and the South African
Constitution (1996) not only call for the right to basic education, but also for the
right to equal educational opportunities for all learners, whatever their needs
or differences may be. UNESCO (2007) equates the principle of equal
opportunities to non-discrimination. The rights of equal opportunities and non-
discrimination have resulted in a strong movement away from segregation to
inclusive educational practices during the past few decades (Dyson & Forlin,
1999:31). Learners with disabilities therefore cannot be denied the opportunity
to participate in educational programs and activities. No person may unfairly
discriminate directly or indirectly against people with disabilities (South African
Constitution, 1996). A disability in itself may pose a handicap for persons with
impairments. No child should be trapped in his disability: equal opportunities
(alongside with his non-disabled peers) and the provision of the necessary
support should be provided to him to achieve as optimally as possible.
Pendlebury and Enslin (2004:36) and Robinson (n.d.) link equal opportunities
to social justice. Social justice is defined as “...promoting a just society by
challenging injustice and valuing diversity” and it exists when “...all people
share a common humanity and therefore have a right to equitable treatment,
support for their human rights and a fair allocation of community resources”
(Robinson, n.d.). Pendlebury and Enslin (2004:36) maintain that social justice
requires the establishment of institutional and other structural conditions for
promoting self-determination and self-development of all members of society.
These authors maintain that, should people with disabilities be excluded from
meaningful participation in social life, they will be potentially vulnerable to
“deprivation and even extermination”. Equal opportunities can only be achieved
by removing barriers in schools and communities (UNESCO, 2007:31). These
barriers include factors such as physical inaccessibility, attitudes towards
29
disability and the non-rendering of support. Schools and teachers should strive
towards the prevention of underachievement, feelings of failure and loss of self-
esteem.
The Salamanca Statement states that the principle of non-discrimination entails
that human differences are normal and that learning must accordingly be
adapted to the needs of the child (UNESCO, 1994:7). Moreover, no child wants
to be singled out and be regarded as being “different”, less worthy or ‘less
favourable’ to take part in mainstream activities (Hobbs & Westling, 2000;
Mittler, 2000:15). The advantage of inclusion is that it will contribute towards
the principle of acceptance, in that all learners will accept those with
disabilities and barriers to learning, as well as to learn the meaning of equal
worth and equal rights. I believe that inclusive education can contribute to
learners becoming more sensitive and tolerant of differences. Unfortunately,
labelling of persons with disabilities and learning difficulties often occur and
these negative and harmful attitudes remain a critical barrier to learning and
development (DoE, 1997:15). Such labelling has an impact on a learner’s self-
esteem and confidence and often leads to lack of motivation and learning
breakdown. Teachers and schools can play a significant role in minimizing
labelling through awareness and knowledge about the various kinds of
disabilities and learning difficulties, as well as purposeful attempts to support
these learners in the classroom. Teacher’s positive attitude towards learners
with disabilities and learning difficulties will be picked up by other learners -
which will enhance acceptance and patience towards them.
Inclusion starts in the classroom. Teachers are the primary resource of
implementing the inclusive education policy. Teachers are faced with new
challenges, which require new knowledge and skills to cope with the diversities
they face in their classrooms on a daily basis (DoE, 2001:6-7). The implication
for them is to be better equipped for inclusion, through support rendered to
them by specialists and the support services from the local district offices of the
Department of Education. UNESCO (2005:23) states that schools should be
committed to become more inclusive and that “...national policies on inclusion,
30
local support systems and appropriate forms of curriculum and assessment,
are important in creating the right context for the development of inclusion”.
The Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994:22) emphasizes that, in order to
adapt to the needs of learners with disabilities (which includes those with
learning difficulties), the assessment procedures for these learners should be
reviewed. According to UNESCO (2007:34), assessment of learning
achievement is vital and it promotes “targeted initiatives” to provide support to
individual learners. Flexibility needs to be evident in teaching methods and in
assessment (DoE, 2001:32), in order to ensure that learners experience
success and self-confidence. Learning difficulties should be identified early in
the child’s school career and learners should be assisted in overcoming them.
Training of teachers and the assistance from specialist teachers and external
support staff is recommended in the provision of assistance to these learners.
Schools and educational policies should also reflect that full account has been
taken of individual differences and situations (UNESCO, 1994:18). Cortiella
(2005) states that the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires that learners
with disabilities be provided with the appropriate assessment accommodations
necessary, in order to fully and equally participate in testing, which will facilitate
the learner's access to grade level instruction. The provision of support in
assessment has implications for teaching practice, which includes time,
training, personnel and material resources, class size and the consideration of
the nature and severity of the disability. By accommodating learners in
assessment, the principles of human rights, equal participation, non-
discrimination, flexibility and acceptance are acknowledged, by providing the
opportunity to “level the playing field”. Inclusion is a philosophy that not only
brings about a change in the educational experience of learners, but also
challenges teachers’ roles in the teaching and learning practice (Maphula,
2005:24). I maintain that learners with barriers to learning have the right to
display their knowledge in a different way, though the implementation of
adaptive methods of assessment. Heumann and Warlick (2000:2) emphasize
that, should learners be excluded from these assessments, it severely limits
and in some cases prevents them “…through no fault of their own”, from
continuing on to post-secondary education. The research presented here, with
31
the philosophy of inclusion as theoretical framework, was to gain information
and insight into teachers’ understanding and implementation of adaptive
methods of assessment, as means to support learners with barriers to
assessment.
It can clearly be seen in the above paragraphs, that there is a close interaction
and interdependence between different sub-systems (individual, family, peer
group, teachers, school, educational system, wider community and whole
social system), with the individual as central entity. In the context of this study,
the individual is the learner with a disability or a learning difficulty as barriers to
learning. In the next paragraphs, the interdependence between the various
subsections is highlighted, as well as the medical model versus the bio-
ecological model.
1.7.5 The medical and social-ecological discourse Engelbrecht (1999:9) emphasizes the accomplishment of systemic change
within schools, in which both practical and personal components of change
should be developed. This author further emphasizes that “... the values,
opinions, attitudes and concerns of educators, learners, administrators and
parents alike are deeply embedded in the systemic structure of schools in
communities...”, whilst Swart and Pettipher (2005:9) state that the major
challenge of the education system is to understand the complexity of the
influences, interactions and interrelationships between the individual learner
and multiple other systems.
According to Swart and Pettipher (2005:5), there was a paradigm shift in the
early 1970s and 1980s on how disability was viewed. A paradigm shift is a
radical change in the way people view the world and attempt to solve problems.
Two of the most prominent paradigms related to disability and educational
support, is the medical model and the social ecological model (Swart &
Pettipher, 2005:5). Within education, there was a radical shift from the medical
model (or within child model) to a social systems change approach.
32
The medical model (traditional approach) conceptualizes disability as a
‘problem’ or ‘defect’ which is situated in the individual due to illness, trauma or
other health conditions, with the result that the individual is viewed as ‘different’
and is ‘singled out’ (Ross & Deverell, 2005:24; Swart & Pettipher, 2005:5). The
problem has to be treated, in order to increase functionality and to cure or ‘fix’
the problem and medical intervention, as well as rehabilitation, focuses on the
body. Gilson and Depoy (2000:208) and Tregaskis (2006) are of the contention
that this model depersonalizes the individual and reduces him/her to an object,
who is ‘deficient’ and beyond support. The medical approach further placed
strong emphasis on the limitation and weaknesses of learners and
consequently the learners were labelled as for example ‘physically disabled’,
‘mentally retarded’ and ‘hearing impaired’ – which caused them to be regarded
as special, inferior and deficient (Dunbar-Krige & Van der Merwe, 2010:164).
The medical model emphasizes placement of these learners in special settings
such as special schools, where specially trained teachers and therapists teach
and treat the learners, in order for them to change and to ‘fit in’ (Swart &
Pettipher, 2005:6).
There is much criticism of the medical model and Sheridan and Gutkin (2000,
in Barnes, 2011:14), as well as Swart and Pettipher (2005:5) point out that this
model is too restrictive for educational support services as “...the ‘cure’ was not
possible without professionals’ intervention”. The first-mentioned authors state
that educational support educators, teachers, learners and parents do not
function in isolation, but are part of – and influenced by – the multiple systems
that surround them and I quote Sheridan and Gutkin (in Barnes, 2011:14):
“...we cannot serve children effectively by decontextualising their problems as
internal pathologies, as the medical model have us do. We must understand
how ‘dysfunction’ relates to the larger systems that encompass our clients, and
find ways to intervene with these systems”.
Due to the criticism of the medical model, a paradigm shift resulted in the
development of a social systems change approach – where the focus shifts
towards the needs, interests and rights of learners, rather than those of the
school (Dunbar-Krige & Van der Merwe, 2010:166).
33
The social-ecological model views disability as part of the diversity of human
existence and not necessarily as a problem which must be treated or cured
(Gilson & Depoy, 2000; Uys, 2005:406). The focus shifts to the way how
disability is regarded and maintained by society such as negative attitudes and
prejudice - which in turn creates social, economical, political, cultural and
psychological exclusion (Goodley & Lawthom, 2006; Swart & Pettipher,
2005:6). Uys (2005:406) emphasizes the removal of societal and environmental
barriers “...in order to facilitate the full development of the individual’s social,
physical, vocational and belief systems”. A change of thinking – and of values,
attitudes and opinions - is required in order to remove the stumbling blocks to
full participation of all learners (Gilson & Depoy, 2000; Ross & Deverell, 2005).
Bronfenbrenner refers to the bio-ecological model of development, which
emphasizes the importance of the interaction between the development of a
learner and the systems within the learner’s social context (Swart & Pettipher,
2005:9). There is an interdependence between different organisms and their
physical environment and these relationships are seen holistically (Donald,
Lazarus & Lolwana, 2006:36). These authors emphasize Bronfenbrenner’s
belief that, what happens in one system affects other systems – and is also
affected by what happens in other systems. Swart and Pettipher (2005:10) cites
Christenson and Sheridan (2001) that the model is useful in understanding
classrooms, schools and families by viewing them as systems in themselves,
as well as being in interaction with the broader social context.
In short, Bronfenbrenner's model explains the direct and indirect influences the
environment, or other contexts, has on a child’s life. He refers to five interacting
dimensions, in order to understand the process of human development, namely
the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, the macrosystem and the
chronosystem. The microsystem refers to a pattern of roles, activities and
interpersonal relations experienced between individuals and the systems in
which they are active participants, such as family, school or peer group and
which involves face-to-face interaction – usually continuous social interactions
(Swart & Pettipher, 2005:11). The learner with a physical or sensory disability,
or specific learning difficulty interacting with family and peers, is an example of
34
a microsystem. The mesosystem – as second level or system – comprises a
set of microsystems that continuously interact with one another. What happens
in a family or peer group can therefore influence how children respond at
school and vice versa (Donald et al., 2005:42). School-family relationships are
an example of the important relationships of different microsystems (Swart &
Pettipher, 2005:11). The exosystem refers to one or more environments in
which the child is not directly involved, but which may influence or be
influenced by what happens in settings and relationships which directly
influence the learner (Swart & Pettipher, 2005:11), such as health services and
the education system. Poor health and medical services, for instance, may
cause a learner with a physical disability to lack the necessary medical
attention and mobility aids, which in turn may affect his functioning at school,
with peers and at home. The fourth system is the macrosystem. This system
involves dominant social, cultural and economic structures, as well as beliefs,
values and practices that influence all systems (Donald et al., 2006:43). It also
refers to the attitudes, beliefs, values and ideologies inherent in the systems of
a particular society and culture which may have an impact – or be influenced –
by any of the before-mentioned systems (Swart & Pettipher, 2005:12). These
authors describe the last system, the chronosystem as ‘developmental time-
frames’ that affect the interactions between the various systems and in turn,
their influences on individual development.
Based on the above it is clear that, within an educational environment, there
are many interrelated, interconnected and interdependent systems influencing
each another, which include the learners, parents, peers, teachers, school
principals, school-based support teams, district-based support teams,
educational policies and the wider community. Changes, attitudes and
functioning in one area will affect attitudes and functioning in one or more of the
other areas. For example, if a principal is positive about support in assessment
for learners with barriers to learning and motivates his staff to implement
adaptive methods of assessment, these learners may experiences the effects
of the support, which in turn may enhance their motivational and achievement
levels, as well as have a positive effect on parents’ attitude towards the school.
35
In conclusion, I agree with Barnes (2011:16) that, within inclusive education,
there should be an awareness of the potential barriers, assets and support
factors (both internal and external) that exist for learners, teachers and all the
other systems that exist in and around a school – as it is in the interaction
between any of the above levels that barriers to learning may occur or support
exist. My view is further that there can be a meaningful relationship between
medical information and educational, learning focussed assessment, as
medical findings may provide useful information on learner achievement or the
lack thereof. Therefore, I made use of both the medical and bio-ecological
paradigms in this study.
Taking the essence of inclusive education into account (as described in Table
1.1, page 22), schools should adapt and respond to the needs of all learners -
including those with barriers to learning - by accommodating individual
differences. In this study, I investigated Grade 7 teachers’ understanding and
implementation of adaptive methods of assessment for learners experience
barriers to learning, specifically learners with intrinsic barriers to learning.
Schools and teachers who accommodate these learners through support in
assessment and interacts with all stakeholders involved with such learners,
show an understanding of the elements of inclusion namely acceptance,
accommodation of a range of diversity, respect for learners’ abilities and rights,
and non-discrimination.
The clarification of concepts is discussed in the next subsection
1.8 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 1.8.1 Assessment Assessment refers to “…the ways teachers and other people involved in a
pupil’s education systematically collect and then use information about that
pupil’s level of achievement and/or development in different areas of their
educational experience” (Watkins, 2007:14) and to assist teachers, parents and
other stakeholders in making decisions about a learner’s progress (Ysseldyke
& Algozzine, 2006:77). It is a process used to measure the extent to which
36
learners are meeting educational standards and to determine the extent of their
knowledge of the content of a learning area, by using various forms of
assessment (DoE, 2006c:8). The purpose of assessment is therefore to
determine a learner’s knowledge, skills and progress and to make value
judgments on their progress and performance.
1.8.2 Adaptive methods of assessment (AMA) AMA can be defined as the changes made in the standard form of assessment,
examinations or assessment process, to deal with the effects of a learner’s
barrier to learning on his performance during tests and examinations (GDE,
2003). AMA is intended to increase the learner’s access to general
assessment, to minimize the effect of the learning barrier on his assessment
performance and to provide him with equal access to instruction and
assessment as that of his peers without disabilities (Clair, Church & Batshaw,
2002:603; Cortiella, 2005). AMA therefore allows learners with barriers to
assessment to show, in a different way, what they know without the impediment
of the disability (Elliot et al., 1998:22). In this study, I used the terms adaptive
methods of assessment and special concessions interchangeably, as most of
the South African documents, such as District Memorandum 40/2003 (GDE,
2003), regard the terms as synonymous.
1.8.3 Special Concessions Special concessions are officially granted to a learner by the District
Examinations Concessions Committee, based on an educational decision and
substantiated by appropriate medical reports and significant educational reports
(GDE, 2003:2). South African documents refer to ‘alternative ways of
assessment’ as synonymous to ‘special concessions’ (GDE, 2010).
Internationally, it is mostly referred to as ‘assessment accommodations’.
Examples of adaptive methods of assessment or special concessions are
additional time, reading to the learner, amanuenses, large print and allowing
the learner to use a computer. Adaptive methods of assessment are applicable
to learners in all grades.
37
1.8.4 Barriers to learning Donald et al. (2002:340) describe barriers to learning as any factor that is an
obstacle or hindrance to learners’ ability to learn. Barriers to learning refer to
any difficulties that arise within the education system as a whole, the learning
site and/or within the learner him/herself, which prevent both the system and
the learner needs from being met (DoE, 2006a:9). Put differently, it refers to
any condition, circumstance, disability or difficulty (extrinsic or intrinsic factors)
that may cause a learner not to fully benefit from the educational programme
and who then requires some form of specific educational help or support in
learning, development and/or assessment (UNESCO, 1994:6).
The term ‘special educational needs’, is often used to refer to learners who may
need extra help in a range of areas, e.g. schoolwork, reading, writing, number
work or understanding information, making friends, behaving properly in school,
organising themselves, or some kind of sensory or physical need which may
affect them at school (Directgov., n.d.). Swart and Pettipher (2005:16)
emphasize that the term “special educational needs” has important implications
for how difference is viewed. As in the case of learners with disabilities and
difficulties, those with exceptional cognitive abilities may also experience
‘special educational needs’, as they will require additional support in the
inclusive classroom. The Department of Education (1997:2) suggests that the
phrase ‘special educational needs’ be replaced with ‘barriers to learning and
development’ - which supports Mittler’s rejection of the phrase ‘special needs’,
which he finds discriminatory (Mittler, 2000:8). However, many teachers still
refer to learners with learning difficulties as ‘LSEN’ – learners with special
educational needs.
1.8.5 Barriers to assessment I define a barrier to assessment as any disability, condition or circumstance that
prevents a learner from demonstrating his knowledge or skills effectively during
assessment, particularly during tests or examinations - and which prevents him
from giving a true reflection of his abilities and potential. The most common
barriers to assessment are specific learning difficulties and physical and
38
sensory disabilities, which may cause reading, writing and working speed
difficulties.
1.8.6 Support The term ‘support’ describes both the learning support provided by teachers to
individual learners in the inclusive classroom, as well as the structures and
arrangements beyond the school, which make it possible for teachers to do this
(Green, Forrester, Mvambi, Janse van Vuuren & du Toit, 1999:128). Support
must focus on the learning and teaching processes by identifying and
addressing learner, teacher and institutional needs (Goodyer, 2008:13), which
includes support in assessment (DoE, 2001:33).
The research program is discussed in the next subsection.
1.9 THE RESEARCH PROGRAM The study comprises six chapters which are as follows: Chapter one introduces the study, providing a detailed introduction and
background to the research problem, as well the aims and objectives of the
study. I discussed the theoretical framework and ethical measures and outlined
the research design and methodology.
In Chapter two, the concept of assessment and the various assessment
strategies in the inclusive classroom are discussed, particularly summative and
formative assessment.
Adaptive methods of assessment are discussed in Chapter three, as well as
the various barriers to learning which may cause barriers to assessment. The
requirements of the Department of Education are outlined. Amanuenses as a
special concession and its procedures for implementation are described in
detail.
Chapter four focuses on the research design and methodology. A description
and motivation for the methods and instruments used during the research is
presented.
39
In Chapter 5, the data analysis is undertaken and the findings, discussion and
interpretation of the research topic are reported.
In the final chapter, Chapter 6, a summary of the findings, recommendations,
the limitations of the study and a conclusion is provided. The rationale and
development of the Guidelines Manual is discussed in detail.
1.10 SUMMARY In this chapter, I endeavoured to explain what motivated me to engage in this
research. The importance of support in the inclusive classroom, which includes
different strategies of assessment for learners who cannot display their
knowledge in the normal test and examination conditions, was emphasized.
Although the inclusive education policy promotes an expanded and rich use of
support mechanisms for all learners who are experiencing specific kinds of
barriers, it appeared from my experience that support in assessment was not
reflected in the current classroom practices and that there was evidence of a
lack of effective and efficient implementation of adaptive methods of
assessment. The research question, “How do Grade 7 teachers at four primary schools understand and implement adaptive methods of assessment, in particular amanuenses, for learners with reading and writing difficulties?” is clearly stated as the aim of this research.
In the following chapter I discuss the various types of assessment that may be
used in the inclusive classroom. I conclude this chapter by quoting Mittler
(2000:177):
“There is no royal road to inclusion, but there is agreement
that it is a process and a journey, rather than a destination”
40
CHAPTER 2
ASSESSMENT IN THE INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, I discussed the background and motivation to the
research, the aim and purpose of the study, the principles of inclusion as
theoretical framework and a summary of the research design and methodology.
This chapter presents with the concept of assessment and the various types of
assessment that can be implemented in the inclusive classroom. My decision to
discuss these various types of assessment lies in the fact that adaptive
methods of assessment ultimately stem from a learner’s limited ability to
perform satisfactorily on a range of assessment tasks, due to a disability or
learning difficulty. The National Department of Education expects from teachers
to address the learning and assessment needs of all learners in the classroom,
irrespective of barriers to learning and development that may exist, with the
emphasis on the progress of learners and the opportunity to experience
success (DoE, 2002a:5). Teachers should therefore choose the appropriate
form of activities and type of assessment when assessing learners,
emphasizing a learner-centred approach. A learner-centred approach entails
that all learners should be given the opportunity to experience success -
through teachers utilizing assessment strategies from which the learners with
diverse learning needs, can benefit most. An inclusive classroom means that
all learners have access to good quality education, which implies a learning
environment in which all children are able to learn (Stofile &Green, 2007:61)
and where a range of learning needs can be met. The principles of non-
discrimination, acceptance and involvement prevail in an inclusive classroom,
as well as the accommodation and acceptance of learners with barriers to
learning (Donald, et al., 2006; Watkins, 2007:15).
In the next subsections, the concept of assessment as well as its principles,
purposes and importance are discussed. This is followed by a discussion of the
41
various types, forms and methods of assessment in the classroom. Adaptive
methods of assessment, in order to address the assessment needs of learners
experiencing specific barriers to learning, are discussed in chapter three.
2.2 THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM STATEMENT ON ASSESSMENT The National Curriculum Statement (NCS)9 forms the foundation for ongoing
curriculum development, delivery and assessment in the South African school
system (DBE, 2011). It upholds the principles of inclusion, namely that of
human rights, social justice, non-discrimination, as well as sensitivity to issues
such as inequality and disability. Furthermore, the NCS aims at the
development of a high level of knowledge and skills for all learners. It
propagates continuous assessment (CASS) throughout the year, as well as the
implementation of different forms of assessment to ascertain that learners are
making progress and can be promoted to the next grade. CASS includes
informal and formal assessments, in order to determine the knowledge and
skills learners have achieved. Archer et al. (1999:112) agree that all aspects of
both formative and summative factors should be integrated in the inclusive
classroom.
The formative and summative assessment in the inclusive classroom include
questionnaires, role-play, tests, examinations, projects, simulations, research
investigations, assignments, case studies, practical tasks, performances,
practical demonstrations, dialogue, videos, guest talks, data presentations,
DVD’s, class work and homework. (I have indicated in cursive print where
reading and/or writing skills are required in the class/examination room, for
which adaptive methods of assessment may be applicable for learners with
reading and writing difficulties). The Department of Education (DoE, 2006a:3)
also requires that different forms of activities/assessment should be used for
promotion purposes, such as portfolios, class work, homework, assignments,
tests, examinations and projects.
9 From 2012, the NCS will be replaced by the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). The CAPS was not used for the purpose of this study.
42
Inclusive education is a learner-centred, results-orientated approach based on
the promise that all learners can learn and succeed (DoE, 2001). I agree with
Olivier (2002:6) that inclusion can only succeed if teachers keep in mind that
learners differ and that they, as teachers, should follow different teaching and
assessment strategies to accommodate all the learners in the teaching and
learning situation, so that skills, knowledge and the learning process can be
appropriately assessed. The important considerations for teachers are the how
to assess, as well as why learners should be assessed. In comparison with
Olivier’s statement, Bouwer (2005:47) states that teachers should constantly
look beyond the assessment itself and focus on the learning support which
learners – especially those with barriers to learning – may require. This author
maintains that a teacher’s understanding of learning support will direct her
purpose during assessment, influence her selection of assessment strategies
as well as the actual questions she asks. Therefore, I contend that teachers
should at all times be alert to any barrier to learning that learners may
experience, in order to accommodate and address these barrier(s).
2.3 THE CONCEPT OF ASSESSMENT The root of the word ‘assessment’ is derived from the Latin verb assidere,
which means ‘to sit beside/close by’’ (Maree & Fraser, 2004:204) and
subsequently, in order to reveal what learners know and can do, it is necessary
to be close to them and even moving alongside them in the pursuing of
challenges in learning.
Quality assessment provides substantive data for making informed decisions
about student learning (Herman, Aschbacher & Winters, 1992). Assessment
should provide a clear indication of learner achievement in the most effective
and efficient manner and collecting evidence of achievement by using a variety
of forms of assessment (DBE, 2011:3; DoE, 2007:8; Watkins, 2007:49). These
forms of assessment may include traditional forms such as tests and
examinations and alternative forms of assessment, for example self
assessment, projects and portfolio assessment.
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Assessment means to obtain information regarding a phenomenon, using a
variety of procedures; for example testing, informal observations and
documentation of performances (Guskey, 2000:47). In the learning process,
assessment procedures are specifically intended to determine how learners are
functioning academically, socially, behaviourally, and/or adaptively (Spinelli,
2002:5). It is “…the process of identifying, gathering and interpreting
information about the performance of learners, as measured against nationally
agreed outcomes for a particular phase of learning” (DoE, 2007:7) and to assist
teachers, parents and other stakeholders in making decisions about a learner’s
progress (DBE, 2011:4; Herman et al., 1992:1; Venn, 1994:3; Ysseldyke &
Algozzine, 2006:77). The central purpose is not simply to judge the outcome of
learning, but also to provide supportive and positive mechanisms that help
learners and educators to improve their teaching (DoE, 2004a:1). The
assessment process also reveals how learners learn best and what motivates
them to achieve. This helps the teacher to define the kinds of instructional
approaches that will be most successful with students (Sands et al., 2000:228).
Assessment therefore indicates what learners want to know, what they already
know and what they need to know (Archer et al., 1999:104).
Schools and teachers should do as much as possible to foster success for all
learners, by using as many forms of assessment as possible to determine what
skills, knowledge and values a learner has obtained. Multiple assessment and
multiple types of assessment seem to benefit all learners (Rieck & Dugger
Wadsworth, 2005:106). The National Qualifications Framework (DoE, 1995:16)
maintains that assessment consists of a task or a series of tasks set, in order to
obtain information about a learner’s competence. Information may be obtained
through assessment in classroom tests, homework, projects or in examination
papers. For the purpose of this study, assessment is the most important means
of providing information to teachers on what learners have learnt and if they are
able to reveal what they know and can do, by using various forms of
assessment. The purpose of assessment is ultimately to achieve growth and
development in learning, as discussed below.
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2.4 THE PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT Killen (2003:2) states that there are a number of reasons why learners are
assessed: for screening, selection, certification and classification, diagnosis,
progression/progress evaluation, programme evaluation and instructional
planning/improvement. These include baseline assessment, formative
assessment, diagnostic assessment and summative assessment. Baseline
assessment refers to the procedure before the beginning of any new learning
cycle to determine what learners know, what they are interested in, what their
experiences are and how they learn best (North West University, NWU,
n.d.:23). Screening is done throughout the learner’s school years, in order to
identify whether the child needs additional support. The teacher is normally in
the best position to notice if a learner’s performance and progress differs
markedly from the rest of the class and if it is markedly different from the
average (Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 2006:9). Should the learner not make
satisfactory progress after additional support was given - such as extra classes,
adaptation of classroom materials and instruction - the learner should be
referred for assessment by a specialist, e.g. an educational psychologist.
Professionals normally make use of norm-referenced tests to determine the
reasons for a learner’s specific performance, doing these assessments for
diagnostic purposes. Norm-referenced tests versus criterion-referenced tests
are discussed in subsection 2.8.1 of this chapter.
Types of assessment can also indicate whether it is assessment of learning or
assessment for learning. Seifert and Sutton (2009:241) describe assessment
for learning as formative assessment and assessment of learning as
summative assessment. Assessment for learning is the process of using
classroom assessment in order to improve learning, whereas assessment of
learning is the measurement of what learners know and can do. For the
purpose of this study, I was interested in the performance of learners with
barriers to learning in classroom tests and summative assessments (the
assessment of learning), as these assessments concern progress evaluation,
as well as teachers’ support for these learners in the assessment process.
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The Department of Education (DoE, 2007:7), defines assessment as a
continuous planned activity that is based on the assessment of knowledge,
skills, progress, the quality and quantity of performance and whether the
learner can demonstrate his knowledge and skills in order to progress to a next
grade. It is a strategy to determine how learners are learning, what they are
learning and what they are able to do or not to do. Herman et al. (1992:95)
maintain that assessment provides information for decision-making about what
learners have learned, what grades are deserved, whether learners should be
promoted to a next grade and what assistance and support they may need.
Regular feedback to the learner and parents helps to identify areas in the
learning process where additional attention is required. Feedback after
assessment entails that the learner first realizes the gap between the desired
goal and his current level of understanding, identifies the causes of this gap
and then acts to close it (Segers, Dochy & Cascallar, 2003:23) - if this is
possible - taking the barrier to learning into consideration.
Assessment is a tool to enhance effective learning. It helps the teacher to
identify areas of need, to refine teaching skills, do further lesson planning and
identify when revision of re-teaching and re-assessment is required (Segers et
al., 2003:23). The learners’ mastery or lack of mastery of learning material
helps them to evaluate their own progress. Through assessment, learners can
gain self-knowledge of their capabilities, strengths, weaknesses and needs; by
means of self-reflection, discussion and cooperation with the teachers and
peers. In addition, assessment is a strategy to motivate learners, so that they
gradually take control of their own learning (Archer et.al., 1999:100) in order to
develop into “...self-regulating persons who manage their lives as contributing
citizens”. Because it is part of the learning process, it is a method of gauging
success. The whole purpose of education is to facilitate learning and teach,
guide and shape learners into becoming useful and valued citizens. I regard
assessment as a valuable tool for the teachers in order to give recognition,
encouragement and praise to a learner with the purpose of motivation.
According to Maslow (in Grobler, 2001:25), the need for recognition is a
motivational need. If a learner receives adequate recognition for his
endeavours, it will lead to further motivation to perform to the best of his ability.
46
However, in order for a learner to become motivated, he needs to experience
success. Assessment is a very important tool for teachers to determine the
learners’ strengths and weaknesses and through this, to consider whether
adapted forms of assessment may by needed to address the weaknesses and
to build on the strengths (Watkins, 2007:22,24). By means of assessment,
teachers can get to know every individual learner and determine whether he or
she requires additional support. If support is to be helpful and relevant to the
needs of all learners, assessment types and methods that are applied should
extend beyond only the monitoring of learners’ progress, towards the
monitoring of the achievement of specific outcomes (Goodyer, 2008:13).
Bouwer (2005:46) emphasizes that, for the most effective learning support,
teachers should devise appropriate strategies for all learners.
Assessment should also provide information to policy makers with the purpose
of continuously improving the whole education system, so that the policy of
inclusive education can improve (Watkins, 2007:21). I find this statement
particularly applicable with regard to adaptive methods of assessment, as I
could not locate any formal South African policy on this issue. By addressing
the assessment needs of learners with specific barriers to learning, I believe
that the principles of inclusive education could be realized more effectively.
In summary, assessment should aim to determine how learning support may
best be facilitated for learners to reach their maximum potential and in the case
of barriers that might exist, to build on learners’ present level of performance
and their personal strengths, by utilizing assets accessible in the educational
environment in which they find themselves (Bouwer, 2005:48; DBE, 2010:66)).
Through assessment, learners who experience barriers to learning can be
identified early and they can then be provided with specific and appropriate
support. Segers et al. (2003:3) emphasize that research has shown
convincingly that using assessment as a tool for learning and teaching,
including good and well-timed feedback, leads to better results when assessing
learning outcomes.
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Because assessment reflects on learners’ performance and progress, it is
necessary to understand the importance of assessment, as discussed in the
following subsection.
2.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment is an integral part of the teaching process and should therefore be
planned and done properly (DoE, 2007:8; Santrock, 2011:549). Unless
teachers believe that assessment is a very important and essential part of their
professional work, they will not be willing to devote the time - that its
importance deserves - to it. The importance of assessment is reflected in the
definitions and purposes as described above, namely that it primarily gives a
reflection of learners’ progress in the learning process. Assessment, however,
also affects a learner’s learning and motivation (Santrock, 2011:551). I am of
the opinion that, should learners succeed in one learning activity, they will gain
confidence, have the courage to engage in other activities and be prepared to
take on new challenges. I reiterate my belief that when learners experience
success, their motivational levels will also increase.
Teaching itself is valueless without assessment. Assessment should always be
based on objectives and it should have a clear purpose and focus (Santrock,
2011:549). The objective of teaching is a statement of what the learner should
be able to do as a result of instruction and whether the learner learned what
was expected (DoE, 2007:8). Trice (2000:18) is of the opinion that, in the past,
assessment was thought of as something separate from learning and
instruction and that there was very little integration amongst the sequence of
learning goals for each subject, the techniques of teaching and instruction, the
way in which learners learned and developed over the primary school years
and the way in which assessments was done. This author maintains that
teaching cannot be compartmentalized into these four areas, but it is a
complete, inseparable act. What learners need to learn, the way in which the
teacher teaches them, how their progress is assessed, what is learned from the
assessment and what will be taught next, is considered as the integration of
learning, the curriculum, the instruction and assessment.
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The Department of Education (2007:8) advises the use of various forms of
assessment, in order to obtain adequate evidence of achievement. Both
informal and formal classroom assessment can be applied to provide feedback
to learners and to ameliorate teaching. Informal assessments are daily
assessments which monitor learners’ progress and this is done by means of
observations, discussions and informal classroom interactions. Formal
assessment has the purpose of evaluating learners’ progress in a grade and
encompasses projects, oral presentations, classroom tests and examinations. It
is expected from teachers to record learners’ performance in all formal
assessment tasks (although this is not required for daily or informal
assessment tasks, except in some cases to support the teaching and learning
process). Progression and promotion to a next grade is based on recorded
evidence in formal assessment tasks (DBE, 2011:4; DoE, 2006b:3).
Progression means the movement of a learner to the next grade, although the
learner did not meet all the promotion requirements. Promotion means the
movement of a learner to the next grade, as the required level of achievement
per subject has been met (DBE, 2011:x). Formal and informal assessment is
discussed in more detail in section 2.8. The principles of assessment are
reflected in the next subsection.
2.6 THE PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT There are various principles of assessment that should be taken into account
by the teachers in the inclusive classroom. The Department of Education
(2008b:111) maintains that the principles of inclusivity do not only apply to the
curriculum, but also to assessment both in the classroom and for external
examinations10.
At all times should teachers think and rethink their assessment strategies in
order to accommodate and support all learners. I fully support the SIAS11
10 External examinations are assessment activities which were designed, directed and coordinated by the Provincial and/or National Departments of Education (DoE, 2006a:24). 11 National Strategy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support – a document outlining the roles of teachers, parents, managers and support staff on how support in the classroom should be.
49
document (DoE, 2006b:27), which states that effective assessment needs to be
guided by the following specific principles:
a) Educators, parents and learners should be centrally involved in the
assessment process;
b) Respect for all concerned should be maintained;
c) The purpose of assessment should be clear and open;
d) It should be appropriate and relevant to the realities and context of the
person or institution concerned;
e) It must be fair, bias-free and sensitive to the diversity of the learners
(gender, race, cultural background, religion and abilities);
f) It needs to identify barriers to learning with the purpose of improving the
teaching and learning process;
g) Assessment is a continuous process, that is built into the teaching and
learning process;
h) It needs to be multi-dimensional or systemic in nature, located within
the framework of barriers of the individual (learners and educator),
curriculum, institution, the family, community and social contextual
levels;
i) The school-based support team and district support teams need to work
closely together to ensure that the assessment processes are pursued
well;
j) It should be manageable and time-efficient;
k) It needs to be varied, including various forms and drawing from various
perspectives and
l) Assessment results must be clearly, accurately and timeously
documented and communicated to those involved.
The principle of fairness is emphasized in the Accredited Assessors Course
Training Manual of the North West University (NWU, n.d.:16-18). Different
factors should be taken into account to ensure fairness, e.g. that learners
should have had a reasonable time to study, not to expect them to answer an
extremely large number of questions in a short time and to ensure equal
opportunity for success, regardless of the individual learner’s physical disability
50
or learning difficulty. The question teachers should ask themselves is: “Does
the assessment task give every learner a reasonable opportunity to
demonstrate his understanding or skill?”
Furthermore, teachers must ensure that the content of the classroom tests or
examination assessment is relevant to what was taught and what learners have
been expected to understand. Teachers should also try to maximise the validity
of the inferences drawn as a result of the assessment. The question to be
considered is: “Based on the evidence provided by the assessment task, can I
justify the conclusions I have reached about the achievements of each
learner?” (NWU, n.d.:16). Objective test items should help the teacher to
distinguish between, or identify, learners who have studied for whatever is
being assessed and those who have not. Reasons for learner’s low scores
should be investigated, in order to address these and to possibly render
additional support. The relevant question for the teacher to ask is: “Why does
this test item elicit different responses from different learners, and are those
responses indicative of the level of understanding of each learner?” (NWU,
n.d.:17).
The meaningfulness and contribution to learning is also emphasized. If
assessment tasks are meaningful to learners, they will be more motivated to
engage in the assessment task and the task will therefore contribute to their
learning, to a worthwhile educational experience and to their motivation.
Therefore, teachers should always explain the purpose of the assessment to
them. Assessment tasks will not be meaningful to learners who have
insufficient background knowledge or delayed language skills. The question to
ask is: “Is the purpose of the assessment task clear to the learners and will they
understand how it will contribute to their learning?” (NWU, n.d.:18).
It is clear from the above that teachers should continuously be observant of
learners’ performance and needs and should consider the reasons for learners
not performing to their maximum potential. Therefore, the role of the teacher in
the inclusive classroom must be deliberated, as is done in the following
paragraph.
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2.7 THE TEACHER IN THE INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM The teacher in the inclusive classroom plays a vital role in the inclusive learning
community, as she is in daily contact with the learners. It is the teacher’s
responsibility to apply the inclusive approach and to adhere to the principles of
inclusion, as discussed in chapter one.
The complexity of teaching and the diversity of learners that the teacher deals
with, require that she masters a variety of perspectives and strategies and also
requires that she be flexible in the application of these skills. Santrock (2011:6)
emphasizes three important characteristics that the teacher should have
namely 1) professional knowledge and skills, 2) commitment and 3)
professional growth. These include a solid core of teaching skills, excellent
instructional strategies and goal setting, the ability to encourage learners to
explore their world, discover knowledge and think critically, the ability to
motivate learners, to communicate and work effectively with learners, be able
to work with a diversity of learners, be sensitive to learners’ needs and have a
good attitude and a caring concern for her learners. A good teacher will also be
willing to seek advice from colleagues and other experienced teachers, co-
operate and consult with parents, as well as with community members and
specialised professionals.
I must emphasize the importance of support. As the teacher in the inclusive
classroom may have learners experiencing barriers to learning, she should
never see learning support as separate from the teaching and learning process.
This includes assessment. The teacher should use assessment effectively, in
order to encourage learners to become more actively and meaningfully
involved in the work and to become more intrinsically motivated. Teachers
should create conditions in the classroom for all learners to succeed. I quote
the several important questions teachers need to ask themselves concerning
their assessment practices, from the Assessment Guideline for Inclusion (DoE,
2002a:7):
- “What concepts, skills or knowledge am I trying to assess?
- What should my learners know?
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- At what levels should my learners be performing?
- What type of knowledge is being assessed: reasoning, memory or
process?
- Are all learners treated fairly, particularly those who experience barriers
to learning?
- Are my assessment practices non-discriminatory?
- Is the assessment practised aimed at increasing learning and
participation and minimizing exclusion?
- Are my assessment approaches an attempt to minimize categorization
of learners?
- Are ranges of assessment used that allow all my learners to display their
skills, and
- Have environmental influences such as poverty and trauma been taken
into account during the assessment process? “
Teacher should not only take extrinsic factors (such as poverty and trauma)
into account, but also the intrinsic factors that could have an effect on
assessment performance, such as disabilities and learning difficulties.
According to Archer et al. (1999:115) “...it is essential that teachers should be
well prepared to understand the value and utility of the assessment tasks they
have devised and their purposes and functions”. The teacher should ensure
that the assessments are challenging, but fair. Easy assessments will lead to
learners being bored and not motivated to work hard. Assessments which are
too difficult, on the other hand, especially regarding learners with barriers to
learning, will have a negative effect on a learner’s motivation and self-efficacy.
This may also cause severe anxiety (Santrock, 2011:551). I agree with Seifert
and Sutton (2009:242,267), that learners’ motivation and confidence is
influenced by the type of assessment that the teacher uses, as well as the
feedback that she gives on the results of the assessment. My experience has
shown that learners who struggle with reading, also struggle with the studying
of subject matter – therefore, adaptive methods of assessment should be
considered by the teacher, in order to make the assessments less stressful for
such a learner.
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With the introduction of the inclusive education policy, many demands have
been made on teachers in South Africa. Not only did they have to adapt to an
entirely new curriculum and to a new way of teaching and learning, but they
also had to adjust to the demands of a diverse classroom and to learners’
different levels of development – which includes the identification and
management of learners with a variety of barriers to learning. Further demands
were made on teachers with regard to different kinds of assessment that were
introduced. According to Archer et al. (1999:99), teachers were expected to
implement these different kinds of assessments and “...to take them so
seriously as to reflect on, interpret and validate judgements as part of
understanding and facilitating learner growth and development”. Assessment
has changed so much in a short time, that it is expected of teachers to be well
informed about it. These authors further maintain that classroom assessment
provides teachers with information on their teaching and professionalism;
teachers should continually assess their own accountability as professionals
and as dedicated teachers; they should be accountable to the learners,
parents, the personnel and structures in which they work, as well as to the
school, the principal and the education department which employs them.
Teachers are expected to know the different types of assessment, the
purposes they serve, how they can be used and how they should be interpreted
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2004:335). In my view, teachers should be able to
select assessment strategies interchangeably, bearing in mind the goals they
wish to achieve. Different teaching and learning situations require different
assessment strategies, tools and techniques. I argue that teachers should be
knowledgeable about the different types of assessment strategies, including the
different adaptive methods of assessment and special concessions that could
be considered for learners who may benefit from them.
Concerns have been raised about teachers’ knowledge and skill levels
regarding inclusion, as well as teaching learners who bring diverse learning and
behaviour needs into the classroom (Wade, 2000:221). At present it appears
that there is a lack of knowledge, training, expertise, skills and willingness to
implement special concessions regarding this matter in ordinary schools. Swart
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and Pettipher (2001:40) agree that teachers consequently feel overwhelmed,
frustrated and helpless. These feelings then lead to misconceptions and
negativity. These authors maintain that teachers’ assumptions, beliefs and
attitudes have a direct influence on the actions, teaching practices and decision
making in the classroom. Should their questions and uncertainties be
repressed and unquestioned, “...negative attitudes can be corrosive to efforts to
implement inclusive education, as well as counterproductive, as they spread in
a contagious manner amongst the rest of the school community” (Swart &
Pettipher, 2001:41).
In order to address, explore and share teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, values and
perceptions, collaborative teams and teacher partners are suggested by
several authors (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2004:29-58; Santrock, 2011:200;
Swart & Pettipher, 2001:34-41; Swart & Pettipher, 2005:19; Wade, 2000:5). A
collegial, collaborative atmosphere - where attitudes and beliefs can be shared,
discussed, restructured and rethought - provides the opportunity to reflect on
personal ideas and beliefs in a more dynamic and creative way. Inclusive
education therefore challenges teachers to rethink and verbalise their roles and
responsibilities, reconstruct their knowledge and learn new skills, in order to
adapt to the desired change. The inclusive system requires effective
assessment practices and teaching strategies to support all learners and to
meet their needs. This is the reason why teachers need to obtain the necessary
skills and knowledge regarding the different types of assessment. Ongoing
support and adequate training for all teachers, principals, school-based support
teams and education support services should be available. It is therefore
argued that, in order to ensure the success of inclusive practices, teachers
should accept the inclusive education policy, as it is likely to affect their
commitment to implement it (Hornby, Atkinson & Howard, 1997:79). Through
commitment, teachers have a profound influence on learners. We all remember
the teachers from our school years who inspired us to have positive feelings
towards them, mostly due to their warm attitude, as well as the good teaching
practices, they conveyed to the learners.
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The different types of assessment in the inclusive classroom, is discussed in
the following sections.
2.8 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
Classroom assessment remains an important part in the South African school
culture. The question is not whether there should be assessment, but how to
assess more effectively, in order to obtain information that would be of use for
the purpose and objectives that must be met. The two most important types of
assessment that are implemented in the inclusive classroom are summative
and formative assessment. In both these types of assessment, adaptive
measures of assessment can be implemented to accommodate learners whose
barriers to learning affect assessment performance. The more types teachers
use to assess their learners, the better picture they can obtain about what the
learners know and are able to do and they will then also be able to cater for
different learners’ needs (Rieck & Dugger Wadsworth, 2005:106). O’Brien
(2000) maintains that teachers are allowed to use whatever materials and
methods appropriate for specific learners, as learners have different capabilities
and that there is no single strategy that is suitable for all learners at all times.
I summarized the different types and forms of assessment in Figure 2.1 (page
56).
56
Adapted from:
Archer et al. (1999:109-123),
DoE (2006a:3) and Spinelli
(2002:83-90).
Figure 2.1 Types and forms of assessment
Before I engage in the discussion of the different types of assessment, the
difference between norm-referenced and criterion referenced tests are briefly
discussed.
SUMMATIVE
ASSESSMENT
FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT
At the end of a learning period
Continuous assessment
Classroom tests Examinations
Authentic assessment Performance assessment Portfolio assessment Dynamic assessment Peer assessment Self assessment Observation-based assessment Parental assessment
Pen-and-paper tests
Includes assessment forms:
Presentations Debates/arguments Interviews Demonstrations Role-play Projects Performances Practical demonstrations Dialogue Assignments
Case studies
Research investigations
Questionnaires
Journal entries
Class work
Homework
May require support by means of
ADAPTIVE METHODS
OF ASSESSMENT
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2.8.1 Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests Norm-referenced tests are formal tests and have the objective of comparing a
learner’s performance to the performance of a ‘norm’ group (Bouwer, 2005:57).
The norm consists of sets of scores for age groups or grade levels, based on
average scores of the subjects of that norm group and is reported in
percentiles, standard scores and/or age or grade equivalents (Spinelli,
2002:51). A norm-referenced test therefore determines a learner’s placement
on a normal distribution curve and the learners compete against each other.
Norm-referenced tests are content-based and focus on competency tests. All
norm-referenced tests are standardized. Standardized tests are a model of
assessment to measure intelligence, personality, aptitude and emotional
characteristics. Tables are drawn up to show which learners perform above the
average, average or below the average, as compared to other learners.
This means that the tests must be administered according to certain criteria so
that all learners test according to the same administration and scoring
procedures. The information that is derived from the test results, assumes that
standardized conditions were applied. Standardized administration procedures
are expected to be correctly followed for the test results to be meaningful
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2004:336; Spinelli, 2002:51).
Criterion-referenced tests are used to determine learners’ mastery of specific
concepts or skills in a subject area, rather than other learners’ performance.
The learner’s performance is compared to a standard of performance called the
pre-determined criterion (Trice, 2000:8) and is closely linked to a particular
curriculum or set of competencies (Bouwer, 2005:56).
Criteria-referenced tests give specific information on skills and sub-skills that
the learner understands and can perform. Specific outcomes are targeted and
the learner’s competence can be examined in more detail (Bouwer, 2005:58). A
learner’s score is compared to specific criteria and it provides information of
skills the learner has not mastered yet. According to Bouwer, criterion-
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referenced tests give direction on which learning support is required, as well as
on assessing individual progress.
Criterion-referenced tests are also called teacher-made tests (Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 2004:343; Seifert & Sutton, 2009:240; Trice, 2000:73) or objective-
referenced tests and curriculum-based tests (Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 2006:78).
They are normally based on the curriculum and on learning expectations in a
specific learning area. With regard to learners with barriers to learning, criteria-
based tests can assist the teacher to measure progress towards the goals and
objectives of the individual education plan (IEP)12, as well as to adapt teaching
and methods of assessment where required. The most significant criterion-
referenced tests applied in the inclusive classroom, are summative and
formative assessments, which I discuss next.
2.8.2 Summative assessment Summative assessment is usually applied at the end of a particular instructional
period and/or at the end of an academic year and gives direction about a
learner’s promotion to a next grade, of future planning and work placement.
The sum of all forms of assessment which is implemented in the classroom
provides the teacher with an overview of a learner’s progress (e.g. a
comparison between his current achievements and previous achievements),
possible barriers to learning that might exist and it gives meaningful
interpretation of a learner’s strengths, weaknesses and locus of need (Watkins,
2007:24). Summative assessment aims to measure what the learners have
learnt and what they can do. Summative assessment can be regarded as
assessment of learning and Watkins states that it can be used as the basis for
crucial decision-making about a learner’s school career. This includes
possibilities for a learner to repeat a school year or whether a learner should be
referred to a specialist for assessment to determine possible barriers to
learning (Watkins, 2007:24)
12 An IEP is designed to meet the unique needs of a learner. It contains a description of the learner’s specific needs; it describes the goals and objectives to address these needs and helps teachers and service providers to understand how the learner’s disability/difficulty affects his learning (Mittler, 2000:92)
59
Traditionally, summative assessments are the typical pencil-and-paper tests,
which are usually content and input-based (Santrock, 2011:558). Summative
assessment is also categorised under the term formal assessment, with the
purpose of rating academic success in classrooms and is based on quantitative
results laid down by the curriculum. The input-based approach to assessment
focuses on the recall of content given by teachers and textbooks (usually at the
end of a unit of study), in order to see how learners are progressing.
Summative tests are part of the assessment tasks of the curriculum and focus
on two main types of item formats in assessment, namely selected-response
items and constructed-response items (Santrock, 2011:558; Seifert & Sutton,
2009:256), which I discuss next.
2.8.2.1 Selected-response items Selected-response items have the objective item format in which learners’
responses can be scored on quick inspection and learners have to select a
response provided by the teachers, rather than to construct a response in their
own words (Santrock, 2011:558; Seifert & Sutton, 2009:249). Questions
requiring a true/false answer, multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank and matching
items are the most widely used types of items in this category. True-false
questions require learners to indicate whether a statement is correct or
incorrect. Multiple choice questions require a learner to choose a correct
answer from a set of possible answers. Matching items require that a learner
be able to connect one group of statements to another group of answers.
2.8.2.2 Constructed-response items Short-answer and essay items are the most common types of constructed-
response items. Seiffert and Sutton (2009:254) claim that constructed response
items can be used to assess a variety of kinds of knowledge. Learners are
expected to write out information, rather than select a response from a menu.
The longer essay questions give learners more freedom of response, as they
can write more than in other formats. Short-answer items require learners to
give only a word, a short sentence or a short phrase in response to a question.
These items are good for assessing learners’ understanding of material, higher-
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level skills, the ability to organize information and writing skills (Santrock,
2011:560), but that they typically measure rote learning.
2.8.2.3 Advantages of summative assessment Multiple choice items have the advantage that they can be used to measure
many levels of learning, can cover an extensive sampling of work, are easy to
administer and grade and learners find it easy to understand (Seifert & Sutton,
2009:250). Summative assessment is particularly appropriate to assess a
broad sample of the learners’ knowledge of the content of given work; it
enables the teacher to quickly assess the learners’ mastery or lack of mastery,
as shown in the answers of questions. Immediate feedback can be given on
strengths and weaknesses with regard to the learning unit (Rieck & Dugger
Wadsworth, 2005:106) and the results of assessment are used for promoting a
learner to a next grade. Although formative assessment is currently popular,
summative assessment should not necessarily be eliminated by other types of
assessment, as they are valid for testing learners’ factual knowledge (Brown &
Shavelson, 1994:87; Herman et al., 1992:9), as well as basic competencies
such as spelling and mathematics.
2.8.2.4 Criticism on summative assessment Goodyer (2008:22) and Watkins (2007:25) are of the opinion that summative
assessment gives virtually no direction as to learning support and are of little
value for individualised instructional planning purposes and that problem-
solving skills, the ability to organize and to express ideas, cannot be
determined accurately. Seifert and Sutton (2009:250) claims that there is a
50% probability of getting the correct answer through guessing (in selected
response items) - which makes it difficult to interpret how much learners know
from their test scores, while essay items mainly entail the memorization of
information for tests.
Although summative assessment aims to measure what learners have learnt,
my concern is that longer essay questions can be a source of severe distress
and emotional discomfort to learners who experience reading and writing
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difficulties. This method of assessment is often not supportive towards the
learners who suffer from severe anxiety during tests and examinations, or the
learners who lack good test-taking skills. Bouwer (2005:46) emphasizes that
there is often a performance-orientated perception of assessment, leading to
learners asking, “Am I good enough?” Summative assessment is a quantitative
approach aimed at differentiating between learners and ranking them according
to their achievement (Segers et al., 2003:15). Mastropieri and Scruggs
(2004:338) emphasize that learners with barriers to learning may exhibit
difficulties with this method of assessment, because of problems such as
language or communication styles, the length of the tests or reading difficulties
that may limit the reliability and validity of their test scores.
Jansen (2007:25-27) criticises the “...meaningless memorizing of knowledge,
regurgitating archaic formulas or disconnected historical events and cramming
for exams” and regards it as a dumbing down of learners in the education
system. He states that, in South Africa, there is an obsession with high pass
rates and matriculation symbols and a mindless competition among schools
about who gets the best results, instead of creating a deep learning, requisite
knowledge and skills acquisition. The latter is imperative in order to develop
skilled young people to enter the labour market. Rieck and Dugger Wadsworth
(2005:106) emphasize that classroom assessment needs to be more extensive
than mere tests: “Teachers should not get so involved with testing that they
neglect other available forms of assessment that may provide alternate means
of determining whether objectives have been achieved”.
In spite of the criticism, pen and paper tests are an integral part of the
assessment tasks. Pen and paper tests, as Rieck and Dugger Wadsworth
(2005:106) put it, “…will always be with us”. It is during summative assessment
that learners with reading and writing difficulties will have to be considered for
adaptive methods of assessment and special concessions. This support given
to these learners will emphasize a learner-centred approach in the inclusive
classroom.
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2.8.3 Formative assessment Formative assessments are assessments other than the traditional tests or
examinations, also referred to as alternative assessment by some authors
(Santrock, 2011:563). In the last few years, assessment for learning has
become a topic of great emphasis in the educational literature and previously
unfamiliar terms such as dynamic assessment, authentic assessment,
alternative assessment and portfolios, became evident (Santrock, 2011:550).
The possible negative effects of traditional testing have caused the
development of new alternative types of assessment. The new types of
assessment enhance learning and teaching – from assessment of learning to
assessment for learning (Bouwer, 2005:46; Watson & Taylor, n.d.). Segers et
al., (2003:xi) constitutes that “…we have been trapped by our collective
experiences to see a limited array of things to be assessed, a very few ways of
assessing them, limited strategies for communicating results and inflexible
roles of players in the assessment drama”. These authors emphasize that
learning should be in congruence with assessment and that the assessment
culture should move from testing to multiple assessment and from isolated to
integrated instruction and assessment - as learners face a world of new
demands regarding knowledge, abilities and competencies (Segers et al.,
2003:1; Spinelli, 2002:49). Learners should therefore be able to apply their
knowledge in a creative way in realistic situations to solve problems and with
the new types of assessment, their role changes from being passive
consumers of knowledge to active constructors of meaning, where they take
responsibility for their learning. The emphasis is on the active role of learners
that generates feedback. Rieck and Dugger Wadsworth (2005:106) agree that,
in order to assess learners’ full knowledge base, multiple opportunities should
be given to demonstrate that knowledge.
Formative assessment takes place on a daily basis and it is an ongoing
process in the inclusive classroom. Its purpose is the gathering of information
over time, to determine what learners are able to do and how they progress
towards achieving the outcomes; to identify individual strengths and
achievement, as well as identify special needs and indicate how learning might
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be adapted or enhanced for the class and for specific learners (Santrock,
2011:551). It also provides feedback to the teacher for the purpose of
improving instruction, rather than for making final decisions or for accountability
(DoE, 2006a:2). Formative assessment can be regarded as the foundation of
further planning and can be used to encourage learners to reflect on their own
progress. Although formative assessment strategies are usually informal
processes, they may also be formal and they can cover more than mere
curricula content (NWU, n.d.:114; Watkins, 2007:23). The strategies for the
gathering of information might include tests in which the scores serve as only
one of the many modes of formative assessment.
Archer et al. (1999:110) emphasize the identification dimension (or as they put
it, the ‘diagnostic dimension’) of formative assessment, which enables teachers
to plan and manage educational support for learners in the inclusive classroom.
It may be a formal or an informal activity, to provide a complete understanding
of the learner’s interest in learning programmes, prior knowledge, pre-skills,
pre-attitudes and values (Paulsen & Hoosain, n.d.:6). The teacher may use
unstructured strategies, such as questions at the beginning of a lesson. A pre-
test, for example, is a measure to determine a learner’s knowledge of
information “...that will be taught, before it is taught” (NWU, n.d.:35).
Identification does, however, not stop once the teacher’s planning for the
lesson is completed. Effective teachers continue to identify learners’
understanding and interest throughout each lesson or unit of teaching. This
type of assessment is formative, as it helps to shape the learning.
In the learning environment, learners as well as teachers, obtain clarity on what
and how learners learn, whether the learners develop new skills, if they can
apply their knowledge and skills in “real-world” situations; whether discussions
and feedback lead to the achievement of the learning objectives; the motivation
of learners, the development of higher-order thinking skills and the
development of collaborative skills (Spinelli, 2002:53). This author further
maintains that formative assessment requires learners to actively accomplish
complex as well as significant tasks using prior knowledge, recent learning and
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relevant skills to solve realistic or authentic problems. Formative assessment is
usually one key element of an assessment system.
Formative assessment, also referred to as alternative forms of assessment, is
described as authentic assessment, peer-assessment and self-assessment,
which includes portfolios and projects, observations, dynamic assessment and
performance assessment (Archer et al., 1999:110). In contrast to summative
assessment, formative assessment includes any form of assessment in which
learners create a response to a question, using their own ideas in their own
words and displaying creativity in the classroom. The method used to answer
questions is the primary difference between summative and formative
assessment.
In the following subsections, the different forms of formative assessments are
discussed.
2.8.3.1 Authentic assessment Authentic assessment is a continuous, daily process, mostly criterion-
referenced and formative, where a learner’s performance is evaluated against
external criteria and not against a class average (Goodyer, 2008:23, 33). The
emphasis of authentic assessment tasks is on eliciting demonstrations of
knowledge and skills in ways that resemble “real-life” situations as closely as
possible, in order to help learners to achieve success later in life. This author
maintains that the assessment strategies are more functional, holistic and
contextual in terms of these real-life performances. Whether learners
participate in scientific research, or write an article for a school newspaper, or
debate on ecological problems, they are engaging in “real-life” tasks. Real-
world problems, realistic techniques and authentic audiences raise innumerable
possibilities for tasks and assignments (Herman et al., 1992:38). Learners have
to obtain knowledge from various sources, disciplines and perspectives. They
will be required to do research, design, analyse and display their knowledge
and communicate and summarize the results and report them to other learners
in the class. My opinion on authentic assessment is that it provides for every
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learner to perform on his own level, giving the opportunity to utilize his own
strengths and initiatives.
2.8.3.2 Performance-based assessment Performance-based assessment can be defined as the direct, systematic
observation of actual learner performances according to pre-established
performance criteria (Butler, 2001:10). The instructions are linked to the
curriculum, which in turn is linked to the assessment. Learners are therefore
aware of how and on what knowledge and skills they will be assessed. It is the
obligation of the teacher to explain the purpose of the assessment to the
learners. Butler states that performances may include musical recitals, dances
and dramatic readings. The activity requires gathering of information through
research and reading and communicating the information by writing, speaking,
using visual exhibits and verbal and non-verbal expression.
A true performance demonstrates a learner’s mastery of a portion of the
curriculum. It, however, does not aim to measure the correctness of the
response only, but also the thought processes involved in arriving at the
response, and that encourages learners to reflect on their own learning in both
depth and breadth – the belief is that the instruction will lead into more
thoughtful, more reflexive, richer modes as well (Lisken-Gasparro, 1997). In
performance assessment, the learner is required to solve a problem, locate
information, organize, create a product, and give a response that demonstrates
a skill, a process or a concept. Normally, pre-arranged criteria are shared with
the learners before the performance, which are derived from the learning
outcomes or the standards that must be advanced by means of instruction.
Performance assessment is closely linked to authentic assessment, as it is
expected from the learner to simulate real-life activities in “authentic” real-world
settings (Spinelli, 2002:55) or as Burz and Marshall (in Santrock, 2011:564) put
it – it is from ‘knowing’ to ‘showing’. The emphasis is therefore on ‘doing’,
ongoing direct assessment, assessment of group- and individual performance,
that takes place over a period of time. It includes self-assessment and open-
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ended tasks that have the objective of assessing higher-level thinking
(Santrock, 2011:565). To me, creative performances are a useful way to
assess learners with barriers to learning, e.g. the learner with word-finding
problems and written communication disorders. However, dramatic readings
and writing activities will pose problems for those who have difficulty with such
skills. Teachers need to be skilled and well prepared in the creation of tasks, by
acting as the collaborator, as well as developing guidelines for scoring and
interpretation. In my opinion, performance assessment has the potential to
bring teacher and learner closer together, as it provides opportunities for
interesting, humoristic and creative performances in the classroom and
providing that support be given where reading and writing activities are
required.
2.8.3.3 Portfolio assessment Portfolio assessment involves the learner in the production of a file or portfolio -
which includes a number of projects - designed and developed to demonstrate
the learner’s skill in a particular area over time (Bender, 2001:159). A portfolio
is a purposeful, integrated collection of a learner’s work that provides a long-
term record of the learner’s work, his progress and his achievement in a
learning unit. This may include his written work, projects, samples, oral
presentations, drawings, reports, crafts, peer or other assessments or anything
that the teacher may regard as important for assessment purposes (Archer et
al., 1999:120). Bouwer (2005:59) describes it as a useful tool to determine what
a learner can do and not what he cannot do. It can include anything that can be
assessed qualitatively. On the basis of the collected work samples, teachers
can identify the strengths and weaknesses of a learner. The advantage of
portfolios is that the improvement of a learner’s work, or the lack thereof, can
be compared from year to year. It provides information about a learner’s
communication skills, conceptual understanding, reasoning abilities, problem-
solving abilities, creativity, motivation and attitude, as well as a learner’s study
habits (Spinelli, 2002:57). I believe that it provides rich opportunities for active
interaction between teachers and learners and consequently enhances self-
reflection by the learner, as learners play an active part in decisions regarding
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portfolio contents. Portfolios further provide evidence of learners’ progress for
parents, peers, other teachers, support personnel, the governing body of the
school and to the District Office, with regard to quality of learning being
achieved in the inclusive classroom (Archer et al., 1999:120).
The advantages of portfolios are comprehensively described by Segers et al.
(2003:145-158) and Spinelli (2002:57). They maintain that portfolio assessment
is a valuable tool to use for learners with barriers to learning as a means of
identifying needs, planning instruction, evaluating progress, documenting IEP
achievement goals and communicating strengths and needs to the Educational
Support Services. I must add that portfolios can provide excellent insight into
examples of learners’ written work, when decisions are to be made with regard
to special concessions.
Santrock (2011:572) describes several weaknesses of portfolio assessment. It
takes up much time to coordinate and evaluate, because of the complexity and
uniqueness that it entails. Their reliability is thus often much lower than for
summative tests.
2.8.3.4 Dynamic assessment This form of assessment is regarded as a procedure of a pre-test and post-test
design and focuses on the learning that takes place during assessment
(Murphy & Maree, 2006:168). Bouwer (2005:54) cites van Eeden and de Beer
that it is a test-teach-retest process, where not only the learner’s current level
of achievement is determined, but through mediation and training, to determine
the learner’s potential level of future achievement and his ability to learn from
interaction. The rational behind this form of assessment is that learners may
have more potential than what is reflected in their achievement. Through
mediation and training, a more realistic estimate of learners’ abilities can be
established. The degree of support required can be determined and the teacher
can then adapt her instruction to develop the learner’s cognitive strategies or
thinking skills to assist the learner in functioning independently (Goodyer,
2008:33).
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Both quantitative and qualitative methods of dynamic assessment can be done.
Bouwer (2005:56) describes the quantitative method as the giving of prompts
or cues to the learner and the zone of proximal development13 is quantified by
calculating the difference between scores obtained before and after the
mediation. The number and the intensity of the prompts and support that a
learner needs, is recorded. Bouwer further describes qualitative dynamic
assessment as more flexible and interactive to learner needs – repetition of a
question, focusing of attention-giving suggestions of additional information,
describing, demonstrating, giving feedback and positive encouragement, are
examples of mediation to enhance learning. Spinelli (2002:56), as well as
Murphy and Maree (2006), agree that this method of assessment is useful for
learners who are educationally, culturally and linguistically disadvantaged. The
latter researchers emphasize that the use of dynamic assessment can identify
those disadvantaged learners who “...harbour the potential to perform well
within certain contexts and identification of learners who would most likely be
overlooked if not assessed in this manner”. Self-assessment and peer-assessment entail the following:
2.8.3.5 Self-assessment and peer-assessment Self-assessment enables learners to evaluate their own work. They can reflect
upon their progress, their accomplishments and development, as well as on
their learning styles. It should be an ongoing process where learners can
activate and integrate their prior knowledge and consequently adapt and modify
their learning themselves, rather than waiting for others to intervene (Segers et
al., 2003:58). These authors state further that self-assessment can be
summative or formative: the learner can judge his final product or performance
as being correct/incorrect and assign a quantitative mark to it, or evaluate it
formatively by evaluating better or worse aspects and making onward
improvements. Teachers may supply the learners with assessment criteria, or
she can help the learners to develop their own criteria. However, for self- 13 Robinson (n.d.) defines the zone of proximal development as the gap between what a learner has already mastered (his actual level of development) and what he can achieve when provided with educational support (potential development).
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assessment to be effective, learners have to be supplied with explicit criteria
such as an analytical scoring rubric (Seifert & Sutton, 2009:269).
Self-assessment leads to self-controlled behaviour, which helps learners to
take responsibility for their own learning, but the skill has to be taught in order
to develop “systematic habits of reflection” and turn it into internal motivation
(Archer et al., 1999:120). Self-assessment also applies to the teacher, in order
to improve her own teaching styles and planning strategies.
In my opinion, self-assessment may be difficult for learners with specific
learning difficulties, as they often do not have the skills to evaluate their own
work or to understand a rubric. They will be quite dependent on the teacher for
guidance.
Peer-assessment involves learners to evaluate each other’s work, which can
be done individually or in groups. Peer assessment does not replace the
teacher’s assessment, but it enriches the process (NWU, n.d.:122), as learner
involvement can be a valuable learning experience. Learners have to be
trained in assessment and observational skills and they need to learn how to
reflect objectively on the accomplishments of their peers’ work. During
reasoning and communication with each other to justify answers, learners learn
from each other and often see alternative reasoning patterns and different ways
in which to solve a problem. On the one hand, peer assessment may be an
excellent tool to be used by teachers, as learners are comfortable with their
peers and do not feel threatened by their criticisms. Learners often find it easier
to express their ideas and thoughts more freely to their peers. On the other
hand, my experience has shown that peer assessment can be emotionally
harmful to those learners who are unpopular and rejected by their peers, as
negative remarks are often made. In a classroom with learners with specific
learning difficulties, I question whether these learners have the ability to assess
one another’s work effectively, taking their reading and writing difficulties into
account.
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2.8.3.6 Observation-based assessment Continuous, deliberate observation is a form of data collection that could
provide the teacher with valuable information and insights regarding learners’
performance, capacities, needs, preferences non-verbal behaviour, as well as
special needs and barriers that could, and do, affect performance. I used the
word ‘deliberately’, as I believe that effective teachers should consciously and
deliberately observe learners on a continuous basis in the classroom. This can
help make teaching more child-centred and responsive to individual needs
(Miles, 2002:66) and it includes making changes in assessment strategies,
which might support the learner’s inclusion. If a learner continues to have
difficulties, even after all measures have been implemented (e.g. classroom
setting, instructional methods, behavioural management and curriculum
adaptation), the teacher needs to take a closer look at the learner’s abilities to
master the curriculum (Wood, 2002:34). I must emphasize the importance of
the teacher investigating the reasons why a learner cannot complete
assignments or tests within time and that she considers alternatives and
adaptions to accommodate and support the learner. Discussions with other
teachers, parents and reviewing school records, can provide supportive
information regarding the difficulty the learner is experiencing. Learners with
reading problems should not only be observed during the reading/language
classes, but also during content area subjects such as Social Sciences, which
requires that learners can read, in order to study. Spinelli (2002:181) states that
it is important to consider the severity (extent of the problem), the intensity (how
much the problem interferes with the learner’s progress), the duration (length of
time the problem occurs), the frequency (how often the problem occurs), the
generality of the problem and the consequences and effect that it has on the
learner and others. The teacher’s observations should be systematically
recorded on a regular basis and it needs to become a deliberate form of
assessment, consciously analysed to plan ways of verifying or negating them
(Archer et al., 1999:117). In my view, it is of the utmost importance that
observation in the inclusive classroom should become a deliberate, skilled tool.
The teacher should consciously observe, gather information and systematically
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record her observations of a child, in order to facilitate any barrier to learning
that may exist.
2.8.3.7 Parents as source of information The involvement and participation of parents in their child’s learning process
and progress, is widely recognised and recommended by teachers and
educational psychologists. The non-involvement and/or the lack of recognition
of parents by the school regarding their child’s development and problems that
may be experienced, “...creates a lack of respect for parents as informed role-
players in the assessment and future development of their children” and
parents should be encouraged to take an active interest in the teaching,
learning and assessment of their children (DoE, 2005b:13).
In my career I have found that parents are often the best source of information,
as they possess a wealth of information on their child since his birth. They are
often the first people to notice that their child is having problems in the school,
in academic or social settings. Regarding physical and/or sensory disabilities,
the parents and medical specialists have been intensely involved with the child
since the onset of the disability and can supply valuable information on the
history of intervention. The same applies to specific learning difficulties, where
the parents can supply teachers with information on factors that could have
contributed to the problem, e.g. a family history of learning disorders, severe
smoke inhalation, meningitis and more.
Parents are too often told about their child’s performance, rather than asked
about their opinions and input (Archer et al., 1999:118; UNESCO, 2005:21).
Parents have the right to their child’s records at school; they must be notified
and give permission on any decision made by the school regarding their child
and parents are regarded as part of a team to develop a plan for their child
(DoE, 2010:17; Wood, 2002:29). It is my experience that parents of learners,
who experience barriers to learning such as reading and writing difficulties, are
generally keen on accepting any strategies that will enable their child to help
him reach his full potential. As many of the formative types of assessment such
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as assignments, projects, and research require reading activities, the involved
parent can assist by reading instructions or information to the child, to enable
him to prepare for the task at hand.
2.9 CONCLUSION Assessment in the inclusive classroom needs to be broadly inclusive. The
preceding discussion of types and forms of assessment shows that there is no
single correct way to assess learners, but that abilities can be assessed using
multiple types and contexts. Rieck and Dugger Wadsworth (2005:106)
conclude that it must be accepted that classroom assessment needs to be
much broader than mere tests. These authors are of the opinion that teachers
should not get so involved with testing that they neglect other available types of
assessment that may provide alternate means of determining whether
objectives have been achieved. Therefore multiple opportunities should be
provided to learners so that they may demonstrate their full knowledge. This
includes adapted assessment strategies.
I maintain that teachers should take the diversity of learners into account and
that various assessment techniques and opportunities should exist to
accommodate the diversity. Different types and forms of assessment should be
integrated to enhance learning, obtain goals and meet the diverse needs of all
learners. Teachers should also focus on maximising the participation of all
learners in the classroom and should identify and minimize any barrier to
learning that may exist. Therefore, learners should be assisted to compensate
for intrinsic and/or extrinsic barriers to learning. Herman et al. (1992:9) state
that a balanced curriculum requires a balanced approach to assessment. I
contend that learners, who are not accommodated in their reading and writing
difficulties during the implementation of whatever assessment strategy the
teacher uses, will not be able to achieve satisfactorily. They should be identified
early, so that early interventions and additional support can be put in place.
Adaptive methods of assessment will then have to be considered for them to
benefit from learning, to prevent breakdown of motivation and possible drop-out
73
from school. I therefore conclude by emphasizing that assessment is an activity
that should be taken very seriously.
2.10 SUMMARY In this chapter, I discussed the concept of assessment, as well as the main
types of assessment applied in the inclusive classroom. It is through these
assessment practices that the observant teachers are able to become aware of
learners who have difficulty to perform effectively as a result of their reading
and/or writing difficulties and for whom adaptive methods of assessment may
be indicated. In the next chapter I discuss adaptive methods of assessment,
particularly amanuenses, which can address the assessment needs of these
learners.
I conclude this chapter with a definition of inclusive assessment by Watkins
(2007:47):
An approach to assessment in mainstream settings where policy and practice are designed to promote the learning of all learners as far as possible. The overall goal of inclusive assessment is that all assessment policies and procedures should support and enhance the successful inclusion and participation of all learners vulnerable to exclusion, including those with barriers to learning.
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CHAPTER 3
ADAPTIVE METHODS OF ASSESSMENT 3.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter, I discussed the concept of assessment and elaborated
on summative and formative assessment. This chapter presents with adaptive
methods of assessment (referred to as AMA), the various barriers to learning
that may prohibit access to fair assessment and the specific adaptive measures
of assessment to address these barriers, in order to support learners in
assessment activities.
The inclusive education policy does not only recommend that learners with
barriers to learning are educated alongside their typical peers in general
education, but it also acknowledges that assessment processes should
address their barriers to learning, in order for these learners to participate
actively in the education process and to extend their potential (DoE,
2001:5,33). The support mechanisms indicated in this study and the discussion
of adaptive methods of assessment, aim at revealing the most appropriate
assessment approaches and strategies to address various barriers to learning
and barriers to assessment. These supportive assessment measures will
ensure that learners, specifically those whose progress is impeded by barriers
to learning such as reading and writing difficulties, are given the opportunity to
give a true reflection of their knowledge and actual academic abilities.
In the following section, I endeavoured to clarify the terminology used in South
Africa, in comparison to the terms used internationally.
3.2 CLARIFYING THE TERM ADAPTIVE METHODS OF ASSESSMENT Different terms are used internationally. In my scrutiny of the literature, I found
that the most commonly used term in America and Australia is ‘assessment
accommodations’. The Joint Council of Qualifications (JCQ) document of the
United Kingdom (JCQ, 2009) refers to ‘access arrangements’, ‘modifications’
75
and ‘adaptations’. The latter two terms are sometimes used interchangeably
and at other times convey different meanings. Goh (2004:29) states that
‘testing accommodations’ often refer to the changes made to the examination
environment or facility (such as allowing a learner to take a test in a separate
room), while modifications and adaptations are associated with changes that
are made to the actual test format or content. Cortiella (2005) maintains that
accommodations are not the same as modifications. She states that
assessment accommodations are intended to lessen the effects of a learner’s
disability/difficulty, while modifications are the changing, lowering or reducing of
learning expectations – which may hamper a learner’s progress and
educational career. In contrast, Alant and Casey (2005:187) define
modifications as the simplifying of instructions or changing the vocabulary in a
test to make them more accessible to learners. Subsequently, I understand
assessment accommodations and modifications as synonymous to special
concessions, which are any changes made to examination procedures or
formats, which provide learners with barriers to learning the equal opportunity
to participate in testing situations.
In South Africa, the Department of Education mostly refers to
‘alternative/adaptive methods of assessment’ in several circulars and
documents, in which delineation is given to schools on what AMA entails and
which learners will benefit from it. The most significant documents that refer to
‘alternative/adaptive methods of assessment’ are:
- Alternative and adapted methods of examining/assessing learners with
special education needs (Western Cape Education Department policy document, WCED, n.d.);
- Curriculum 2005 Assessment Guidelines for Inclusion (DoE, 2002a:8-
17); - District memorandum 40/2003. Guidelines: Alternative and adaptive
methods of assessment/concessions (GDE, 2003);
- Guidelines for inclusive learning programmes (DBE, 2010; DoE, 2005b);
- Early identification of and intervention for barriers to learning and participation (Lloyd, Drew & Utley, 2006), and
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- Support and adaptations for learners experiencing barriers in assessment (DoE, 2008b).
I am of the opinion that the term ‘alternative’ may cause confusion, as
alternative methods of assessment are also referred to, as described in chapter
two, as peer-assessment, self-assessment and authentic assessment.
All the above-mentioned documents describe the various barriers to learning
and the applicable adaptive methods of assessment to address these barriers,
which includes amanuenses. However, there are other documents that only
discuss amanuenses as a special concession (GDE, 2008a), while most
documents regard AMA and special concessions as synonymous (DoE, n.d.(b);
DoE, 2002a; GDE, 2003).
I found that there are several South African authors who use different
terminologies to describe special concessions. Alant and Casey (2005) use the
term ‘assessment concessions’; Feldman, Gordon and Snyman (2001:139)
refer to ‘assessment accommodations’ and Bouwer (2005:56) describes the
term ‘accommodations in assessment’ as ‘adaptive acts or measures’ to make
assessment ‘equally accessible’ to learners experiencing barriers, as to
learners not experiencing that barrier. My view is that all these terms are
acceptable and easily understandable. Based on the fact that the Department
of Education uses the terms ‘adaptive methods of assessment’ and ‘special
concessions’ in their documents and circulars to schools, I used these terms in
the qualitative questionnaires and focus group interviews, as these terms would
be familiar to teachers who had insight in the mentioned documents and
circulars. I only used the term ‘assessment accommodations’ in this study,
when I specifically cited international authors who used this term.
Based on the notion that many learners with barriers to learning may require
additional support in assessment, I discuss the importance of AMA in the
following section.
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3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF AMA The Department of Education (2001:31; 2008b:111) makes it very clear that all
learners need to be assessed within the same curriculum and assessment
framework and that the principles of inclusivity apply not only to the curriculum,
but also to assessment – both in the classroom and external examinations -
from an inclusive education framework. The process of assessing learners who
experience barriers to learning, should follow the same principles as outlined in
the Assessment Policy in the General Education and Training Band, Grades R
to 9 and ABET (DoE, 2006b:75). However, summative assessment cannot
assure accurate provision of fair assessment for all learners, if the diversity of
barriers to learning is not taken into account. As discussed in chapter 1 (see
1.1), classroom tests and summative assessment are usually compiled to
assess all learners in the same manner. However, for many learners with
reading and writing barriers, it does not provide an equal opportunity for them
to demonstrate their abilities and skills as for their mainstream peers and they
will require additional support during assessment (DoE, 2006b:77). My view is
that learners who are able to demonstrate their knowledge through paper and
pen tests and reproduce facts efficiently, can pass their grade well, but those
who are not able to do this, fail. AMA gives these learners the opportunity to
access the assessment.
Goh (2004:27) states that summative tests require certain functional skills (e.g.
physical, sensory or linguistic skills, fine motor and visual motor speed and
coordination; expressive oral and written communication skills and sustained
focus) in order to understand and respond to the test stimuli. Some learners
have a lack of such skills, which prevent them from performing optimally in the
tests - it is mainly learners with visual-, hearing- and physical disabilities, as
well as those with learning difficulties, that may not have the attentional,
memory, organizational, reading and/or writing skills to perform at their optimal
levels in tests. This author maintains that this directly affects a learner’s test
results and it often produces an underestimation of the learner’s true potential
and abilities. AMA is provided in relation to individual learner’s needs, in order
to give them the opportunity to access the curriculum and validly demonstrate
78
their learning (Bolt & Thurlow, 2004; Spinelli, 2002:143; Washburn-Moses,
2003). Rickey (2005:149) confirms that research has shown that positive
consequences of inclusive assessment practices lead to higher levels of
achievement, increased access to the general curriculum and increased
opportunities for mastery of grade level material – which I have also
experienced in my involvement with learners with reading and writing barriers.
Teachers should not only be knowledgeable of the different forms of barriers to
learning and the identification thereof, but should also have knowledge of the
different support mechanisms that are intended to facilitate access to
assessment. In line with the Constitution, these mechanisms should be put in
place early in the learners’ school career, to ensure that they are given the
opportunity to firstly, give a true reflection of their actual academic abilities and
secondly, to give them the opportunity to maximise their potential. These
measures and assessment processes will reflect the accommodation of
diversity in education, as it addresses the assessment needs of learners with
barriers to learning (DBE, 2011:22; DoE, 2001:33). It includes a responsibility
to set standards with regard to examinations, to be able to choose the
appropriate assessment form/type for the specific barrier and to make special
examination arrangements to accommodate these learners (DoE, 2002a:5,8).
As adaptive methods of assessment are underpinned by its purpose and
principles, I regarded it as crucial to elaborate on a discussion thereof, which
follows in the next subsection.
3.4 THE PURPOSE AND PRINCIPLES OF AMA According to Kleinert and Thurlow (2001:10), the concept of access to
assessment implicates that the learner with a barrier to learning has a need for
a different way of showing what he knows without his competence being
obscured by his impairment (Fuchs, Fuchs & Capizzi, 2005). The purpose of
AMA is to minimize the impact of a range of intrinsic and extrinsic barriers
during school-based assessment throughout the school year (GDE, 2008b).
The provision of AMA is simply to accommodate the functional differences of
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some learners (Lloyd et al., 2006:116) and it is designed to equalise
opportunities for all learners, by addressing the barriers, without them gaining
an advantage (Collins, 2003; DoE, 2008b:112; Joint Council of Qualifications,
JCQ, 2009:1). It is, alternatively, described as placing such a learner on par
with other learners (GDE, 2008b) or levelling the playing field (Cortiella, 2005).
Collins (2003) adds that assessment accommodations should also not
disadvantage the learner. A concession can disadvantage a learner if it is not
applicable to the specific barrier that exists, for example if an oral examination
is applied for a child with severe speech impairment. The intent of assessment
accommodations is not to give learners with barriers to assessment an
advantage, but to measure what they really know (Rieck & Dugger Wadsworth,
2005:109). These authors maintain that support in assessment should enhance
and not reduce the chances of academic success.
AMA is therefore any alteration to the standard form of assessment, test,
examination or conditions relating to the assessment process, that is put in
place to enable learners to reflect the knowledge and skills they have gained,
without being disadvantaged by the process of assessment and examining
(GDE, 2003). The principles of inclusive education entitle learners with barriers
to learning to be assessed in ways which ensure a fair opportunity to
demonstrate their knowledge. It is important to note that the variety of adaptive
methods of assessment during examinations should not impact on the content
or standard of the examinations and that the learner is still expected to meet
course requirements (DoE, 2008b:94). Dempsey and Conway (2004:7) cite
Elliot and Marquart (2004) that it is important to understand which
accommodations are valid so that the test results “…maintain their integrity of
being able to be compared with those of students without disabilities in the
case of norm-referenced tests and academic standards in the case of criterion-
referenced tests”.
My view is that emphasis of the purpose of AMA falls on additional support or
additional assistance to the learner, in order for him to access assessment. The
implementation of AMA is relatively simple, e.g. a learner whose learning
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difficulty reduces reading or writing speed, may not be able to demonstrate
proficiency in timed tests and extended time can then be provided; a learner
with a visual impairment may receive his exam paper in large print or an
amanuensis (scribe) may take down his answers (Spinelli, 2002:145-147). The
DBE (2010:66) emphasize that assessment should be adapted according to the
level of support that each learner needs. AMA should be implemented in the
classroom during instruction, in teacher-made tests as well as in school-based
and external examinations. In other words, there should be an alignment
between instructional activities, classroom assessment and examinations
(Alant & Casey, 2005; Bolt & Thurlow, 2004; Washburn-Moses, 2003).
A last principle of the implementation of AMA is that a learner’s eligibility for
receiving this form of support should be reviewed annually (GDE, 2008b).
Although a concession can remain in place for the duration of a learner’s
scholastic career, my experience has shown that the need for additional
concessions is often indicated, when work load increases as the learner enters
higher grades.
The Department of Education (2002a:9) summarizes the purpose and
principles of AMA as follows:
a) “To achieve the balance between meeting individual needs while
maintaining assessment validity – i.e. to address the barrier, not to
compensate for it. This is an essential part of providing learning support;
b) To avoid implying / establishing / confirming / reinforcing difference, i.e.
in an exclusive frame;
c) To allow the results of assessment to reliably reveal the needs of some
learners who need to be supported in the teaching and learning process.
This will assist teachers to plan intervention strategies in such a way that
all barriers are effectively addressed”.
The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (Goh, 2004:29), describes
‘assessment accommodations’ as:
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a) “Making existing facilities readily accessible to and usable by individuals
with disabilities;
b) Making appropriate adjustments to examinations, training material or
policies, the provision of qualified readers or interpreters and other
similar accommodations for individuals with disabilities”.
It is easy to understand that a learner, who struggles through each and every
examination as a result of his specific inabilities, will become distraught and
negative when continuously experiencing failure. The implementation of AMA
to support such a learner can make testing and assessment a more positive
experience for the learner, which in turn can stimulate his motivational levels.
The importance to identify barriers to assessment early in the child’s school
career is discussed in the following section.
3.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF EARLY IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS TO ASSESSMENT I agree with the Department of Basic Education (DBE, 2010:15), that the earlier
the identification of a barrier is made and the earlier learning support,
therapeutic interventions and classroom support are given, the bigger the
chances are that the effects of the barrier may be minimized. The early
identification of learners’ barriers to learning and assessment may void the risk
that learners start school at a disadvantage (DoE, 2008b:97). Appropriate early
interventions will have a much greater impact than prolonged interventions later
in life: the purpose is to prevent the barrier of becoming more severe (Miles,
2002:42). Different examples can be given to confirm this statement: if a child
with a mild hearing loss can be identified early, he can be fitted with a hearing
aid and therefore progress satisfactorily in a mainstream class; a learner with a
physical health problem who is left unidentified and untreated, can lead to the
child feeling chronically sick and being absent from the classroom; if a learner’s
tendency to struggle with reading is identified and appropriately addressed
during his early school years, there will be less poor readers in high school and
as adults. Early identification and intervention of reading difficulties cannot be
over-emphasized. Furthermore, it is important that adaptive methods of
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assessment are put into practise early in the school career, to give learners the
opportunity to realise their potential (DoE, 2008b:112). Learners may drop out
of school or develop a negative attitude towards schooling, should they
continuously be subjected to failure. I have found that an advantage of early
implementation of AMA is that learners become very accustomed and confident
with the procedures, which increase their performance and confidence during
examination situations.
The selection of appropriate adaptive assessment measures depend on the
learners’ barrier to learning. Through teacher observation, evidence reflected in
the learner’s profile and portfolios, reports from professional specialists (such
as educational psychologists, speech therapists, physiotherapists and medical
practitioners), as well as parents’ information, decisions can be made regarding
AMA. Although the Department of Education (GDE, 2008b:7) suggests that
learners who require adaptive methods of assessment should be re-assessed
every year to determine whether the concession is still necessary or applicable,
I am of the opinion that a biennial re-assessment is sufficient.
In the international literature that I consulted, I found that the United Kingdom
and the United States of America appear to be the leading countries with
regard to the implementation of special concessions, which I discuss in the
following section.
3.6 INTERNATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF AMA In the United Kingdom, the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) acts as a
single voice for several large qualification providers. One of its functions is to
regulate examination practices. The JCQ (JCQ, 2009) has an extensive and
comprehensive 68 pages document called “Access Arrangements, Reasonable
Adjustment and Special Considerations” (JCQ, 2009), which is reviewed and
updated annually. It states clearly that heads of centres and examination
officers have the responsibility of familiarizing themselves with the content
thereof. This document gives detailed information on a wide range of access
arrangements (called special concessions in South Africa) for learners and
83
students experiencing barriers to assessment, as well as the rules and
regulations pertaining to it.
Application for assessment accommodations has been refined to such an
extent that educational bodies can now apply for their students online using
Access arrangements online on http://testsandexams.qcda.gov.uk. The Access
arrangements Online replace the existing systems for both the school- and
departmental access arrangements. The United Kingdom also supplies a
training and support guide for centres, on how to utilize the online facility. The
majority of the applications will receive an instant decision, while more complex
cases are forwarded to a panel for decision. The application forms used as an
alternative to the online option have to be completed and signed by an
educational psychologist or by a specialist teacher who was appointed by the
head of the centre. As is the case with the application form for special
concessions in South Africa, it is required that an educational
psychologist/specialist teacher must specify the findings of the reading, spelling
and writing tests and which tests were used to derive the findings (GDE,
2004:4).
In the United States of America, legal protection for learners with disabilities to
receive equal opportunities to participate in assessment as their mainstream
peers, has increased over the years (Goh, 2004:30). The No Child Left Behind
Act of 2001 (NCLB) and the Disabilities Education Act (1997), established
requirements for the standards and assessment systems of states (Dempsey &
Conway, 2004:8). In the USA, state- and district-wide assessments, as well as
teacher-made assessments, are conducted. The NCLB and the Amendments
to the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), require that learners with
disabilities must be provided the appropriate accommodations necessary to
participate in these tests (Cortiella, 2005; Goh, 2004:6, Spinelli, 2002:141).
States require from teachers to view very closely the accommodations and
applications they make for lesson plans, content format and evaluations. The
education law in the USA now requires that schools provide all the necessary
accommodations, to ensure that learners with disabilities are fully included, that
alternative methods of assessment be implemented and that these
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accommodations be kept strictly learner centred. Furthermore, state education
agencies are required to report annually on the performance and progress of
learners living with disabilities (Cortiella, 2005).
All fifty states have established standards to which school districts must align
their curriculum, instruction and assessment practices (Wood, 2002:158). Every
state has its own policy on assessment accommodations and there is great
variability in these policies, with some accommodations expressly allowed in
some states and specifically prohibited in others (Clapper, Morse, Lazarus,
Thompson & Thurlow, 2005).
Dempsey and Conway (2004:8) refer to studies that criticise the use of
accommodations in the USA, in that too many accommodations were being
used and that they were being used indiscriminately without reference to the
learners’ needs or the established guidelines. Research by Thurlow, Lazarus,
Thompson and Morse (2005) show that 94% of states allowed the use of
scribes (amanuensis) but contradictory to this, Rickey (2005) found in her study
that the use of scribes was relatively uncommon. Dempsey and Conway
(2004:8) further refer to studies by Thurlow, House, Scott and Ysseldyke, who
established that acceptable accommodations in one state in the US, is explicitly
prohibited in others and that there are still no consistent guidelines regarding
this issue.
In Australia, AMA is also referred to as ‘assessment accommodations’ and it is
generally applied in all the states and territories. Learners are subjected to
national and school-based testing and each state sets its own guidelines on
participation as well as on accommodations (Dempsey & Conway, 2004). In
2004, according to these authors, the participation of learners with disabilities in
national testing was low and it was unlikely to increase without the
development of clear guidelines about permissible accommodations in tests
and exams. In some states such as Victoria, the school principal decides about
the provision of accommodations, while in Queensland the responsibility is
delegated to school-level stakeholders such as the teacher, parents, principal
and specialist staff. In other territories such as South Australia,
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accommodations are provided through the Senior Secondary Assessment
Board. In their research paper, Dempsey and Conway (2004:9-13) suggest
several principles and guidelines on how accommodations should be applied
and how to ensure that learners with disabilities are given the opportunity to
participate in the full range of activities offered in schools.
In South Africa, support in assessment is propagated in White Paper 6 (DoE,
2001). However, it does not state how this support should be implemented. As
mentioned in subsection 3.3 of this chapter, the general term used in South
Africa for assessment support is ‘adaptive/alternative methods of assessment’
and ‘special concessions’. Although various documents and circulars describe
barriers to learning and the applicable adaptive methods of assessment to
address these barriers, I could not find a formal policy on AMA and special
concessions. Neither the Gauteng Department of Education, nor the National
Department of Education, could indicate the existence of such a policy
document. I could only obtain an ‘Interim Framework as it relates to the
assessment of learners with barriers to learning and development’ (DoE,
n.d.(b). One of the nine provinces of South Africa, the Western Province,
compiled a policy that provides guidelines for their teacher regarding AMA.
Comparing the content of the South African documents mentioned previously in
this chapter, to the extensive guidelines of the United Kingdom (JCQ, 2009), it
appears that South Africa is still far behind with regard to the implementation of
AMA, as well as the sufficient provision of information to teachers regarding this
issue.
A number of administrative responsibilities and procedures are required by the
South African Department of Education relating to the implementation of
adaptive methods of assessment. I discuss these requirements in the following
subsections. The requirements pertain to exit phases Grades 9 and 12, the role
of the teacher and school and the role of the District-based Support team.
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3.7 RESPONSIBILITIES REQUIRED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 3.7.1 Requirements in respect of exit phases Grades 9 and 12 It is a requirement of the Department of Education that learners who need AMA
are identified as early as possible, in order to put in place the necessary
mechanisms and support to address the barriers to assessment (DoE,
2008b:112). Another reason for the early identification of barriers to
assessment and the implementation of AMA to address the barriers is that
schools have to provide evidence of a concessions history when they register
candidates for the exit phases Grade 9 and Grade 12 (GDE, 2003:2). The
evidence should be reflected in the learner profiles14 and in documents of the
relevant examination body of the school. Early application for special
concessions also secures evidence of a history of special concessions in the
form of a tracking number that is assigned to the learner by the District Office.
With the early assignment of a tracking number, the abuse of the
implementation of AMA will therefore also be minimized (GDE, 2008b). As a
member of the District Examination Concession Committee (DECC), I have
encountered schools that only apply for concessions in a learner’s Grade 12
year. This raises the question of how the learner has managed to progress
scholastically in his past school career without concessions. Needless to say,
that these late applications will not be considered favourably, unless it was well
supported by motivational reports.
The school and teachers’ role with the regard to AMA is of the utmost
importance and is described in the following subsection.
3.7.2 The school and teachers’ role with regard to AMA Teachers are in daily contact with the learners in their classrooms. They,
therefore, are in the excellent position to identify the learners who experience
barriers to learning, which may result in barriers to assessment. Teachers can
detect barriers to learning and assessment by utilizing several assessment 14 A learner profile is a continuous record of information that gives a holistic impression of a learner’s progress and performance. Its main purpose is to assist teachers in the next grades, or at a different school, to understand the learner better and to respond appropriately to the learner (DoE, 2007:19).
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methods and assessment forms to gather information, as well as obtain
information from the learner’s profile, interviews with the child, his parents and
with other educators (Bouwer, 2005:57). I agree with Giangreco, Cloninger and
Iverson (1998:150), that nothing can replace the “...invaluable knowledge you
will gain by simply spending time with the student and other class members
during naturally occurring class activities as well as less formal times (e.g.
arrival, lunch, recess)”.
Spinelli (2002:137) emphasizes a strength-based way of looking at learners: by
utilizing their strengths, they will be able to reach for and attain higher goals.
This author further maintains that it is mainly the teacher’s role to determine
what special concessions are needed to support learners in achieving to their
full potential.
The teachers’ and schools’ responsibilities for ensuring fair assessment of
these learners, are explained by the South African Department of Education
(2008b:106) as follows:
a) Every school should have a School Based Support Team (SBST) as well as
a School Assessment Committee/Team (SAT) of which at least one member
must be a specialist in adaptive methods of assessment. If such a specialist is
not available, the school should seek the advice of appropriate specialists.
Members of the SBST should also include the subject teacher, the principal
and the heads of department;
b) It is the responsibility of the principal to ensure that all learners who may
need support are appropriately assessed and that an application is made for
such a measure of support;
c) The function of the School Assessment Team (with the aid of the SBST and
of which the teacher is a member) is described by the Assessment Guidelines
(DoE, 2002a:9, 10) as follows:
i. To determine which learners require alternative access to examination;
ii. To determine what materials will be needed to implement the AMA;
88
iii. To decide what practical arrangements should be made to
accommodate the implementation of AMA;
iv. To compile a list of the learners with the exact AMA needed by each and
additional equipment/staff required;
v. To monitor and report the process;
vi. The SBST completes and submits the application form for special
concessions to the DECC, with all the relevant documentation attached.
The DoE requires that any medical reports, reports from an educational
psychologist (or a principal’s report), photocopies of the learner’s school
work, assessment or observation reports or any other relevant reports
are included with the application form, to substantiate and motivate the
application for special concessions (GDE, 2004:4; GDE, 2007:8). The
assessment body of the district office must respond within three months
after the application has been received (DoE, 2008b:126).
vii. All decisions made by the school assessment team should be included
in the learner profiles which accompany the learners throughout their
school career.
viii. Lastly, to identify and obtain members of the community to assist with
the implementation of AMA. Training of these persons was previously
highly recommended (DoE, 2002a:14; Goh, 2004:29), but according to
the GDE Memorandum (GDE, 2008a) and the Interim Framework (DoE,
n.d.(b), training of an amanuensis is now a requirement.
Figure 3.1 below outlines the procedures to follow when applying for a
concession.
89
BELOW GRADE 12
EXIT PHASES GRADES 9 AND 12
Figure 3.1 Procedures to follow when applying for a concession (GDE, 2008b:4)
I contend that, to be able to determine and arrange the above-mentioned, the
primary requirement is that teachers should be knowledgeable about intrinsic
and extrinsic barriers that could cause barriers to assessment, as well as of
which AMA will be best suitable to minimize the barrier. I therefore emphasise
that there should be positive communication, co-operation and collaboration
amongst teachers and staff members when addressing these challenges – not
only to develop professional growth - but particularly to promote success
through the planning and implementation of supportive measures in
assessment. Teachers can also contact various specialists in the community to
obtain more information regarding specific physical and sensory disabilities, as
well as learning difficulties, in order to better understand the condition and its
effects on the learner. The Department of Education (2005b:100), the Ministry
of Education (DoE, 2006c:1) and Venter (2007:10), state it clearly that the role
of special schools is not only to provide specialized and high levels of support
Teacher identifies the barrier in the classroom. lll
The SBST makes suggestions to the teacher regarding supportive measures. lll
SBST sends an application for a concessions to the DECC
Discusses the problem with the SBST.
lll
E.g. additional time, amanuenses. Indicate on the Learner Profile.
Supporting documents as evidence must be attached
DECC considers application and sends recommendations to the PECC.
A tracking number is allocated to the learners for future reference to ensure a record of the granting of special concessions.
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to learners with specific barriers to learning, but also to provide specialised
support to mainstream schools regarding curriculum, assessment and
instruction matters when a learner with special needs is accommodated in a
mainstream school. Teachers in mainstream schools should consequently be
willing to utilize this source of specialized knowledge.
In conversation with the Dr Henk Joubert (personal communication, July 17,
2008) coordinator of the DECC at the Gauteng East District Office, as to who
should do this training, I was informed that it is expected of district officials to
do the training, but that they were not trained themselves and that they did not
have extensive knowledge on AMA. It was then indicated that I myself be
involved with this training, starting in August 2008. Since then I have offered
formal training to private therapists and teachers from several schools in the
Gauteng East district, to teachers of a full service school15 in the Gauteng
North District, as well as to volunteers from the community who assist schools
with AMA during examinations. During these sessions, I came to the conclusion
that there was a lack of resources to advice teachers and professionals on this
issue. The guidelines in the documents listed in section 3.2 (page 75) are
merely informative and not comprehensive.
3.7.3 The role of the District-based Support Team (DBST) and the DECC
The Assessment Guidelines for Inclusion (DoE, 2002a:10), make it clear that
the role of the DBST is to train, monitor and support the schools teams in the
process of the identification of barriers and the appropriate adaptive methods of
assessment to address these barriers. The Guidelines also state that the
district officials responsible for the co-ordination of the assessment process
should ensure that the schools are furnished with the required assistive
devices, special equipment and materials needed for the implementation of the
AMA. The role of the DECC (DoE, n.d.(a) is to evaluate (on merit) the
applications for concessions and to make well informed recommendations to
the Provincial Examination Concession Committee (PECC). The DECC’s
15 Full service school are mainstream schools that provide quality education to all learners by supplying the full range of learning needs in an equitable manner (DoE, 2010:7).
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additional role is to consider reasons for lodging an appeal and to mediate the
concessions as approved with the applying schools’ principals. During external
examinations, the role of the DECC is to monitor the implementation of the
concessions during the examination period. In the following subsections, the
terms ‘barriers to learning’ and ‘barriers to assessment’ are outlined.
3.8 BARRIERS TO LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT 3.8.1 Defining barriers to learning and assessment
The Department of Education (2006b:9) defines barriers to learning as being
the “...difficulties that arise within the education system as a whole, the learning
site and/or within the learner him/herself which prevent both the system and the
learner needs from being met”. Prinsloo (2005b:27) defines a barrier to learning
as an obstacle or circumstance that keeps people or things apart and which
prevents communication and bars access to advancement. Any condition,
circumstance or disability can therefore interfere with learning, development
and/or assessment. Several factors may give rise to learning needs and I
summarized from White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001:7):
Table 3.1 Factors giving rise to learning needs
Physical, mental, sensory, neurological and developmental impairments;
Psycho-social disturbances;
Differences in intellectual ability;
Socio-economic deprivation;
Negative attitudes to and stereotyping of differences;
An inflexible curriculum;
Inappropriate languages or language of learning and teaching;
Inappropriate communication;
Inaccessible and unsafe built environments;
Inappropriate and inadequate support services;
Inadequate policies and legislation;
The non-recognition and non-involvement of parents;
Inadequately and inappropriately trained education managers and educators.
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This study focuses on disability and specific learning difficulties as barriers to
learning. The Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning (DBE, 2010:12)
states that most understandings of disability relate to individual deficits and as
a result, disability has always been regarded as a learning barrier.
Barriers to learning can be categorised in two main groups, namely intrinsic
and extrinsic barriers. Authors such as Daniels and Vaughan (1999:49) and
Levine, Marks and Shraeder (1999:315), consider an intrinsic disability as an
important example of a barrier to learning and development. An intrinsic barrier
(bodily impairment) lies within the child, such as physical, sensory, neurological
disabilities, as well as specific learning difficulties, which may include specific
language, reading, spelling, writing, mathematical and communication
difficulties (Donald et al., 2002:306). Kubyana (2005:29) and Smith (2005:261)
define learners who experience barriers to learning, as those who differ from
the average learner with regard to appearance, actions or behaviour.
Extrinsic barriers on the other hand, are factors such as environmental factors,
negative attitudes towards barriers to learning, poor school attendance,
poverty, pregnancy, physical abuse, substance abuse and the school system
(Spinelli, 2002:121-129). Any of these barriers may prevent a learner from
performing satisfactory during assessment. Although not all barriers may have
an adverse effect on assessment performance, the teacher should at all times
know every individual learner’s circumstances, in order to make decisions
regarding the effects of any barrier that may exist, on achievement. The
inclusive approach emphasizes that teachers should not concentrate on the
barriers within the child, but on how the education system should adapt to
accommodate the learner that experiences the specific barrier.
Taking the above into account, I define a barrier to assessment as any
condition, disability or specific circumstance which prevents the learner from
demonstrating his knowledge effectively in a test or examination and which
prevents him from giving a true reflection of his abilities. Different kinds of AMA
can be implemented to address different kinds of barriers and more than one
kind of AMA can be required by a learner, depending on the kind of barrier(s)
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the learner is experiencing. Put differently “...different types of barriers will have
to be addressed through different inclusive methods of assessment” (DoE,
2005b:98). The factors to take into consideration are to establish whether the
barrier is long-standing, recently acquired, fluctuating, intermittent or temporary
(DoE, 2002a:9).
In the following subsection, I discuss the various barriers to learning which may
have an adverse effect on performance in assessment and for which AMA
should be considered.
3.9 BARRIERS TO FAIR ASSESSMENT The most common barriers to assessment are difficulties with reading, spelling,
writing and poor written expression (specific learning difficulties); physical
disabilities (e.g. paralysis, cerebral palsy); sensory disabilities (hearing and
visual impairments) and/or motor planning problems (motor apraxia) (DoE,
2008b:115). Teachers should keep in mind that every learner is an individual
with his individual kind of barrier, with varying degrees and manifestation of the
barrier. Swart and Pettipher (2005:16) emphasize that not all learners show all
the manifestations as described below, but only some of them present in a
variety of combinations and intensities, which vary from learner to learner.
Every child is unique and the principle of child-centeredness should prevail.
The various barriers to assessment are discussed in the following subsections.
3.9.1 Specific learning difficulties (SLD) Specific learning difficulties are often referred to as a ‘hidden handicap’, as they
are less conspicuous, with no visible physical signs to help with the
identification of the disorder (Dednam, 2005:363). Dednam, as well as Donald
et al. (2002:306), state that there are several factors causing learning
difficulties, which can be extrinsic in nature (social, emotional, environmental
factors), or intrinsic in nature (due to genetic, neurological and medical factors).
SLD are disorders in one or more of the basic psychological and neurological
processes involved in the receiving, processing, expressing or retrieving of
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information and the understanding or using of language, spoken or written
(Dednam, 2005:364; Lloyd et al., 2006:118). It may manifest itself in an
impaired ability to listen, think, interpret, speak, read, write, spell, memorize,
transfer knowledge or skills, or do mathematical calculations. Specific learning
difficulties often include poor planning and organisational skills and attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Shapiro, Church & Lewis, 2002:418). Specific
learning difficulties do not include barriers to learning that are primarily the
result of visual, hearing or motor disabilities, intellectual impairments, emotional
disturbances or environmental disadvantages (Dednam, 2005:364; Santrock,
2011:182; Shapiro et al., 2002:417). Learners who experience severe difficulty
with reading and spelling are often referred to as ‘dyslexic’. Santrock
(2001:207) and UNESCO (2001:68) emphasize that learners with specific
learning difficulties or dyslexia, are of average to above average intelligence;
have difficulty in at least one academic area (but usually several) and have no
other diagnosed problem or disorder such as an intellectual challenge.
As many learning difficulties are not easily identifiable, verification is necessary
(Alant & Casey, 2005:187; DoE, 2006b; JCQ, 2009:29). The JCQ (Joint Council
of Qualifications) specifically requires that learners are assessed by
psychologists and that standardized scores be provided for tests in reading
accuracy, reading comprehension and reading speed. The DSM-IV (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994) describes learning difficulties as when the
individual’s achievement on individually administered, standardized tests in
reading, mathematics, or written expression, is substantially below that
expected for age, schooling and level of intelligence and that these learning
difficulties interfere with academic achievement or activities that require
reading, mathematical or writing skills. The various problems resulting from a
specific learning difficulty are discussed next.
3.9.1.1 Reading difficulties The most important features of reading achievement are reading speed,
reading accuracy and reading comprehension. There are a number of
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indicators of reading difficulties, which vary from learner to learner. These
indicators are summarized in the table 3.2 below.
Table 3.2 Indicators of reading difficulties
The learner
- omits letters and words whilst reading;
- substitutes letters and words;
- has poor basic sight reading skills;
- skips lines when reading;
- confuses similar looking letters or words (e.g. b/d, m/w, t/d,
g/q, was/saw);
- has difficulty recognising commonly used words;
- does not understand multiple-sound consonants (ch, pf, st);
- reads from right to left or bottom to top;
- struggles to associate sounds with the names of the letters;
- confuses similar sound in words;
- has difficulty building words into sounds;
- has poor pronunciation skills;
- shows an inability to remember what he has read;
- displays poor reading comprehension;
- shows an inability to answer questions about the reading
content;
- cannot answer simple factual questions about a story;
- struggles to identify the main idea of a passage;
- struggles to follow printed directions;
- cannot follow the sequence of events in the reading matter;
- struggles to make judgements about a story;
- has a poor reading rate due to slow decoding and poor word
recognition skills.
(Bender, 2001:172; Donald et al., 2002:310; Lloyd et al., 2006:64-65)
Many of these problems originate from poor auditory and visual perceptual
skills. Perception is defined by Dednam (2005:370) as the ability to give
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meaning to information that is gathered through the senses. Indicators of
auditory and visual perceptual difficulties are tabled below.
Table 3.3 Indicators of auditory and visual perceptual difficulties
- An inability to break words down into syllables, letters and
sounds visually (visual analysis);
- An inability to combine letters and sounds into words (visual
synthesis);
- An inability to remember a particular order of words and
letters (visual sequential memory);
- An inability to see the differences between letters and words
that look similar and also to see things that differ in a picture
(visual discrimination);
- An inability to see the position of two or more objects in
relation to oneself and to each other (spatial orientation);
- Problems with direction – the difference between left and right
(the learner is unable to read from left to right and top to
bottom (directionality);
- An inability to remember the order of objects or symbols in a
sequence (sequencing);
- The inability to break words down into oral sounds (auditory
analysis);
- The inability to remember a series of related or unrelated
items in the correct sequence when it is presented orally
(auditory sequential memory);
- The inability to combine letters and sounds to form a word
(auditory synthesis or auditory blending);
- these learners tend to be slow processors, and
- the inability to distinguish between sounds that sound the
same and those that sound different (auditory discrimination).
(Dednam, 2005:370; Lloyd et al., 2006:66-67; Spinelli, 2002:114).
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Many learners with a reading difficulty also present with a poor receptive and
expressive vocabulary, with resulting word-finding problems. The most
common challenge in reading ability is poor phonological skills, where the
learner is unable to understand how sounds and letters match up to make
words (Donald et al., 2002:310). The phonic approach involves the
pronunciation of different letter sounds, which is a fairly complex sound/symbol
coding system and learners must master this system to be able to ‘decode’
unknown words. Bender (2001:172) states that complex sound/symbol
relationships cause major stumbling blocks for learners with learning difficulties
and they will often decode parts of the word, based on the easiest
sound/symbol relationship and merely guess the remainder of the word. A
learner’s inability to decode words using phonological processing skills (i.e. the
understanding of letter sounds), is the most fundamental aspect of a reading
difficulty.
Research done by McArthur, Ellis, Atkinson and Coltheart (2008), found that
subgroups of learners with specific reading difficulties and learners with specific
language difficulties, produced abnormal frequency discrimination, poor
auditory processing and problems with vowel discrimination or consonant-
vowel discrimination thresholds for their age. These learners were trained on a
six weeks programme that targeted their specific auditory processing
difficulties. The results suggested that auditory processing difficulties could be
treated successfully and that this could help learners to acquire new reading,
spelling or spoken language skills.
3.9.1.2 Spelling difficulties Spelling ability is closely related to reading ability and it presents itself in
various degrees (GDE, 2003). Components of grammar that have particular
relevance to spelling are phonology, morphology and context. In order to spell
correctly, the learner must be able to read the word, have basic knowledge and
skills in certain relationships between phonics and structural analysis, apply
phonic generalizations, visualize the appearance of a word, retrieve the word
from memory and apply visual-motor integrative skills to write a word (Bender,
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2001:189; Spinelli, 2002:334). Learners with specific shortfalls in the
phonological processing of language, tend to have impaired ability to segment,
analyse and synthesize speech sounds. Learners with SLD often have limited
knowledge of sound-symbol relationship and cannot blend isolated sounds
together. They also find it difficult to retrieve phonological information from
memory and to understand that specific letters need to be placed in sequence
to represent these sounds (Spinelli, 2002:335).
I have often encountered learners who could not read their own written work
back to the teacher. If spelling and writing are so poor that it is difficult or even
impossible for the examiner to read, understand or decipher what was written,
or when meaning and content are lost due to severe spelling problems, AMA
should be considered. Phonetic spelling, however, can still be deciphered but
should not be the only norm (DoE, 2002a:15).
3.9.1.3 Writing difficulties Writing problems can occur when a learner has fine motor problems, hand
dominance that is not established, motor planning problems (motor apraxia),
dysgraphia, slow writing speed, poor written expressive abilities or a physical
disability (Donald et al., 2002:313; Spinelli, 2002:337). A physical disability can
be a disability that affects the hands (e.g. cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy
that affects muscle strength and mobility of the wrists), which may result in an
inability to manipulate a pen and paper to produce a legible representation of
the learner’s ideas (Shapiro et al., 2002:431). Dysgraphia, according to these
authors, is a specific difficulty in processing and reporting information in written
form. Any health condition that may cause fatigue, inadequate strength or
vitality, may affect a learner’s educational performance, which includes his
writing ability, significantly.
The characteristics of typical writing difficulties are summarized in table 3.4:
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Table 3.4 Indicators of writing difficulties
The learner
- has poor pencil control and an immature poor pencil grip;
- does not have an established hand dominance;
- has poor handwriting and difficulty in forming letters and
numbers;
- has illegible handwriting (e.g. very small, incorrect letter
formation);
- has difficulty in cutting and pasting activities;
- has difficulty in tracing and colouring within given borders;
- has difficulty in organizing the presentation of their work;
- shows fatigue and restlessness during writing or drawing tasks;
- displays sloppy and disorganized handwriting;
- has a slow writing speed – struggles with completing written
work;
- has trouble making straight lines for connecting points,
matching answers or labelling maps;
- displays poor copying skills;
- cannot write properly due to a physical problem.
(Donald et al., 2002:313; Lloyd et al., 2006:69; Wood, 2002:385)
3.9.1.4 Difficulties with written expression Problems with written expression are more than mere poor handwriting and
poor sentence-structuring skills. According to Bender (2001:189), the problems
that learners with learning difficulties have in reading comprehension and
spoken language, probably interact to create difficulties in effective written-
expression ability. These learners have difficulty in expressing themselves on a
written level, whilst their strength may lie in good verbal expressive abilities.
The following characteristics are indicative of learners displaying poor written
expressive abilities:
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Table 3.5 Indicators of poor written expression
The learner
- has difficulty writing answers on paper, but he is able to give
correct answers orally;
- has a much weaker written vocabulary than spoken
vocabulary;
- usually has stronger written ideas and concepts than writing
mechanics (e.g. spelling, syntax, vocabulary level);
- has trouble writing a sentence with a complete thought;
- demonstrates poor spelling skills;
- tests better on objective tests than on tests that require
writing;
- has problems completing written assignments, and
- has difficulty in setting out their ideas in a logical order.
(Lloyd et al., 2006:69; Wood, 2002:387)
3.9.1.5 Difficulties with Mathematics Learners struggling to learn to read will often also find it difficult to learn to read
numbers (Lloyd et al., 2006:80). Dednam (2005:200) states that there are a
variety of barriers within learners that may cause difficulties with mathematics,
such as reading difficulties, attention deficit-related problems, visual and
auditory perceptual problems and anxiety. Problems with mathematics are
summarized in table 3.6.
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Table 3.6 Indicators of difficulties with mathematics
- difficulty with directionality which cause reversals (12/21);
- poor sequencing skills;
- confusion of mathematical signs +, -, x and ÷;
- poor memory leading to poor problem solving skills;
- poor basic concepts such as more than, less than, bigger,
smaller, equal to);
- poor organizational/planning skills which cause learners to skip
steps and leave work uncompleted;
- poor reading that causes difficulty in reading mathematical
combinations and constructions of word sums;
- difficulty in distinguishing between numbers that sound the same, e.g. seven/eleven, fifty/fifteen.
(Dednam, 2005:200-102; Lloyd et al., 2006:81)
I often encounter learners whose mathematics work cannot be deciphered, due
to their illegible handwriting. Learners with severe problems with organisational
skills, or a physical disability preventing them to write, are usually considered
for amanuenses in mathematics. Other learners have dyscalculia, which are
serious problems with mathematics. Shapiro et al. (2002:431) define
dyscalculia as an inability to understand and perform basic mathematical
operations, or to apply it to daily situations. For learners with dyscalculia,
schools may apply for exemption in Mathematics (DoE, 2006c:11).
3.9.1.6 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) According to Dednam (2005:367), more than 50 per cent of learners with
learning difficulties experience ADHD. This author cites Bley and Thornton who
describe these learners as being easily distractible by external and internal
stimuli. With sensorial hyperactivity (mainly an attention problem), the learner
cannot concentrate on one thing for a long period of time and everything
attracts his attention, while motor hyperactivity causes the learner to constantly
move around, he is fidgety and may constantly disturb and distract other
learners in the class. The symptoms for ADHD subtypes are the following:
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Table 3.7 Indicators of ADHD
Inattention: The learner
- often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless
mistakes in schoolwork or other activities;
- often has difficulty keeping attention on tasks or play activities;
- does not seem to listen when spoken to directly;
- does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish
schoolwork, chores or other duties;
- has difficulty organizing tasks and activities;
- avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require
sustained mental effort such as schoolwork or homework;
- tends to lose things that are necessary for tasks or activities,
e.g. school assignments, pencils, books or tools;
- is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli;
- is forgetful in daily activities.
At least 6 of the above-mentioned symptoms of inattention must
persist for at least 6 months to a point that is disruptive and
inappropriate for developmental level.
Hyperactivity/impulsivity:
- often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in the seat;
- often gets up from seat when remaining seated is expected;
- runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is
inappropriate;
- often has trouble playing or enjoying leisure activities quietly;
- is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor’;
- often talks excessively;
- blurts out answers before questions have been completed;
- has difficulty awaiting his turn;
- often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g. butts into
conversations or games).
Six or more of the above symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity must
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have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive
and inappropriate for developmental level.
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
In addition to the above description of ADHD, Spinelli (2002:118) adds that
many of these learners have poor fine motor integration, often presents with
illegible handwriting, have an aversion to writing assignments and tend to lose
their place easily when reading. As these conditions may prevent learners from
answering question papers to the best of their ability, adaptive methods of
assessment should be considered (GDE, 2003:4).
Sensory and physical impairments are discussed in the following subsections.
3.9.2 Visual impairment Visual impairment refers to partial sightedness and a variety of eye conditions
which makes it difficult for a learner to successfully participate in reading and
learning and which inevitably affects his educational performance (DoE,
2008b:96). The identification of learners with partial loss of vision can be
difficult, as there are many causes and combinations of causes leading to
varying degrees of vision loss (DBE, 2010:87). Eye conditions include
conditions such as chronic eye-infections, squints, nystagmus (involuntary to-
and-fro movements of the eyes), cataracts and colour blindness (Landsberg,
2005:332). Some learners have limited visual field due to specific ophthalmic
conditions, meaning that they have a limited panoramic view, such as tunnel
vision. In South Africa, learners who are totally blind are accommodated in
schools where high levels of support can be given, e.g. Braille, as total
blindness requires very specific developmental and educational needs.
Many learners with visual impairments have learning problems, due to the
effects of the sensory problem when learning to read and write. Many learners
with a visual impairment are slow in acquiring reading, writing and spelling
skills, as problems with visual processing are an integral part of the impairment
(Landsberg, 2005:335). Double vision often results in the learner writing letters
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and words over each other. A learner’s sight can gradually – or even suddenly
– deteriorate. He might enter the grade with good sight and then find that it
deteriorates during the course of the year (WCED, 2005). Landsberg
(2005:330) emphasizes the importance of teachers being knowledgeable of the
causes of visual impairment, as well as the influence it has on the normal
development of a learner. For this reason is it important to be aware of possible
signs of visual impairments in the classroom.
Although there are many indications of visual difficulties that the teacher should
be aware of, the most important signs are listed in Table 3.8 below.
Table 3.8 Indicators of visual impairments
- The learner has difficulty with reading or doing other work
requiring close vision;
- finds it difficult to copy from the blackboard;
- has trouble recognizing letters;
- tends to reverse letters;
- moves his head when looking at pictures or when reading;
- loses his place whilst reading;
- holds reading material unusually close to the eyes;
- displays poor spacing when writing – words may be too far
apart or too close;
- generally avoids reading;
- rubs his eyes excessively;
- shuts or covers one eye when reading and writing;
- has difficulty staying on lines when writing or colouring;
- blinks more than usual or is irritable when doing close work;
- is unable to see distant or small objects clearly;
- squints or frowns;
- is clumsy in movements, drags feet and appears to ‘feel’ his
way with feet and steps too high or too low when climbing
steps or walking in the shade.
(Landsberg, 2005:337; Spinelli, 2002:106-109; UNESCO, 2001:48)
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Other physical ‘tell-tale’ signs that a learner with visual difficulties might
experience, are chronic eye infections which cause inflamed, itching and
watery eyes, headaches and an inability to see in bright light. I fully agree with
Goh (2004:82) that an observant and caring teacher should be attuned to
various signs of visual difficulty. Appropriate special concession(s) should be
selected to address these learners’ assessment needs.
3.9.3 Hearing impairment A hearing impairment refers to a barrier related to hearing which can be
measured on a continuum of intensity (DoE, 2008b:97). Hearing impairment
ranges from mild to total deafness and “...as an invisible impairment, it is often
misunderstood or even underestimated in the severity of its impact upon both
the child and his family” (Storbeck, 2005:348). The barrier manifests either as
an inability or a serious problem in acquiring a spoken/written language
(including normal speech) through the usual auditory channels (DoE, 2002a:11;
GDE, 2003). Any degree of hearing loss can affect the course of language
development. A hearing impairment can be temporary, permanent or
fluctuating. This does not include deafness. In South Africa, learners with a
severe hearing impairment and learners who are totally deaf are
accommodated in special schools, where their high needs of support are
addressed. Sign language is offered to these learners. The language structure
of Sign language differs from the language structure of the spoken/written
language (DoE, 2008b:97). Some of the scholastic problems the learner with a
hearing impairment might display in the classroom are:
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Table 3.9 Indicators of hearing impairments
The learner
- has problems with following instructions, especially when
there are background noises;
- has a limited vocabulary;
- displays poor attention and concentration in class; often
appears to be dreamers;
- struggles to function in a group;
- has difficulty with reading, dictation and spelling tests;
- watches the speaker’s face very closely – lip reads;
- frequently asks for things to be repeated;
- shows wrong or inappropriate reaction to instructions;
- displays poor pronunciation e.g. th, f, w, t, s;
- relies mostly on visual stimuli;
- is reluctant to participate in oral activities, may fail to laugh at
jokes or understand humour;
- often displays a speech impairment like lisping or mumbling,
very loud speech or a refusal to speak in class.
(Ashman & Elkins, 1994:395; Storbeck, 2005:358; WCED, 2005; UNESCO, 2001:41)
Goh (2004:87) confirms that learners with hearing impairments perform more
poorly on tests than learners from other disability groups, due to the broad
expressive and receptive linguistic problems in lip reading, writing, reading and
spelling. Learners using hearing aids and FM devices may be able to perform
better, as they can have better access to the spoken language in the
classroom.
3.9.4 Physical and neurological disabilities Learners with physical disabilities and health problems may have a number of
issues which impact on their ability to perform academically, such as limitations
affecting eye-hand co-ordination, range of arm movements, head and trunk
control, arm strength, overall stamina and endurance, muscle tone and they
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may even have the need to be physically repositioned during instruction or
during examinations (Feldman, Gordon & Snyman, 2001:122). Physical
disabilities include deformed hands, loss of limbs, cerebral palsy, asthma, heart
conditions, epilepsy, muscular dystrophy and other health problems causing
limited strength or alertness and/or fatigue. A traumatic brain injury (caused by
an external physical force or by a certain medical condition e.g. brain tumour,
motor vehicle accidents or strokes) can result in a total or partial functional
impairment.
3.9.4.1 Cerebral palsy (CP) Cerebral palsy is a neurological disability (a condition, not a progressive or
degenerative disease or illness), resulting from damage to the brain before,
during or after birth (Donald et al., 2002:287). The condition affects the
muscular system, movement, posture and coordination (WCED, 2005). The
mobility of the child is therefore affected. There is no cure for the condition
(Feldman, Gordon & Snyman, 2001:131). Many learners with cerebral palsy
and traumatic brain injury may experience specific learning difficulties,
depending on the degree and location of injury in the brain (The National
Association for Persons with Cerebral Palsy, 2008). Problems with processing
information, visual and spatial difficulties and particular difficulties such as
reading, drawing and maths are evident. Cerebral palsy is wide-ranging and
affects each child differently. There are different kinds of CP, ranging from mild
to profound and these can be categorized in three main types: spastic CP,
athetoid and ataxia, which are described in table 3.10.
Table 3.10 Main types of cerebral palsy
Spastic CP causes muscle stiffness that affects the range of
movements in the child’s limbs. Hemiplegia: the right or the left side of
the body is affected; diplegia: both legs are affected and the arms
slightly or not at all and quadriplegia: both arms and legs are affected.
Athetoid CP or dyskinetic CP: the body makes involuntary movements
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because the muscles change from floppy to tense in a way that the child
cannot control them. This may also affect the child’s speech and
hearing.
Ataxic CP: this kind of CP causes balance difficulties and
uncoordinated movements. Ataxia affects the whole body. These
children are able to walk but may be unsteady, have shaky hand
movements and irregular speech.
(Feldman et al., 2001:130; National Association for Persons with Cerebral Palsy, 2008).
The degree of the child’s disability, whether it is CP, other brain-related or
health issues, will determine whether AMA should be considered.
3.9.4.2 Epilepsy
Epilepsy is also regarded to be a neurological condition (Donald et al.,
2002:287). Major epileptic seizures, as well as minor seizures that cause a brief
lapse of consciousness, can be successfully treated by a medical specialist.
Learners suffering from petit mal epilepsy often appear to be daydreaming or
having a lack of attention, which causes a gap in the learning progress.
Feldman et al. (2001:127) emphasize that, depending on the age of onset as
well as the type of seizures, epilepsy can cause a serious delay in all domains
of development. These authors maintain that learners with epilepsy may have
poor fine-motor control, untidy handwriting due to poor motor control, slow
processing of information and that their memory might also be affected. The
use of medication may also hamper a learner’s concentration and
organisational skills. Kapp (2005:279) adds that epilepsy causes several other
limitations that may hamper learners’ scholastic performance, e.g. involuntary
shaky movement of the hands, hypokinesis (under activity), inability to copy
geometrical shapes, nystagmus, squinting of the eyes and learning and
concentration problems. I am of the contention that AMA should be considered
for these learners, if the condition hampers their access to assessment.
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3.9.5 Other barriers to assessment Other conditions such as severe anxiety, emotional disturbances, poor test-
taking skills, disorientation, behaviour problems or any medical condition, may
prevent a learner from answering the assessment task to the best of his ability
(DoE, 2002a:16). Before adaptive methods of assessment is considered for
these learners, it will be necessary to take into consideration the degree of the
problem experienced by the individual child, which causes a barrier to
assessment.
3.9.6 Ad-hoc arrangements Ad-hoc arrangements apply in cases where a learner sustained trauma, an
injury, was hospitalised or imprisoned just before or during assessment of
examination. The extent and nature of the illness/condition has to be
considered before application for a special concession can be made. The
assessment could be carried out in the hospital or be postponed (DoE,
2002a:17). Ad-hoc arrangements also apply with regard to imprisonment. All
examination procedures apply to learners in prison, such as abiding by the
prescribed timetable of the question paper (DoE, n.d.(b).
In the next subsection, I discuss the various adaptive methods of assessment
for learners experiencing barriers to fair assessment.
3.10 ADAPTIVE METHODS OF ASSESSMENT (SPECIAL CONCESSIONS) INDICATED FOR SPECIFIC BARRIERS TO ASSESSMENT
Adaptive methods of assessment be appropriate and based on a learner’s
individual needs, in order to meet the individual needs of each learner, to allow
the true ability and competency of the diverse learners to be assessed and to
be effective (Goh, 2004:39; Rieck & Dugger Wadsworth, 2005:108). An AMA
for one type of barrier to learning cannot be assumed to apply to other types of
barriers and AMA suitable for one particular learner with a barrier to learning,
cannot be assumed to apply for other learners with the same barrier. Not all
learners living with a disability or learning difficulty will necessarily experience
barriers to learning and assessment. Dempsey and Conway (2004:7) contend
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that it is important to understand which accommodations are valid, so that the
assessment results maintain their integrity of being able to be compared with
those of learners without barriers to learning. The fairness in using AMA is
emphasized and the reader is referred back to the purposes of AMA (see 3.4,
chapter three). AMA should be provided to learners who “...genuinely need
them and in a manner not to exceed what they need” (Goh, 2004:40).
Therefore, teachers should be able to identify barriers to learning, as well as
the various adaptive methods of assessment that may be used to provide
learners the opportunity to fair assessment. More than one assessment
accommodation, used in combination, is often indicated to enhance academic
success (Rieck & Dugger Wadsworth, 2005:109). According to Rickey
(2005:27), learners with barriers to learning most often need one to four
accommodations during assessment.
3.10.1 Specific learning difficulties Learners with a specific learning difficulty may require the following special
concessions:
Table 3.11 Indicated concessions for specific learning difficulties
- Additional time for learners with slow reading and writing;
- The use of a reader (the learner writes for himself). Reading
can also be done for groups of two to four learners under the
same examination conditions;
- Amanuenses (reading and writing for the learner, in the case
of reading and writing difficulties);
- Rephrasing (rewording of the questions in simpler form, in
cases where the learner has a hearing impairment);
- Planning aid for learners with poor organisational skills;
- Using a separate venue when making use of a reader or an
amanuensis and when planning aid is indicated;
- A separate venue for learners with ADHD which is free of
extraneous sights or auditory stimuli;
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- Planning aid for learners with ADHD, to help them focus on
the task at hand;
- Using a separate venue for a learner with attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder, in order to limit distractions;
- Transcription in the case of illegible handwriting, but which
still can be deciphered by an teacher who is familiar with the
learner’s efforts;
- Alternative questions;
- Only in severe cases, reading to the candidate, amanuensis
and/or planning aid is granted for Mathematics.
(DoE, 2008b:101; GDE, 2002a:13-16; Wood, 2002:430-461). 3.10.2 Visual Impairment The following concessions are applicable to learners whose visual impairment
denies them the opportunity to take exams in standardized conditions:
Table 3.12 Indicated concessions for visual impairments
- Large print;
- Amanuensis;
- The use of a reader;
- Additional time – 15 minutes per hour;
- Alternative questions;
- A magnifying TV reader or special hand-operated magnifier;
- Braille in the case of blind learners;
- Interpreter of Braille;
- Tape aid;
- The use of a computer with voice synthesiser.
(DoE, n.d.(b); Lloyd et al., 2006:117)
Research done by Erickson (2007) emphasizes the importance of early literacy
instruction and literacy development of learners with visual impairments and
blindness. Erickson’s research also suggests that specific strategies such as
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repeated readings, direct instruction in phonics and big word decoding which
emphasizes morphemes, can benefit school-aged children with visual
impairments.
3.10.3 Hearing Impairment Learners with a hearing impairment may require the following concessions:
Table 3.13 Indicated concessions for hearing impairments
- Additional time, up to 15 minutes per hour;
- Setting (separate room free of any distractions);
- Breaks due to fatigue;
- Interpreter to serve as a translator/amanuensis;
- Rephrasing;
- Alternative questions;
- Amanuenses;
- The use of a dictionary;
- The use of a computer.
(DoE, n.d.(b); GDE, 2006:118; Goh, 2004:89; WCED, n.d.:9).
My experience is that these learners benefit particularly by amanuenses,
conducted by a person whom they feel comfortable with (due to a high level of
anxiety during assessment and where lip reading is done without external
distractions), where the repetition of questions can be requested and where
rephrasing of questions can be done.
3.10.4 Physical disabilities The specific type of physical disability should be taken into account when
deciding upon concessions. The nature and severity of the disability should be
considered. Special concessions for physical impairments may include the
following:
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Table 3.14 Indicated concessions for physical disabilities
- Additional time, 15 minutes per hour (or more with
supporting evidence);
- The use of a reader;
- Allowing the learner to select the easiest and most efficient
way of writing (e.g. manual cursive writing, word-processing)
- Alternative questions;
- Amanuensis;
- Resting breaks. In the case of diabetes, the learner has to
be permitted to eat and/or rest. If needed, the learner may be
allowed to test his blood-sugar every hour.
- Planning aid;
- The use of a computer/word processor.
(DoE, 2008b:101; Feldman et al., 2001:138; GDE, 2003:3; GDE, 2008a) 3.10.5 Immigrant learners Immigrant learners who have been in the country for less than two years and
who do not have any understanding of one of the official languages, will be
granted the use of a dictionary, as well as 10 minutes per half an hour (DoE,
n.d.(b).
The various AMA or special concessions are discussed in the following section.
3.11 DISCUSSION OF THE VARIOUS SPECIAL CONCESSIONS The South African Department of Education lists the following special
concessions on its prescribed Application Form for special concessions (GDE,
2009).
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Table 3.15 Special concessions on the official application form (GDE, 2009)
RECOMMENDATION / CONCESSION CONCESSION CODE Rest Break A
Additional time – 05 minutes per hour B
Additional time – 10 minutes per hour C
Additional time – 15 minutes per hour D
Alternative questions E
Amanuenses F
Braille G
Computer H
Interpreter I
Large print J
Planning aid K
Reading to candidate L
Rephrasing M
Separate venue N
Special aids (specify) O
Dictionary P
Other recommendations (Specify) Q
From the many international sources that I have consulted, I discovered that
‘assessment accommodations’ are grouped into four main categories, namely
timing/scheduling accommodations, setting accommodations, the presentation
format and the response format. Based on these findings, I designed a diagram
to categorize the various formats, as can be seen in Figure 3.2.
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CATEGORIES OF SPECIAL CONCESSIONS
(Assessment accommodations)
Figure 3.2 Categories of special concessions Adapted from: Alant & Casey, 2005; Cortiella, 2005; National Centre of Learning Disabilities (NCLD), n.d.; Spinelli, 2002:144-147; Trice, 2000:155.
3.11.1 The timing/scheduling format
Extended time is the most frequently requested assessment accommodation
(Clapper et al., 2005; Fuchs et al., 2005; Thurlow et al., 2005). Additional time
is recommended for learners who consistently have a slow working speed in
processing test information, or due to physical and sensory disabilities, as well
as reading and writing difficulties. They need more time to demonstrate what
they know and what they can do. It is also allowed for learners who find it
Timing/ Scheduling
format
The setting format
The presentation
format
The response format
Additional time
Separate venue
Large print; Reader;
Assistive devices;
Audio tapes or text to
voice computers; Interpreter; Rephrasing;
Planning aid.
Computer/ word
processor; Amanuenses;
Sign Language;
Braille; Assistive devices;
Dictionary
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difficult to concentrate for a significant amount of time (such as for learners
suffering from attention-deficit/hyperactivity-disorder) and resting breaks could
be allowed for those whose sustained effort is reduced by fatigue (Goh,
2004:43; NCLD, n.d.). Resting breaks are allowed for learners who need to
take medication or for learners with diabetes to take a light meal (DoE, n.d.(b).
The Gauteng Department of Education allows several time limits as specified in
the Application Form for Special Concessions, that range from a 5 to 15
minutes resting break after 45 minutes, 5 to15 minutes additional time during
amanuenses; when using large print; when using an interpreter; when using
Braille and when reading to the candidate (DoE, n.d.(b). However, in the 24
years that I have applied for special concessions to the DECC, I have found
that the Department of Education was very willing to grant extra-ordinary
concessions to learners with severe physical disabilities, provided that
supporting motivational documents were submitted. In an exceptional case of a
severely disabled athetoid cerebral palsied learner in a school for cerebral
palsied learners, the DoE has approved a concession of 30 minutes per hour
additional time, which included a resting break after 45 minutes. This learner
also suffered from severe dysarthric speech and together with his uncontrolled
body movements, his levels of fatigue increased rapidly.
As mentioned earlier (see 3.10), a concession should be based on the merit of
each case, taking into account the learner’s specific barrier and the severity of
the barrier. The appropriate amount of time needed by a learner should be
strictly determined, in order not to give him/her an unfair advantage.
Collaboration with fellow teachers and the SBST to discuss the learner’s barrier
is imperative in deciding upon a concession. Elliot and Marquart (2004:8)
cautions that “…care needs to be taken in the assumption that allowing extra
time will necessarily be a suitable accommodation for all students with
disabilities”. One cannot presume that all learners with barriers to learning will
need additional time. The purpose is to address the barrier and not to
compensate for it (Alant & Casey, 2005:185). Teachers should be focused on
what learners know and not how fast they can do the work (Rieck & Dugger
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Wadsworth, 2005:108). All learners start to write their papers at the same time
and learners who were granted additional time, write longer afterwards.
The Illinois State Board of Education (ISBE, 2009:7) states that scheduling
refers to test administration that may be done throughout the learner’s optimal
time of day, provided that the test is completed on the same day that the
session began. Learners may also have resting breaks during the test or
examination, due to fatigue as the result of a medical condition.
3.11.2 The setting format
Setting accommodations refer to the altering of the location or environment in
which the assessment takes place. A separate venue is recommended for
amanuenses, reading to the learner(s), planning aid, extended time, learners
who suffer from severe anxiety, learners who are easily distracted in large
groups (DBE, 2010:67; NCLD, n.d.; Thurlow et al., 2005) as well as for learners
who might distract others - or any other reason that prohibits a learner to take
the test in a group setting.
Although no empirical studies have been done to measure the effect of setting
accommodations on the scores of learners with learning difficulties, according
to Fuchs et al. (2005), these authors state that if tests are delivered according
to standard conditions within an alternative school setting, “…this should not
lead to inflated students’ scores and actually may allow students to focus their
attention and produce a truer representation of their ability”. The venue should
be adapted to accommodate the learner’s specific needs, such as for
wheelchairs, special lighting and adapted furniture (Elliot, 1995). At all times the
venue should be disturbance free: free of extraneous sights or auditory stimuli,
free from interruption such as phone calls, interference by other people and
noises from outside the room (Goh, 2004:107). One of the practical problems
schools can encounter – and with which I agree - is that there may not be
enough venues/offices/classrooms in the school where a considerable number
of learners require amanuenses or individual reading assistance (Fuchs et al.,
2005; Thurlow et al., 2005).
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3.11.3 The presentation format
Presentation accommodations involve changes that are made in the format of
the test presented to the learner and it is a much-reported type of testing
accommodation (Elliot, Thurlow, Ysseldyke & Erickson, 1997; Goh, 2004:42). It
involves the changing of the medium of test administration, the test items, or
both. Presentation accommodations allow learners to access information by
using auditory, multi-sensory, tactile and visual modes, in stead of reading
standard print (ISBE, 2009:7; NCLD, n.d.). The presentation format includes
accommodations such as large print, planning aid, rephrasing, Braille, or
manual demonstrations for deaf/hard of hearing learners, oral reading of
directions (‘Reading to the candidate’), magnifying devices, audio tapes or
computers with voice-activated software and alternative questions. A
discussion of some of the presentation formats follows in the following
paragraphs.
3.11.3.1 The use of a reader In research done by Clapper et al. (2005) and Thurlow et al. (2005), it was
found that the ‘reading aloud’ accommodation was the most common. A reader
is commonly used for learners who consistently experience reading problems,
such as an inadequate reading rate, poor reading accuracy and poor reading
comprehension. Problems with decoding and word recognition are the main
reasons for distorted reading comprehension (DoE, 2008b:122). I maintain that
persons reading to learners should also be trained, as there are specific
requirements pertaining to the reading act such as reading slowly and clearly in
order for the learner to process the information, as well as for the learner to be
able to follow where the reader is reading.
A study was done on the effect of letter spacing and large print on the reading
speed of fourteen learners with low vision (McLeish, 2007). It was found that
increased letter spacing and large print increased their reading speed, which
could benefit reading in mainstream schools and “...lead to more inclusive
practise in the classroom”.
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3.11.3.2 Large print
Learners with visual impairments benefit by large print of the paper content. Mr
Preeth Ramlal, the low vision co-ordinator at the S.A. National Council for the
Blind (personal communication, March 20, 2008), informed me that by using a
Times New Roman font 14 in printed examination papers, all readers with
reading difficulties will find reading easier, although learners with moderate to
severe visual impairments, will benefit by font 16-18. I have, in conjunction with
an occupational therapist at a special school, analysed the font used in
National Senior Certificate examination papers. We found that the font Arial 12
was used. This font is larger than the Times New Roman font 12, which was
generally used for all grades’ examination papers in the special school. The
use of Arial 12 was recommended to the teachers at the specific special school
and recommendations were also made to the local district office of the
Department of Education. Examples of the various fonts were included in the
recommendation.
3.11.3.3 Planning aid Planning aid is recommended for learners with severe problems when
planning and organizing their examination paper. In South Africa, planning aid
is the term used to address organizational barriers during examinations, but no
document providing the specific regulations pertaining to it, could be traced.
The JCQ of the United Kingdom uses the term ‘prompters’ (JCQ, 2009:16),
referring to a person who may sit beside the learner, in order to keep his
attention on the task at hand. It is permitted where a learner has little or no
sense of time, loses concentration easily, suffers from an anxiety disorder or
has an obsessive-compulsive disorder, which causes him to keep revising a
question rather than moving on to the next question. Some learners may also
continue scratching out their incorrect work to start over again. Others, such as
learners with ADHD, tend to lose their place without being aware that they have
lost it (Dednam, 2005:368). These problems may prevent the learners from
answering the question paper to the best of their ability. The learners tend to
give up easily and submit incomplete answer papers. Planning aid has the
purpose of encouraging the learner to complete the question paper, helping the
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learner to relax, explaining the structure of the paper and reminding him of time
allocation, as well as reminding him of the mark allocation, as a learner often
tends to answer one question where e.g. a five-answer response is requested.
3.11.3.4 Rephrasing Rephrasing is a presentation accommodation for which I could find no recent
clear description, definition or criteria in South African documents, on what
exactly it entails. Rephrasing is one of the adaptive methods of assessment
stated on the application form for special concessions. In South Africa,
according to the DoE (n.d.(b) and the WCED policy document (n.d.), rephrasing
is a concession only allowed for hard of hearing and deaf learners. However,
Paulsen and Hoosain (n.d.:23), are of the opinion that learners with language
barriers may also benefit from rephrasing. In JCQ uses the term ‘Oral
Language Modifier’ to clarify language in examination papers, when requested
by the learner to do so (JCQ, 2009:17-18). The JCQ emphasizes that learners
who are allowed an oral language modifier, must have a below average reading
comprehension16. It is a further requirement of the JCQ that learners with
specific learning difficulties be assessed by a suitably qualified person such as
a qualified psychologist or specialist teacher, to ensure that the concession is
appropriate and will not result in the learner gaining an unfair advantage. The
reader may rephrase a question in more simple words, in order to make the
question more understandable to the learner, for example: the question, “What
advice can you give Mary to overcome her problems?” can be rephrased as,
“What can you tell Mary on how she can solve her problems?” Rephrased
questions should not alter the content or standard of the question and no
explanation of questions may be given. The JCQ (2009:18) further requires that
a separate invigilator be present in the venue and that the oral language
modifier should underline the words or phrases on the question paper which
were rephrased to the learner.
16 The JCQ (2009:17) emphasizes that a learner’s reading comprehension should be measured using an up to date nationally standardized test conducted by a specialist. “Below average” is a technical term which means that the achieved score is at least one standard deviation below the mean.
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With regard to ‘rephrasing’ as a concession only allowed for learners with
hearing impairments, I contacted various people at the GDE, as well as the
National Department of Education, to obtain some clarity on this issue. I
specifically enquired as to where this decision originated, but I could not obtain
any answers. The motivation for my enquiries was that I strongly believe that
learners with confirmed specific learning and language difficulties (e.g. poor
receptive vocabulary and poor reading comprehension), could benefit by
rephrasing.
3.11.3.5 Transcription The JCQ (2009:15) describes transcription as a copy that is made of the
learner’s script, after the examination has taken place and without the learner’s
participation. The transcription is made in a separate answer book. Learners
who are allowed the concession of transcription are those whose handwriting is
illegible or very difficult to read. The whole answer book or only parts thereof
may be transcribed for clarification. An assigned person rewrites the answers
for the learner – this may possibly be a teacher of the learner, who developed
the ability to decipher the learner’s work. Both answer books should be handed
in for comparison and validation.
An interesting example that I encountered was that of a Grade 12 cerebral
palsied learner, who suffered from both a severe degree of dysphasia and
dyslexia. Her expressive abilities were non-existent. She could not speak and
could only produce “uhh” sounds. She could hardly identify symbols and her
writing was illegible. The use of a typewriter/computer did not improve the
situation, as she had severe problems identifying the letters on the keyboard.
However, her teachers could decipher her attempts to write, as the first letters
of her words indicated what she wanted to write. During examinations her
written work was transcribed by a teacher who could decipher her work. Both
answer books were handed in for the external markers to compare. The learner
passed Grade 12, which she would not have achieved if she was not offered
this concession.
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3.11.3.6 Alternative questions Although alternative questions are indicated as a special concession on the
Application Form for Special Concessions, I could not find any definition or
description of the concession in South African documents or circulars, apart
from a policy document compiled by the WCED (n.d.:7). This document defines
‘alternative questions’ as follows:
“If questions are inaccessible to a learner, due to his specific barrier, alternative
questions of the same standard can be substituted. For example: for learners
with a physical or visual impairment who are unable to draw a sketch in
subjects such as Life Sciences, the questions can be substituted by questions
testing the same concepts. However, diagrams in Mathematics and Physical
Sciences may not be substituted”.
Mastropieri and Scruggs (2004:344) refer to alternative questions as the
modification of test formats. Some learners who have difficulty with copying
words from memory, word-retrieval, focusing attention, poor reading
comprehension and spelling, may benefit from modification of questions. These
authors suggest that long questions can be replaced by multiple answer
questions. Some of their suggestions are that questions requiring paragraph
answers can be substituted with multiple choice questions; sentence
completion items (where a word or phrase is left out at the end of a sentence)
can be substituted with the same question, but in a multiple choice format
(where the learner only has to circle the correct answer. Lastly, instead of only
requesting the learner to write an essay on a specific topic, a list of relevant
concepts could be included in the essay, as well as recommendations
indicating how the essay can be organized.
3.11.3.7 The use of computers and tape recorders A computer may be used as an alternative to readers. In the past, tape aid was
regarded as a special concession, where examination papers were put on tape.
Learners could then stay in the classroom during examination sessions, while
they listened to the questions using head phones. Computers with voice-
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activated software (DoE, 2008b:122) and head phones are the current
alternative to tape recorders, which in turn requires schools to have these
facilities, as well as skilled teachers to record the study material or examination
questions onto it. Learners receive the printed question paper to follow visually
whilst listening to the audio output. However, as not all schools have these
facilities, they have no other option as to make use of a reader to read the
paper to the learner(s) in a separate venue. The DoE (n.d.(a) specifies that
deaf and hard of hearing learners may use computers for the purpose of
providing examination questions in a format that is accessible to the learners,
or alternatively, to formulate examination answers (see response format).
It is suggested that learners with reading difficulties, as well as those with visual
impairments, be given their study material on tape (Dednam, 2005:378). When
studying their work, the learners listen to the tape whilst following the work in
the handbook. My experience is that a vast number of learners in specialized
education benefit by using tape aid, as it makes the learning process easier for
them. However, tapes and cassettes have become out-dated technology. Work
is now being put on compact discs, which in turn requires schools to have
access to these facilities.
3.11.4 Response format
Response format accommodations involve those that alter the manner in which
learners indicate responses. Spinelli (2002:147) states that some learners with
a physical, sensory or motor disability, who cannot write their answers, are
eligible for response accommodations. It allows learners to complete activities,
assignments, tests and examinations in different ways, such as the use of
assistive devices. Braille, sign language and the use of a computer/word
processor are examples of the response accommodation. Learners may also,
for example, give the answers orally and have another person record the
answer for them (an amanuensis). The use of an amanuensis is discussed in
subsection 3.12.
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3.11.4.1 Computers/word processors A learner may be granted this concession when a physical impairment or a
writing difficulty hampers his handwriting; when his answers are illegible to
markers (DoE, 2008b:122), or when written work is produced at a below
average speed for his age (JCQ, 2009:13). By using a computer, problems with
legible handwriting can be eliminated. The JCQ is of the contention that, only in
the case of a learner not being able to use a word processor to produce written
communication, an amanuensis is indicated. When using a computer,
precautionary measures should be taken to ensure that the computer does not
contain any stored information and that the learner does not use software such
as grammar or spelling checks (DoE, 2008b:122). In a group setting where
learners answer papers using computers with voice-activated software,
learners receive personal ear/head phones and they have the option to
independently repeat portions of the recording (ISBE, 2009:9). The learner’s
produced work can be printed after the exams and it must be verified that it was
the learner’s own work. An invigilator must be present whilst the learner uses
the computer. The use of a computer or word processor for responding, or
giving a response in sign language, is suggested by Goh (2004:42) and
Thurlow et al. (2005).
3.11.4.2 Dictionary Although the use of a dictionary is stated as a special concession on the
application form, I found very little information in South African documents or
circulars to this regard. The DoE (n.d.(b) specifies that immigrant learners, who
have been in the country for less than three years, may be granted the use of a
dictionary. A further specification is that a dictionary may be used by deaf
learners. In contrast to this, I found that the WCED (n.d.) allow their ‘LSEN’ to
use a dictionary when being examined in a language other than his mother
tongue. This confusion may stem from the fact that there are no clear
guidelines available to teachers and schools. In the United Kingdom, a
dictionary is allowed for learners who are examined in a language other than
their mother tongue, excluding language question papers (JCQ, 2009:24).
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3.11.4.3 Amanuenses Amanuenses is a concession recommended for learners with reading and
writing difficulties. Amanuenses is discussed in detail in section 3.12.
3.11.5 A summary of recommended adaptive methods of assessment
The various special concessions for barriers to assessment are summarized in
Table 3.16. The information was adapted from the Department of Education
(2002a:15; 2008b:101) and Potterton, Utley and Potterton (2002a:34).
Table 3.16 Summary of recommended special concessions Reading
Disorder Spelling
Problems Writing
Disorder Visually Impaired
Hearing Impaired
Physical Disability
Other (ADHD, anxiety)
Tape/CD aid
Braille
Enlarged print
Sign Language
Additional time
Amanuenses
Reader
Alternative questions
Rephrasing
Planning Aid
Computer/ Typewriter
Interpreter
Resting break
Dictionary
I believe that amanuenses is one of the most significant strategies to
accommodate learners with severe reading and writing difficulties.
Amanuenses is discussed in detail in the following section.
3.12 AMANUENSES
3.12.1 Definition Dictionary.com (n.d.) defines amanuensis (pronunciation ah-man-yoo-en-sis)
as a Latin word used for certain persons performing a function by hand, either
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writing down the words of another or performing manual labour. A more specific
definition is described as “...a person employed to write down what another
dictates or to copy what has been written by another: secretary”; and someone
skilled in the transcription of speech (synonym: stenographer)”.
I noticed that the Department of Education uses a different spelling
(amanuensis/amanuenses) for the term (GDE, 2003; GDE 2008a). For the
purpose of this study, amanuensis will be used to refer to the noun – i.e. the
person who conducts the act (the scribe) and amanuenses will refer to the
verb, i.e. the act of doing amanuenses. The term ‘scribe’ is generally used in
the United States of America and the United Kingdom (Clapper et al., 2005;
JCQ, 2009) while ‘amanuensis’ is the term used in South Africa.
3.12.2 The use of an amanuensis This refers to
- The practice where a person (amanuensis) reads the questions to the
candidate who then writes down the learner’s response verbatim (DoE, 2005b:107), or
- The practice where a learner reads the questions and the person
(amanuensis) writes down the learner’s response verbatim (GDE,
2008a). - An amanuensis may only be used for learners who cannot produce
written communication by any other means e.g. a word
processor/computer (JCQ, 2009:29).
3.12.3 Criteria for amanuenses
Learners experiencing specific barriers to assessment should first be assessed
by the SBST or the SAT (GDE, 2008a), or by professionals such as an
educational psychologist, speech therapist, a physiotherapist and/or a
neurologist or medical professional. Based on the merits of each case, the
SBST or SAT will identify the learners who will benefit by amanuenses. The
learner is considered for amanuenses when the following is evident.
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The learner’s reading/writing problems prevent him from giving a true account
of his knowledge and/or competence; he may not be in the position to write the
assessment due to dysgraphia or the severity of a physical disability; written
expression (conveying knowledge by means of writing) is very poor; reading
and writing tempo are exceptionally slow; the learner experiences difficulty in
reading/deciphering the answer and the learner who has severe problems with
planning and organizing their examination papers (DoE, 2002:15; GDE,
2008a). Amanuenses is usually implemented when a learner is not able to use
a word processor to produce written communication (JCQ, 2009:110).
The JCQ (2009:10) summarizes the criteria for amanuenses as follows:
“For examination purposes, this would be interpreted as those whose spelling accuracy score is in the below average category, whose free writing cannot be read by others, is grammatically incomprehensible or is produced so slowly that answers could not be fully recorded even with the extra time allowed. The candidate’s handwriting speed (words per minute) being in the below average range for their age. Some candidates with a permanent physical disability or a recent injury will not be able to write.
In order to implement amanuenses correctly, the following guidelines should be
adhered to:
3.13 GUIDELINES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AMANUENSES Guidelines were laid down in an attempt to establish uniformity in the
implementation of the concession, so that no learner is advantaged or
disadvantaged by teachers/volunteers who act as amanuensis. These
guidelines were compiled by me in the 1990’s and a few years ago, refined by
myself and the coordinator of the DECC, Dr Henk Joubert, on 19 June 2008, 17
July 2008 and 2 September 2008. Acknowledgement of my contribution to
these guidelines was given by the Gauteng Department of Education (see
Appendix 7). Although these guidelines are specifically aimed at the National
Senior Certificate (Grade 12), it is applicable to the implementation of
amanuenses to learners in other grades. The term ‘candidate’ is used in the
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guidelines when referring to Grade 12 candidates writing the final NSC
examinations and ‘learner’ is used for all other grades, including Grade 12
learners writing examinations other than the NSC.
3.13.1 Suggested regulations pertaining to the selection of amanuensis The training of amanuensis is a requirement of the GDE and amanuensis
should preferably be teachers, ex-teachers or appropriately qualified
professional people (GDE, 2008b). Volunteers from the community may also be
used to implement amanuenses, provided that they received training. Collins
(2003:69) recommends the use of retired teachers, as they have the familiarity
with the subject matter, without the direct involvement with the learner on a
daily basis. I maintain that the ideal amanuensis should be a person who can
write clearly and quickly. This person should preferably also be proficient in
both the official languages offered by the school. She must be able to adapt to
the learner’s pace, have empathy with the learner and give the necessary
feedback in the practice sessions, as well as have the ability to make the
learner feel at ease.
Under no circumstances may the subject teacher, a family member or a person
(friend) known to the learner (with the exception of staff members) be used as
an amanuensis (DoE, 2008b:121). A sworn statement in this regard should be
available at all times for verification by external monitoring teams, in the case of
external examinations. A “Declaration by the Amanuensis” was designed for
this purpose (see Appendix 8). Every amanuensis should also be able to
provide proof that she had undergone training. A certificate, provided by the
DECC, must be available for verification by external monitoring teams. An
example of such a certificate is attached as Appendix 9. Furthermore, I am of
the opinion that it is beneficial that a person working as an amanuensis for the
first time is supervised by an experienced amanuensis for the duration of at
least one examination paper.
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The responsibilities of the amanuensis are discussed in the next paragraphs,
with specific reference to guidelines before, during and after the examination
session.
3.13.2 Responsibilities of the amanuensis The responsibilities of the amanuensis pertain to specific issues that must be
adhered to before, during and after the examination sessions. Before engaging
in the guidelines that were laid down, the amanuensis should take note of the
following general issues.
3.13.2.1 General The amanuensis must be well informed by the SBST coordinator or member of
the SAT, on which concessions were granted to the learner besides
amanuenses, e.g. planning aid, rephrasing and/or additional time.
A high emphasis is placed on the professionalism and integrity of the
amanuensis. This includes that examination conditions are adhered to at all
times and that all regulations governing the writing of examinations apply. It is
the responsibility of the amanuensis to ensure that the learner is in no way
placed at an advantage over other learners (GDE, 2008a). No gesture, facial
expression or comments should be made to the learner to suggest that an
answer may possibly be incorrect or incomplete. The amanuensis should
remain unbiased and not become emotionally involved with the learner.
Although the relationship between the amanuensis and the learner should be
kept professional and not evoke any familiarity, the learner must be made to
feel at ease without compromising the examination atmosphere. In the case of Grade 12 candidates writing the final NSC exams, the candidate
and amanuensis should have the following documentation with them in the
examination session, in case of the verification by external monitoring teams:
identity document, the examination timetable on which the nature of the
concessions is stipulated, the signed ‘Declaration by the Amanuensis’ and the
certificate that the amanuensis had undergone training.
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3.13.2.2 Before the commencement of the session
All amanuensis should report to the examination venue at the same time that
the learners are required to be seated. This includes the learners who are
receiving amanuenses, those who are having their papers read to them, as well
as learners who were granted the concessions of rephrasing and planning aid.
The amanuensis must be on time, in order to collect the learner and the
examination papers. Answer books, question papers and any other
requirements are then handed out to the learners. Amanuensis must ensure
that they are given a copy of the examination paper. S(he) must have two
papers – one for the candidate/learner and one for him/herself (DoE,
2008b:122). Regarding the National Senior Certificate exams, it is the responsibility of the
invigilator to handle any technical problems such as missing papers, incorrect
numbering of pages and correction of errors on the paper. The chief invigilator
must ensure that all candidates receiving amanuenses sign the attendance
register before leaving the examination venue.
Of further importance is that the amanuensis must ensure that the learner is in
possession of the necessary resources and stationery for the examination
paper concerned and must then accompany him to the room/office that has
been assigned to them for the examination session. Rough paper should be
available, should the learner wish to use it. Learners and amanuensis must
take their places in the assigned room and be ready to commence the
examination at least 10 minutes before the official starting time. This time
should be utilized to check the personal details on the answer paper and to
make the candidate at ease. Learners with special concessions commence
their examination sessions at the same time as all other learners. Additional
time that was granted to a learner is added at the end of examination paper
(DoE, n.d.(b).
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3.13.2.3 Instructions to the learner/candidate The following instructions should be read to the candidate/learner before the
commencement of the paper:
- “I will read the instructions and questions to you and then I will write
down your answers”.
- If there is anything you need me to repeat – for example, if I need to
repeat parts of a question so that you can understand better – do not
hesitate to ask”.
- “I will read your answers back to you and if you wish, you are welcome
to make changes if you need to”.
- “I am not, under any circumstances, allowed to help you or explain the
meaning of a word or question to you”. (Only the learners, who were
granted the concession of rephrasing, may be supplied with a simpler
form of the question on the learner’s request).
- “Pay attention to the mark allocation at the end of each question and let
that guide you when you answer a question”. (NB: No indication may be
given during the examination if a candidate does not take mark
allocation into consideration, as this surmounts to planning aid).
- “You may use rough paper if you prefer to and then read the answers to
me afterwards. Your rough work must be handed in with your answer
book”.
- Grade 12 candidates must do their rough work on the blank page in the
answer book (only in Paper 3, Creative Writing).
- Learners in other grades may use rough paper to plan long questions or
summaries if they wish to do so. It should be lined through afterwards
and attached to the answer book/sheet.
- “You may, at any time, ask me to read back something I have written for
you and then change it if you need to”.
- “You can say if you are unsure of an answer and would prefer to leave it
out. Then we can come back to it later”.
- “At the end of the paper I will again read the questions that you have left
out, should you want to answer them”.
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The following instructions/guidelines are only applicable to the writing of certain
language papers:
- “You must tell me when to start a new paragraph”. (Only applicable to
creative writing).
- “When you write a letter, tell me what the format must be, for example
address, introduction and the ending”.
- “You must tell me where to use full stops, commas, capital letters and
other punctuation marks”. (Only in cases where punctuation is being
specifically evaluated).
In cases where spelling is specifically evaluated, the learner/candidate should
either spell the word to the amanuensis or write the word on rough paper, so
that the amanuensis can copy it onto the answer paper. It may not be pointed
out to the learner that paragraphing or punctuation is incorrect. It is a
requirement that learners in Grade 10 - 12 plan and edit their creative writing
on rough paper. They then read their effort back to the amanuensis afterwards,
to write down. The amanuensis will write the usual capital letters and
punctuation marks while taking down the dictation (GDE, 2008a). The learner is
not required to spell the words, but should indicate the beginning of new
paragraphs. With regard to comprehension questions in language papers, no
word meaning or explanation of the reading passage may be given. I have
experienced in the past, that an amanuensis unintentionally translated a First
Additional Language paper into the learner’s home language. Under no
circumstances may examination papers be translated, as this provides the
learner with an unfair advantage above other learners who write in the
examination venue.
Although amanuenses is not recommended for Mathematics, the following
guidelines should be followed in the case where a learner was recommended
to receive amanuenses in Mathematics/Mathematical Literacy:
The amanuensis must either be a Mathematics teacher, or someone familiar
with Mathematics (but not the learner’s subject teacher). The candidate/learner
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must explain each step and the amanuensis should take care not to write out
steps beforehand. With regard to graphs and diagrams, the learner/candidate
with a severe physical disability must indicate the following on their own and
the amanuensis must act strictly in accordance with the learner’s instructions:
where the axes should be drawn, arranging of axes, plotting points on the
graph and the joining of points. Learners, who have reading and writing
difficulties, are mostly able to perform these actions themselves.
With regard to Life Sciences and Physical Sciences, it is also recommended
that the amanuensis has knowledge of the subject and its terminology. In
subjects such as Computer Applications Technology where speed accuracy is
required, it is allowed that a reader reads the assessment task to the learner,
should his reading speed be too time-consuming (DoE, 2002a:15). This will
require that the reader sits beside the learner throughout the assessment task.
My experience is that the repetition of the instructions becomes unnecessary
for learners who are used to doing amanuenses, as they became accustomed
to the procedure over time.
3.13.2.4 Procedures during the session
The amanuensis reads the whole question in its entirety, but only when
requested to do so, should the amanuensis break the question up into
meaningful parts. (Amanuensis should keep in mind that the concession is
‘amanuenses’ and not ‘help with planning’). Through experience, I found it
beneficial that the amanuensis should hold her finger next the question or line
on the learner’s paper whilst reading from her own paper, in order for the
learner to visually follow where the amanuensis is reading. I maintain that it is
of the utmost importance that the paper should be read slowly and clearly. The
learner must be able to follow and have time to process the information. I have
found that many learners with specific learning difficulties, as well as those with
cerebral palsy, have problems with auditory processing and that they find fast
reading stressful and bewildering. Some learners have reported to me that they
concentrated so hard to find the lines where the reader was reading, that they
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did not listen to the content of the comprehension question, with resulting poor
marks. I maintain that learners have the right to request the amanuensis to
read slower.
The amanuensis must read the mark allocation of each question. The most
important requirement of amanuenses is that the answer should be written
down verbatim – exactly word-for-word what the learner says (DoE,
2002a:14). No correction in terms of sentence construction or grammar may be
done. Learners should draw their own sketches for subjects where it is
required. The amanuensis should periodically indicate the amount of time
remaining if there is no clock present. However, it is suggested that a visible
clock is present for the learner to glance at when required. When the learner
has completed a question, the amanuensis should read the answers back to
the candidate so that he can make the necessary changes should he wish to
do so.
The amanuensis must be aware of possible manipulation or intimidation by the
candidate. Should the candidate ask whether an answer is correct, no answer
may be given and the amanuensis must remind the learner that no help may be
given.
3.13.2.5 Procedures after the session
After the examination session, the amanuensis should write on the first page
that the paper was written with the help of an amanuensis, which s(he) then
signs. I found that a pre-printed sticker is also useful for this purpose, which will
then only require a signature. This does not apply to Grade 12 candidates, as
the chief invigilator attaches an official DoE form - which specifies the
concessions that were granted – to the candidate’s examination paper. All
rough work should be attached to the answer book. The amanuensis should
indicate in writing which paper was used for rough work (write “Rough Work” on
the rough work paper and this paper should be lined through).
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The candidate is compelled to stay with the amanuensis for at least an hour
before returning to the examination venue. Regarding learners in other grades,
it is recommended that the learner does not return to the classroom before at
least one-third of the allocated time has lapsed, in order to minimize
disturbance of other learners who are still writing their papers. The amanuensis
must accompany the candidate/learner back to the examination venue. Under
no circumstances may the candidate/learner be sent back on his own. It is the
responsibility of the amanuensis to ensure that the learner/candidate’s answer
book is placed on his table in the presence of the venue supervisor.
With regard to Grade 12 candidates, the chief invigilator should ensure that for
each candidate granted special concessions, there is a copy of the examination
timetable and the declaration (Form: “Exam 21”) attached to the answer book.
3.13.2.6 Emergencies/Ad hoc arrangements
The chief invigilator must have a plan in place of any unforeseen
circumstances, for example the need to use a toilet, medical circumstances, or
any other reason that may require the candidate or amanuensis to leave the
examination venue. Amanuensis writing for learners in other grades, should
make appropriate arrangements in case of unforeseen circumstances (e.g.
taking the cell phone number of an adjacent staff member), as learners may not
be left without supervision.
Tape recordings, discussion of recommendations with stakeholders and
training of learners are some of the practical issues which should be taken into
account and these are discussed in the following subsections.
3.13.3 Tape recording of sessions
Some documents of the DoE recommend that the amanuenses sessions (NSC
candidates) should be tape recorded and that these cassettes be stored in a
safe place until after the results are known (DoE, 2002a:14; DoE, 2008b:104).
Tape recordings have proved to be unpractical for the following reasons: tape
recorders and cassettes are not readily available any more; schools for
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learners with specific learning difficulties have many learners who receive
amanuenses and there is a lack of these equipment – up to sixteen audio
cassettes per learner are required if eight two-hour papers are written during
the examination period; if the tape recorder is not placed disturbingly close to
the learner, his voice can mostly not be heard and learners with ADHD become
quite distracted when the cassettes are turned or replaced. The alternative is to
have an observer in the venue to ensure that the amanuensis does not assist
the learner unfairly (JCQ, 2009:11). This is also unpractical for the reason that
there is simply no manpower to facilitate this recommendation. Therefore, the
integrity of the amanuensis, to strictly adhere to the procedures, is of the
utmost importance.
3.13.4 Discussion of the recommended AMA with the learner/parents
The recommendations with regard to AMA should be discussed with the learner
and his parents and their consent should be obtained (GDE, 2008a). It is my
experience that learners and parents mostly accept and appreciate additional
support in assessment. However, there is the odd child who feels
uncomfortable and unwilling to answer his examination papers orally. It is
suggested that a teacher with whom the child has a trusting relationship,
explain the advantages of reading and writing assistance to him. Should the
learner or the parents still refuse amanuenses or any other support in
assessment, it should be recorded in the learner’s profile.
3.13.5 Training of learners
Learners should also be trained on the rules and regulations with regard to
AMA and be informed of the procedures (DoE, 2002a:10; Spinelli, 2002:143),
for example, the reason for being granted amanuenses (or any other
concession), that no help may be given, what can be expected during the
session and what stationery to bring along. This contributes to the learner
feeling more at ease, especially in the case where it will be his first experience
receiving amanuenses. It is a further requirement that the assessment
accommodation be realistic and comprehendible to the learner (Wood,
2002:158).
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Collins (2003) researched the experiences of learners who were subjected to
amanuenses. She found that some learners reported a high degree of anxiety
and discomfort due to unfamiliarity to the process and to the amanuensis. She
stated that, in order to allow a learner as equal an opportunity as possible of
achieving satisfactorily and one which reflects his full potential, the process of
dictation needed to be started as early as possible. It is emphasized in Collins’
research that the relationship between the learner and the scribe should be
good and comfortable. In the development of a good working relationship, the
amanuensis does not only become a partner but also an instrument, which
underlies the need for practise sessions. Anxiety is minimized when the
learners are subjected to practise sessions regarding dictation, as well as
getting to know the amanuensis beforehand. Collins (2003:69) emphasizes that
the examination situation is stressful in itself and added stress, due to the
exposure to an unfamiliar scribe, should be avoided.
Some practical problems that I have experienced with regard to the
implementation of amanuenses are discussed in the following paragraphs.
3.14 DISCUSSION OF IMPORTANT PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
I have to emphasize that the individual needs of each learner has to be
considered when deciding upon the special concessions. Rigidity should be
avoided. As an example to motivate this statement, I wish to refer to the
requirements set for the Creative Language Paper (Paper 3) in the NSC
external examination. Candidates have to do a first draft of their creative work
(three questions), show evidence of editing and lastly write down their final
effort. Candidates who were granted amanuenses, also have to write their first
drafts and do the editing, where after they dictate the final efforts to the
amanuensis to write down. Learners presenting with a severe physical disability
and who cannot use their hands to write, may dictate their first effort to the
amanuensis, who reads it back to the learner for editing purposes and then
writes down the final effort. However, I have encountered three cases in the
last year where learners with severe dyslexia and severe written expression
problems, were not able to write their first drafts themselves - even when
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additional time was granted. I was informed by Ms L van Staden, a senior
language teacher at a special school (personal interview, June 16, 2011), who
in turn obtained her information from district facilitators, that learners with
dyslexia are compelled to write and edit their first drafts themselves. I found
these learners’ written work to be illegible and the learners themselves could
not decipher their own written efforts. They, therefore, could not read it back to
the amanuensis. I am of the opinion that – with well motivated reports –
learners with dyslexia should be allowed to dictate their first drafts to the
amanuensis (similar to that of a learner with a physical disability). I maintain
that refusal to grant such a learner this option, is discriminatory and not in the
best interest of such a learner.
Another practical problem in the Grade 12 National Senior Certificate exams, is
that the amanuensis must write down the learner’s dictation in the same
answer book from which he dictates, as rough paper or an additional empty
answering book is not allowed (according to Ms L van Staden who is also a
external marker, personal interview June 16, 2011). This practice is very
difficult for both the writer and the learner, as it causes a to-and-fro paging
throughout the duration of the three sections of the paper. On contacting the
coordinator of the DECC, Dr Henk Joubert on 28 July 2011, I was greeted with
uncertainty whether an additional answer book may be used and was advised
to write a letter to the Gauteng Department of Education to request urgent
attention to this matter. I am of the opinion that these issues will have to be
addressed on provincial and national level and that schools are informed
accordingly.
3.15 IN SUMMARY In this chapter, the various barriers to learning that may prohibit access to fair
assessment and the adaptive methods of assessment to address these barriers
were discussed. In line with the inclusive approach, learners experiencing
barriers to learning and assessment are required to participate in the general
curriculum. To accomplish this, the support mechanisms indicated in this study
ensure that learners with reading and writing barriers are given the opportunity
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to give a true reflection of their knowledge and achieve to their potential. The
child-centeredness in the supportive measures in assessment is emphasized
as the core of the inclusive approach. To summarize, I quote from the National
Policy on Assessment and Qualifications for schools in the General Education
and Training Band (DoE, 2007:9): “For learners with special educational needs
the principle of inclusion should be applied, using special conditions such as
the adaptation of the assessment task, adjustment of time allocated for an
assessment task, individualised assessment techniques and strategies and
providing expanded opportunities”.
In the following chapter, the research design and research methodology are
discussed.
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4.1 INTRODUCTION In chapter one, the main research problem was outlined and the general
orientation of the research study was presented. An extensive literature review
was conducted in chapter two, regarding different assessment strategies that
may be used in the inclusive classroom. In chapter three, I discussed adaptive
methods of assessment and emphasized the importance of these measures, in
order to support learners experiencing barriers to learning, specifically barriers
to assessment. Chapter four explains the research design and the methodology
used for the collection of data in this study.
The research design and methodology in this study include an elucidation of
the paradigm (the qualitative research approach from an interpretive paradigm),
the research design (a qualitative case study design will be used), the selection
of the participants, data collection instruments, data analysis techniques as well
as how trustworthiness is established.
This research project aims to investigate teachers’ understanding and
implementation of adaptive methods of assessment. The study further aims to
investigate whether teachers have a need for empowering guidelines in the
form of a supportive manual, as stated in subsection 1.3 under the heading
‘Aims, objectives and purpose of the study’.
Table 4.1 gives an outline of the research process.
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Table 4.1 The research process
Research Approach Qualitative
Research Paradigm Interpretive
Research Design Qualitative case study
Research Methodology
Selection of participants Purposeful selection of
participants
Collection of Data Questionnaires
Interviews Document analysis
Observations Field notes
Data Analysis Content Analysis
Findings of the study
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4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH A qualitative research study from an interpretive research paradigm was
conducted into mainstream teachers’ understanding and implementation of
adaptive methods of assessment. Qualitative research provides the researcher
with the potential to discover, to obtain new insights into old problems and to
allow the experience of each participant in the study to be explored (McLeod,
2001). Merriam (2009:5), state that qualitative research uses a naturalistic
approach, which seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings
as it focuses on the experiences, interpretations, impressions or motivations of
an individual or individuals, seeking to explore and describe how people view
things and why. According to Henning et al. (2004:20), knowledge is obtained
not only by observable phenomena, but also by people’s intentions, values,
perceptions, reasons, meaning making and self-understanding. Berg (2004:7)
postulates that a qualitative approach supports the enquiry of how humans
experience their surroundings in a natural setting. Qualitative research implies
a direct concern with experiences as it is ‘lived’, ‘felt’ and ‘undergone’, with
emphasis on the human being as the primary evaluation instrument (Merriam,
2009:5). For this reason, Grade 7 teachers at four different schools were used
as participants in this study, as the teachers can supply information since it
occurs in the natural setting of their classrooms. Their responses can better be
understood when the framework in which they interpret their thoughts, feelings,
meanings and actions is known and that this context or framework is
appropriate when collecting data and analysing it (McMillan & Schumacher,
2001:14-15).
The qualitative approach was best suited to this research, as it studied real
world situations as naturally as possible (the teachers who are in daily contact
with the learners) whilst I remained open to whatever information emerges
(Durrheim, 1999:43; Wolcott, 1994). Literature on research methodology
reveals two main research paradigms, namely qualitative and quantitative
approaches. In addition to the above, I motivate further why I chose to follow
the qualitative approach to this study, with the following:
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Quantitative methods of research are often associated with the positivist
tradition, which is deductive and predictive in approach and evaluation depends
on experimental designs and statistical correlations, with the aim to seek causal
determination, prediction and the generalisation of findings. Cutcliffe and
McKenna (1999) maintain that quantitative researchers view the world through
a particular lens and their view is that the world can be explained and
understood in terms of universal laws and objective truths.
Cutcliffe and McKenna (1999) cite Ashworth (1997) that, in contrast with the
quantitative researchers’ view, qualitative researchers’ belief is that there is
“...no one singular universal truth, that the world is multi-faceted, it is an
outcome of the interaction of human agents, a world that has no unequivocal
reality”. In qualitative research, data is obtained by words (concepts, terms,
symbols) as the only tools we have to communicate meaning (Nieuwenhuis,
2007:47). As a qualitative researcher, I wish to seek illumination and to
understand the social phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives.
Qualitative methods are mostly inductive in approach in a natural environment
and emphasize the emergence of important attributes through in-depth study of
a case. According to Henning et al. (2004:3), qualitative studies usually aim for
depth rather than “quantity of understanding”. The researcher can therefore
determine not only what happens, but also how it happens and why it happens
the way it does, rather than using statistical methods for looking at relationships
and patterns and expressing these patterns with numbers. The quantitative
researcher remains a detached outsider, whilst qualitative researchers become
integrated insiders with the researcher being the instrument (Merriam,
2009:266; Terre Blanche, Kelly & Durrheim, 2006:276; Tobin & Begley, 2004).
Imel, Kerka and Wonacott (2002:7) cite Nassar (2001) and Merriam (2002) that
“The how or what questions generally arise because little is known about the
problem; ...either no theory exists or the existing theory is underdeveloped and
cannot explain a phenomenon accurately”. In order to answer the research
question, I needed to determine what assessment measures teachers apply in
the classroom, how they determine whether a learner needs additional support
during tests and examinations and how they address the barriers, e.g. by
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devising meaningful and appropriate assessment support for learners. I needed
to determine whether teachers utilize concessionary measures and if not, why
this is the case, as well as how they understand the application of these
concessionary measures in their school and classroom. As the research
problem was still in its infancy, the most important consideration for adopting a
qualitative research paradigm was the fact that there is at present little scientific
knowledge about the subject of this study. I therefore chose the qualitative
research approach as the most suitable to better understand teachers’
knowledge, understanding and willingness to apply adaptive methods of
assessment with the data mediated through the human instrument (Merriam,
2002:5) – a field of which there has been, as far as could be established, very
little research in the South African context.
The emphasis of qualitative research is to examine and interpret the
subjectivity, language and meanings and it regards individuals as active
participants in giving meaning to their world (Merriam, 2002:39). The collection
of information in this study dictates that it occurs within a qualitative paradigm,
as it will be collected in the form of both written and spoken language, as well
as observation.
The reasons for me choosing the qualitative approach was therefore threefold:
Firstly, in order to understand the research question, this study needed to be
conducted in a real-life situation, i.e. the teachers at their schools; secondly,
what the teachers revealed regarding their knowledge and implementation of
adaptive methods of assessment and thirdly, the description and interpretation
of their words and the observations made. I was concerned with interpreting,
describing and understanding the meaning and perspectives which the
teachers gave to their world, as the qualitative research approach could provide
a richness and depth of explorations and descriptions.
The research problem stated for this study called for the collection of qualitative
data, which is dependent on interpretation for its meaning. In the next sub-
section, I discuss the interpretive perspective on qualitative research.
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4.3 INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE ON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
An interpretive qualitative study is used when the goal of the researcher is to
understand how people experience and interact with their social world and how
they make meaning of a situation or a phenomenon (Imel et al., 2002; Merriam,
2002:4-6). Terre Blanche et al. (2006:278) state that the interpretive approach
is characterised by a particular ontology, epistemology and methodology, as it
“...tries to harness and extend the power of ordinary language and
expression…. to help us better understand the social world we live in”. Laverty
(2003:4) cites Lincoln and Guba that ontology, epistemology and methodology
are significant in critiquing and conducting research. Ontology refers to the
assumption that people’s subjective experiences are real and should be
regarding seriously; epistemology refers to the interaction with others by
listening to what they tell us and by understanding their experiences through
this interaction, and methodology refers to the qualitative research techniques
that are applied in order to obtain this knowledge (Terre Blanche et al.,
2006:278). When working from an interpretive framework, the ontological
perspective implies that the researcher should believe in the existence of not
only one reality, but multiple realities that need to be discovered and
constructed.
Interpretive research is a communal process, according to Henning et al.
(2004:20) that entails the participants’ descriptions and the endorsements by
others. Knowledge obtained through the interpretive paradigm is not only
obtained through observation, but also by the descriptions of people’s beliefs,
values, meaning making and self-understanding. (Myers, 1997:4) maintains
that interpretive researchers assume that access to reality is through social
construction such as language, consciousness and the meanings that they
share. Henning et al. (2004:20) further state that these “knowledge systems”
are interrogated by the interpretive researcher who analyses the information
obtained, by looking for the way in which people give meaning to their lives and
what meaning they make. Nieuwenhuis (2007:58) emphasizes that through
uncovering how meanings are constructed, insights can be gained into the
meaning imparted and subsequently the researcher can improve his
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comprehension of the whole. Methodologically, the interpretive perspective
gives rise to the process of interpretation and interaction between the
researcher and participants, the primary aim being to understand the
participants’ experiences and to collaboratively construct these experiences
into more, or less knowledge (Leatham, 2005:17).
I worked from an interpretive perspective in order to investigate, interpret and
understand (to make meaning of) teachers’ understanding of AMA within the
inclusive classroom and the rendering of support to learners experiencing
barriers to assessment. My choice to conduct my research from an interpretive
paradigm, is because it is a data-collection instrument that is sensitive to the
underlying meaning when gathering and interpreting data (Merriam, 2002:5), as
well as the fact that little previous research exists on South African teachers’
understanding and implementation of AMA.
4.4 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
Greig and Taylor (1999:14) explain research as being important for the growth
of a profession, in order to serve the client group such as children, as well as
the particular institution or system. In this case learners, teachers and the
education system will benefit from this research study, which will promote
progress and relevant assessment support. These authors maintain that
research should lead to an improvement for children and the world in which
they live. In order to conduct a meaningful research study, the researcher
needs to adhere to a design structure as well as to an appropriate research
methodology.
The research design refers to the strategic and detailed framework for action
on how a research study will be conducted (Durrheim, 1999:29) and which data
is to be collected, in order to investigate the research question (Fouché & de
Vos, 2005:132). The function of the research design is to provide a plan for the
assembling, organizing and integrating of the data obtained, which results in
the product which is the research findings (Bless & Higson-Smith, 2007:46; Van
der Westhuizen, 1999:123). It therefore refers to what the end product will be
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and all that it includes in order to reach the findings, as well as the
methodological issues (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:75).
It is expected of me as researcher to select the research approach, the nature
of the research questions and the resources available to me. Strydom
(2005b:148) suggests that the researcher examines the relevant literature
available on the topic of research and fills in her knowledge of the subject and
learning what others say about it. This will enable the researcher to select an
appropriate research design. In this study, I conducted a qualitative case study
design, in order to fulfil the purpose of the research; to obtain the most reliable
and valid data and to make use of various methods of data collection, in order
to reach research findings. The case study design is discussed in the following
section.
4.5 CASE STUDY DESIGN I used a qualitative case study design to obtain data and to investigate,
describe and interpret teachers’ understanding and implementation of adaptive
methods of assessment, in order to answer the research question: “How do
Grade 7 teachers understand and implement adaptive methods of assessment
(particularly amanuenses), for learners with reading and writing difficulties?”
A case study is an in-depth investigation of one or more individuals’
experiences and behaviour with the purpose to give meaning to universal
aspects of the human being and is normally most suited for specific topics of
study, where cases represent a critical test of existing theory or where the case
is a rare or unique event (Goodwin, 2002:409; Jackson, 2003:15). Berg
(2009:318) and Merriam (2002:8) emphasize that case studies can provide a
deep understanding, as well as an intensive description and analysis of a
phenomenon, events, a social unit such as an individual, a group, an institution,
organisations or a community, in the search for meaning and understanding.
Henning et al. (2004:40) state that case studies may be classified as such
whenever they cover a bounded system. Merriam (2002:8) refers to a bounded
system as a single entity or a unit around which there are boundaries, either in
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terms of time, space and/or components comprising the case (the teachers).
Yin (2009:58) states that multiple sites can be used in a qualitative case study.
With regard to the number of sites that can be investigated in a qualitative case
study, Yin further suggests that a researcher should use her own judgement to
determine the number of sites that will be sufficient for the purpose of gathering
meaningful data, in order to improve the knowledge base in the field.
Creswell (2007:76) emphasizes that researchers should, in selecting cases,
establish a rationale for her purposeful sampling. My rationale for selecting
Grade 7 teachers from four different schools as the participants in the case
study design, was that these teachers already had the opportunity to identify
the learners experiencing difficulties in reading and writing and secondly in the
light of the requirements that a history of special concessions usually begins in
the primary school years. This case study is particularistic, as it focuses on a
particular phenomenon, namely how teachers understand the practice and
principles of AMA and special concessionary measures for learners with
physical and sensory disabilities and/or specific learning difficulties.
Through the literature review, I have found that there is substantial information
in South Africa on several types of assessment, but little is available on
adaptive measures of assessment. As mentioned in Chapter one, I have
experienced that mainstream teachers were generally uninformed of the
different types of concessionary measures and/or were reluctant to apply it.
The main reason for this appeared to be a lack of knowledge and expertise,
time, shortage of manpower as well as that this meant additional
responsibilities for them. I sensed a certain amount of tension with the
mainstream teachers, regarding the issues surrounding the special needs of
learners. This knowledge led to the identification of the need to do research, by
using a case study approach. The strengths of a case study design is that it
should provide a rich description of participants’ experiences and that it should
enhance the researcher’s as well as the reader’s understanding of these
experiences (Merriam, 2002:8). Leedy and Ormrod (2001:115) maintain that
one of the strengths of a qualitative case study design lies in the fact that it is a
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very useful tool for learning about situations which might be poorly understood
or about which not much is known.
According to Henning et al. (2004:32), the aim of an investigation is to try and
determine patterns, relationships and the dynamics that warrant the
investigation, as the purpose of the study is that the researcher suspects ‘…
that there is something waiting to be unravelled in the case”. Henning et al.
(2004:41) cite Merriam that ‘how, where, when and why’ questions should be
asked as an essential part of a study. For the purpose of this study, I added
‘who’ and ‘what’ questions that could be asked, in order to determine how
teachers make meaning of adaptive methods of assessment:
- The ‘who’ questions: The answers will provide information about the
participants taking part in the study and their roles in the school;
- The ‘where’ questions will present information regarding the context and
setting of the schools where the research was done;
- The ‘what’ questions: These questions will give information on what is
happening in the teachers’ schools regarding the implementation of AMA;
- The ‘when’ questions will supply answers to the times and circumstances
when AMA is applied;
- The ‘why’ questions: Information will be obtained on why the teachers act
the way they do, should they not implement AMA;
- The ‘how’ questions: Answers to these questions will provide valuable
information as to how teachers make meaning of adaptive methods of
assessment.
According to Scholz and Tietje (2002:1,2), case studies are used for purposes
of demonstration and learning both in education and in research and many
case studies are conducted with the purpose to improve action and make better
decisions. Should the interpretations made during this study, using the case
study approach, reveal that teachers do experience problems regarding the
application of adaptive measures of assessment, the findings will result in the
compilation of guidelines that may be used by all teachers, in order to render
additional and appropriate support to learners with reading and writing
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difficulties, as it pertains to barriers to assessment. Therefore, the collection of
information for the purpose of this study was best ascertained by using a case
study design as qualitative method.
In the following paragraphs I discuss the research methodology, which includes
the selection of the participants and an overview of the setting (the various
schools) in which the focus group interviews were conducted.
4.6 THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology refers to the process followed by the researcher with
regard to the applicable data collecting methods and data analysis methods
drawn on to deliver sound research findings, according to the research purpose
(Babbie & Mouton, 2001:75). Nieuwenhuis (2007:76) emphasizes that the
strength of the case study method lies in the use of multiple sources and
techniques in the data collection process. The researcher using the case study
method can select the participants in advance, what evidence should be
gathered, which data collection techniques will be utilized and what analysis
techniques can be used to best answer the research question.
In the following subsections I discuss the selection of participants as well as the
data collecting methods entailing questionnaires, interviews, informal
observations and field notes. Using multiple data collecting methods in
qualitative research ensures that research findings are trustworthy and reliable.
4.6.1 Selection of participants
In South Africa, the educational system is divided into public-, private- and
special schools. All of these schools are multi-cultural, although there are still
schools that are traditionally Afrikaans- or English medium schools or home
language schools. There is a variety of special schools in South Africa,
accommodating a diversity of disabilities, e.g. for the deaf, blind, autistic,
specific learning difficulties, schools for the severely mentally challenged and
for learners with physical disabilities. The Ministry of Education (DoE, 2006c)
approved a policy stating that learners with special needs may be
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accommodated in special schools, where individual and special care can be
given to meet their specific needs. The majority of these schools follow the
same national curriculum as that of mainstream schools, as structured by the
Department of Education.
However, in accordance with the inclusive education policy (DoE, 2001)
learners with a variety of barriers to learning (which include specific learning
difficulties and physical and sensory disabilities) started attending mainstream
schools. This demanded from mainstream teachers to accommodate the
diversity in their teaching and assessment practises and to support them to
access the curriculum effectively. In addition, it demanded from the teachers to
be knowledgeable about the mechanisms to support these learners. In the
selection of participants for the purpose of this research, I made use of
purposeful sampling, i.e. the technique in which the researcher looks for
particular subjects that can best provide information for the purpose of the
research (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001:173). I intentionally selected
participants and schools that were likely to provide the most information and
the richest data. Purposeful sampling is described as “…based on the
assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand and gain
insight” and therefore it is important to involve “information-rich” participants
from whom the most can be learned” (Burns & Grové, 2001:376; Patton, 1990,
in Merriam, 2002:12). They are therefore of central importance to the purpose
of the study.
The participants selected for the purpose of this qualitative, interpretive case
study, were four Grade 7 teachers each, from three mainstream primary
schools and a special school in the Gauteng East district, which served as the
unit of analysis. The schools selected were one Afrikaans medium primary
school, one English medium primary school, one township primary school and
one special school with a primary school section. The special school caters for
learners with cerebral palsy, physical disabilities and learners with specific
learning difficulties that follow exactly the same curriculum as that of the
mainstream schools. My selection of these four schools, are therefore
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representative of the school community in the area. My motivation for selecting
Grade 7 teachers is emphasized in the following paragraphs.
In South African public schools, learners in the Foundation Phase (Grades 1, 2
and 3) study three learning programmes, namely Literacy, Numeracy and Life
Skills. From their fourth grade, nine learning programmes are introduced,
namely Home Language, First Additional Language, Mathematics, Life
Orientation, Natural Science, Social Science, Arts and Culture, Technology and
Economic and Management Science. In the Foundation Phase, one teacher is
assigned to a class, but from Grade 4 (Intermediate Phase) in most schools,
learners start changing between classes and teachers. They therefore have
several teachers. I have found in my experience as educational psychologist
that, although reading and writing problems can already be identified in the
Foundation Phase, the adverse effect thereof becomes apparent when it is
expected from the learner to manage the vast amount of reading, writing and
studying material from Grade 4 onwards. Additional support to address these
problems will then become evident. By the time the learner reaches Grade 7,
the School Based Support Team and the teachers should already have a
profound knowledge of the nature and appearance of the learner’s specific
problems and should be able to render information on the specific support that
was implemented, or needed to be implemented.
The teachers who I purposely selected from the four schools, with the
recommendation of their principals, were those who taught subjects where the
specific content requires a vast amount of reading and writing, namely
Languages, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences and Economic and
Management Sciences. Grade 7 teachers were therefore the appropriate
source of information for the purpose of this study. I furthermore decided to
involve the principals of the four schools, by supplying them with an open-
ended questionnaire to obtain their views on the relevant topic, as I believe that
a school is as good as its principal. A principal acts as the manager or gate
keeper of the ‘organization’, hence he should know the policies,
recommendations and requirements underpinning the inclusive approach
(White Paper 6) and be able to forward this to his teachers. I agree with
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Bartlett, Weisenstein and Etscheidt (2002:236) that a school principal is an
educational leader who promotes success for all.
I made four visits to each of the four schools that were selected for the purpose
of the inquiry. The visits took place during the period June 2009 to August 2009
for data collecting purposes. I first had a combined interview with the principal
and teachers to introduce myself and to thank them for being willing to
participate, to establish an accepting, empathetic, non-judgemental and non-
biased relationship with the participants, as well as to explain the purpose of
the research. Taking the ethical principles into account (as discussed in
Chapter one), the participants were given the assurance of confidentiality and
anonymity and after they declared themselves willing to participate, they were
given the consent forms to take home, to read and to sign. The second visit to
the schools had the purpose of collecting the consent forms and to complete
the questionnaires. During the third visit, I gave the participants copies of the
consent forms and conducted the focus group interviews. The fourth visit had
the purpose of presenting the transcription and data analysis to them for
confirmation as a true reflection of the interview, which contributed to the
trustworthiness of the study.
4.6.2 The setting and context of the research
To be able to visualize and understand the context in which the teachers and
learners find themselves, i.e. the physical, social, political and socio-economic
circumstances, will add to the provision of “thick descriptions” of the study
undertaken (Banyard & Miller, 1998:494). I therefore discuss the context of the
four schools, to give the reader an idea of the daily surroundings of the
teachers and learners. For the purpose of audio- and video taping the focus
group interviews, I utilized the services of my intern psychologist of that time,
as my technical assistant. I appreciated the fact that we could reflect together
on the visits to the school, as well as on the focus group interviews.
The Afrikaans school is situated in one of the older suburbs of a town in the
Gauteng East District. The houses are old and colourless and it is clearly a low
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socio-economic environment. The school was built fifty–four years ago. It is an
old building, but well maintained. Palisade fencing has been erected to secure
the school and entrance can only be gained through a security gate, rather far
away from the reception offices. One has to walk alongside the rugby field to
get to the reception area. The grounds are neat and well kept. Although it is a
big school with 29 classes, a tuck shop, computer centre and a hall, the
grounds are not big and the sport facilities such as the rugby field and netball
courts are very close to the school buildings.
This is the only Afrikaans Primary School in this area. The closest school is
approximately three kilometres away in a middle-class area and is a newer
school with many facilities and large grounds. Approximately eight years ago,
another Afrikaans school nearby closed down to become an English school and
all those learners were then accommodated in the school selected for my
research. The school has 856 learners, 27 teachers and the principal. The
learners are mainly white, with only approximately ten learners from other
races. On arrival for the focus group interview, I found the staff to be very
friendly and helpful. The few staff members that I observed during my visits
(including the principal) always appeared to be very busy and in a hurry. I had
difficulty in establishing a time to interview the teachers, as they all had
responsibilities in the afternoon. The interview took place in one of the
classrooms.
The English school is situated in an outer suburb of Springs. The suburb may
be described as moderately modern, ranging from lower to middle class and
appears neat and well-kept. The school is well established and has been in
operation for 23 years. Entrance is gained through a security gate, which leads
to an undercover parking area. There is a well maintained, lush garden and
sitting area just outside the staff room, which separates the classrooms from
the reception and administration offices and the principal’s office. My assistant
and I were welcomed with a cup of coffee and were invited to join the staff in
the garden, as it was break time. The kitchen assistant, so we heard, has been
working at the school since its establishment. He is also the creator of the
garden and regards this as his property and sole responsibility. Not even the
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staff members may render any input in maintaining the garden. He also
received us with spontaneity, clearly very much at home at this school.
The school grounds are quite spacious and well maintained. The school has
two storeys with spacious classrooms and a computer centre. The principal has
close contact with the church community and manages to organize frequent
financial support from them. With this financial aid, a new soccer/rugby field
with adjacent buildings has recently been established. The school in its entirety
is well protected by a sturdy concrete wall.
The school has twenty-eight teachers (including the principal), of which six are
Governing Body appointments. 96% of the learners are black, 2,5% are Indian
and Coloured learners and 0,63% are white. The teachers reported that they
had a vast amount of behaviour difficulties in the school. As we left after our
first visit, we saw five boys climbing over a high gate and disappearing between
the houses.
The township school is located in an urban township, Tsakane. My initial
contact with this school was in February 2009 and I promptly received the letter
of permission from the principal in March. However, due to work pressure in the
second term, as well as difficulties experienced by the township school (such
as the death of one of the teachers and many workshops that had to be
attended), my visits could only start in the third term. The principal was very
accommodating, but once again we found it difficult to establish a time for the
interviews that would suit me as well as the teachers.
On my first visit to the school to meet the principal and teachers, my technical
assistant (who accompanied me to the school) and I got lost, as there were no
road signs. To get into Tsakane one has to drive through a Coloured township,
Geluksdal. After passing a cemetery and a grim looking hospital, one enters
Tsakane, where one finds a constantly changing socio-economic contrasting
environment with poor, dull settlements on one side of the road and well
secured, neat brick houses on the opposite side - where barbed wire flows from
property wall to property wall. Roadside merchants are everywhere. On the
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whole, the township appeared neat, although very dry and dusty. The school
cannot be recognised until you are practically at the gate. It is a simple, one
level, old brick building surrounded by a partly broken fence and a security gate
which is left unlocked. What I noticed when entering the premises was the
rather expensive motor vehicles in the teachers’ parking lot. Slogans of
HIV/AIDS awareness are painted on the outside walls of the school, which I
later also found on the walls in the school courtyard. The
administrative/reception area and a well equipped computer room, are secured
with burglar bars. On entering the school, we were met with the aroma of
porridge.
The school has 1005 learners from Grade 1 – 7, mainly from the local area, as
well as from nearby informal settlements. It is the only primary school in the
area. Another 80 learners are accommodated in Grade 0. There are 28
teachers, including the principal. I visited some of the classrooms and was
surprised to find many bright, stimulating pictures and teaching aids in the
classrooms. A large cement courtyard in the middle of the school, surrounded
by classrooms, also serves as netball courts. At the back of the school is a
dusty soccer field. My first visit took place during their break. A hygiene
awareness programme was presented by a hygiene company and the learners
responded spontaneously, enjoying it very much. On the playground, a few
mothers sat at different areas with the purpose of selling sweets and snacks –
they served as “tuck shops”. I was told that 500 learners were fed daily by
means of the DoE food scheme. I noticed a large vegetable garden, which is
run by some mothers to help feed needy learners. Our focus group interview
was held in a very well equipped Gauteng Online computer centre, adjacent to
the courtyard. Although all doors and windows were closed, the sound of music
could be heard throughout the focus group interview, as the school serves as
an aftercare facility in the afternoons. The principal’s office displays various
trophies for achievements and I learned that the school offers an extensive
number of extra-curricular activities such as choir, badminton, soccer and
netball.
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The special school (formerly referred to as a school for Extra-ordinary
Education), caters for learners with cerebral palsy, physical disabilities, specific
learning difficulties and some other disabilities such as visual and hearing
impairments. It is a one-level built school to cater for learners using crutches,
walkers and wheelchairs. The school accommodates 470 learners from nursery
school level (3 years of age) up to Grade 12 and it also provides out-patient
therapy (twice a week) for children below the age of 3 years. There are also
seven special classes, catering for learners with physical disabilities and with
mild to moderate cognitive impairment - who proved not to cope in the
academic classroom. These learners cannot be referred to multi-storey pre-
vocational schools, due to the extent of their physical disabilities. The learners
in the school are from different towns on the East Rand, as far as Kempton
Park, Nigel and even Edenvale. The school provides daily transport for these
learners. Two hostels provide accommodation for learners who live more than
50 km. away, as well as for learners whose home circumstances lack provision
and care. Many day scholars come from informal settlements and the school
provides these learners with breakfast and lunch at the school’s cost.
The school was initially built for 210 learners, but 470 are presently attending
the school. Outside garages and even hostel rooms have been converted into
classrooms. The school offers the same national curriculum as mainstream
schools. It has 36 teachers and a trans-disciplinary team of 16 therapists, being
physiotherapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists and educational
psychologists. Classes are small, ranging from 15 – 17, to ascertain individual
attention. It has a learning support classroom where learners up to Grade 7
receive stimulation by means of computers, as well as a reading stimulation
classroom for learners in the Foundation and Intermediate Phases. The
Gauteng Online centre is presently not functioning. The school initiated a clinic
for learners with incontinence, where they are trained from a young age to
become independent with regard to their toilet needs. Sport for the disabled
and non-disabled learners is offered, some of them being members of
provincial and national teams.
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Learners with certain physical disabilities use trolleys to transport their school
bags as well as to hold on to, in order to keep their balance. Various other
assistive devices for different disabilities can be seen in the corridors,
classrooms and therapy centres. Placement of all the learners in this school
was approved by the DoE, after motivating reports had been supplied. The
school’s aim is to place learners back into mainstream schools at a stage
where the trans-disciplinary team is of the opinion that a learner will be able to
cope physically and academically.
The methods of data collection are discussed in the following subsections,
which include the qualitative questionnaires, focus group interviews,
observations and field notes and the process of data analysis.
4.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
The selection of data collecting strategies comprises of qualitative research
techniques such as focus group interviews, open-ended qualitative
questionnaires, document analysis as well as observation and field notes.
Gillham (2000:1-2) argues that a multi-method approach to real-life questions is
important, because one approach is rarely adequate and if the results of
different methods converge, then the researcher can have greater confidence
in the findings.
The researcher is expected to devise means that will enable the participants to
provide insights into their thinking processes (McMillan & Schumacher,
2001:41). Therefore, in this research, the collection of data focused on ways to
enable the participants to provide rich information on how they understand and
apply special arrangements when it comes to assessment.
4.7.1 Open-ended qualitative questionnaires
A qualitative questionnaire is an effective instrument for gathering data from
many participants. Maree and Pietersen (2007:158) constitute that it is an
extremely important part of the research process, as this is where data is
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generated and Gillham (2000:1-2) maintains that questionnaires are of most
value when used in conjunction with other methods of data collection.
My purpose with the qualitative questionnaire was aimed at acquiring a
preliminary idea of every participant’s understanding and implementation of
AMA, as well as of their opinions on inclusion. In designing my questionnaire, I
kept the research question in mind and planned what questions to ask, how to
sequence them and how to word them. In this study, 4 principals and 16
teachers were supplied with an open-ended questionnaire, in an attempt to
elicit responses on inclusion and adaptive methods of assessment. I included
questions on inclusion, as the rendering of support to learners with barriers to
learning is an integral part of the inclusive approach. In my data collecting
process, I planned to conduct my focus group interviews with the teachers after
the questionnaires were completed, as I was aware of the possibility that some
participants may be subjectively influenced by others’ opinions. One of the
advantages of a questionnaire is that the completion of such a form is done
without any direct influence from others and lends itself to honesty and
reliability (Collins et al., 2000:177). These authors further constitute that some
respondents may be influenced by others and that they may feel the need to
conform. Respondents may also feel that their anonymity may be at risk, whilst
giving their opinions during the group interviews. My motivation for using
qualitative questionnaires for this study was mostly based on these authors’
recommendations, which are as follows:
a) Questionnaires are less time-consuming;
b) Individuals’ responses can be regarded as more idiosyncratic and
reliable when not influenced by the opinions of other respondents, as
they will have the opportunity to complete it freely by sharing their
experiences and attitudes;
c) The responses of the participants will remain anonymous and
confidential. This method can also prevent the adverse effect group
discussions may have on certain sensitive individuals;
d) Questionnaires given before the focus group interviews have the
purpose of sensitising the participant to the research topic and for the
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researcher to be introduced to the participants in a non-threatening way
(Leatham, 2005:34).
e) Questionnaires are useful tools for collecting data from a large number
of respondents (Wilkinson, 2004:42). In this study 16 teachers and four
principals were given the forms to complete.
I was present while the respondents completed the questionnaires, in case any
question would arise. An opportunity was given in the questionnaires, should
the participants wish to comment or elaborate on their answers. I used the
information obtained through the questionnaires to compile a handful of
relevant questions to put forward during the focus group interviews, as well as
to begin and guide the interview. These questions are outlined in the next
subsection.
The questionnaires were in English for the teachers of the township school and
the English medium school and in Afrikaans for the Afrikaans medium and the
special school teachers. The questionnaire consisted of two sections (see
Appendix 11). Section A consisted of items dealing with biographical
information such as gender, teaching experience and educational level. Section
B consisted of questions dealing with inclusion, special concessions and
amanuenses. An example of the qualitative open-ended questionnaires for
principals is attached as Appendix 10 and for teachers as Appendix 11.
I regarded the questions on inclusion necessary as the principals, as the
managers of their schools, will inevitably convey their views, knowledge and
expectations with regard to inclusion to the teachers (Swart & Pettipher,
2001:39). Should a principal have an inadequate understanding of inclusion
and supportive measures and all that it entails, it may be possible that his
teachers will inadequately apply it in the inclusive classroom. Similar questions
on inclusion were included in the questionnaires for educators.
The first eight questions in the questionnaires for both the principals and
teachers, which addressed their understanding and implementation of
inclusion, were the same. Questions 9 and 10 for the principals enquired about
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his school’s SBST and SAT, while the rest of the questions explored their
understanding of AMA and amanuenses, as well as whether their teachers
implemented it. The principals were also probed whether they were of the
opinion that their teachers would need training on AMA. The questions for the
teachers probed their understanding of AMA and amanuenses, whether they
implemented it in their classrooms and if they received training in this regard.
The responses of both the principals and teachers are discussed in Chapter
five.
4.7.2 Focus group interviews
Focus group interviews were also selected as a primary source of data
collection for this study. An interview, whether it is a focus group or individual
interview, entails a face-to-face personal contact and interaction between the
interviewer and the participant(s) (Babbie, 2001:182). Creswell (2004:186-187)
describes an interview as a means of providing “indirect” information filtered
through the views of interviewees and are intended to elicit views and opinions
from the participants. Nieuwenhuis (2007:87) elaborates on the qualitative
interview as being the tool to learn about the participants’ ideas, beliefs, views,
opinions and behaviour and to enable the researcher “…to see the world
through the eyes of the participant”.
My aim in utilizing the focus group interview as method of data collection was to
obtain rich, descriptive data, in order to help me understand how teachers gave
meaning to special concessionary measures, in particular amanuenses.
Participants were invited to share their diverse opinions and perspectives with
regard to the stated research question. The rich information I needed for the
purpose of this study could not have been obtained purposefully in any other
way.
At the outset of data collection, I chose to conduct my first focus group
interview at the Afrikaans school as a pilot interview and because Afrikaans is
also my home language. This first interview helped me to list and finalise the
most important questions to ask during the next focus group interviews, to
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refine the research procedures and the opportunity to evaluate my interviewing
skills. I found my first focus group interview useful to test the phraseology of the
questions used and to ensure that it was unbiased and non-judgemental
(Henning et al., 2004:53). Problems with the audio-recording were identified
and improved for the next interviews.
In this study, I used a semi-structured method for the interviews. Most of the
questions asked during the focus group interviews, were drawn from the
participants’ questionnaires, which were completed beforehand. These
questions were to serve as guidelines to elicit conversation, starting from
broad, non-threatening questions and then moving to more detailed questions.
The initial non-threatening questions were: “What do you like about
teaching/What is very satisfactory in your teaching profession?” followed by
“What do you find unsatisfactory as a teacher?” This last question elicited
valuable responses on how the participants experienced inclusion and the
presence of learners with special needs in their classrooms. The order of the
more detailed questions asked during the various focus group interviews was
not exactly followed, as I allowed myself to be guided by the situation and
responses at hand. It allowed me to probe further where responses lacked
depth and clarity and it provided me with a basic framework for the interview.
The teachers were expected to give their opinions with regard to adaptive
methods of assessment and they were expected to show whether they knew
and understood the practice and principles underpinning AMA and
concessionary measures.
The questions that served as guidelines for all the focus group interviews were
as follows:
- What do you find satisfactory in the teaching profession?
- What do you find unsatisfactory in your profession as teacher?
- What forms of assessment do you generally apply in the classroom?
- Tell me more about what you understand about adaptive methods of
assessment.
- Which forms of adaptive methods of assessment do you apply in the
classroom that will benefit learners?
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- What do you understand about amanuenses?
- Tell me about your SBST. How does the SBST determine whether a learner
needs alternative forms of assessment?
- Do you utilize professionals to assess learners’ reading and writing
problems?
- What problems, if any, do you experience regarding the implementation of
adaptive methods of assessment or special concessions?
- How do you involve the parents in this regard?
- Do you have a need for training in special concessions and amanuenses?
- Who do you think should do the training?
- Do you receive support from the DoE?
- Do you receive circulars or memos from the DoE regarding AMA?
As an educational psychologist and previously a social worker, I gained vast
experience in interviewing. I believe that I have developed a sound ability to be
very attentive to the verbal and especially the non-verbal responses of parents
and learners, as portrayed through body language. Another important ability to
conduct successful interviews is to gain the trust of the participants, to be
sympathetic and empathetic, to sensitively guide them to respond to questions,
to be accepting and understanding and to be a good listener. Equally important
is the creation of a tolerant environment that encourages participants to share
perceptions, points of view, experiences and concerns without pressurising
them to vote or reach consensus (Krueger & Casey (2000:4) I have utilised my
interviewing skills to collect the data and tried to display acceptance where a
lack of knowledge, uneasiness or negative feelings were reflected. I am of the
opinion that the quality of the relationship between the researcher and the
participants, as well as the relationship between the participants themselves,
are of the utmost importance, as this enhances open communication
contribution to the in-depth understanding of their perceptions, experiences and
attitudes with regard to the research question. I believe that I have succeeded
in gaining the trust of the participants, as they responded openly and honestly
during the interviews. The respondents felt at ease in my presence and I
endeavoured not to moralise or judge their responses.
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Focus group interviews have the advantage that participants can share their
thoughts with each other and new ideas can emerge that may lead to further
elaboration on the topic of discussion. Although qualitative questionnaires may
have the advantage of participants responding without being influenced by
other’s opinion, some people may feel more comfortable when talking in a
group - as they can speak in their own voice and express themselves freely -
instead of merely responding to the categories of questions (Greeff, 2005:301).
Should participants feel free to respond in a group, this interaction may be
more informative and spontaneous than individually conducted interviews.
Nieuwenhuis (2007:90) is of the opinion that the focus group interview strategy
elicits a range of responses, activating forgotten details of experience and that
it releases inhibitions that may otherwise discourage participants from
disclosing information. The disadvantage though, as mentioned in the previous
subsection, is that some individuals may feel reluctant to share their own views
in fear of rejection by other participants, or they may feel inhibited by the group.
Before starting with the focus group interviews, I requested honesty and open
communication from the participants and again reassured them of anonymity
and confidentiality. I experienced that the participants were prepared to share
their true feelings and they did not feel threatened by what the fellow
participants said.
A good interviewer should have the ability to identify new emerging lines of
inquiry and to explore and probe these (Creswell, 2007:87). Unstructured and
semi-structured interviews lend themselves to probing, follow-up and
clarification, as they do not have pre-determined, structured questions
(McMillan, 2000:166). It is always necessary to ensure that the researcher
understands what the participants are trying to convey and information given by
participants can be checked through probing. Probing entails that the
researcher is given the opportunity to ask for more detail, for clarification or for
an example to illustrate the situation. In my quest to obtain information, it
happened that some participants deviated from and elaborated extensively on
issues they felt very strongly about. Although these issues were not quite
relevant to the research topic, I listened patiently and realized that it might
eventually add to the richness of the description of my findings. By tactfully
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keeping the participants focused on the research question, one should be
cautious not to make interviewees feel that their views expressed were of
lesser value. Probing effectively, following up and obtaining clarifications,
contributed to the trustworthiness and validity of the findings.
For the purpose of this enquiry, the interviews were audio- and video taped, in
order to preserve them for data-analysis and to ensure that participants’
answers were accurately captured and transcribed (Henning et al., 2004). The
non-verbal behaviour of the participants could be captured in particular. The
tapes were complimented by my observations and field notes, which is
discussed next.
4.7.3 Observations and field notes
Throughout the study and contact with the participants, I made observations
and field notes. Observation notes has the purpose of providing a concrete
record of what the researcher saw, heard and experienced in the field setting
(Greeff, 2005:298, 1998:285, Maykut & Morehouse, 1994:73; Neumann,
2000:364). Immediately after every meeting with the participants, as well as
after the focus group interviews, I wrote down my impressions and
observations of the interview. I specifically made observations regarding the
participant’s non-verbal behaviour, which was aided by the video-taped
material.
4.7.4 Document analysis
My last source of data collection was the analysis of each of the four schools’
assessment policies. Document analysis may be used as a method of data
collection, in order to capture the qualitative data. Documents have the
potential to be stable, rich and rewarding resources and represent a ‘natural’
source of information in qualitative research (Henning et al., 2004:99). For the
purpose of this study, I obtained the School Assessment Policies of the four
schools with the principals’ permission. Through the analysis of these policies,
information was obtained on the schools’ policies and recommendations
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regarding AMA as an option for learners who experienced barriers to
assessment.
In the following subsection, the process of data analysis is discussed.
4.8. DATA ANALYSIS In qualitative research, the researcher becomes deeply immersed in the data
as she intuits, analyses, interprets and reports on what she discovers in the
textual data, as well as what she observes and records in field notes. Data
analysis involves making meaning of textual data. Marshall and Rossman
(1995:114) and Streubert and Carpenter (1995:24) are of the opinion that data
analysis is the most difficult, complex, ambiguous, creative and enjoyable
phase in the research process. The challenge of data analysis is to make
sense of the data. As a novice researcher, I followed the three points that
Creswell (2009:183-184) identifies as important in the development of data
analysis:
1. Data analysis will be conducted as an activity that takes place
simultaneously with data collection, data interpretation and narrative
reporting.
2. The following step is the reduction of data and the identification of
patterns, categories and themes. This is followed by the interpretation of
the information.
3. The researcher will transcribe the interviews verbatim. Written field
notes and documents will be used for ensuring interpretation of
meaning.
In this study, I analysed data using Tesch’s open coding method of analysing
descriptive data, as described in Creswell (2009:186). Tesch’s method of data
analysis involves the following eight steps:
1. By carefully reading through all the transcribed interviews, the
researcher gets a sense of the whole. This will enable the researcher
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to form a picture or a story with meaning of how teachers view,
understand and experience AMA.
2. Select one interview with rich information and peruse it again, asking
what it is about, bearing in mind its underlying meaning. Write thoughts
in the margin (on the right hand side of the paper).
3. The researcher will then follow this procedure with all the available
transcribed interviews. The researcher will make a list of all the topics
from all the interviews, clustering together similar topics. List these
topics into major themes, unique themes and leftover topics.
4. The next step is to abbreviate the topics as codes, which must then be
written next to the relative segment of the text. The researcher should
constantly check if new categories or themes emerge. Coding is
described by McMillan and Schumacher (2001:467) as the process of
dividing data into parts by means of a classification system.
5. It will now become possible to find descriptive words for all the topics
identified. These topics will then be categories. Reduce the categories
by clustering together similar/related topics.
6. Decide on the final abbreviations for each category and place these
codes in alphabetical order.
7. Assemble the related data material of each category in one place.
8. Recode the existing data if necessary and conduct a preliminary
analysis.
By following these eight steps, I analysed the data that was collected from the
focus group interviews with teachers on the implementation of adaptive
methods of assessment. Consensus discussions were held with my
supervisors in order to refine the identified themes. After the data was
analysed, the findings were verified by means of literature control. The focus
group interview with the township school, with an example of the data analysis
process, is attached as Appendix 13.
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4.9 LITERATURE CONTROL
Burns and Grové (2001:118) emphasize that literature control is a fundamental
part of any research study. In a qualitative research project, literature control is
best used after data collection and analysis, so that the researcher is not
influenced by findings from literature. Literature is used to compare and
contrast with the results that merged from the study (Creswell, 2004:30).
I agree with Imel et al. (2002), that the quality of any research is paramount if
the findings are to be credible and usable. In the following paragraphs, my
efforts to ensure trustworthiness are discussed.
4.10 TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE STUDY
According to Lincoln and Guba (1985:290) and Streubert and Carpenter
(1995:318), a research study is considered to be trustworthy when others are
convinced of its worth and if it accurately describes the experiences of the
participants who were utilized for the study purposes. Tobin and Begley (2004)
further emphasize that qualitative researchers need to be explicit about how
and why they choose legitimising criteria to ensure the robustness of their
inquiries, while Morse, Barret, Mayan, Olson and Spiers (2002) claim that
research is worthless without rigor and that researchers should implement
verification strategies “integral and self-correcting” during the conduct of the
research itself.
Guba and Lincoln’s (1985) model for ensuring trustworthiness was used in this
study, as it has a well-developed conceptual framework and researchers find it
a workable model to establish research rigor (Krefting,1991:215). Validity,
reliability and generalization are terms traditionally associated with quantitative
research. Guba and Lincoln (1985) questioned these terms as qualitative,
interpretive research progressed (Henning et al., 2004:147; Morse et al., 2002)
and they substituted them with the parallel concept of “trustworthiness”
containing four aspects: credibility (equated with internal validity), transferability
(external validity), dependability (reliability) and confirmability (objectivity),
which will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
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Specific strategies to attain trustworthiness include peer debriefing, prolonged
engagement, persistent observation, audit trials, member checks, triangulation,
as well as qualities in the person of the researcher, who should be responsive
and adaptable to change, sensitive, have the ability to establish positive
interaction with participants, have the ability to interpret meanings and
perceptions and to give rich, thick descriptions of the findings (Creswell,
2009:191). Compliance to high ethical standards should strictly be adhered to
(Babbie & Mouton, 2001:469; Collins et al., 2000:41-45; Hogg & Vaughan,
2005:18; Tobin & Begley, 2004).
Credibility (internal validity) refers to the ‘truth value’ of the research - thus
whether the selected research methodology investigates what it is supposed to
investigate and, according to Silverman (2000:99), the extent to which an
account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers.
Henning et al. (2004:148) quotes Kvale (2002) that “...validation depends on
good craftsmanship in an investigation, which includes continually checking,
questioning and theoretically interpreting the findings”. My aim as qualitative
researcher was to discover how the participants give meaning to the world and
how they construct reality (Merriam, 2002:4). Therefore, the information
obtained from the participants should be captured and described as effectively
and accurately as possible, which also applies to the portrayal of the findings of
the research.
In order to establish credibility in my research, I made use of a multiple method
of data collection: open ended qualitative questionnaires (for educators and
principals), focus group interviews, document analysis, observations and field
notes. To ensure that I understood the participants’ views and realities
correctly, I summarized it at the end of my discussions for them to confirm, to
add to or to change. To enhance the truth value of the interviews, I requested
the participants for honest and truthful communication, also re-assuring them of
confidentiality and anonymity. I furthermore had telephone conversations with
some of the participants during the process of transcription of data to obtain
clarity on some issues. After transcribing the interviews, I presented it to them
for the purpose of verifying that it was a true reflection of the interviews. Lincoln
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and Guba (in Tobin and Begley, 2004) refer to this strategy as ‘member
checking’. Member checking is the most important strategy to ensure the
credibility of a research project, as it ensures that the interpretation of the
findings is accurate and that it reflects the participants’ narrative data exactly
(Lincoln & Guba, 1999:418; Streubert & Carpenter, 1995:46).
The utilization of multiple methods of data collection as mentioned in the above
paragraph is another form of ‘checking’ referred to as triangulation, which
enabled me to look for convergent evidence from different sources (Kelly,
1999a:431). Findings were therefore checked with other sources and
perspectives. Tobin and Begley (2004) argue that data from different sources,
can ‘confirm the truth’ and increase the accuracy of qualitative research
findings, but that triangulation should not only be used by researchers as a
means of confirming existing data, but as a means of “...enlarging the
landscape of their enquiry, offering a deeper and more comprehensive picture”.
In order to further enhance the credibility of my process of investigation, my
method of categorization and data-analysis as well as the findings, I had
regular discussions with my supervisors as experts in this area. I was guided to
establish congruence between question formulation, literature, my strategies of
data-collection, data analysis and interpretation (Morse et al., 2002).
Throughout my research, I was willing to retrace and reflect on how I generated
the data, how I analysed it and came to my interpretations (which I also
continually discussed with my supervisors).
Transferability (external validity) refers to the generalizability of the inquiry. In
qualitative research, transferability relates to the extent to which other
researchers can apply the findings to other contexts or replicate the research
by using other participants (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:277). As a qualitative
researcher, I need to recognise that there is no single or ‘true’ interpretation in
the naturalistic paradigm, as it has individual subjective meaning as central
(Tobin & Begley, 2004). Every context, every participant, every situation is
unique. The sample I used was not empirically representative of a wider
population and therefore the findings cannot be transferred or generalised to
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other settings. My purpose for choosing a small sample was to understand and
illuminate a particular phenomenon in more depth and as Merriam (1998:208)
explains “…not necessarily to determine what is generally true about many”. By
providing rich, substantive descriptions and detailed accounts of the meaning
which develop in a specific context, readers can transfer it to their own
situations and make connections between elements in this study and their own
experiences. Durrheim and Wassenaar (1999:63) and Imel et al. (2002) state
that the rich descriptions can be transferred to new contexts in other studies, in
order to provide a framework which can be reflected upon regarding the
arrangement of meaning and action that occur in those new settings.
Therefore, the researcher should provide sufficient information to be useful to
the reader. This study intends to make a contribution to teachers’ knowledge
about the implementation of adaptive methods of assessment.
Dependability (reliability). Silverman (2000:175) and Van der Riet and
Durrheim (2006:93), maintain that dependability refers to what extent the
reader is convinced that the process and findings of the research happened as
the researcher reported they did. In qualitative research, reliability is
established when the recorded data accurately reflects what happened in the
real-life situation (McMillan, 2000:223). Dependability is also enhanced by
using many sources of data collection (Mouton, 1996:156). Several authors
maintain that dependability is achieved through the process of auditing
(Henning et al., 2004:144; Imel et al., 2002; Tobin & Begley, 2004) which
entails that researchers should ensure that the process of research is logical,
traceable and clearly documented. In this study, in order to ensure
dependability, I left an audit trail by analysing data according to sound research
methods, by giving a dense description of the research methods, by describing
the raw data, how I arrived at my findings through coding, re-coding,
categorizing and linking data networks. A dependability audit as a condition to
increase dependability was suggested by Krefting (1991:214-222). In addition,
my supervisors audited my study continuously.
In order to fulfil the conditions of dependability, I also endeavoured to establish
and maintain trust in my participants. I had a relatively long engagement with
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them and my aim was to obtain, as far as possible, authentic information of
their views on AMA.
Confirmability (objectivity): Lincoln and Guba (1985:320) use the term
‘confirmability’ to refer to the degree to which the researcher demonstrates the
neutrality of the research interpretations through a ‘confirmability audit’. Where
a dependability audit allows another researcher to follow the original
researcher’s thinking and decisions, a confirmability audit records the methods
adopted by the researcher (Streubert & Carpenter, 1995:63). Findings are
therefore documented by leaving a solid audit trail. The researcher has to keep
record of all the raw data that was collected, the methods that were used to
generate them, the sources of data generation, analysis notes, data reduction
and analysis products. Reconstruction of the data, the structuring of the
themes, categories and sub-categories, findings and conclusions were also
recorded, as suggested by Lincoln and Guba (1985:319-320).
I furthermore kept a personal, reflective journal, in which I could record my
schedule and organisation of the study, field notes, my thoughts, beliefs and
interests, my experiences, observations, insights and impressions. I agree with
Neumann (2000:364) and Rooth (1995:95) that by keeping a journal, reflection
becomes easier, as it helps people to develop self-awareness and to clarify
what their experiences mean to them.
This solid chain of evidence ensures that other researchers can follow the line
of thinking, decisions and methods made by the original researcher (Krefting,
1991:221; Streubert & Carpenter, 1995:63).
4.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The adherence to ethical measures was discussed fully in section 1.6 of
Chapter One. All ethical measures were applied consistently throughout the
research process. All participants were fully informed on the purpose of the
research; that their participation was voluntary and that confidentiality would be
maintained. I endeavoured to protect participants against discomfort and harm.
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There was no deception or dishonesty and the application of the ethical
measures contributed to the establishment of a positive relationship between
me and the teachers who participated in this study. I endeavoured to treat the
participants as I would like to be treated.
4.12 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, a description of the research design, research method and
research strategy was presented. A qualitative research study from an
interpretive/constructionist paradigm was conducted. A case study design was
used to obtain data pertaining to teachers’ experiences, understanding of and
implementation of adaptive methods of assessment.
The main research strategies that were followed in this investigation were
questionnaires, focus group interviews and analysis of the schools’ assessment
policies. Observations and field notes were used to contribute to the findings of
the research.
In the following chapter, the various themes and sub-themes that were derived
from the empirical data are discussed.
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CHAPTER 5
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents with the analysis and discussion of the collected data
that pertains to this study. The data was derived from the qualitative
questionnaires, the field notes and observations, the transcripts of focus group
interviews with teachers, as well as from the school assessment policies
obtained from the four different schools.
The purpose of the study, as discussed in chapter one, was to investigate how
teachers understood and implemented special concessions, in particular
amanuenses, for learners with reading and writing difficulties. The analysis and
the findings of the data provided the information base necessary for the
development of a ‘Guidelines Manual’, which is intended to provide extensive
supportive and empowering guidelines for teachers regarding AMA.
5.2 DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
The transcription of the focus group interviews of the four schools, mounted up
to 4,800 lines and it seemed overwhelming at the start of the process of
analysis. Reading and re-reading to identify a central storyline certainly enabled
me to get a sense of the whole before starting to systemise the information
(Creswell, 2009:185; Laverty, 2003:6; Myburgh & Poggenpoel, 2001) and
deriving meaningful units from the descriptions of the participants’ experiences.
Searching for ‘meaning units’ should reflect various aspects of the experiences
and then the meaning units must be integrated into ‘typical’ experiences (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2001:157). The data analysis involved the identification of salient
themes, recurring ideas, opinions and patterns of belief that linked the
principals, teachers and settings together which, according to De Vos
(2005:333), is the most challenging phase of research. Significant patterns or
themes relevant to the research question - which were elicited from the
empirical data - are discussed in this chapter. As Babbie (2001:300) indicated, I
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used the quotes of the participants verbatim and presented these in italic type,
without correction of language and spelling errors. Teachers in two of the four
schools responded in Afrikaans. Where quotes had been made in Afrikaans,
these were translated into English. The data was interpreted directly after the
discussion of the findings.
5.3 THE PROFILE OF THE PARTICIPATING EDUCATORS AND PRINCIPALS
As discussed in subsection 4.6.1, four Grade 7 teachers from four different
schools (16 teachers in total), as well as the principals of these four schools
were selected as participants. Codes for the teachers and the schools were
used for the purpose of the presentation of the data analysis and also to protect
the anonymity of the participants.
Table 5.1 Abbreviations used for participants and schools Participants ASP - Afrikaans school principal ESP - English school principal TSP - Township school principal SSP - Special school principal AT1 - Afrikaans school, teacher 1 AT2 - Afrikaans school, teacher 2 AT3 - Afrikaans school, teacher 3 AT4 - Afrikaans school, teacher 4 TT1 - Township school, teacher 1 TT2 - Township school, teacher 2 TT3 - Township school, teacher 3 TT4 - Township school, teacher 4 ET1 - English school, teacher 1 ET2 - English school, teacher 2 ET3 - English school, teacher 3 ET4 - English school, teacher 4 ST1 - Special school, teacher 1 ST2 - Special school, teacher 2 ST3 - Special school, teacher 3 ST4 - Special school, teacher 4
Abbreviations for schools
AS - Afrikaans School
TS - Township School
ES - English School
SS - Special School
The following table reflects the participants’ qualifications, years of experience,
gender and subjects taught.
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Table 5.2 Profile of the participating educators17
Teacher Qualifications Teaching Experience
Post allocation
Gender Subjects taught
ASP
M.Ed.Psych 15 yrs+ Principal Male
ESP
B.Ed 15 yrs + Principal Female EMS
TSP
Bachelor’s Degree 15 yrs + Principal Male
SSP
D Litt et Phil 15 yrs + Principal Male LO
AT1
HDE 15 yrs + Educator HOD; SBST coordinator
Female Afrikaans SS
AT2
B.Ed 1 – 5 yrs. Educator Female NS EMS
AT3
B.Ed 1 – 5 yrs Educator Female English
AT4 HDE; FDE (Education & School practice)
11 – 15 yrs
Educator Male Maths Technology
ET1
BA Hons. Psychology 11 – 15 yrs Educator HOD; SBST coordinator
Female English, Maths
ET2
HDE 15 yrs+ Educator Female SS, Afrikaans
ET3
B.Ed Educator Female LO, AC
ET4
B.Ed 6 – 10 yrs Educator Male NS. Technology
TT1
SPTD & FDE 11 – 15 yrs Educator
Female English, LO
TT2
SPTD & FDE 11 – 15 yrs Educator HOD; SBST Coordinator
Female SS, EMS
TT3
SPTD & FDE 6 – 10 yrs Educator Female NS, AC
TT4
SPTD 15 yrs Educator Male Maths, Technology
ST1 HDE, BA Hons (Psychology)
15 yrs+ Educator HOD
Female English, SS
ST2
B.Ed 1-5 yrs Educator Female Afrikaans
ST3
HDE 15 yrs + Educator Female EMS
ST4
BA (Social Work) SGB post
- 1 yr Educator Female LO, Consumer
Studies (Gr. 10-12)
17 Acronyms: M.Ed Psych (Masters in Educational Psychology); B.Ed (Bachelors in Education; HDE (Higher Diploma in Education); FDE (Further Diploma in Education); SPTD (Senior Primary Teacher’s Diploma); SGB (School Governing Body); D Litt et Phil (Doctorate in Philosophy); HOD (Head of Department); SS (Social Science); EMS (Economic and Management Science); LO (Life Orientation); NS (Natural Science); AC (Arts and Culture).
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5.4. DISCUSSION OF THE QUALITATIVE QUESTIONNAIRES PRESENTED TO THE PRINCIPALS AND THE TEACHERS
As motivated in subsection 4.7.1, the qualitative questionnaires had the
purpose of giving me an indication of the principals’ and teachers’
understanding of inclusion, as well as of AMA and amanuenses. I analysed the
questionnaires by comparing every question of the four principals with each
other. The same procedure was followed with regard to the questions posed to
the teachers. The findings were eventually compared with each other. As
stated in subsection 4.7.1, there were some differences between the content of
the questionnaires for principals and teachers.
In the following subsection both the principals’ and the teachers’ understanding
and implementation of inclusion and special concessions are described.
5.4.1 Participants’ understanding and opinion of inclusion Questions 5 and 6 in the qualitative questionnaire for principals (Appendix 10
contained questions on inclusion – what principals understood under the
concept ‘inclusion’ and what their opinions were on inclusion. The responses of
the mainstream18 principals indicated that inclusion entailed the
accommodation of all learners, in particular learners with learning and physical
disabilities in one classroom. The rendering of support to these learners was
only mentioned by the special school principal (SSP) as reflected in his
response:
“The placement, with the necessary support, of learners with
special needs, in ordinary schools. Also the transformation of the whole education sector to the benefit of all learners”.
All the principals of the mainstream schools were of the opinion that the degree
of learners’ barriers to learning would affect the success of inclusion. The
Afrikaans school principal (ASP) indicated that inclusion is not feasible in
schools with big classes, as teachers just cannot give individual attention to
learners with ‘problems’ and he was of the opinion that learners with problems
18 ‘Mainstream principals’ refer to principals of ordinary government schools.
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“...word ‘n onreg aangedoen in die hoofstroomonderwys” (Translation: such
learners are being done an injustice in mainstream education). The English
school (ESP) and townships schools’ (TSP) principals both indicated that ‘...if
the problem was small, then it could work’. In addition, ESP wondered how a
blind learner could cope in an ordinary classroom. The special school
principal’s opinion of inclusion was that “It is an ideal and a good ideal. It is a
failure, however, in South Africa especially. Among others, it fails marginal
learners, i.e. learners with mild to moderate intellectual challenges, i.e. the ‘old
special class child”.
The findings showed that, with the exception of the special school principal, the
mainstream principals did not indicate a broad and integrated understanding of
the concept ‘inclusion’, as they understood inclusion merely as the integration
of learners with disabilities into the mainstream classroom. The principals were
doubtful about the success of inclusion, specifically the accommodation of
learners with more severe barriers to learning. They were of the opinion that
the big classes in mainstream schools prevented teachers from giving the
required attention to these learners. It also appeared that some principals did
not know that learners with special needs, such as blind learners, may be
referred to schools where their specific needs can best be addressed (DoE,
2006c). In summary, it was clear that the principals were not positive about the
inclusive approach.
Questions 5 and 6 in the teachers’ questionnaire resembled those asked to the
principals. In comparison to the principals, twelve of the sixteen teachers also
understood ‘inclusion’ as merely the integration of learners with disabilities into
mainstream schools. An example of the general answer of the teachers is that
of AT4:
“Dat leerlinge met gestremdhede ook in die hoofstroomonderwys
geakkommodeer word” (Translation: That learners with disabilities also be accommodated in mainstream education).
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Two of the remaining four teachers referred to support that should be rendered
to learners with ‘special needs’. An example of such a response was that of
AT1:
“Dit is die proses waar die diversiteit van elke leerder aangespreek word
en deelname aan die leerproses aangemoedig word. Alle leerders moet kan met die nodige ondersteuning” (It is the process where the diversity of learners is addressed and participation in the learning process is encouraged. All learners must be able to, with the necessary support).
A number of participants also referred to different types of disabilities that
should be accommodated in mainstream classrooms, such as learners with
mental and physical challenges, learning difficulties and partial sightedness.
Learners’ right to be included, as well as the abstention of discrimination
against them, were mentioned by a few of the teachers, such as the comment
given by TT2:
“All learners with different IQ’s and those who are physically challenged
are to be accommodated in all schools rather than be placed in special schools, because they have a right to education, to be tolerated, accepted and respected”.
As was the case with the principals, most teachers reflected negativity with
regard to inclusion. I quote some participants’ responses:
“Ek glo dit benadeel sommige kinders. Hulle kan nie byhou nie en hulle
probleme raak al groter. Hulle gee op” (I believe it disadvantages some children. They can’t keep up and their problems become bigger. They give up) (AT2).
“Nie altyd prakties haalbaar nie. Die tyd is min en hoe akkommodeer jy 5 leerders met verskeie leergestremdhede of selfs net ‘vermoë’?” (Not always feasible. Time is insufficient and how do you accommodate 5 learners with various barriers to learning or even ‘ability’?”) (AT3).
“Personally I think it has a negative consequence for the learner. Individual attention cannot be given to the struggling learner as the classes are too big. The learner gets lost in the system and fazes out of school without the highest level of education” (ET2).
The above responses showed that teachers were very aware of all learners’
rights to be accommodated in mainstream schools, but only a few participants
referred to the support learners should receive. Although White Paper 6 (DoE,
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2001:15) acknowledges the referral and placement of learners (who require
high-intensive educational support) in special schools, one of the above
comments could be interpreted that learners in special schools are not
educated, not tolerated, accepted or respected. In general, the teachers’
responses indicated a concern for learners and that their human rights, the
notion of equality and equity should be respected.
I am of the opinion that a principal’s understanding of inclusion will most likely
be reflected by the teachers of his school, as he serves as the leader, manager
and coordinator of his school. Swart and Pettipher (2005:19) state that the
school principal should set the tone of the school and should assist teachers in
creating a supportive, caring community. The findings showed that the
principals as well as their teachers reflected a negativism towards inclusion.
In the following subsection, the implementation of inclusion and the challenges
participants’ experience, are described.
5.4.2 Participants’ implementation of inclusion and challenges experienced The analysis of questions 7, 8 and 9 of the questionnaire for principals,
(Appendix 10), revealed that three of the four principals (ASP, ESP and SSP)
practiced inclusion at their schools, despite their negativity towards the
inclusive approach. The township principal indicated that inclusion was not
practised at his school. He commented:
“In the past we had six learners with special educational needs, some
were referred to special schools one of them has passed Grade 7 and is in one of the secondary schools’.
In response to the question on what challenges the principals faced with regard
to inclusion, TSP elaborated that he did not have trained or qualified teachers to
teach learners with disabilities, as well as “...no helpers for toilet training and
feeding” and that the “...physical planning of the school is not condusive”. ASP
wrote that it was impossible to render individual attention to every learner and
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ESP responded that, although they had to accept all learners in their school,
“...big problems are not accepted” (ESP).
ASP experienced parents’ demands regarding support as a problem. He
expressed his inability to convince parents that it was almost impossible to give
individual attention to their children (“...om aan ouers te verduidelik dat dit
bykans onmoontlik is om aan hulle kinders individuele aandag te verleen”). TSP
and SSP reflected an intention to make inclusion successful in their schools and
recommended training of their teachers as a suitable solution. However, SSP
responded that “...educators are already under such strain due to excessive
admin that they tend to react negatively to additional demands”. ASP did not
see any feasible solution for the challenges and ESP maintained that “These
children should not be in our school”.
The comment of one principal that his school only had six learners with special
educational needs reflected an insufficient knowledge and a misperception of
disabilities and learning difficulties. It is highly unlikely that a school with 1005
learners could have had only 6 learners with special educational needs.
Principals who are knowledgeable and positive about inclusion, will evidently
also be positive about the implementation of inclusion at their schools (Swart &
Pettipher, 2001:38) I however, did not experience this positive attitude from the
principals. Their solution to the challenges of inclusion, ranged from ‘no
solution’ to the problem, the possibility of training of teachers, to the rejection of
the idea that learners with severe disabilities and learning difficulties should be
accommodated in mainstream schools.
Over the last decade, inclusion has become an important part of the reform
effort to improve the education of learners with barriers to learning, by focusing
on the accommodation of these learners in the general educational setting. It
can be argued that this created many challenges for the principals and placed
additional demands on them in their roles as managers and leaders of the
school. Praisner (2003) cites Sage and Burello, who claim that principals’
duties expanded to the designing, management and implementation of
programs for all learners, including those with disabilities. Praisner further
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emphasizes that a principal’s attitude about inclusion could result in either
increased opportunities for learners with special needs in general education, or
in limited efforts to reduce the segregated nature of special education services.
Bateman and Bateman (2002) emphasize that it is up to the principal to
prepare his staff for inclusion and “...to provide the backing, in both resources
and commitment, to make it succeed”, as well as to ensure that his staff is
empowered. Schools should therefore have the necessary support and
resources available (Potterton et al., 2002a:4).
As with the questionnaires for principals, questions 7, 8 and 9 of the educators’
questionnaire (Appendix 11), enquired about their implementation of inclusion
and challenges they experienced. Although the teachers acknowledged the
rights of learners to be treated fairly in the mainstream classroom, they
experienced many challenges in this regard. Challenges mentioned were the
lack of parental support (ET1); the lack of knowledge on how to support
learners with barriers to learning (TT3); “...not enough time to accommodate
learners with different learning problems in one period” (AT3) and “...the
different pace in which learners are being thought (sic) is not the same” (TT1),
were some of the challenges they experienced.
AT2 reflected empathy towards the learner who struggles as she commented:
“‘n Mens sien hoe hierdie kinders nie vorder nie. Dit frustreer jou én
daardie kinders. Hierdie kinders raak weg in die hoofstroom, word gesien as ‘n las en wie kry seer?” (One can see how these children do not progress. It frustrates you and those children. They get lost in mainstream, are regarded as a burden and who gets hurt?)
Not only did the teachers feel that there was a lack of time to give individual
attention and support to these learners, but that the large number of learners in
the classes made it difficult to manage the classes: “The weaker learner gets
lost, the stronger learner gets bored” (ET2). Teachers AT4, AT2, ET1, ST2 and
ST4 were of the opinion that inclusion was detrimental to learners with barriers
to learning and that these learners were labelled in mainstream schools, as
they “...will always be seen as different” (ST4) and that inclusion is “…not fair
towards all parties” (ST2).
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The special school’s participants expressed their concern about the challenges
experienced by mainstream teachers to accommodate learners with disabilities
and learning difficulties, as can be noted in the following remarks by ST1 and
ST4:
“In die breë sin sal dit nie werk nie omdat ons hoofstroomskole nie
toegerus is of toeganklik is vir gestremde leerlinge nie en die onderwysers is nie bedag of opgelei om met multigestremdhede te werk nie. Elke leerder word individueel beoordeel want elke gestremdheid is ‘anders’”. (In the broader sense it (inclusion) won’t work because our mainstream schools are not equipped or accessible for learners with disabilities and the teachers are not mindful of, or trained to work with multi-disabilities. Every learner is evaluated individually, as every disability is ‘different’) (ST1);
“Dit kan nie in hoofstroom realiseer nie. Leerders met spesiale behoeftes sal altyd uitgesonder word. Baie koste intensief om alle dienste oraloor beskikbaar te hê. Groot groepe maak dit onmoontlik om by individuele leerders se behoeftes uit te kom.” (It cannot realise in mainstream education. Learners with special needs will always be disregarded. Very cost intensive to have all services available everywhere. Large groups make it impossible to attend to individual learners’ needs) (ST4).
The mainstream teachers also expressed their own reservations on catering for
the needs of learners with barriers to learning, as was reflected in their
responses:
Yes, we have learners who can’t hear properly of which if we were
trained it could be proper & those who need wheelchairs, but the school doesn’t have the correct surrounding for those who can’t walk” (TT2);
“Learners with special needs are not to be separated in a separate classroom for individual attention anymore, but to be included in the normal class and drown anyway!” (ET2).
The biggest challenge for ET1 was the lack of support from the parents’ side.
The response from this teacher showed the importance of cooperation from the
home, in order to relieve the pressures which are imposed on teachers.
“Yes. Particularly with learners who have little to no support at home.
Either parents are absent, can’t read or even speak English or have little education. Parents can’t check homework or help with remedial programmes sent home”.
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The need for parental support is portrayed very strongly in this comment. Due
to the lack of support from the parents’ side the English school offers learning
support classes after school “...where the child is taught to complete work
alone” (ET1). This participant added that, as learners needed the support of
parents, “...the parents should be encouraged to at least show some interest
even when they may not have sufficient knowledge to help with specific things”.
Although the teachers experienced many challenges associated with inclusion,
some of the participants were prepared to render support to these learners,
such as ‘...putting in more hours after school to be able to reach all the
learners” (AT3), to repeat work continuously (AT4) and to find alternative ways
to help the learners, “...anything to improve them and to obtain results” (AT2,
TT3). Only one of the 16 participants (TT4) indicated that he did not practice
inclusion in his class, but he was the only one who, in an earlier question,
understood that inclusion entailed the notion of support to learners. This,
however, raises the question of his understanding of inclusion in the broader
sense, i.e. that all aspects of the curriculum, including what is taught, how it is
taught and assessed should be accessible to all learners (DoE, 1997:54;
2008b:111). Two special school participants reacted very positively with regard
to the rendering of support in the special school and I quote their responses:
ST4: “As nuwe onderwyser moet ek voorbereid wees en op hoogte wees
van elke leerder se spesiale behoeftes ten einde behoeftes deegliker te kan aanspreek” (As a new teacher, I must be prepared and be well-informed of every learner’s special needs in order to address these needs).
ST1: “Kyk na elke leerling se spesifieke gestremdheid, bv. sig, skryfvermoëns, gehoor, ens. en handel dan daarvolgens. Kry ook insette vanaf terapeute oor hoe om ‘n spesifieke kind te help” (Look at every learner’s disability e.g. vision, writing ability, hearing, etc. and then act accordingly. Obtain input from therapists on how to help the child).
Although some of the mainstream teachers generally indicated a willingness to
support learners with barriers to learning, they themselves expressed concern
about their own competency and capability to do so. TT2 wrote: “We don’t have
a problem accommodating learners with different abilities, but it’s important for
educators to be well trained in order to give proper approach”.
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The above comments of the special school participants reflected that they were
prepared to address the challenges of the various barriers within one group;
that they were continuously mindful and attuned to possible barriers that
learners may experience and that they were prepared to seek advice from
professional specialists, as is recommended in various sources (DoE,
2005b:19; 2008b:106). In comparison with the comments of the principals that
they did not have trained teachers and helpers to assist learners with
disabilities, the mainstream teachers themselves were of the opinion that they
had a lack of knowledge and training to address a diversity of barriers.
Teachers found it difficult to accommodate learners with different barriers and
abilities in the same classroom. The findings showed that the majority of the
participants from both groups did not only portray negativity towards inclusion,
but they also experienced many challenges, practical problems and a lack of
empowerment.
5.4.3 The support system at the schools An integral part of practising inclusion at schools is the effective functioning of
the schools’ School Based Support Team (SBST) and the School Assessment
team (SAT) (see subsection 3.7.2, page 86). Questions 10 and 11 (Appendix
10) contained questions to the principals, on the schools’ SBST and SAT. The
findings were as follows:
All the principals indicated that their schools had a SBST and that teachers
served on the SBST. ASP responded that at his school, only the heads of
department, the grade head (senior teacher supervising the other teachers in a
specific grade), served on the SBST, while in the township school, a parent
who served on the School Governing Body and the principal were added to the
list of members. Teachers in the English school who had further qualifications
in psychology and learning support, as well as the deputy principal, served on
the SBST. The special school principal responded that the trans-disciplinary
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team19 at his school made up the membership of the SBST. The table below
reflects the composition of the various schools’ SBSTs.
Table 5.3 Members of the SBST of the four different schools
Teachers HOD Principal Parent (SGB)
Deputy Principal
Psycho-logist
Therapists (speech-, occupational- and physio therapists)
Grade Head
Specialist teacher
Afrikaans School
√ √ √
English School
√ √ √ √
Township School
√ √ √ √
Special School
√ √ √ √ √√
As indicated in the above table, only the principals of the township and the
special schools served on their school’s SBST, whilst the deputy principal was
involved at the English school. As stipulated by the DoE (2008b:106), the
principal should be a member of his school’s SBST. In addition, it is his
responsibility to ensure that all learners who may need support are
appropriately assessed and that an application is made for such a measure of
support. It could be argued that the principal should therefore be a member of
the SBST of his school.
All the principals indicated that their school had a School Assessment Team.
As was the case with the SBSTs, the composition of the SATs differed from
school to school. Although White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001:29) requires that schools
establish SATs, no indication is given as to who should serve on it. The only
requirement stipulated by the Department of Education (DoE, 2006a:117;
2008b:123), is that at least one member of the SAT should be a specialist in
adaptive methods of assessment or alternatively, the advice of appropriate
19 The trans-disciplinary team consists of the principal, the school psychologist, speech therapist, occupational therapist, the physiotherapist and the teacher(s) involved with the learners. The trans-disciplinary team serves as the SBST at the special school.
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specialists should be obtained. The table below reflects the composition of the
SATs of the various schools.
Table 5.4 Members of the School Assessment Teams Teachers HOD Principal Parent
(SGB)
Deputy
Principal
School
Management
Team
Head of
learning
area
SBST
coordinator
(psychologist)
Afrikaans School
√ √ √
English School
√ √ √
Township School
√ √ √
Special School
√ √ √ √ √
It is reflected in the above tables that the schools establish the composition of
support and assessment teams at their own discretion. The mainstream
schools did not have a specialist in the field of adaptive methods of assessment
on its SAT. The principals appeared not to be aware of the recommendation
that SATs should have such a specialist (refer to 3.7.2).
5.4.4 Participants’ understanding of adaptive methods of assessment (special concessions) and amanuenses In order for schools to address the assessment needs of learners with specific
barriers to learning, principals and teachers of schools should have an
understanding of adaptive methods of assessment. The following subsection
presents the findings of questions 12 and 15 for principals (Appendix 10), on
their understanding of AMA and specifically amanuenses.
The term ‘special concessions’, was included in question 11, with the purpose
of elucidating the term ‘adaptive methods of assessment’. All the principals
indicated that they were familiar with the various special concessions available.
With regard to amanuenses, the principals’ responses were as follows:
ESP: “Someone else writing for an injured person”. ASP: “Transkribering vir leerlinge met ernstige taal, lees, skryf
en/of spellingprobleme”. (Transcribing for learners with severe language, reading, writing and/or spelling problems).
TSP: “This is an assistant educator or aid personel or helpers”.
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SSP: “Oral examination – reading and writing for the candidate”.
These responses indicated that only the special school principal conveyed the
correct answer with regard to amanuenses. Two of the mainstream principals
(ESP and ASP) had an idea of the meaning of amanuenses, whilst the principal
of the township school was unfamiliar with the term. Amanuenses is not
indicated exclusively for an injured learner, but for any learner who has a
barrier in displaying his acquired knowledge or competence in written form. In
addition, transcription is defined as the copying/re-writing of a learner’s
examination paper (see discussion of ‘transcription’ in subsection 3.11.3.5).
Although the mainstream principals stated that they were familiar with the
various special concessions, their answers showed that there was some
confusion about the actual meaning of amanuenses as a special concession.
I argue that a principal, who is familiar with various special concessions and
understands the benefit thereof for eligible learners, will also ensure that the
teachers are familiar with it and that they will implement it at their schools.
Therefore, I assumed that principals should know what measures should be
taken by teachers, to address barriers to assessment.
Questions 10 in the questionnaire for educators (Appendix 11) enquired about
their understanding of adaptive methods of assessment and special
concessions, whether they implemented it in the classroom and during
examinations, as well as which AMA they implemented. Although eleven of the
sixteen teachers indicated that they were familiar with the various special
concessions, the responses revealed that most of the mainstream teachers
lacked understanding of the concept. Only two of the twelve mainstream
teachers could name additional time as a special concession. In contrast, all
four the special school teachers named several methods that they
implemented, namely amanuenses, reading to the learners, additional time,
enlarged print, rephrasing, the use of computers, and compact discs.
The mainstream participants gave the following responses with regard to AMA:
“Not certain” (ET3);
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“Give them sufficient time to demonstrate competency, task instruction, practical demonstration, substitute the task” (TT1);
“Gebruik van verskeidenheid assesseringsvorme, instrumente en ook vlakke van assessering” (Use of various forms of assessment, instruments and levels of assessment) (AT4);
“We only adapt curriculum by assessing a learner with the Second Additional Language” (TT3);
“There are those learners who can’t read but master orally so we read the story together & ask questions & those that can’t write is a problem because most have dyslexia, I lack the approach” (TT2);
“Extra time for slow learners. Explaining the test orally beforehand (the instructions). I always include examples of what is expected” (ET1).
The findings firstly showed that the participants were confused about the term
‘adaptive methods of assessment’, in spite of the fact that I included the term
‘special concessions’ in the question. Additional time was mentioned by two
participants only, but no indication was given that it was implemented as a
supportive measure during tests and examinations. Asking questions after
reading a story together can be regarded as an attempt to assist the learners in
the classroom. Mainstream teachers seemed to confuse AMA with other
methods of instruction: using different forms of assessment, adaption of the
curriculum and oral explanations of instructions before a test. Although a
number of the participants indicated that they were informed on and even
trained in AMA, their responses showed the contrary. In contrast to the findings
of the mainstream teachers, the special school teachers displayed a sound
knowledge of what special concessions and AMA entailed. Their knowledge of
the various forms of AMA confirmed that they implemented AMA on a regular
basis.
The teacher participants’ understanding of amanuenses was specifically
questioned (question 16, Appendix 11). Seven of the participants responded
that they were unfamiliar with the term. Five participants (of which three were
from the special school) knew what amanuenses entailed, namely “...om vir die
leerling die vraestel te lees, en te skryf wat hy mondeling oordra” (Reading a
paper to a learner and writing down what he conveys orally) (ST3). Only two of
these five teachers responded that the answers should be written down
verbatim. It was interesting to note that four of the mainstream teachers (AT2,
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ET1, ET2 and TT2), who wrote that they were actually trained in adaptive
methods of assessment (question 14 in the questionnaire), gave the following
answers on the question: “What do you understand under the concept
amanuenses?”
ET2: “Nothing” TT2: “I don’t have any knowledge about this word” ET1: “Don’t know” AT2: “Nie baie nie, net dat dit iets te doen het met hulp” (Not much, only
that it has something to do with assistance).
The findings showed that there was a big discrepancy between the mainstream
participants’ and the special school participants’ understanding of AMA and
amanuenses. Not the principals, nor the mainstream teachers, were sufficiently
familiar with the concepts. I planned to have a more in-depth inquiry on
amanuenses during the focus group interviews, as discussion on this topic
could supply me with a rich description of the teachers’ understanding and
implementation of amanuenses.
The following subsection deals with the principals’ opinions whether their
teachers implemented AMA and the teachers’ responses to the same question.
5.4.5 Participants’ responses on the implementation of AMA at their schools The analysis of question 13 (Appendix 10) of the principal’s questionnaires,
showed that only one of the three mainstream principals (ASP) indicated that
AMA was implemented at his school. In contrast to this statement, he also
wrote that AMA was too time consuming and that his teachers were not
equipped to do it. The township school principal was uncertain whether his
teachers implemented it. The English school principal responded that her
teachers applied AMA, but that not all the teachers were familiar with it. The
special school principal emphasized that AMA was “...an important part of what
we do in the school”.
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Based on the different responses of the principals, it appeared that AMA was
not implemented at the mainstream schools. Two of the principals’ answers
were contradictory, namely that their teachers implemented AMA, but that they
were not familiar with it or equipped to do it. It also seemed that there was a
misperception with regard to the implementation of AMA, namely that it was too
time-consuming. AMA does not require additional time from teachers, provided
that practical arrangements are made timeously (DoE, 2005b:99).
The same question on the implementation of AMA was asked to the teachers in
their questionnaires (questions 11 and 12, Appendix 11), with the purpose of
comparing their answers to those of the principals. The teachers were asked
whether they applied AMA in the classroom, as well as during tests and
examinations. The comments of the mainstream teachers were generally
negative to cautious. Their responses were as follows:
“Dis nie altyd prakties in ‘n onderwyser se besige beroepslewe nie” (It is
not always practical in the busy professional life of an educator) (AT3). “Difficult. If I am helping a child in Grade 7 who can’t read in the class,
the other learners feel ‘left out’ and often cannot be left to continue work on their own. If I’m ‘talking’ they also want to” (ET1).
“Dit is nie altyd moontlik om dit ten alle tye toe te pas nie. Die klasse is baie groot” (It is not always possible to implement it. The classes are very big) (AT1).
“Dit verg baie tyd wat nie beskikbaar is vir die gewone klaskameronderwyser nie“ (It requires a lot of time which is not available to the average class teacher) (AT3)
The responses of the majority of the mainstream teachers indicated that they
did not implement AMA in the classroom and during examinations, apart from
extra time and ‘reading the story together’. They were also of the opinion that
the implementation of special concessions was too time-consuming. One
teacher (AT1) mentioned that classes have up to 3 learners with ‘special
education needs’ and that it was not possible to render individual attention in
the classroom. AT2 added that these learners did not progress and that they
were regarded as a “...burden in the classroom”. ET2 mentioned in her
questionnaire that she implemented oral assessment. This answer was
followed up during the focus group interviews and it was found that it was
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actually not herself, but a Grade 4 teacher who did oral examinations with an
autistic learner (see sub-theme 3.3.1, page 242). Regarding the implementation
of amanuenses, three special school teachers indicated that they were able to
conduct amanuenses, while the rest of the participants indicated that they were
not competent, or that they did not know what it meant. The ‘practical problems’
and the ‘lack of time’ as quoted above, may reflect a lack of understanding of
how AMA could be implemented in class and during examinations, without
placing an extra burden on the teacher. Although the large number of learners
in a classroom was a general obstacle reflected by the participants, the DoE
(2005b:99) states it clearly that the workload of teachers will not be intensified
with the rendering of this support, if proper logistic arrangements are
implemented. As the special schools had adequate support staff (table 5.3,
page 186), the participants of the special school were more positive regarding
the implementation of AMA.
In comparison to the responses of the principals, it was clear that mainstream
teachers did not implement AMA or amanuenses as specific supportive
measures in assessment, as they lacked the understanding and knowledge of
the concept.
5.4.6 Teachers’ ability to identify learners who need AMA The analysis of question 14 to the teachers (Appendix 11), showed that ten
teachers answered ‘yes’ to the question, ‘Do you regard yourself as competent
in identifying learners who may require adaptive methods of assessment?’.
Four participants indicated that they were uncertain, whilst two said that they
were not competent to identify these learners. Three teachers who answered
‘yes’, did not offer any comment to the question.
Only three participants (ST1, ST2 and ST3), all from the special school,
commented that their many years’ experience as teachers equipped them to
confidently identify the learners. AT2 was uncertain, because “...die bietjie wat
ek op universiteit geleer het, is nie genoeg nie” (The little I learned at university,
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is not enough). The township teachers were also uncertain and I quote some of
their comments:
“I need to be developed in order to identify learners who’ll require
adaptive methods” (TT4); “I am not yet trained to do this at the moment” (TT3).
Two of the English school teachers both commented that they did not know
“...what criteria to use” and were therefore uncertain whether they would be
able to identify learners who will require AMA.
Related to this question was question 13 to the educators, namely which
procedures they followed to determine whether a learner needed an adapted
method of assessment. I added ‘special concession’ in brackets to illuminate
the question. Different responses were obtained. All the special school
teachers responded that they referred the learners to the SBST, who assessed
the learner and subsequently had a trans-disciplinary discussion, in order to
make a recommendation on the most suitable AMA. The Afrikaans School
teachers (AT1, AT2 and AT3), also referred the case to the SBST, who in turn
referred the learner to an official from the district for assessment. AT3
responded that, should the learner not be ‘LSEN’ (after assessment), remedial
classes will be provided. Two English school participants (ET3, ET4) were
uncertain, whilst continuous assessment, extra classes and referral to a
guidance teacher was suggested by the other participants (ET1 and ET2). The
response of TT2 was that the SBST “...help the children” while TT1 wrote:
“School base support team offers 450 forms. SBST offers
programmes such as reading and writing. Reinforcing knowledge using pictures”
The findings revealed that the majority of the comments of the participants
reflected a need for training or more information. It was also interesting to note
that most of the participants who indicated in question 10 that they were
informed on the various AMA available, doubted their ability to identify learners
who may require it. The findings further showed that not one of the SBSTs of
the mainstream schools recommended any form of support in assessment.
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In the following subsection, the participants’ need for more information and
training are illuminated.
5.4.7 Participants’ opinions on information and training In questions 14 and 16 (Appendix 10), the principals’ opinion with regard to the
need for training in AMA and amanuenses was asked. All the principals
commented that their teachers would need more training on AMA and
amanuenses, in order to empower them with knowledge and skills. The special
school principal, who wrote that AMA was an important part of what they do in
the school (see subsection 5.4.4), emphasized that training and re-training is
essential as “...people forget or pick up ‘bad habits’”. The township school
principal was of the opinion that “A crush workshop is something you cannot
talk about. The district is too big for one co-ordinator to facilitate. We need
specialists at school level”.
With regard to whose responsibility it was to do the training (question 17), all
had different responses:
ASP: “Tersiêre instansies” (Tertiary institutions) ESP: “Someone actually qualified in this area, not someone who
has just read up about it”. TSP: “The Department of Education is responsible. NGO’s can
also be of assistance”. SSP: “Internal if you have the knowledge and capacity, otherwise the district or province”.
Two of the principals indicated that it would be the responsibility of the District
Office and the Department of Education to do the training. Ignorance of the
terms ‘amanuenses’ and ‘special concessions’, might be the reason for one
principal suggesting that NGO’s might be of assistance, as he indicated earlier
in his questionnaire that amanuenses referred to assistant educators, aid
personnel or helpers. Training done by tertiary institutions, such as universities,
was indicated but in my opinion, this would indeed only be applicable to
students presently enrolled at these institutions. Teachers employed at schools,
however, did not have access to the information supplied by tertiary institutions,
except if they were enrolled as part-time students.
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In the questionnaire for educators (Appendix 11), question 17 enquired about
the teachers’ ability to implement amanuenses, while in question 18 they were
requested to indicate their needs in respect to AMA and amanuenses. The
mainstream teachers, in particular, voiced their need for “...fruitful workshops
so that educators can be well geared in understanding different learners in
class i.e. how to approach teaching using the different methods of assessment”
(TT2); “...training on at least a termly basis” (ET4) and “determining which
learners should have access to adaptive; which material and practical
arrangements” (TT1). A positive suggestion came from ST1 who recommended
that a manual on adaptive methods of assessment be compiled for all teachers
and that this could also be used for training of students at tertiary institutions.
TT2 expressed a need for training “…in order to help the black child to prosper
in life”. ET3 and ET4 both agreed in their comments that AMA is “...an excellent
idea” and that teachers should receive training by qualified people.
The findings showed that the principals, as well as the teachers – particularly
the mainstream teachers – expressed a clear need for more information and
training, with regard to adaptive methods of assessment, including
amanuenses and the identification of learners who might require it. Their
comments and the needs they expressed, created the impression that AMA
was a new concept to them and this strengthened my decision to elicit
discussion on their understanding and implementation of AMA during the focus
group interviews.
The final question to principals explored their familiarity with relevant
documents of AMA, which is discussed next.
5.4.8 Principals’ awareness of relevant documents on AMA Question 18 (Appendix 10) investigated whether principals were familiar with
letters, circulars and documents from the DoE, which are the primary source of
information on AMA to schools. Only the special school principal indicated that
he received documentation from the GDE and the District Office with regard to
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this issue. The three mainstream principals bore no knowledge of such
circulars and documents.
Informative guidelines and the criteria for implementation are given in several
other documents of the Department of Education, as listed in section 3.2, page
75). It can be interpreted that mainstream principals’ unclear description of
adaptive methods of assessment and amanuenses, may be the contributed to
the fact that they were not familiar with the content of the mentioned
documents. The question arises: How can teachers and principals address
learners’ barriers to assessment, as well as expand their understanding and
implementation of concessionary measures, if they had no insight into
informative and explanatory circulars and documents? The issue of teachers’
knowledge of these documents was discussed during the focus group
interviews, in order to obtain further information.
The Western Cape Education Department (WCED, 2005), states that principals
is responsible for all matters relating to assessment in their schools. According
to Rude and Anderson (cited in Praisner, 2003), the principal must display a
positive attitude and commitment to inclusion in order for it to be successful. I
agree with Mudau (2004:147) that principals themselves should be trained, in
order to develop a sense of ownership in the implementation of change and to
have full understanding of what is expected of teachers.
5.4.9 Summary of the findings of the questionnaires for principals and educators Looking at the findings of the qualitative questionnaires for principals and
teachers holistically, a willingness to practise inclusion at their schools was
portrayed, but that they were negative due to several challenges experienced.
Support with regard to assessment was lacking and neglected due to the
principals’ and the teachers’ lack of understanding of AMA - with the result that
it was not implemented at their schools. Furthermore, the principals of the
mainstream schools did not appear to be aware of the prescribed requirements
regarding the composition of SATs (see 3.7.2, page 86) and that, should a
specialist in AMA not be available in the school, such a specialist should be
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sought from the community or other schools. Although the concept
‘amanuenses’ was unfamiliar to the majority of the participants, they were keen
and willing to obtain more knowledge about it. Bateman and Bateman (2002)
emphasize that in-service sessions should be planned in order to address what
teachers say they need to know about learners with disabilities.
The answers of the participants, obtained through the questionnaires, provided
a basic framework and background for me to probe further into the focus group
interviews. The questionnaires had the advantage of giving the participants a
better idea of the research, even if the purpose of the research was explained
in the initial interview. I noticed that the participants, who displayed an anxiety
in the initial interview, were far more relaxed and talkative when a date for the
focus group interviews was negotiated.
A summary of the findings of the qualitative questionnaires completed by the
principals and teachers, are tabled below:
Table 5.5 A summary of the findings of the questionnaires for principals and educators
Principals
1. Mainstream principals do not understand inclusion.
Educators
1. Most teachers do not understand inclusion.
2. Principals are not positive about the inclusive approach.
2. Teachers are mostly negative about inclusion.
3. Principals indicated that they were familiar with AMA.
3. Teachers are willing to support learners with barriers to learning.
4. AMA is not implemented at the investigated mainstream schools.
4. Mainstream teachers do not understand what AMA entails.
5. Mainstream principals cannot describe amanuenses correctly.
5. Mainstream teachers do not know what amanuenses is.
6. All principals indicate a need for information and training on AMA.
6. AMA is not implemented at the investigated mainstream schools.
7. Mainstream principals are not familiar with informative documents on AMA.
7. Mainstream teachers are not confident in identifying learners who might need AMA.
8. Teachers indicate a need for training.
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In the following section, the findings of the focus group interviews with the
teachers of the four schools are discussed.
5.5 DISCUSSION OF THE FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
The discussion is structured around the themes and sub-themes which were
identified through the analysis of the focus group interviews with the Grade 7
teachers at the four schools. My observations and field notes are incorporated
into the analysis of the data.
The findings are supported by verbatim quotations from the interviews. The
quotations are included without correction from the transcribed interviews and
as in the case of the discussion of the questionnaires; no attempt was made to
change the participants’ usage of language. The reason for giving the verbatim
quotations was to present the experiences of the participants as authentically
as possible. The quotations are in italicised. Quotations given in a discussion
paragraph are also italicised. Where Afrikaans quotes are given, translations
into English follows in brackets. Where the participants emphasized words
during the interviews, these are given in bold print in the interview extracts.
Clarification of the excerpts is given in brackets where necessary, in order to
place the quotations in context for the reader. An example of a focus group
interview is included as Appendix 13.
5.5.1 DATA PROCESS AND ANALYSIS As discussed in subsection 4.8 (page 166), I analysed data using Tesch’s open
coding method. The transcripts were analysed by breaking down the data into
bits and pieces, finding relating patterns (coding), clustering together the units
of meaning and finding descriptive words for the emerging themes and sub-
themes.
Four emerging themes have been elicited from the data analysis that
contributed to, and reflected the meaning that teachers gave to adaptive
methods of assessment. The four main themes identified were:
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1) Teachers experience emotional frustration
2) Teachers lack knowledge of AMA
3) Obstacles for implementation of AMA
4) Teachers’ needs on AMA
An example of the process of data reduction is tabled below. The codes used
to derive the categories, were the following:
........ Emotional response - ER; Attitude teacher towards LSEN and other learners - AT; Emotional .......... Negative towards inclusion – NI; negative re district - ND; frustration Negative re educational system – NE; .......... Teacher knowledge/Lack of knowledge - K, LK; Lack of Understands benefits - UB; knowledge .......... Teacher assessment - TA; .......... Implementation – IM; Lack of implementation - LI; Willingness to implement - WI; .......... Too much paperwork - PW; Time constraints - TC; Obstacles in Learner needs not met - LN; Finances - F; implementation Big classes - BC; Behaviour learners - BL; .......... Collaboration/cooperation: with district - CD; with parents – CP; with school - CS; .......... Identification of barriers to learning - ID; .......... Teacher training, skills and needs -T; Lack of training - LT; Teachers’ needs Need for training - NT; Need for resources - NR; Inadequate training - IT; Willingness to learn more – WL Table 5.7 Example of the process of data reduction STEP 1 and 2: Breaking down data and labelling topics EXTRACTS FROM INTERVIEW WITH TOWNSHIP SCHOOL PARTICIPANTS R: What kinds of assessment do you generally use in the classroom? T2: We like to start with the baseline… if maybe you are asking on those areas, nê? R: Ja. T2: Yes and then… if I can mention them… we do summative, we do formative…
Types of assessment
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T3: Formative T2: We do diagnostic. At the baseline, we diagnose, nê, and then after that we… we look at the problem… that’s where you refer… identify that… this one has this problem… he need to be taught like this and to be assessed like this. But what we don’t do… because of time frame, we don’t go deeper in this individual assessment because it’s time-consuming. R: Like what? T2: Like… the the the… expressive language, nê. R: Ja? T2: We assess them. We assess them… not all of us because we are not all of us work shopped or trained to do such things. The only thing that they do now, they just take the… those coordinators… T2: …the SBST coordinators to to go for a workshop for one hour, two hours and then you come with that little knowledge… you share with the educators – we do what we understand, so… we also do the individual at least… we… we are trained for the read. We train ourselves to assess a learner individually. And the summative we do for all the learners. T2: The formative, yes, we also do… I must say assignments examinations, projects and researches and… we do all those things. T1: But now we… most of the times we still experience problems with this, you know… these learners, you know, because now you find that the children who can master that assessment… it’s only… because in class we are having forty learners, you might find that it’s a part of the class we can just master that LO… the rest you need to go down to their own level… and you know it it needs time. T1: It’s is very frustrating because now if you can have, can take ten learners who cannot master that learning outcome it’s very frustrating for you as an educator.
Types of ass.mnt Educators identify problem Collaboration. Do not do indi- vidual ass.ment No time. Not trained. Workshops not sufficient Little knowledge Collegiality Willingness to try All learners are assessment in same way. Experience problems Large classes Needs time Very frustrated
R: And how did they say must you assess these learners in an examination? T2: In assessment they told us about… the amauenses, amninuenses if I pronounce it correctly and with this… we don’t know this, this is just a skeleton to us, we don’t know this thing and we are not trained about this thing because they told us about the… the individual eh… assessment and we have not been trained… we don’t… we are just blank about it.
Were told about it Unfamiliar word. Don’t know this ‘thing’.Skeleton to us Not trained about this thing. Blank about it.
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STEP 3: Categorizing the topics Examples Emotional response (ER) Feelings of frustration - “It’s very frustrating for you as educator!” Feelings of helplessness - “What must I do as educator?” Feelings of incompetence - “Ek kan absoluut niks vir hom doen nie” (Translation: I can do absolutely nothing for him) Dissatisfaction - “They expect us to do something what you don’t understand and they can’t even present themselves” Feelings of hopelessness - “Wie... waar gaan ons hulp kry, watter onderwysers gaan dit doen? Educators lack knowledge of AMA (LK) “We don’t know this thing” “It is a skeleton to us” “We are blank about it” Amanuenses is an unfamiliar word The SBST coordinator comes with ‘that little knowledge...’ Were only told about it Obstacles for implementation (OB) Still experience problems Large classes No time and work load “...because of time frame, we don’t go deeper in this individual assessment” Collaboration with stakeholders Educators’ needs on AMA (NT) “We are not trained about this thing” No support and resources Only SBST coordinators attend workshops Only got a few hours training
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The themes and sub-themes derived from the data analysis are tabled as follows: Table 5.8 Schematic summary of the identified themes and sub-themes
THEME 1 Sub-themes
Emotional frustration
1.1 Teachers are negative about the
inclusive approach. 1.2 Teachers’ attitudes towards learners
with barriers to learning.
THEME 2 Sub-themes
Teachers lack knowledge of AMA
2.1 Teachers are confused about AMA 2.2 Teachers’ understanding of amanuenses 2.3 District officials lack knowledge of AMA 2.4 Teachers’ understanding of the possible benefits of AMA.
THEME 3 Sub-themes
Obstacles for implementation of AMA
3.1 Teaching and classroom barriers: 3.1.1 Work load 3.1.2 Time constraints and large classes 3.1.3 Behaviour problems and other learners’ attitude towards LSEN 3.2 Collaboration between stakeholders 3.2.1 Cooperation with parents 3.2.2 Collaboration with the SBST 3.2.3 Collaboration with the DBST and DoE 3.3 The implementation of amanuenses 3.3.1 The lack of implementation of AMA and amanuenses 3.3.2 The incorrect implementation of amanuenses 3.3.3 Teachers’ willingness/unwillingness to implement AMA.
THEME 4 Sub-themes
Teachers’ needs on AMA
4.1 Teachers’ identification of barriers to assessment 4.2 Need for support and resources 4.3 Need for further training and professional development
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The various themes will now be discussed.
5.5.2 THEME 1: TEACHERS EXPERIENCE EMOTIONAL FRUSTRATION
A prominent theme that emerged from the responses was the various
emotional responses of teachers regarding their functioning in the inclusive
classroom. The negative feelings that were projected were substantially more
than the positive feelings and these responses emerged so distinctly in the raw
data, that it could clearly not be ignored. The following section focuses on the
emotions that teachers reflected in the focus group interviews.
Sub-theme 1.1 Teachers’ experiences regarding the inclusive education approach Although teachers’ experiences of inclusive education were not primarily the
purpose of this investigation, it is inseparable from the notion of support to all
learners, including those with disabilities and learning difficulties. The
identification of learners experiencing barriers to assessment and the
appropriate support provided to them, take place in the inclusive classroom.
During the focus group interviews, much information was gained by observing
and recording teachers’ feelings and experiences around the inclusive
approach, which are discussed in this theme.
In general, the teachers reflected a willingness to support learners in the
classroom, but they experienced many challenges such as a heavy work load
and lack of time, which are discussed in more detail in sub-theme 1.3. One of
the main reasons for teachers feeling frustrated and disempowered was the
presence of learners with different levels of competency in the classroom.
Many teachers from the mainstream schools complained about learners being
in Grade 6 or 7, but who functioned on a Grade 3 level, as the education policy
states that a learner could not be retained in a phase twice (TT3, lines 627-630;
AT1, lines 238-241). The learners are then promoted to the next grade without
having met the demands of the previous grade. According to some of the
teachers, the District said that if a child fails a grade, he would be too old to be
retained and must be promoted to the next grade (TS, lines 580-582). Apart
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from the policy, other reasons mentioned, were that parents refused to place
their ‘LSEN’ child in a special school due to poverty, no funds for transport and
the conveniences of the local school (TS, line 354; AT2, lines 121-123); the
stigma of a special school (TT2, lines 598-599) or that the problem has never
been attended to with the result that the problem just “…goes on and on” (AT3,
lines 168-176). Teachers’ frustrations were clear as they said:
“Because those learners they progress from Grade three… say Grade
three, now they’re in Grade 6, now you find a learner in Grade 6 who cannot just write even a paragraph… it’s just frustrating!” (TT1, lines 529-532)
“It is very frustrating because now if you can have… can take ten learners who cannot master that learning outcome… it’s very frustrating for you as an educator” (TT1, lines 522-525)
The teachers argued that they found it extremely difficult to give sufficient
individual attention to these learners, as well as to carry on with the work with
the rest of the learners at the same time. It was clearly stated by the teachers
that they just did not get to ‘...those weak learners’ (AT1, line 63). Other
utterances that portrayed the teachers’ frustration were such as, “En ons sukkel
daarmee, hoor. Ons kan dit net nie doen nie” (And we struggle with that, you
hear? We just can’t do it. AT1 (lines 53-59) described her frustration as follows:
“Byvoorbeeld, hulle moet daai ekstra werkkaarte en goed kry… daar is
nie… werk jy met hulle dan verstaan hulle nie hoe moet hulle die werkkaart doen nie, nou soek hulle jou aandag. Daai ander klomp is nou besig met hulle werk nou verstaan hulle ook nie of hulle is klaar. Dit gaan baie moeilik, hoor!” (For example, they must get those extra work sheets en stuff… there are none… you work with them then they don’t understand how to do the work sheets, now they demand your attention. That other lot is also busy with their work now they also don’t understand or they have finished. It’s very difficult, you hear!).
As a result of their inability to give sufficient attention to the learners
experiencing barriers to learning, the teachers’ concerns were that these
learners were falling far behind (ET4, lines 321-325; ET1, lines 1160-1167). On
the other hand, they argued that the stronger learners who could do the work
were held back (AT1, lines 291-292). Others were not happy about parents
taking their child out of a special school to put him into a mainstream school
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and now they as teachers had to cope with an ‘LSEN’ child with severe reading
and writing problems (AT1, line 556). The teachers now asked:
“Hoe akkommodeer ons daai kind?” (How do we accommodate that child?) (AT1, line 564),
“Ons kan hom nie help nie…” (We cannot help him) (AS, line 574).
Some expressed it even stronger:
“And then we are the ones who are stuck with those kids” (TT1, line
1262).
Although the teachers expressed their frustration about this situation, they also
reflected empathy with the learner with problems, who had to cope amongst the
stronger learners. They felt that it was not fair towards such a child as it had a
detrimental influence on his self-image. ET3 (lines 1098-1113) put it as follows:
“I don’t think it’s actually fair for that child to be in a mainstream school,
the reason being… I actually have one in my class… Kamogelo Satare… he’s weak and what has happened is… by the second term he had developed such a thing about children looking at him and laughing at him and he basically fell into the back there and I noticed that he… and he does not take part in anything anymore. He’s an emotional wreck. Even if I try and make him part of the class, he does not have the confidence anymore. The department should re-install special classes where these children can feel they cope on their own level”.
All the teachers from the mainstream schools agreed that learners with special
needs should be accommodated in separate classes, whether these classes
were aid classes, special classes, learning support classes or bridging classes
(ETS, lines 362-366; TTS, line 720; AT1, lines 289-292). Before White Paper 6
was introduced, many schools had these classes to accommodate learners
with specific barriers to learning and where the teacher’s attention was directed
towards that specific barrier. One teacher described the previous system where
schools had A, B and C classes and where, according to her, all learners
benefited. She elaborated:
“Ja and… and your weaker child benefits by this A,B C classification, but
now we have to… uhm… include them in… in the classes and it’s unfair toward your brighter child and your weaker child. The only child that benefits from this… inclusion, is the average student” (ET2, lines 1148-1154)
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The teachers complained that they had to sit with that child and explain the
work, while the rest of the class became disruptive because “…they’re bored…
waiting for the other ones to be brought up” (ET1, lines 1144-1146). The
township teachers indicated a need for learning support (remedial) classes for
the child “… who is not competent to produce’ (TT1, lines 704-706). They
further indicated that they introduced a ‘super class’ after the third term for
those learners “who needed the basics in everything”. They emphasized
however, that they were not allowed to have such a super class as “…the
policy doesn’t allow us (TT1, lines 739). In accordance with the English school
teachers, these participants agreed and I quote:
“And it was nice then… when you separated those learners… the
special needs, but the department says its discrimination, we don’t do that anymore. It was better then, it was better then because you would know that… Okay this one need this, this one needs that…” (TT3, lines 1681-1687)
The Afrikaans school teachers fully agreed with their counterparts from the
other mainstream schools. They mentioned the need for special classes and
AT1 (lines 286-290) described it as follows:
“Maar dit is moeilik vir ons, hoor Ronelle. Ons weet nie, regtig nie. Tyd...
en ons het ander kinders, want nou kry dáái kinders soveel aandag dan sit ons met die ander kinders. Jy weet wat, dáái kinders moet nog steeds apart gehou word” (But it is difficult for us, Ronelle. We don’t know, really we don’t. Time… and we have other kids, but now those kids get so much attention then we sit with the other children. You know, those kids should still be kept apart”).
These teachers agreed that the ‘stronger learner’ was being kept back due to
teachers’ obligation to support the ‘weaker learner’ in the class. I conclude by
quoting ET3’s frustration regarding the integration of learners into the
mainstream class:
“Look, I… I am very much against it and I wish I can toi-toi and tell the
department that, because all the things that worked, they are taking away (ET3, lines 1121-1123).
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It was very clear that all the teachers from the four schools involved in the
research, experienced many negative feelings that were mainly directed
towards the Department of Education, the District Office and its officials. During
the focus group interviews, the participants used much of the time complaining
about the DoE, as well as the inclusive approach. The teachers displayed a low
morale. The emotions that were reflected the most were that of frustration,
anger, hopelessness and helplessness. The reader will note that these feelings
were reflected in many of the quotations cited throughout the discussion of the
themes.
The findings showed that particularly the mainstream teachers, found their work
in the inclusive classroom extremely difficult and that they were under
enormous strain trying to cope with big classes, trying to give attention to the
individual learner, whilst still having other learners to cope with. They found it
difficult to meet the needs of individual learners with difficulties and emphasized
that there were no resources for these learners. The need for separate classes
for ‘LSEN learners’ (as the teachers called them) was accentuated by the
mainstream teachers and they agreed that it was in the best interest of these
learners to receive the appropriate attention in separate classes. The teachers
even defied the policy by creating a separate class (‘super class’) to support
learners who needed additional attention.
Although the teachers experienced many problems and negative feelings with
regard to inclusion, they displayed empathy towards the learners with barriers
to learning. The teachers’ opinions that learners with specific special needs will
be appropriately and fairly addressed in separate classes were also an
indication of empathy and concern towards these learners. However, the
teachers were concerned about their own inabilities as how to support them, as
was reflected in the quotations.
In research done by Kubyana (2005), teachers identified several factors that
affected the success of inclusion, including class size, lack of adequate
resources, the extent to which all learners would benefit from inclusion and the
lack of adequate teacher preparation. Bateman and Bateman (2002) and
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Venter (2007) suggest that learners with barriers to learning, who attend
mainstream schools, should be referred to special schools only when all
available methods have been tried, but failed to meet their needs. In general,
teachers did not indicate a total unwillingness to support learners with barriers,
but rather indicated that they experienced many challenges.
Hennings (2004:71) states that when teachers experience disempowerment
and feelings of helplessness, it results in job-dissatisfaction, because they do
not have the resources they need. Equally, according to Herzberg (cited in
Grobler, 2001:27), teachers will experience job-dissatisfaction if working
conditions are not satisfactory. The frustrations that teachers experience can
be attributed to the fact that they did not experience a feeling of competency
and Grobler (2001:17) further maintains that, when the need to feel competent
is blocked, it results in the experiencing of frustration.
Closely related to the participants’ negative experiences of inclusion, is their
feelings towards learners with barriers to learning, which I discuss in the
following sub-theme.
Sub-theme 1.2 Teachers’ attitudes towards learners with barriers to learning With the exception of one mainstream school, the teachers were generally
child-centred and empathetic towards learners, including those with barriers to
learning. My initial non-threatening question to the participants elicited
responses that portrayed a dedication towards teaching and the learners, that
they loved working with children and that they derived satisfaction when it
proved that they taught learners something (ET1, line 17). Furthermore,
teachers found teaching an enriching experience, when they had the
opportunity to uplift a learner - particularly with regard to his emotional well-
being. ST2 expressed her satisfaction with what she achieved with learners
who were referred to her school, after not coping in a mainstream school:
“Om aan die begin van die jaar ‘n kind te hê wat totaal platgeval het in
die lewe en aan die einde van die jaar staan die kind voor jou as ‘n
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volwaardige mens” (To have a child in the beginning of the year who totally fell apart in life and at the end of the year, the child stands before you as a complete person) (ST2, lines 30-32).
The participants also referred to their teaching profession as the responsibility
to prepare learners for the future and not only to teach them per se. Their
concern for the learners was expressed in utterances such as “...he also
deserves to learn” (TT1, line 1238); “…the learner… is the one that suffer”
(TT2, line 60) and “...ek sê altyd dis maar net ‘n kind” (I always say it is only a
child) (AT1, line 419). However, the mainstream teachers in particular,
maintained that the ‘LSEN learners’ were a problem for them (AT3, line 45).
Throughout the focus group interviews, mainstream teachers referred to LSEN
as those learners who are the ‘weaker learners’. They stated that these
learners should be accommodated in special schools such as Matshediso
School (TT2, lines 593-596) and Usizolwethu School20 (ET3, lines 725-727).
Another school that was mentioned was Belvedere School21. The Afrikaans
School teachers mentioned that they referred the LSEN “that can do nothing’
and struggle scholastically (AT2, lines 86-88) to the district official, who
assigned a number to the learner, if it proved after assessment that they were
‘LSEN’, or that they should receive learning support after school (AT1, lines
108-111). In a discussion amongst teachers whether a certain learner had
problems or not, the utterance was made “Hy het nog nie ‘n nommer nie” (He
does not have a number yet) (AT3, line 376). The teachers complained that the
“LSEN’ learners required all the attention in the classroom, at the cost of the
stronger learners. They voiced their frustration for being forced by the DoE to
accept these learners in the class, while they were still on a much lower
scholastic level and as they were not allowed to fail twice in a phase (AT1, line
238-240; TT1, line 628).
It was noted that some mainstream teachers tended to label these learners;
they accentuated words when referring to them and they reflected a distancing
from them, such as:
20 Matshediso School and Usizolwethu School are training centres for the mentally severely challenged learners. 21 Belvedere School is a pre-vocational school for learners with mild to moderate intellectual impairment.
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“Ons kom nie by daai swak kinders uit nie, hoor” (AT1, line 63) (We don’t get to those weak kids, you hear?), and
“Hoe akkommodeer ons daai kind? (How do we accommodate that child?) (AT1, line 564)
In addition, when the teachers referred to the parents of these learners, they
referred to “daai ouers” (those parents). One teacher displayed anger towards
the parents who took their child out of a special school and placed him in their
school (AT1, lines 567-570). Whilst giving this information, she hit the table with
her hand. A further indication of their distancing from learners with special
needs was utterances such as:
“…ons sit met ons eie kinders” (We sit with our own children), (referring
to the other learners in the class) (AT1, line 462); “…we are the ones who are stuck with those kids” (TT1, line 1626). “...ons het nie tyd met hulle nie. Hulle doen presies wat die ander kinders
doen (...we don’t have time with them. They do exactly what the other children do) (AT1, line 359).
I wrote in my field notes that the teachers appeared very irritated and restless
whilst giving the information. They moved around in their chairs and their faces
showed intense dissatisfaction.
The special school teachers strongly voiced their opinions regarding the
labelling and rejection of learners in mainstream schools. They said that in
mainstream schools a child is immediately judged on the appearance of his
work (ST4, line 212-213); that he is an outcast in mainstream (ST3, line 255);
that these learners are teased a lot (ST2, line 438-440) and that there is
nothing in place for a disabled learner with a wheel chair or a walker in a
mainstream school (ST2, lines 912-914). ST4 (lines 47-56) summarized her
satisfaction of working with learners with disabilities in the special school, as
opposed to mainstream education, as follows:
“…veral omdat ek… uh… hoofstroomskole ken en weet hoe hierdie
leerders uitval en hoe hulle ge-etikeer word… en hoe seer hulle kry en dit is lekker om te sien dat daar ‘n omgewing is waar kinders veilig is om anders te wees en ek dink vir die eerste kry hulle dan die geleentheid om hulle andersheid in ‘n veilige omgewing uit te leef met onderwysers wat dit verstaan en ondersteun en dit is vir my ‘n uitdaging om elke
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eerder positief te bemoedig en nooit af te kraak nie” (…especially because I know mainstream schools and know how these learners drop out and how they are labelled… and how they are hurt and it is nice to see that there is an environment where children are safe to be different and I think for the first time they get the opportunity to live out their dissimilarity in a safe environment, with teachers who are understanding and supportive and it is a challenge for me to encourage them and never break them down).
The data revealed that mainstream teachers reflected a misperception of
‘LSEN’, in that learners with special needs were those with intellectual
impairments. The fact that the teachers mentioned referral of ‘LSEN’ to training
centres or pre-vocational schools, confirmed this. Confirmation was also found
in their statements that learners were allocated a number if they did not cope
scholastically, compared to those who could receive learning support. As
discussed in sub-theme 4.1, teachers showed an inability to appropriately
identify learners who may benefit from AMA.
In spite of the empathy and child-centeredness that was reflected, the
participants were dissatisfied with the presence of learners with special needs
in their classes and a strong element of frustration was evident. The findings
showed that teachers’ use of language, as well as their body language,
reflected their frustration and dissatisfaction with the presence of these learners
in their classrooms. This is in contrast with what the teachers wrote in their
questionnaires, namely that they were willing to welcome learners with barriers
to learning in the mainstream school environment. Kubyana (2005:26) refers to
research done by Florian, which showed that many teachers have serious
reservations about the widespread placement of learners with special needs in
mainstream schools. In my study, I sensed an inclination of labelling and
distancing towards learners with difficulties. Research literature refers to the
distancing from others as the ‘us-them’ dichotomy, where the ‘us’ generally are
viewed in positive terms and the people belonging to ‘them’ are viewed
negatively due to their undesirable characteristics. Mittler (2000:viii) maintains
that the ‘us-them’ concept is hardly the words that build an inclusive society,
whilst Goh (2004:11) emphasizes that all learners should receive the necessary
educational services that they require without being labelled. This would be in
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accordance with the philosophy of inclusive education which emphasizes
acceptance, non-discrimination, equal rights and accommodation of diversity.
The teachers had low expectations of learners with barriers to learning, as no
indication was given that the learners’ strengths were investigated in order to
build on it. The teachers seemed to be more positive about learners who
performed better. The philosophy of inclusion promotes the notion of non-
discrimination and teachers should identify what barriers learners experience
and how these can be addressed, instead of asking what is wrong with the
learner (Lazarus, Daniels & Engelbrecht, 1999:53). Pretorius and Le Roux
(2000:95) state that teachers usually have more sympathy with the more
intelligent learners, because these learners make them feel successful as
teachers and therefore they are experiencing job satisfaction. The teachers in
this study voiced there feelings of incompetence as to how to assist ‘those’
learners. Pretorius and le Roux (2000:95) maintain that if no successful
learning takes place, teachers may blame the learners without reflecting on
their teaching.
The preceding paragraphs gave an indication of how teachers experienced
their everyday involvement in the inclusive classroom. The next theme aims to
clarify what teachers understood about AMA.
5.5.3 THEME 2: TEACHERS LACK KNOWLEDGE OF AMA
In this section, the findings on how teachers understood the concept ‘adaptive
methods of assessment’, which includes amanuenses, are described.
Sub-theme 2.1 Teachers are confused about AMA The participants indicated that they applied different types of assessment in the
classroom, such as baseline assessment, diagnostic and peer assessment,
group work, formative and specifically summative assessment (ES, line 513-
519; TS, lines 457, 463-467; SS, lines 362, 365). As the questionnaires showed
that the mainstream participants were uncertain about the concepts ‘adaptive
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methods of assessment’ or ‘special concessions’, discussion on this topic was
elicited and their responses were as follows:
“The auditory learners… they say, oh! They (the district) gave… they
told us to… in our questions …to use this Bloom’s taxonomy strategies to accommodate all learners with different needs so that we can be able to al least to… to give… to give… to get those three types of learners in maybe one comprehension… we were talking about a comprehension. So they showed us how to formulate our questions so that we can accommodate the three types of learners” (TT1, lines 658-666)
“If you can remind me?” (TT2, line 810).
In order to focus the participants’ attention on adaptive methods of
assessment/special concessions for learners who struggle with reading and
writing during tests and examinations, I deliberately emphasized the phrase
during the examinations on numerous occasions (TS, lines 686, 860, 916, 923;
AS, lines 345, 435; ES, lines 546, 591, 599, 799, 866, 1000). This was done
with all three the mainstream schools’ teachers. TT2, who is the head of
department as well as the SBST coordinator, indicated that she attended a
meeting at the District Office where they were only told about extra time and
amanuenses, and to “...apply for the learners that are slow” (TT2, lines 846-
847). However, she added:
“They told us how to assess them, but it was just vague you don’t
understand, just that vague. The auditory… they promised us that we must be work shopped” (lines 888-891).
ET3 (lines 974-975) also commented that they were told by a lady from the
district two years prior, that “...if a child is not managing, then you verbally do
the assessment”, but as will be discussed in sub-theme 3.3, the teacher did not
understand what this entailed and therefore it was implemented incorrectly.
There were numerous other answers to what they thought special concessions
and AMA were, which confirmed that the mainstream teachers were ignorant
about the concept:
Different types of assessment such as projects, group work, paired work,
dramatize (TT2, lines 966-975); “Dalk ‘n laer vlak?” (Perhaps a lower level?)( AT1, line 307)
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“Daai mondeling?” (That oral?) (AT2, line 308) “Makliker opdragte?” (Easier tasks?) (AT1, line 315) “Die metodes” (The methods) (AT3, line 322) “Hmm. Iets anders” (Hmm. Something different) (AT1, line 323) “Trying to teach as in many ways as possible”. (ET1, line 778) “And we re-teach, hey. We re-teach… if this doesn’t work, then we do it
in another way. And we’ll do it until we try and get it right!” (ET1, 785-787)
“I know one! Let’s focus on the oral one!” (ET2, laughing, lines 801,807) “I just know the ones that you’ve spoken about” (ET1, line 803) “In assessment, we don’t know others than what we do in the class…
what you talk about now” (TT2,, lines 1383)
One English school’s teacher (ET1, lines 484, 580) who was the HOD and the
SBST coordinator, indicated that she had received training in adaptive methods
of assessment and commented on what she understood about adaptive
methods of assessment:
“The reading and how to pick up reading problems and… little tests what
you can do”, and “…we try and make recommendations, O.K…. give them extra work or
speak to the parents or ask them to get extra lessons, but a lot of the times there are quite generic uh… examples of how to help a child”.
The uncertainty that teachers had on how to support learners with writing
problems, was clearly reflected in the following statements participants made:
“We still have the problem especially when dealing with… uh… writing,
you know, if the child cannot understand, you know… eh…express himself in writing. So what must I do as a teacher, you know?” and “So that that child can progress to the next grade, what must I do? So now I’m still having problems with that” (TT1, lines 989-998).
“How do we… how do we assess the expressive learners?” and “They can express themselves, but when they write down, their paper is horrible, so uhm…” (TT2, lines 1701, 1706).
In response to a question posed to another teacher (AT1, lines 438-440), as to
how they will accommodate a learner who presents with poor written
expression abilities, she said that “…as hy nie lopende skrif kan skryf nie, kan
hy... kan hy drukskrif skryf…” (...if he cannot manage with cursive writing, he is
allowed to write in print”).
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Another teacher expressed a similar concern:
“…weet jy, ek kry daai Jannie… ek kry hom so jammer nê en ek kan
absoluut niks vir hom doen nie… want ek het niks om hom mee te help nie” (You know, I pity that Jannie so much. I can do absolutely nothing for him... because I have nothing to help him with) (AT2, lines 540-544)
and
“…hy kan nie van die bord afskryf nie… hy kan nie een… Jannie, hy sit hier onder my neus, hy kan niks doen nie… niks! Hoe akkommodeer ons daai kind?” (He cannot copy from the bord... he cannot... Jannie, he sits here right under my nose. He can do nothing... nothing! How do we accommodate that child?) (AT2, lines 560-564).
The same teacher (AT2, line 332) concluded: “… is jy glad nie seker wat om… wat om met hulle te doen nie” (You are not certain what… what to do with them).
In my field notes, I wrote that the participants often mentioned extra/more time
for the slower learners. However, it was mentioned incidentally - it was not
specifically identified as a special concession. This special concession was
also identified after I asked specific questions e.g. how a learner with a slow
working speed would be accommodated in an examination. The answer was
preceded by pondering and given as a question, not as a statement.
ET1 did not identify ‘Reading to the learner’ as a special concession, but
responded that learners with reading problems could answer a question “…if
they’ve been listening in class” (ET1, lines 856-859). Another response was
that it was expected of learners to read themselves - as reading was part of an
assessment to obtain marks.
The special school has been implementing AMA since the early 1980’s (ST3,
lines 324). The AMA mentioned by the special school teachers (lines 331, 507-
557) are amanuenses, reading assistance (in the classroom and during
examinations), tape and/or CD aid, rephrasing, additional time and as ST1
elaborated:
“Nou daarmee saam kom dit as jy ekstra tyd nodig het vir kinders wat
stadig skryf, kry hulle ‘n kwartier per uur addisionele tyd wat ook ’n konsessie is… want ons kinders is werklik taalarm. Ons gee ook
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beplanningshulp.” (Concurrently you need additional time for learners who write slowly so they get 15 minutes per hour additional time, which is also a concession… because our children are really language deprived. We also provide planning aid”) (ST1, lines 555-561).
In addition, the special school teachers described various assistive devices
which the school obtained for learners with physical disabilities, e.g. a
mouthpiece for a severely disabled cerebral palsied learner (ST3, line 608-
612); a magnifying TV reader for a visually impaired learner (line 635) and tape
aid/CD aid (line 246) to assist the learners in their studies.
ST4, who has been in the teaching profession for only six months after
previously being a social worker, commented (lines 121-141) that she had
many family members who were teachers in mainstream schools and that she
only heard about special concessions for the first time since working at the
special school: “…dit is die eerste keer dat ek sien hoe word dit gedoen en
beplan” (It is the first time that I see how it is done and planned) (ST4, lines
121-141). ST2 (line 96) stated that the SBST of the school informed, trained
and guided them in the various types of AMA and the implementation thereof.
In the focus group interview with the special school teachers, they expressed
their concern about mainstream teachers’ lack of knowledge with regard to
supportive measures in the inclusive classroom. They regarded the mainstream
teachers as “baie onkundig” (very ignorant) (ST3, line 119) and that there was
“a very big shortcoming” in mainstream schools (line 130). ST3 referred to a
series of informative lectures given by the special school to mainstream
teachers a few years ago, regarding the management of learners with
disabilities and learning difficulties in the inclusive classroom. The lectures
included information on AMA. ST3 reported that the mainstream teachers:
“…kon nie glo wat hier gedoen word nie” (…could not believe what is
being done here) (ST3, line 142). “…die oomblik dat hulle hoor dat hulle een of twee kinders moet hanteer
dan is dit vir hulle nag… uh… hulle sien nie daarvoor kans nie en dan is hulle baie negatief daaroor” (…the moment they hear that they must manage one or two learners, it is night for them; they don’t see themselves fit for it and then they are very negative about it” (ST3, line 133-136).
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“Hoofstroomonderwysers het geen begrip van spesiale konsessies nie” (Mainstream teachers have no insight in special concessions) (ST4, line 875).
ST1 was concerned about how the lack of knowledge had an effect on the
learner with barriers to learning in a mainstream school. She indicated that it
was not only about considering a visual or hearing impairment, but knowing
that there could be a combination of barriers to learning (ST1, lines 200-205);
that every learner should be appraised individually and that “...hoofstroom is nie
gereed daarvoor nie” (...mainstream is not ready for this).
The data revealed that, although all the schools performed summative
assessment, the mainstream teachers were not aware of what AMA entailed
and a lot of confusion about the concept was noted. The confusion persisted
even when I emphasized ‘special concessions’ or ‘support in assessment’
during tests and exams. The teachers confused AMA with various things or it
was mentioned clearly that they did not know what it was, or that they were not
trained. Those who attended workshops and/or meetings stated that the
information they received was not clear and it failed to empower them. The
confusion was further apparent, considering the statement of ET1 that she had
training in AMA, but her answers referred to ‘little tests, extra help’ and that she
had never heard of some of the terms that I mentioned (ET1, line 484). In the
case of the learner who displayed poor written expression skills, the teacher
uttered her feelings of helplessness, “...so what must I do as a teacher?’ (TT1,
line 992). In the case of another learner who was allowed to write in print due to
his poor written expression abilities, printing would not have improved his
inability to put his thoughts on paper.
Furthermore, ‘reading to the learner” as an AMA, was also misinterpreted and
not identified as a specific AMA by one teacher, as seen in her comment that
the learner could answer the question if he had been listening in class. On
probing the teachers during the interviews on what support in assessment
could be applied (after they identified a learner who displayed reading and
writing difficulties), they were uncertain or were silent. It appeared, firstly, that
teachers had little awareness that there was a range of AMA that could have
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been offered to learners with reading and writing difficulties and secondly, in
spite of the fact that teachers expressed their competency in identifying
learners with barriers to learning (see sub-theme 4.1), no attempt was indicated
to address their needs through support in assessment. I contend that if the
participants were knowledgeable about AMA, it would have been considered
for these learners, e.g. oral assessment (amanuenses), but the learners were
deprived of the opportunity to display their knowledge in a different, non-
obtrusive way.
In contrast with the mainstream teachers, the teachers from the special school
revealed that they had an extensive knowledge and wide experience in the
various types of AMA and special concessions, as well as of assistive devices
available for learners with various barriers to learning. The special school also
reached out to the local mainstream schools in the past by offering informative
workshops on AMA, as is recommended in various documents, such as the
White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001) and the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994).
It can be deduced from the above findings that, with the exception of the
special school, teachers are confused about adaptive methods of assessment,
because there is a lack of knowledge and insight. In her study, Rickey (2005)
researched the perspectives of teachers on the use of assessment
accommodations. Her findings proved that teachers experienced a great deal
of confusion regarding specific accommodations and that a lack of knowledge
contributed to this confusion. Rieck and Dugger Wadsworth (2005) have, for
several years, worked with schools on promoting inclusion. In their research, it
became evident that some teachers were not certain of the reasons for
assessment accommodations, the range of assessment opportunities as well
as the nature of acceptable accommodations; as was the case in this study.
Research done by Goh (2004) proved that many teachers are not
knowledgeable about many of the accommodations that can be used for
learners with disabilities in their classrooms. I agree with the Department of
Education (DoE, 2006b:22) that “Ordinary class teachers did not deem it part of
their day-to-day classroom practise to develop an understanding for the diverse
ways in which learners learn and need to be supported”.
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In the following subsection teachers’ knowledge regarding amanuenses is
analysed – amanuenses being one of the adaptive methods of assessment.
Sub-theme 2.2 Teachers’ understanding of amanuenses
The coordinator of the SBST of the township school (TT2) attended a meeting
at the district office of the DoE, where they were ‘told about’ amanuenses (TS,
line 688). However, the participants emphasized that only the people who
attended this meeting, knew something about it (TS, lines 1314-1320). Neither
of the two other mainstream schools’ participants was familiar with the word.
Some of the responses were:
“In assessment they told us about the amauensis, amninuenses if I
pronounce it correctly and with this we don’t know this. This is just a skeleton to us, we don’t know this thing and we are not trained about this thing because they told us about the individual… eh… assessment and we have not been trained, we don’t…. we are just blank about it” (TT2, lines 688-695).
“I have never seen that word! Never! It is my first time!” (TT1, laughing uncontrollably, line 1296).
“If I can be… I had to go to the dictionary to see if it was there!” (TT3, screaming with laughter, line 1306).
“...this amioses… how do you say that word?” (TT3, line 1457). “But I’ve never heard of some of the… the terms that you’ve mentioned,
so obviously…” (ET1, line 494).
After explaining to some teachers what amanuenses entailed, the reaction was
the following:
“O aarde!” (Oh dear!) (AT3, line 582) “Daai ondersteu… ek het nie geweet nie!” (That support… I did not
know!) (AT2, line 583). “Ek het nie geweet wat dit is nie! (I did not know what it was!) (AT1,
coordinator of the SBST, line 585). “Is dit wat dit… het jy gesien nie een van ons het geweet nie?” (Is that
what it… did you notice that not one of us knew?”) (AT1, line 591). “Ek het gewonder want die woordeboek gee hom nie aan nie! Nou het
ek ook iets geleer” (I wondered because it is not in the dictionary! Now I’ve also learned something) (AT1, line 598).
“I’ve never heard of that” (ET1, the SBST coordinator, line 917). ET4: Just shaking his head (line 929). “Ek't gedog dis piepie of nommer twee!” (I thought is was pee or number
two!) (ET2, screaming with laughter, line 933).
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“I thought it could have meant… you know…what we spoke about now… a verbal, oral type of assessment” (ET3, line 940).
“I think I heard about it once” (ET4, line 956). “That word totally stumped me! That word really stumped me in any
case (ET2, laughing, line 1257). “What if they organize workshops for the… uh… what what what … the
term again?” (TT1, line 1635).
I wrote in my field notes that I really enjoyed the interviews, as the female
teachers displayed such humour when talking about amanuenses. I felt that the
humorous atmosphere reduced any possible feelings of nervousness about the
topic. I could join in the laughter as their amusement was extremely catching.
Their humour was mainly directed towards themselves and it was clear that
they enjoyed the situation very much. I experienced that this humour
contributed to the ladies’ confidence to ask me to explain to them what AMA
and amanuenses entailed.
One participant from the township school (TT1) described some of her learners
as being dyslexic, whose writing was illegible. “No, we can’t read what they
portray” (TS, line 1733) and “...they can express themselves, but when they
write down, their paper is horrible” (TS, line 1706). This teacher said that these
learners lost marks, because they could not write what was expected of them
(TS, lines 1742). Amanuenses was never considered for these learners.
Support in the form of amanuenses for learners with severe reading and writing
difficulties, could have resulted in better marks and the experiencing of
achievement. Without assessment support, they were deprived of equal
opportunities to achieve to their full potential.
In contrast with the mainstream participants’ understanding of amanuenses, the
participants of the special school spoke freely about amanuenses in the focus
group interview and had a clear understanding of what amanuenses entailed,
as they generally practised it in their school (SS, line 511).
The data revealed that the mainstream participants – including the SBST
coordinators - were generally unfamiliar with amanuenses. The SBST of a
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school has the primary responsibility of identifying and addressing learner,
teacher and institutional needs (DoE, 2001:29). Learner and teacher needs,
however, cannot be addressed if the SBST is not fully informed of assessment
concessions, confident in identifying barriers to assessment and able to select
appropriate concessions for learners who may benefit from it. In this study, I
found that the SBST coordinators and heads of department of the mainstream
schools portrayed a lack of knowledge of supportive measures in assessment,
as no AMA and amanuenses were considered or recommended for specific
learners. In fact, teachers were left feeling helpless as to how to help the
learners. I have found support in research by Goh (2004:58) that teachers were
not aware of the various assessment accommodations which can and should
be used for learners with barriers to learning. Goh further refers to a similar
study done by Siskind (1993), who compared the knowledge of assessment
accommodations between special education teachers and mainstream
teachers. He found that both special and general education teachers lacked
knowledge regarding some assessment accommodations and that the majority
of teachers were less familiar with revised test directions, revised answer mode
and revised test format. In my research, I found that the special education
teachers were very familiar with the various types of special concessions, in
contrast with the mainstream teachers. The concern raised by Goh (2004:56) is
that those teachers not familiar with accommodations will be less likely to apply
accommodations to entitled learners.
The following subsection focuses on what the teachers’ opinions were of the
district officials’ knowledge of AMA.
Sub-theme 2.3 District officials’ knowledge of AMA and amanuenses Three of the four schools’ participants mentioned that amanuenses was only
mentioned briefly during a meeting (TS, line 688; ES, line 974; SS, lines 107-
110). To quote ST1 (a head of department) from the special school (lines 107-
110):
“Ek was by een vergadering hierdie jaar waar dit terloops genoem was,
maar dit was nie bespreek nie. Daar is net genoem gewone skole moet
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weet hulle kan ook vir konsessies aansoek doen en dis basies al wat gesê was” (I attended one meeting this year where it was incidentally mentioned, but it was not discussed. It was only said that ordinary schools should know that they can also apply for concessions and that was basically all that was said).
The township school SBST coordinator (TT2, line 869) commented that they
were introduced to amanuenses in May (2009), regarding reading and/or
writing for the learners. They did not, however, implement it at their school,
because:
“They said they’ll send someone from the district to do that to all the
schools (‘like workshop all the educators’, line 549), but we are still waiting” (TS, line 829).
Teachers voiced their discontent about the district officials’ ability and
competence of providing them with information, in order to expand their
knowledge:
“They know nothing about this (laughs). They know nothing about this!
No, they don’t know anything about this!” (TT2, lines 1194-1196). “Do you want to tell me the district know how to deal with that child?
They do not, they’re also teachers like us. They left the system, you know, they’re just the same as me. They’ve never been trained how to deal with that child…” (TT1, lines 1217-1224).
“They don’t really let us know” (ET1, line 437) “It’s not really use…” (to ask the district for assistance) (ET2, line 443). “These terms seem to change every five minutes!” (ET1, line 1044). “We don’t get support in... in our district” (TT2, line 136).
Another factor worthy of note is mentioned by the Afrikaans school SBST
coordinator. She explained that an official from the District Office would come
to the school to assess the learners who were identified by the teachers as
having scholastic difficulties (SS, lines 232-235). The official would administer
scholastic tests and would then either recommend learning support in the
afternoons or she would say “Dit is ‘n LSEN kind" (This is an LSEN child) (AT1,
lines 108-111). Her frustration and dissatisfaction with the lack of support was
clearly expressed, by her hitting (line 157) the desk with her hand saying:
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“En daar stop dit, want Freda22 kan nooit vir my programme gee om regtig daai kinders te help nie” (And there it stops, because Freda can never give me programmes to really help those children).
She elaborated on the procedure and recommendations made:
“Freda doen dit… die distrik doen dit. Ons identifiseer hulle, dan word
hulle na Freda verwys dan sal sy vir my sê… is dit R.O., is dit LSEN, dan vul ons die vorms in… die referralvorms vul ons in… dit gaan ouers toe, die ouers teken, dan gaan dit distrik toe en aan die einde van die jaar kry hy ‘n LSEN nommer en daai kinders druip hulle nie, hulle word dan net oorgeplaas na die volgende graad. Nou sit ek hier in Graad 7 met ‘n kind wat eintlik Graad 4 standaard is” (AT, lines 232-241). (Freda does it… the district does it. We identify them, then they are referred to Freda then she would say to me... is it R.T23., is it LSEN, then we fill in the forms… the referral forms… that goes to the parents, the parents sign, then it goes to the district and at the end of the year he gets a LSEN number and they don’t fail those kids, they are just promoted to the next grade. Now I sit with a Grade 7 child who is actually on a Grade 4 level).
In my field notes, I wrote that AT1 mentioned the assessment by the district
official quite a few times, which indicated to me that they were quite dependent
on her for these assessments. Worthy of note is that this official had an
interview with my colleague two weeks prior to my investigation and I was told
this official had no knowledge of special concessions.
ST4 was of the opinion that the district office had a lack of empathy and
understanding of a physical disability as a barrier to learning. She was informed
by a facilitator from the district office that nobody may assist a learner with only
one hand and that he ‘must’ do the examination on his own “...omdat hy moet
dit buite kan gebruik” (because he has to use it out there) (SS, lines 582-600).
This participant indicated that she found this totally unacceptable, as there
would always be somebody to assist him outside the school environment (SS,
line 586).
22 Pseudonyms were used for all the people mentioned in this research project. Freda is a teacher employed by the district to do assessments at schools and to make recommendations regarding support. 23 Remedial teaching/assistance
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Teachers are dependent on the district’s Education Support Services (ESS)
and the District-based Support Teams (DBST) for support, guidance and
professional development (DoE, 2002a:10). From the above-mentioned
responses, it was clear that the teachers had little trust and confidence in the
District Office’s ESS. Promises to give them guidance by means of workshops
were not fulfilled. All the participants confirmed that AMA was only briefly
mentioned during meetings, which still left them in the dark. The findings
showed that the district officials who assessed learners, appeared not to have
knowledge of AMA, as learners were either recommended to receive learning
support in the afternoons or they were merely allocated a number as an
“LSEN’, where after they were just promoted to a next grade. This confirmed
my belief that there was a misunderstanding of what ‘LSEN’ entailed and that
the district officials were unfamiliar with AMA, as this was not considered as an
option for the learners with reading and writing difficulties. I found that
arrangements for support in assessment were non-existent and that the
schools, as well as the ESS, lacked knowledge and expertise in this regard. I
found support in Mittler’s statement (2000:25,129), that there is a lack of
sufficiently trained support teachers in assessment accommodations at district
or school level and therefore they cannot provide effective support to teachers
in meeting their complex responsibilities. Mittler found in his study that
mainstream teachers complained that they felt less confident and de-skilled as
a result of the support worker involvement and stated that some support staff
may need support themselves in learning to “enskill” rather than “deskill”. Alant
and Casey (2005:186) highlight that there is a lack of clarity and understanding
amongst teachers and other professionals regarding the purpose and scope of
assessment concessions. The findings of my inquiry clearly showed that
assessment in the participating mainstream schools was not based on
providing for the diverse needs of learners.
AMA has many benefits for eligible learners. The participants’ understanding of
these benefits is discussed in the following subsection.
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Sub-theme 2.4 Teacher’s understanding of the possible benefits of AMA Towards the end of the focus group interviews, the mainstream participants
asked many questions on AMA and amanuenses and I responded by giving
them the information. They were very interested and they gave the following
responses on what they thought the benefits could be for learners:
“… he can’t read it but verbally he can give it… so it enlarges his
chances” (ET2, lines 1010-1011). “...and it unloads his frustration. It must be very frustrating…” (ET1,
1013-1014). “… that gives him the chance to do better” (ET2, line 1022). “… and then he has more motivation” (ET1, line 1024). “And he is not just labelled stupid because he can’t get it across” (ET1,
line 1035). “Because that learner… that learner knows the answer. I think that
learner will benefit if he can… be assessed in that strategy because you can see he can express himself” (TT2, lines 1023-1027).
“Ja, he can express himself and you can see that eh... when he can talk about the... the career that learner can be very… a good maybe politician” (TT1, lines 1031-1034).
“Can be an interpreter” (TT3, line 1036). “He can be a lot” (TT2, line 1038). “Because he is clever. He can answer but he cannot read, you know”
(TT3, line 1566).
The special school participants, who portrayed a vast experience in AMA,
responded that they made use of many assistive devices such as magnifying
TV readers, enlarged print and other special devices to assist learners during
tests and examinations. Their opinions of the benefits of AMA and the use of
assistive devices were reflected a follows:
ST3 (lines 646-648): “Sy is vir my ‘n ander kind, sy blom want sy kan
haarself help. Sy is nie op ander mense aangewese nie” (For me she is a different child, she blossoms because she can help herself. She is not dependent on other people).
ST4 (lines 738-739): “Hulle het die nodige kwalifikasie wat amanuense moontlik gemaak het. Hy het ‘n normale Graad 12-sertifikaat in sy besit” (They have the necessary qualification which was made possible by amanuenses. He has a normal Grade 12 certificate in his possession).
ST3 (line 735): “Sonder amanuense en konsessies sal die kind nie matriek maak nie” (Without amanuenses and concessions the child will not pass matric).
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ST4 (lines 219-220): “As ek sien hoeveel selfvertroue Danie in hierdie kort rukkie gekry het en hoe dit sy punte positief beïnvloed het” (If I see how much confidence Jannie obtained in this short while and how it affected his marks positively).
ST4 (lines 226,233): “Ek het absoluut gesien dat dit vir hierdie kind menswaardigheid beteken” and “...hy het ‘n regverdige kans gehad om daardie vraag te hoor en sy antwoord te kon weergee” (I have absolutely seen how this caused him to feel worthy as a human being, and he had a fair chance to hear the question and to be able to give his answer);
ST3 (lines 170-173): “Dit laat die kind voel dat hy dieselfde kans het as die kinders in hoofstroom, want daar word gekyk na sy spesifieke probleme en hy word gehelp in hierdie opsig” (It makes the child feel that he has the same chances as the children in mainstream, because attention is being given to his specific problems and he is being helped in this regard).
I wrote in my field notes that the teachers displayed a sincere interest in AMA,
after I explained what it entailed. Their facial expressions reflected
concentration and even excitement. I sensed that they truly wanted to know
more about AMA.
In spite of the fact that the majority of participants did not have any knowledge
of AMA and particularly amanuenses, they displayed an insight into the benefits
of special concessionary measures and how the application of AMA could
assist the learners to realize their potential. Their responses showed an
understanding that learners are given the opportunity to participate on an equal
level with their peers, the positive influence AMA can have on their self-
confidence and that learners can achieve better by showing what they know in
an alternative way. In addition, they can progress to matric and become equal
members in society (DoE, 2005a:1). However, the data in this study revealed
that these supportive measures in assessment were only implemented in the
special school. Mainstream teachers were not familiar with AMA and did not
implement it at their schools. The positive effect of supportive assessment
measures on learners’ progress and self-image was clearly reflected clearly in
the responses of the special school teachers. For learners with disabilities,
achieving success in the mainstream classroom is a challenge in itself,
especially when they are held responsible for the same high standard set for
their peers without disabilities (Goh, 2004:11). Considering their barriers to
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learning, it is imperative that instructional and curriculum modifications be made
to assist them to achieve effectively, and this includes accommodation in both
classroom testing and summative assessment (Goh, 2004:11). Mittler
(2000:177) emphasizes that teachers should endeavour to prevent
underachievement, which can only be done if it is identified that learners are
beginning to fall behind their peers. Identification and support could prevent
damage to self-esteem, associated with a growing sense of failure and which
may in turn affect motivation adversely.
In the following subsection, the obstacles teachers experience with regard to
the implementation of AMA and amanuenses are discussed.
5.5.4 THEME 3: OBSTACLES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AMA The teachers experienced a diverse range of challenges in the inclusive
classroom, which prevented them from supporting learners effectively. The
obstacles encountered by the participants were divided into mainly three areas:
that of barriers in the teaching and classroom environment, collaboration
between stakeholders and the implementation of AMA.
Sub-theme 3.1 Teaching and classroom barriers 3.1.1 Work load All the participants from the four schools voiced their absolute frustration about
the large amount of paper work that they were expected to do. For example,
some indicated that it deprived the teachers from having quality time with the
learners:
“Ja, dit is hartseer dat jou… neus in ‘n stuk papier moet wees terwyl jy
eintlik ‘n verskil kon maak” (Yes, it is sad that your nose… has to be in a piece of paper while you actually could have made a difference) (ST4, line 71).
“Of dat jy iets lekker kon voorberei het vir die kinders of meer aandag daaraan kon gee, nou het jy soveel papierwerk dat dit agterweë bly (Or that you could have prepared something nice for the children or have given more attention to it, now you have so much paper work that it is neglected) (ST1, line 74).
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Other participants expressed their dissatisfaction with the DoE with regard
to the amount of paper work as follows:
“And the other thing is the system… the system needs us to… to… to
concentrate on the quantity of work, not the quality. Because nowadays they even count our classes… how many projects did you do?” (TT2, line 620-624).
“We’re not teachers. We are admin clerks. We are not teachers anymore!” (ET3, line 1285).
Another participant vented in an outburst of high frustration. Some extracts of
her declarations are:
“… we’ve got a lot of work, especially in Grade 7, ‘cause we have to
prepare them for high school and then in the meantime there’s a 110 assessments, our files must go in for… moderation 700 times a term, you don’t get your books back… and there’s constantly this pressure on you… It’s paperwork on top of paper work. We are being drowned… drowned in paper work because if you just dare give a child a bad mark… there is 750 papers that you have to fill in just to tell them because a child doesn’t hand in a collage, or a child doesn’t hand in a timetable, a child doesn’t hand in a … lamp!” “Ja! We are not doing our job as educators… we cannot help the child… because we cannot get to everything!” (ET2, lines 225-282).
and
“At this stage, teaching is becoming paper work. We don’t have time for children anymore” (ET2, line 1282).
TT3 also mentioned that the completion of the 450 referral forms24 to submit to
the DoE (as referred to by ET2 as the ‘750 papers’ in the above quotation) is a
major cause of frustration:
“… so, it is frustrating for us to write all those eh… support forms.
They’re many, these kids. It’s not one or two, it’s more than ten in a class!”
24 450 forms are the referral forms to the DoE, stating a learner’s lack of progress, the support that has been given and a notification that the child might be retained. The forms are also sent to the parents to sign.
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The obstacles of time constraints and large classes go hand in hand with the
problem of the large amount of paperwork, as discussed in the following
paragraphs.
3.1.2 Time constraints and large classes The participants regarded a lack of time and the many learners that are
accommodated in one class, as major challenges. They expressed that there
was not enough time to give attention to learners with barriers, due to the
heavy work load and the big classes. TT2 attended a SBST meeting where
they were told that schools “...can apply for that special time so that they can
be given extra time to complete whatever like projects or examination” (TS,
lines 855-857). In response to my question whether they actually gave extra
time, the teachers laughed and all responded together: “There is no extra time!”
(TS, lines 862-866). The Afrikaans school teachers constantly referred to the
lack of time and on a question what their opinions were about the
implementation of AMA, the answer was: “Ons het nie werklik tyd daarvoor nie”
(We really don’t have time for that) (AT3, line 396). They were also of the
opinion that the implementation of concessions will take a lot of time, as they
only had 28 minutes in a period (AT3, line 494). The township teachers had the
same concern regarding the implementation of special concessions for
individual learners, as TT2 said:
“But what we don’t do because of time frame, we don’t go deeper in
this individual assessment because it’s time consuming” (TS, lines 471-473).
The three mainstream schools all indicated that they had forty to forty-five
learners in their classes, which made it extremely difficult to give attention to all
the various learners. Concern about the learners who struggle in the big
classes, was also expressed:
“You know what? Those children are drowning in our school. We can
only do what we can do in the limited time we have with the big classes…. There are forty to forty-five kids in a class. It’s not… it’s not a joke. These children are absolutely drowning” (ET2, lines 293-300).
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TT1’s remark about the big classes conveyed her feelings of helplessness:
“They are not manageable. We are trying our level best, but they are not manageable. It’s about the system. It’s one… one… it’s one teacher, one educator to forty. It’s that ratio” (TS, lines 1146-1149).
A special school participant mentioned that there were only approximately
sixteen learners with high needs in their classes (SS, line 420), as they all
required individual attention and support. In spite of their negativity towards the
mainstream situation, they showed empathy with mainstream teachers for
having such big classes (SS, line 138). Even with the smaller number of
learners in their classes, the special school teachers also mentioned time as a
factor that had to be taken into account. ST2 gave an example of two learners
in her class (lines 381-390) who experienced several scholastic difficulties. The
boy experienced severe planning and working speed difficulties, whilst the girl
had a visual impairment as well as cerebral palsy, with resulting illegible
handwriting. The teacher explained how she accommodated them during an
assessment, by reading for the boy - who worked very slowly on a computer -
then ‘running’ to the girl to write a few sentences for her:
“Jy hardloop maar baie tussen die twee kinders rond… so dit vat
ongelooflik baie tyd (You run around a lot between the two kids, so it takes a lot of time). However, she added: “…dit is hoe dit werk” (that is how it works) (SS, line 432).
To summarize the participants’ frustrations regarding the obstacles in the
inclusive context, I quote ET3 (lines 1259-1276) when she said:
“I think to round this thing up… if the Department of Education
realises that South Africa is losing their best teachers and the reason why we are losing our best teachers, is because of things like that (big classes and work load). Teachers are becoming so frustrated, they can’t get this across… The department is not helping, they’re expecting you must produce, otherwise you are looked upon as that school where you know nobody is working, uhm… we’re losing teachers. They’re either going overseas, they’re qualifying but they are not staying here, they’re going overseas. Or the good ones, like us… at this stage I say, I’ve had it! I’d rather sit at home and relax and keep my sanity. The sooner the department realizes that, that’s when they’re gonna solve their biggest problem. Those big classes… we’re sitting with forty almost in a class. I mean, three Grade 7
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classes, forty. A hundred and twenty go through your class in a day, that’s a lot of kids! You understand what I’m saying?”
Not only did time constraints, work load and large classes make it difficult for
teachers to maintain satisfactory classroom management, but the participants
also mentioned other challenges which made the implementation of support
difficult, such as the behaviour of non-disabled learners, which is discussed
next.
3.1.3 Behaviour problems and attitudes of other learners towards peers with barriers to learning All the participants indicated that they experienced behaviour problems with
learners who were supposed to carry on with work while they as teachers had
to give attention to the individual learners. The teachers voiced it as follows:
“To do the guided reading… you know, you must especially sit with
them and do guided reading with them. So when the classes are so big, even if you give the others some tasks, but then the others they misbehave” (TT3, lines 1172-1177).
The English school teachers described a situation where a Grade 4 learner with
autism was assessed orally by his class teacher. The oral assessment (which
later proved to be amanuenses as the participants described it; see sub-theme
3.3), took place in the classroom with the other learners present. It was
mentioned that this child became overexcited and very emotional (ET1, lines
666-669) and this “…of course stops everything else happening because the
kids will be watching him… having a little thing” – meaning that they ridiculed
and laughed at him. With regard to oral assessment in the Grade 4 classes (as
discussed in sub-theme 3.3.2), ET1 (lines 679-686) gave the following
comment:
“And also the Grade 4 people (learners)… they are a lot less able to
cause disruption than say in a Grade 7 class, because I can tell you if that (oral assessment) happens in a Grade 7 class… all hell will break lose!”
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Even in the special school the teachers had to keep in mind that the rest of the
class had to be kept busy, whilst support was being given to individual learners,
as ST2 (lines 408-410) argued:
“…dan moet jy weet die res van die klas werk teen ‘n vinnige spoed.
So jy moet in gedagte hou dat hulle nie verveeld raak en droogmaak nie… moet jy ekstra werk vir die res van die klas hê…” (Then you must know that the rest of the class may work at a faster pace. So you must remember to prevent them from getting bored and naughty… you must have extra work for the rest of the class).
ST2 added that the learners in the special school accepted each other, cared
for each other and helped whenever they could, whilst children with barriers to
learning in mainstream schools are teased a lot (SS, lines 438-440).
Some of the teachers expressed their extreme frustration with the general
behaviour of learners in the classroom. Their behaviour was provocative and
challenging, which was aggravated when faced with learners with barriers to
learning in their midst. In addition, they became disruptive while the teachers
were giving attention to the individual learners (ET1, lines 1143-1144). This
participant also mentioned that stronger learners found it “…hilarious… they
laugh at the kid who is not doing his work” (lines 74-75). Participants mentioned
that they had to spend a lot of time in the classroom handling disruptive
behaviour and I quote ET1 (line 81):
“The children who aren’t interested in their work, they spend their
lives trying to distract everyone else and that’s what get so much attention in class”.
The data revealed that the participants in this study experienced several
extrinsic factors, which made it difficult for them to implement supportive
measures in the inclusive classroom. The obstacles hampering teaching,
classroom management and assessment, caused feelings of frustration and
disgruntlement. The teachers appeared to be overwhelmed with these existing
problems in the classroom. Although they portrayed a willingness to render
individual assistance to learners in the class, the vast amount of paper work,
time constraints, large classes, behaviour problems and the lack of support
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from the DoE, appeared to be intertwined; as the most common problems that
they experienced. Other learners’ behaviour and attitudes towards peers and
learners with barriers to learning, who require individual attention, is another
obstacle for the teachers. In fact, the participants reported that they could not
give individual attention, as they had to give their attention to the others who
misbehaved in class. The problems appeared to be more evident in large
classes. The data revealed that teachers were very frustrated about the
behaviour of learners in the classroom – towards them as teachers, as well as
towards learners with barriers to learning. I sensed strong feelings of
demotivation, feelings of disempowerment and helplessness, as well as anger
towards learners who misbehaved and laughed at others with problems.
According to Pretorius and le Roux (2000:30), peer group acceptance is very
important to the adolescent and when learners experience disapproval from
their peer group, it usually has a negative effect on their self-worth. If they feel
rejected, they experience themselves as ‘fools and failures’ and they develop a
lack of confidence - with a resulting adverse effect in their academic work. I
strongly believe that learners’ behaviour towards a peer with a disability or
learning difficulty, can have a positive or an adverse effect on support in the
classroom. Prinsloo (2005a:455) emphasizes that the atmosphere in a class
can be negatively affected by learners not behaving. Teachers are often so
discouraged by the loss of control that they lose their enthusiasm and
motivation and the entire learning process is hampered. Although there is a big
difference between a class of fifteen and a class of forty learners, even the
special school participants reported that they had to employ certain measures
to prevent learners from being bored and disruptive, although the learners had
much acceptance of each other.
Venter (2007:9) argues that the policy of inclusion will never be successful
unless class sizes are reduced and that special schools have a more generous
learner-teacher ratio than mainstream schools. This author refers to research
done by Beckman and de Waal, whose respondents reported that class sizes
in mainstream education were too big for justice to be done to learners with
special needs – they believed that these learners would not be able to cope
and “…that they will be ‘swallowed up’ and neglected or forgotten” (Venter,
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2007:9). For teachers to fulfil their roles effectively and efficiently, the
conditions in the classroom environment should be conducive to teaching,
learning and assessment. Teachers may be able to accommodate diversity in
their classrooms, but the above-mentioned obstacles that were beyond the
control of the teachers, hampered their ability to function effectively. I agree
with Herzberg (cited in Grobler, 2001:27) that, if working conditions are not
satisfactory, individuals will experience job-dissatisfaction. This author, as well
as UNESCO (2005:22) state that conditions such as overcrowded classrooms
without the necessary equipment or programmes, lead to a decrease in
motivation – there is no sense of achievement and accomplishment by the
teachers – as well as teachers’ negative attitudes towards inclusive education.
The collaboration between stake holders is an important aspect for the effective
implementation of AMA, which I discuss in the following sub-section.
Sub-theme 3.2 Collaboration between stake holders In order for schools to implement inclusion successfully, as well as to support
learners effectively, good collaboration between stake holders is required.
These include teachers’ and schools’ collaboration with parents, the SBST and
the DBST. 3.2.1 Collaboration with parents Teachers’ contact and cooperation with parents were investigated during the
focus group interviews. All schools in the study endeavoured to involve parents
in the learners’ progress or the lack thereof. The participants of the four schools
reported that parents’ days were held and in the case of a learner experiencing
scholastic problems, the 450 support25 forms were sent home for parents to
sign. Partial involvement of parents was reported and the reasons are
discussed in the next paragraphs.
Unemployment and poverty were often the reasons why parents refused to
place their child in special schools, even after this was recommended by the 25 Definition of 450 forms is on page 227
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DoE (TS, lines 362-408). Parents did not have money for the registration fees
or transport to these schools (TT2, line 366) and therefore the learner remained
in his present school. The township school participants mentioned that they
were a ‘non-schoolfee school’ (line 413), which suited parents from a financial
point of view. The Afrikaans school teachers also mentioned that they could not
utilize the services of private professionals, as their parents did not have the
means such as transport or finances (AS, lines 122-123, 555). This school
experienced good cooperation from parents.
However, both the township school and the English school participants
mentioned that the only parents who gave their cooperation, were the parents
who “…are interested in their children”, “…and those are the kids that do well”
(ET2, lines 1191-1194). They argued that “Nine out of ten the parents who you
really want to see, just don’t pitch up in any case” (ET2, line 1197). ET3 was
quite negative about the cooperation of parents when she said:
“Because 90% of them come from backgrounds where parents…
really don’t care. That story of the education is the parent and the child and the teacher all in one… forget it. Because the parent say ‘I pay the school, that is the teacher’s job’” (ET3, lines 1169-1173).
One participant reported that some of the parents said:
”I’m paying you to teach them. You’re supposed to sit and do that homework with him. That’s the attitude out there” (ET3, lines 1169, 1184).
Teachers did not only refer to uninvolved parents, but also to parents who were
interested, but “…do not know how to help their children” (TS, line 769);
brothers or grandparents who look after them and “…don’t know what to do
with the kids” and “…they can’t control them” (ET1, lines 1199-1205).
Parents of learners in the special school were generally keen on accepting any
strategies that could enable their child to reach his full potential. ST1 mentioned
that the majority of parents were positive about AMA and were eager that it
should be implemented during tests and examinations, in order to support their
child with reading and writing barriers (SS, lines 749-760).
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It appeared from the findings that the mainstream teachers experienced more
or less similar problems regarding the cooperation of parents. Most of the
quotations clearly revealed parents’ limited ability to assist and support their
children, whether it was due to financial reasons, or a lack of commitment and
interest towards their children. Some teachers were very negative about the
parents’ attitudes towards support for their children, as well as their lack of
cooperation and they reflected scepticism about the collaboration between
school and home. I found sufficient similarities between my study and a study
done by Kubyana (2005:44) that teachers perceived the burden of inclusive
education to be solely upon their shoulders, as parents were less involved by
the school and their children. I found in my study that the mainstream teachers
were not familiar with AMA and therefore had no discussions with parents, or
could not make any recommendations to parents in this regard. In contrast, the
special school participants, who were familiar with AMA, had discussions with
the parents about recommendations made and they experienced cooperation
from parents.
The functioning of the SBST as part of school management also needed to be
investigated, in order to determine the procedures for rendering support in
assessment to learners.
3.2.2 Collaboration with the School-based Support Team (SBST) All the participants declared that their schools had a SBST and a SAT. The
composition of these teams differed (see tables 5.3 and 5.4, pages 186-187)
and SBST meetings took place on different times – every two weeks, once a
month or “…only when there is a problem” (ET3, line 577). The teachers
identified the learners with barriers and reported the learner to the SBST. The
data showed that the interventions of the four schools were done in different
ways. One mainstream school’s SBST made their own recommendations to the
teachers (ET1, lines 580-582):
“O.K... give them extra work or speak to the parents or ask them to
get extra lessons but, a lot of the time there are quite generic uh… examples of how to help a child…”
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The other two mainstream schools referred the learners to the District Office or
to the local heath clinic for assessment (TS, line 309; AT1, line 102) and in the
case of the special school, the procedure was described as follows (ST3, lines
467-472):
“Jy gaan na die klas se sielkundige. Elke klas het ‘n sielkundige wat
aangewys is. Daarna word daar… word die kind getoets deur die verskillende terapeute en uhm… die onderwysers moet ‘n verslag skryf oor elke kind en na ‘n spanbespreking word daar bepaal watter addisionele… watter behoeftes die kind het en wat die uitkoms gaan wees om hom te help” (You go to the class’ psychologist. Every class has an assigned psychologist. Then the child is assessed by the various therapists and the teachers must write a report on the child. After a team discussion, it is decided what needs the child has and what the recommendations will be to help him).
As it appears in the above quotation, the trans-disciplinary team of specialist
professionals collaborates on an intensive level, order to make appropriate
supportive recommendations. The participants of the special school experience
satisfaction in the cooperation with their SBST, as noted in their responses:
“Jy kan nie sonder die hele span die ding doen nie” (You cannot do it
without the whole team) (ST2, line 501); “Dit maak dit baie makliker” (It makes it much easier) (ST4, line 489).
In contrast to the special school which has a trans-disciplinary team, the
mainstream schools did not utilize private specialists for assessments, as their
parents could not afford it, or the response was “...there is no one like that
around here” (ET1, line 467). Alternatively, the recommendation to see a
specialist was left to the parents to follow up which, according to the
participants, was not done (ET2, line 463). Regarding AMA, the township
teachers had the problem that only the SBST coordinator attended meetings
and that they, themselves, lacked the knowledge on how to support the
learners. The SBST coordinator responded that these meetings were “…for
one hour, two hours and then you come with that little knowledge you share
with the educators” (TS, lines 488-490), which left them unsatisfied. An
additional result was that they could not give sufficient guidance to their fellow
staff members.
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The data revealed that collaboration took place between the teachers and the
SBSTs, which was mostly satisfactory to the teachers. The SBSTs of the
schools tried to make recommendations after learners were referred to them.
However, every school followed its own procedure with regard to interventions
and recommendations for these learners. This included referral to the District
Office, extra work, notifying the parents, or in the case of the special school,
assessment and recommendations by their specialist staff. None of the
participants of the mainstream schools mentioned any intervention by their
school’s SAT - whose responsibility it is to assess the learners (see 3.7.2, page
86). The special school had an advantage above the mainstream schools, as
they had specialist professionals serving on the SBST and SAT. Although the
mainstream schools did not have these specialists at hand, they did not seek
the support of special schools or resource centres (as recommended by the
DBE, 2010:15; DoE, 2008b:106). However, the Department of Education
acknowledged in the SIAS document (DoE, 2008a:5), that access to special
services and facilities was limited and not always within the reach of poor
communities which “...leads to marginalisation and exclusion of children with
additional support needs, including a large number of disabilities”.
Schools should have appropriate procedures in place; up to the point where a
learner is granted a concession. This includes the identification of learners with
difficulties, the assessment of these learners, SBST discussions, the
recommendations of AMA, decision-making on materials needed, practical
arrangements for the implementation of AMA (e.g. venues), arrangements
regarding staff to implement the AMA and application to the department of
education (Bolt & Thurlow, 2004; DoE, 2008b:106; Lloyd et al., 2006:117;
Washburn-Moses, 2003). The SBST of a school is responsible for making
decisions regarding most aspects of the education of learners with barriers to
learning, but according to the findings in this study, no discussion or
recommendations were made regarding AMA. The findings reflected that the
SBST and its coordinators did not know about AMA and therefore did not
suggest any implementation thereof. I found support in a statement by Le Motte
and Keet (2003:8) that the SBSTs seem to fail to guide and develop teachers
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and as a result, these teachers experience difficulties in the implementation of
this fundamental component of the inclusive approach.
Application for special concessions should be done on the prescribed form and
sent to the district office. Communication from and with the District Office of the
DoE, is an important part of the implementation of AMA. Collaboration with the
DBST and DoE is discussed in the following paragraphs.
3.2.3 Collaboration with the DBST and DoE One of the criticisms of the special school participants about the
communication and support received from the DBST, was that notifications for
meetings were sent to schools very late (ST1, lines 937-941). The process of
applying for concessions was also much too lengthy. Application for
concessions was made in the first term and no answer had yet been received
by June (ST1, line 942).
Only the special school (the only school that implemented AMA, see sub-theme
2.2), indicated that they received documentation, circulars or memorandums
from the DoE regarding AMA, which contained information on the selection of
appropriate concessions for eligible learners. As was the case with the
mainstream principals (see 5.4.8, page195), all the teachers of the mainstream
schools declared that they had no knowledge of these documents (AS, lines
530-531). The English school teachers were adamant that, even if they had
received notification of workshops regarding AMA, they would not have
attended these workshops due to their obligations towards extra murals in the
afternoons (ES, lines 1235-1243).
In the focus group interview with the township school teachers, it was very clear
that they regarded workshops and training as extremely important for
professional development, as they often mentioned it. However, the SBST
coordinator stated that facilitators had only told them briefly about amanuenses
during a meeting and that “...they’ll send someone from the district to do… that
to all the schools, but we are still waiting” (TT2, lines 829-831). Seen from
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another teacher’s viewpoint, communication and support from the DoE was
thwarted by ever changing facilitators, which caused confusion. She explained:
“And even… even the facilitators… they have this thing of changing
facilitators. This new one comes with this thing, the other one will change that thing, they come with their own thing… ” (TS, lines 118-121).
And from the viewpoint of TT1 (TS, line 146):
: “And some of the facili… the facilitators too… they just can’t deliver”.
The Afrikaans school participants stated that the support from the DBST was
insufficient, as they never received assistive programmes as promised (AT1,
lines 156-163). As mentioned in sub-theme 2.1, the teachers confused AMA
with certain programmes and as they did not receive the programmes from the
District Office, they felt that they were not equipped to help the learners. The
special school participants in particular, voiced their dissatisfaction about
government’s lack of support to learners with barriers to learning. They were of
the opinion that DoE lacked empathy for people with disabilities and that there
was a critical shortage of the assistive devices for these learners that should be
supplied by the DoE (SS, line 676).
ST1 (lines 953-957) expressed her dissatisfaction about a decision taken by
the Department of National Education regarding spelling concessions and that
she regarded it as unfair and discriminative towards learners with specific
learning difficulties. Her agitation was clear as she argued:
“Ekskuus, maar vir die konsessies is daar nou skielik nie meer
voorsiening gemaak vir spelling nie. Met ander woorde, daar word nou gediskrimineer teen dislektiese kinders waar, as hulle opstelle merk, is 50% daarvan vir spelling en taal, so dit wat hulle nie kan doen nie, word nou weer geteiken” (Excuse me, but now the concessions do not make provision for spelling any longer. In other words, dyslexic children are being discriminated against when they (external markers) mark essays, 50% is for spelling and language. So what they cannot do is now being targeted).
ST3 (line 945) added to this as she said:
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“Vir my kan dit toegeskryf word aan onkunde by die Departement” (In my opinion, this can be attributed to ignorance at the Department”).
Another teacher, a mother of a learner with cerebral palsy who is confined to a
wheelchair and who received amanuenses, was of the opinion that:
“Die regering moet verantwoordelikheid begin aanvaar vir gestremdes in
die land en daar is niks in plek nie… niks!” (The government must start to take responsibility for people with disabilities and there is nothing in place… nothing!) (ST2, line 899).
Teachers’ frustrations regarding the education system were discussed in sub-
theme 1.1. The data revealed that teachers experienced a lack of support from
the DBST and that they could not rely on the DoE, as they had not received
informative documents and circulars; had not received the promised training or
the promised programmes to assist learners. This is in contradiction with the
statement by the DoE that it is the role of the DBST to “…train, support and
monitor the school teams in the process of identification of barriers to learning
and adaptive methods of assessment to address these” (DoE, 2002a:10; DoE,
2002b:104).
With regard to informative documents, principals of schools generally receive
and scrutinize all correspondence sent to schools, after which they channel it to
the appropriate staff such as the SATs and SBSTs. According to Brown and
Duguid (cited in Smith, 2000:256), knowledge holds an organization together
and knowledge is “...readily generated when people work together in the tightly
knit groups known as ‘community of practice’”. These authors emphasize that it
is extremely important that the ‘know-how’ and ‘know-what’ knowledge should
circulate in an organization (Smith, 2000:258). It can therefore be deduced that
the principals’ and teachers’ understanding of AMA and how to address and
implement it will be lacking, should they not have received the explanatory
documents. In his study, Mittler (2000:129) found that school support teams did
not receive sufficient management support or training opportunities from their
district office to meet their complex responsibilities. Mittler (2000:117) further
emphasizes that district offices should support teachers on accommodations
that are available and to adapt assessment to the needs of the learners with
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barriers to learning in the classroom. In his study, Kubyana (2005:41) found
that teachers experienced most educational support professionals, as well as
the Department of Education, as lacking in the provision of support.
According to Stofile and Green (2007:58), the success of SBSTs can only be
assured if they are able to acquire support from the district officials. These
authors emphasize that, should the district officials be uncertain about their
role, or lack the skills to perform it, the system cannot operate. Alston (cited in
Venter, 2007:11) is highly sceptical of the district support teams and I quote:
“The truth is that district support teams are in reality ‘distant support teams”. To
conclude this section, I agree with Donald et al. (2002:47) and UNESCO
(2005:21), that stakeholders cannot function in isolation and that a unified
relationship between them, influences each other. Good collaboration between
all stakeholders is therefore of the utmost importance to the benefit of all
learners.
One of the purposes of this study was to investigate whether teachers
implemented adaptive methods of assessment, in particular amanuenses. The
findings are discussed in the next sub-theme.
Sub-theme 3.3 The implementation of AMA, specifically amanuenses Three patterns were identified with regard to the implementation of AMA and
amanuenses, which are: the lack of implementation of adaptive methods of
assessment, the incorrect implementation of amanuenses and teachers’
willingness to implement amanuenses. These are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
3.3.1 The lack of implementation of AMA and amanuenses
As discussed in the preceding sub-sections, the findings showed that the
participants of the mainstream schools were not familiar with adaptive methods
of assessment. In my investigation of teachers’ implementation of AMA and
specifically amanuenses, the participants of two mainstream schools indicated
that they allowed all learners extra time to complete their work (ET2, lines 876-
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878; TT2, line 1052), although the examination papers were not very long. Only
one mainstream school indicated that they read the examination papers to all
learners in the classroom, as they were obliged to do so (AT1, lines 467-468).
The Grade 7 teachers of the Afrikaans and English described a procedure done
by their Grade 4 teachers, which appeared to me as being amanuenses. In the
Afrikaans school (lines 185-190), the Grade 4 teacher did it for the first time as
an experiment, as it was part of her ACE-course and in the case of the English
school, the Grade 4 teacher asked questions to an autistic child in the
classroom and she ‘recorded the answers’ (ES, lines 612-648). The English
school participants were of the opinion that the autistic learner was the only
child in the school who was probably in need of this ‘oral assessment’ (ET2,
line 993). In contrast to this statement, the participants also mentioned that
many of their learners had difficulty with reading (ETS, lines 856-857). The
Grade 7 teachers themselves did not implement amanuenses (ES, lines 987-
991) and rejected the thought of it being implemented in Grade 7, as “...all hell
will break lose” (ET1, line 686). The special school participants mentioned that
they implemented amanuenses on a regular basis. In addition, the SBST of the
special school obtained the services of volunteers from the community (who
were thoroughly trained) to help them with amanuenses, due to the many
learners requiring it (ST2, lines 512).
After explaining to some of the participants (on their request) what amanuenses
entailed, they wondered how it could be done in the classroom amongst all the
other learners:
“But the time I’m busy with that learner, what about… what about the
others… I can’t concentrate on this two and then leave those… in a exam?” (TT3, lines 1676-1677).
The township school participants mentioned that they had up to 10 learners
who could not read in each of four classes, that the learners were dyslexic and
that they could not decipher learners’ handwriting (TS, lines 1154-1162). They
were concerned that these learners lost marks for writing because “… they
can’t write what is expected from them” (TS, lines 1742-1744).
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In order to conduct amanuenses, schools should have sufficient venues and
staff available on site. Some mainstream participants expressed their concern
as to how individual assessment could be conducted if they didn’t have the
facilities and manpower to implement it - which was a fundamental obstacle to
them (ET2, line 677; AT1, line 213). The special school had sufficient support
staff (therapists and volunteers) to help with the implementation of
amanuenses.
The data revealed that some teachers allowed extra time and they read
examination papers to all the learners, but as a standard procedure. However,
it was not identified as specific adaptive measures of assessment, required by
learners with reading and writing difficulties. Furthermore, they described oral
assessment done by Grade 4 teachers, but they did not know the name of the
procedure, nor did they identify the procedure as being one of the several
methods of adaptive measures of assessment. Although all the mainstream
participants acknowledged that they had several learners who experienced
reading and writing difficulties in their classes, AMA or amanuenses was not
considered and therefore not implemented, as they did not know about it. The
consequence is that these learners were deprived of the opportunity to possibly
achieve better and experience success through reading assistance or
amanuenses. It is, furthermore, highly unlikely that the autistic child will be the
only learner in the school who need amanuenses. Although mainstream
schools certainly may have a lack of facilities and trained staff to assist them
with the implementation of amanuenses, it is the responsibility of the School
Assessment Teams and SBSTs to make the necessary practical arrangements
to implement AMA (DoE, 2008b:106; Lloyd et al., 2006:117). If this could be
achieved, schools would contribute to effective execution of the principles of
inclusion.
As described in the preceding paragraphs, teachers mentioned that other
teachers made an effort to conduct amanuenses; which brings me to the
following subsection – the incorrect implementation of amanuenses.
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3.3.2 The incorrect implementation of amanuenses In the previous paragraphs, the efforts of a Grade 4 teacher at the English
school to obtain answers from an autistic learner were described. As
mentioned, the participants were not aware that they were talking about
amanuenses. At the Afrikaans school, AT1 referred to a Grade 4 teacher who
experimented with a procedure as part of her studies. This teacher first took
some ‘LSEN’ to write an examination paper, where after she conducted an oral
examination with the same learners, using the same paper (AT1, lines 185-
203). The same teacher also explained the questions to the learners before
they answered (line 453). It was also mentioned that this Grade 4 teacher tried
to do the procedure with two Grade 7 learners (AT1, lines 222-223):
“…maar met die Graad 7 kinders het dit nie gewerk nie, veral met die
oorskryf hoor, sy het gesukkel” (…but with the Grade 7 kids it did not work, especially with the re-writing, she struggled).
This statement indicated that the Grade 7 learners’ papers were re-written by
the teacher (AT1, line 223). It was also mentioned that the teacher utilized
some Grade 7 learners to help with the oral exams (AS, lines 458-459), but this
was found to be unsuccessful. In the English school, the Grade 4 teacher did
amanuenses in the classroom with an autistic learner, who became “over
exited” and “very emotional”, much to the amusement of others in the
classroom (ET1, lines 668-669). It was also mentioned that the learner “has to
be in the class” where the teacher did the oral assessment (ET3, line 628).
As was indicated in sub-theme 2.1, the English school teachers were told about
oral assessment by an official from the district. The following quotation clearly
illustrates that the instruction was misunderstood, as ET3 (lines 974-981)
explained:
“…she told us about this, you know, if the child is not managing then you
do verb… you verbally do the assessment. Now I get to the stage that I get so desperate I speak… I speak the language… I just speak the language to them (Laughing). You know you get desperate. They do not understanding in English then I speak Zulu to them”.
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It appears that the instruction was understood as helping the learners to
understand instructions, rather than doing an oral assessment, due to a
learner’s writing difficulty. The fact that one teacher explained the questions to
the learners, placed the learners in an unfair advantage above others in the
classroom. Questions may not be explained to learners. Moreover, the
teachers did not seem to know that amanuenses should be conducted in a
separate venue, as the mentioned autistic learner received oral assessment in
the classroom - which caused anxiety and distress to the learner. In addition,
one teacher misunderstood what was meant by ‘verbal assessment’. The
findings strengthened my assumption that the participants did not have an
understanding of AMA, particularly amanuenses. The effective use of
accommodations requires a clear understanding of the specific
accommodations that are needed by a student with disabilities (Goh, 2004:15).
A sub-theme that emerged from the data analysis was the participants’
willingness to implement AMA and the findings are discussed in the following
paragraph.
3.3.3 Teachers’ willingness/unwillingness to implement AMA During the focus group interviews and after explaining what adaptive methods
of assessment entailed (on the participants’ request), I probed into the attitude
of the participants with respect to the implementation of AMA. Several practical
problems were aired.
The township teachers mentioned that, although only the SBST coordinator
attended workshops and meetings and shared the “...little knowledge” she
obtained with the other teachers, “...we do what we understand” (TT2, line
491). Their willingness to know more in order to empower them was reflected in
TT1’s request:
“What… if they organise workshops for the uhm… what… what…
what… the term again?” (TT1, line 1635)
TT3 elaborated:
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“…for us to understand and to implement whatever it is that we… have gathered from a workshop. It must… they must make sure it’s going to be effective. Maybe we can not just go for two weeks… workshop for two weeks or for a week… for that uhm… whatever” (TT3, lines 1646-1653).
A concern for the participants was the number of learners who will need this
type of support: “I don’t know how we are going to manage that… because of
the numbers” (TT1, lines 1524-1526). Other teachers had mixed feelings. The
Afrikaans school participants were quite interested to know more about AMA
and displayed a willingness to implement it, although they indicated that they
did not have time to do it. Their willingness and efforts to support a learner
during tests in the classroom, was portrayed in what AT2 (lines 471-476)
explained:
“Ek het by my ook dié wat… soos JP en so aan… het ek by my gesit en
dan het ek vir hom gesê as hy iets nie kan lees nie of as hy iets nie verstaan nie, moet hy vir my kom vra dan sal ek vir hom verduidelik, dan kom hy individueel na my toe en dan verduidelik ek vir hom” (I also have those with me… like JP and so on… I had him sit with me then I would tell him if he cannot read something or if he does not understand, then I will explain to him. Then he comes to me individually and then I explain to him).
The English school teachers displayed an unwillingness to add more
responsibilities to their already very full daily programme (ES, lines 1234-1237).
The special school teachers were very positive and extremely willing to
implement AMA. The special school offers the same national curriculum as the
mainstream schools (SS, line 606) and has been implementing it for the last
approximately 30 years (SS, line 310). Their positive attitudes are clearly
reflected in the stated quotations:
ST4 (line 147) “Dis onontbeerlik” (It’s imperative). ST3 (line 149) “Dis wonderlik” (It’s wonderful). ST2 (lines 425-432) “Jy het ‘n swaksiende kind, jy het ‘n
gehoorgestremde kind, jy het ‘n leergestremde kind wat totaal dislekties is, plus jy het nog die gestremde kinders waar jy spasie moet hê vir die rolstoele om te beweeg. Somtyds moet hierdie kinders kliniek toe gaan vir hulle badkamerbehoeftes wat maak dat hulle laat kom in jou klaskamer, maar jy moet voorsiening maak daarvoor. Hierdie kind… as hy moet badkamer toe moet hy badkamer toe en jy moet die werk inhaal
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met daai kind en dit is hoe dit werk” (You have a visually impaired child, you have a hearing impaired child, you have a learning disabled child who is totally dyslexic, plus you also have learners with disabilities where you need space for their wheelchairs to move in. Sometimes these children need to go to the clinic for their bathroom needs that cause them to come late into your classroom. This child… if he needs the bathroom he needs the bathroom and you have to catch up the work with that child and that is how it works”.
ST4 (lines 448-451) “Dit is as nuwe onderwyseres vir my ‘n uitdaging. Dit is nog steeds vir my ‘n uitdaging om die beplanning te doen rondom wie moet watter hulp kry en om jou dag so te beplan sodat al die inligting wat hulle moet ontvang by almal gelyk uitkom”. (As a new teacher, it is a challenge for me. It is still a challenge for me to do the planning as to who needs what assistance and to plan your day so that al the information that they need gets to everybody simultaneously).
This participant added that there were more barriers than she realized and she
concluded:
“…ja, ‘n hele beplanning... so, ek moet volgende kwartaal… moet ek
elke leerder se individuele behoeftes gaan sit en uitwerk en daarvolgens hulle eksamen beplan” (Yes, a whole planning, so next term… I must go and sit and work out every learner’s needs and to plan their exams accordingly. ST4, lines 574-577).
From the data it was clear that most of the teachers were very keen to learn
more about AMA and they displayed a sincere interest in AMA. They, however,
had their doubts due the large number of learners with difficulties in their
classrooms (TT1, line 1524). Others were of the opinion that AMA will be a
burden, as they already had too many other responsibilities (ES, lines 1235-
1243). The special school goes to extremes to accommodate and support
learners in assessment. Although one teacher from a mainstream school
displayed a willingness to assist a learner, the onus was on the learner to
request assistance. Again it was mentioned that questions were explained to
the learner, which will advantage him above other learners in the classroom.
The township school teachers frequently voiced their strong dependency on
workshops and portrayed a need for feedback and discussions of their
progress, should they receive training.
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Several researchers have found that teachers in general, lack knowledge of
assessment accommodations (Alant & Casey, 2005:186; Goh, 2004:58,
Rickey, 2005). Rickey (2005:9) cites Hollenbeck and Tindal, whose research
showed that teachers’ knowledge of permissible accommodations was low and
that the implementation of accommodations was inconsistent. Goh (2004:56)
refers to research done by Garjia, Salend and Hemrick (1994), where teachers’
knowledge of testing accommodations and their willingness to apply testing
accommodations, were examined. These authors found that teachers were less
likely to allow learners to dictate their responses and to use assistive devices
for the presentation of test items and for learners’ responses. Goh (2004:56)
raises the concern that those teachers - who are not aware of testing
accommodations - will be less likely to implement accommodations to entitled
learners. I find this statement of Goh to be a confirmation of the findings in my
study.
Most of the teachers’ willingness to implement AMA was subject to a need for
training. Training featured strongly throughout the focus group interviews, as
discussed in the following subsection.
5.5.5 THEME 4: TEACHERS’ NEEDS ON ADAPTIVE METHODS OF ASSESSMENT Sub-theme 4.1 Teachers lack the ability to effectively identify barriers to assessment The mainstream participants mentioned that they had learners with physical
disabilities, speech problems, hearing problems and dyslexia in their schools
(TS, lines 187, 193, 199, 246, 1235); a learner with hearing aids (ET1, line 389)
and many learners with reading difficulties - some with serious reading and
writing difficulties (AT1, lines 560-562). However, these learners were not
identified by the teachers as having barriers to learning or special needs, as
they regarded ‘LSEN’ only as those learners with intellectual impairments (see
sub-theme 1.2). An example of this misperception can clearly be seen in the
statements of TT1 and TT2 (TS, lines 1233-1238):
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“Because with this same child he gets frustrated because when he wants to say something… if he has a problem with the speech, he’s looking at your lips, you don’t… you don’t understand each other and that person is at school, he also deserves to learn” (TT1).
“Hm. Only to find out he’s not an LSEN. O.K. he… he does not have a learning problem, a learning problem… a learning difficulty, I understand, but he cannot express him all by himself” (TT2).
This quotation showed that the learner with a hearing impairment was not
considered as having a barrier to learning as ‘...he’s not an LSEN’. It appeared
from the focus group interviews that, due to their apparent unfamiliarity with
AMA, some teachers were not attentive to the identification of learners’ reading
and writing difficulties that could have been supported through adaptive
measures of assessment. It was not indicated at any stage that the learners
with speech problems, hearing problems and the learners with serious reading
and writing difficulties, were considered for support in assessment. However, all
the participants, including those of the special school, indicated that they would
benefit from information (‘tell-tale signs’) on how to identify learners with
specific barriers in a classroom, as TT2 put it “…not all of us are work shopped
or trained to do such things” (lines 482-483). Others indicated that they were
not ‘confident’ in the identification of barriers to learning (ES, line 1088). I
conclude this subsection by referring to Naicker (2002:16), who emphasizes
that, in building inclusive education, the first step is to form an understanding of
disabilities.
Except for their need to know more about AMA and how to identify learners
eligible for adaptive methods of assessment, their need for support and
resources was evident, as discussed in the following subsection.
Sub-theme 4.2 The need for support and resources In spite of the fact that some of the learners in the special school used assistive
devices, the special school participants were of the opinion that subsidies for
additional assistive devices were insufficient and that more could be done by
the government to assist a larger number of learners with disabilities (SS, line
653). Additional funding was propagated for the benefit of more learners (SS,
line 663). The need for class assistants to support teachers was emphasized:
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“Selfs assistente in ons klas wat relatief goed opgelei is, kan ons werklik,
werklik baie help” (ST2, lines 1016-1017), as well as the importance of
computers and printers; more funds to buy compact discs to put the learners’
work on, as well as funds to acquire visual material. Teachers were of the
opinion that it was the DoE’s responsibility to supply these additional funds.
Due to the lack of sufficient assistive devices, criticism was directed towards
the DoE for not assisting schools to prepare learners for an occupation after
school. ST4 was of the opinion that, if word processors could be made
available in schools, learners with disabilities would be able to say to an
employer:
“Ek kan hierdie dataverwerker of hierdie rekenaar gebruik en dan is ek in
staat om vir jou ‘n volle P A te wees, ek kan vir jou alles doen, onafhanklik uit te stap uit matriek uit of Graad 12 en te sê hier is ek, ek is toegerus, die Departement van Onderwys het my toegerus om te wees wat ek is sodat ek kan in ‘n beroep instap” (I can use this word processor or this computer and then I’m able to be a full P A to you, I can do everything for you. To independently walk out of matric or Grade 12 and can say, here I am, I am equipped, the Department of Education equipped me to be what I am so that I can walk into an occupation) ” (ST4, lines 694-699).
The teacher was of the opinion that employers would otherwise be saying:
“Hoe gaan jy vir ons tik, hoe gaan jy vir ons lees… uhm… sorry, ek kan
nie vir jou werk gee nie, jy is nie toegerus nie” (How are you going to type, how will you read to us… uhm… sorry, I cannot give you a job, you are not equipped) (ST4, lines 700-702).
Some of the problems teachers mentioned were that the parents were poor and
unemployed and assistive devices such as tape recorders or compact discs
(CD’s) would not be available to assist the learners. Although all the schools
had computer centres (see subsection 4.6.2, page 153) which could be utilized
to put study material on CD, the problem remained that poor learners would not
have the appropriate devices such as CD players, in order to listen to the CDs
at home.
Other teachers mentioned that they needed ‘…more examples, more
materials… to meet their (the learners’) level of understanding’ (TS, lines 516-
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518) while others’ needs were for appropriate ‘assistive programmes’ and ‘work
sheets’ (AS lines 56, 154, 167, 424, 544). AT1 voiced her frustration as follows
(lines 165-167):
“En ons sukkel daarmee hoor, want ons het Graad 7. Ek het Jannie, hy
is LSEN… Graad 7! Daar is nie… daar ís nie programme vir hom nie!” (And we struggle with that, you hear, because we have Grade 7. I have Jannie, he is LSEN… Grade 7! There are no… there are no programmes for him!).
The data revealed that all the teachers had a need for supportive material, in
order to assist the learners and some could foresee how these supportive
devices will enhance learners’ chances to be contributory members of society
as adults. Teachers felt disempowered to meet the requirements of inclusion,
due to a lack of support, resources, assistive devices and materials.
The need for further training and professional development figured very
strongly in the focus group interviews, which is illuminated in the next
paragraphs.
Sub-theme 4.3 The need for training of teachers and students The participants of three of the four schools unanimously agreed that there was
a great need for training with regard to knowledge of and implementation of
AMA. Although the special school participants portrayed a wide knowledge on
physical disabilities and learning difficulties and supportive assessment
measures for these learners, they stated that the broadening of knowledge to
accommodate various other types of barriers to learning would be to their
benefit (ST1, line 776). All the participants indicated that they would benefit
from comprehensive guidelines on the identification of learners with barriers to
learning. It was clearly portrayed by the mainstream teachers during the
interviews, that they mostly did not know how to support the learners with
barriers to learning (e.g. AT2, lines 332-333). During my focus group interviews
with the three mainstream schools, the participants mentioned nine times that
they did not have training and that they would benefit from training.
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The township teachers often expressed their dependency on workshops. They
appreciated workshops that were conducted over a longer period, to those of
only one or two weeks. However, some criticism towards the district emerged
regarding training. TT2 explained:
“We don’t get much training, you see. Because you cannot teach
somebody for a week and then you expect that someone to be an expert on that eh… specific area. Only a week and they expect us to do wonders…!” (TT2, lines 141-144).
“They expect us to do something what you don’t understand and they can’t even present themselves, you know, you must just guess what they are saying, just guess” (TT1, 150-153).
The township school teachers mentioned that they received notes at meetings,
but that these notes did not replace proper training:
“…but when… when I read the… the notes they give us, I could see that the lady was supposed to tell us more and the lady was supposed to...” (TT2, lines 1344-1346)
“…demonstrate to us because I have those papers…“ (TT3, line 1349).
The participants’ willingness to be trained “…by specialists, not the district”,
(TS, lines 1188-1190) and their need to be developed in their professional
capacity as teachers was clearly reflected in what TT3 (lines 1659-1664) said:
“Special concessions… hmm. And it must be followed up… the
educators… we can come back and just uh… share our views how did we do it, was it effective, what problems did we gather and then they must support us on that and develop us further”.
In addition to the need for training of teachers, the participants voiced their
concern about the lack of training for students. One mainstream teacher with 1-
5 years experience had no knowledge of special concessions. A special school
teacher, who completed her studies in the year prior to the interview, indicated
that there was no reference whatsoever to special concessions in her study
programme. Different barriers to learning were dealt with in the study course,
but no indication of how learners’ barriers to learning should be accommodated
during tests and exams (ST2, lines 834-839). This special school participant
was particularly concerned, in the light of inclusion, how mainstream teachers
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could cope if they did not have knowledge on AMA and special concessions.
She argued:
“Wel, hulle leer jou nie wat om te doen op universiteit as jy die probleem
identifiseer nie. Dan sit jy daar en jy weet, veral as jy in hoofstroom is… waar gaan jy met hierdie kind heen? Wie vra jy… ja wie vra jy vir hulp as jy veertig kinders in jou klas het en hier sit jy met ‘n erg leergestremde kind wat nie kan lees nie. Vir wie gaan vra jy?” (Well, they don’t teach you at a university what to do when you identify a problem. Then you sit there and you know, especially if you are in mainstream… where do you go to with this child? Who do you ask… yes, who do you ask for help if you have forty children in your class and here you sit with a severely learning disabled child who cannot read. Who do you ask?) (ST2, lines 866-871).
ST4 added that her daughter had recently completed her training as an teacher
and that she obtained no knowledge at university regarding concessions, nor
what could be done in assessment in the case of a learner experiencing
barriers to learning (SS, lines 151-164). The special school teachers suggested
that the universities make special concessions a compulsory subject and that
students should be involved in doing amanuenses for learners with severe
reading and writing difficulties, in order to obtain experience and to ‘live it’ (SS,
lines 1026-1038). ST4 emphasized that training will lead to the early
identification of barriers to learning: “En hoe vroeër jy die probleem kan optel,
hoe beter sal ‘n mens… uhm… die kind kan help” (ST3, lines 1064-1065).
The rich quotations clearly reflected that the mainstream teachers in particular,
had an unequivocal need for training to meet many of the challenges presented
by the learners. It was also noted that the teachers’ number of years of
experience did not reflect a difference in knowledge of AMA, as compared to
the teachers who completed their studies in recent years. I established support
in statements by Mittler (2000:25), that continuous teacher training is
inadequate, as teachers are not familiar with supportive assessment measures
and how to meet the needs of learners. Mittler further emphasizes that teachers
deserve training from their head teacher, principals and support services from
the district office. In this study, it was clear that neither the head teachers and
principals, nor the support services from the DBST, had sufficient
understanding of AMA, in order to render the necessary advice and support to
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the teachers. The teachers portrayed feelings of disempowerment in their
statements. According to Lomofsky, Roberts and Mvambi (1999:70), the
inclusive education policy made new demands on teachers and this was
understandably a stressful experience. Training of teachers is emphasized in
order to help them to address learners’ special needs and to be sensitive not
only to the learners’ needs, but also to their own attitudes and feelings. Bolt and
Thurlow (2004) add that adequate training should also ensure that the quality
and consistency of accommodations are high and that teachers should monitor
the effects of the accommodations for individual learners, in order to assess
efficacy. I conclude with Mittler’s recommendation (2000:11), that teachers
should receive appropriate preparation during their training years, as well as
continuing professional development throughout their careers.
The findings of the focus group interviews are summarized in the following
table:
Table 5.9 A summary of the findings of the focus group interviews
1. Most teachers do not understand inclusion. 2. Teachers are negative about inclusion. 3. Teachers experience many obstacles in their teaching practice which affect the implementation of AMA. 4. Mainstream teachers are unfamiliar with AMA and amanuenses and were unfamiliar with informative documents 5. AMA is not implemented at the investigated mainstream schools. 6. Efforts to implement AMA are done incorrectly. 7. Teachers have a need for further training and professional development 8. Special school teachers are negative about the effect of inclusion on learners with barriers to learning in mainstream schools. 9. Teachers do not experience support and guidance of the district support services. 10. Mainstream schools reflect a misperception of ’LSEN’. 11. Mainstream teachers need guidance on the identification of learners in need of AMA.
In addition to the questionnaires and interviews, document analysis was also
conducted, which is discussed next.
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5.6 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS The School Assessment Policy (SAP) of each of the schools was obtained. The
purpose of the analyses of the documents was to establish whether schools
included a description of support in assessment for learners with disabilities
and learning difficulties, in their School Assessment Policies. I compared the
headings of the policies with each other and the main categories that emanated
were the following:
- when teachers should assess;
- what to assess;
- why learners should be assessed, and
- how learners should be assessed.
The findings are summarized as follows:
5.6.1 When to assess: All the schools stated that all assessment should be
based on the assessment standards stipulated in the Revised National
Curriculum Statement (RNCS). Continuous assessment (CASS) covers the five
main purposes of assessment, namely baseline, diagnostic, formative and
summative assessment.
5.6.2 What to assess: The ‘what to assess’ included the level of performance
of the learners and the SAPs referred to creative writing, functional writing,
spoken text, investigation, critical thinking, creativity, problem solving
strategies, skills, values and attitudes.
5.6.3 How to assess: All the schools described ‘how to assess’ during CASS
as the utilization of different types and methods of assessment (such as self-
assessment, peer assessment, group- and summative assessment);
assessment techniques were noted as discussions, projects, tests, oral
questions, investigations, collages, worksheets and dramatization).
Assessment tools were noted as written work, observation files, assessment
grids and rubrics. Only the special school added amanuenses to their list of
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assessment tools. The special school had a separate heading “Specialized,
personalized assessment” in their policy. I quote from this policy:
Learners who experience serious reading, spelling and mathematical
difficulties, are assessed differently and according to their needs and strengths. Traditional methods do not adequately reflect these children’s abilities and may even penalize them”.
Examples of methods of assessment mentioned for these learners were given
as oral examination, tape aid, use of computers and calculators. In contrast to
the mainstream schools, the special school had an extensive description of the
identification of learners who may require special concessions; the procedures
to be followed in making recommendations regarding special concessions, up
to the ultimate implementation of the concessions. This included notification to
parents, the application to the DECC and that the trans-disciplinary team,
SBST and teachers were bounded by the decisions made. It was also
emphasized that teachers should be constantly alert to the assessment needs
of all learners, in order to maximize their learning opportunities.
5.6.4 Why to assess: Only the township school and the Afrikaans School
described the reasons for assessment as the determining of “...whether
assessment standards were achieved, to monitor the level of understanding
and for progression purposes” (TS). The Afrikaans school added that
diagnostic assessment should be used to determine the nature and causes of
barriers to learning, which should be followed up by appropriate support and
intervention as well as referral for specialized help. The special school’s policy
contained a separate heading “Special Concessions”. It stated that assessment
should assist the teachers in the identification of barriers to learning, after
which referral to the SBST should occur, with the purpose of discussions and
recommendations for possible special concessions. The Afrikaans school
policy had a separate heading, “Inclusive Education (LSEN-learners)” which
stated that teachers should find various ways to assist ‘LSEN’ to reach their full
potential. In addition, these ‘LSEN’ were to be referred to the SBST, who had to
discuss and monitor the learners, in order to determine whether they benefited
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from the assistive programmes. Learning support intervention was
recommended by all three the mainstream schools.
The analysis of the schools’ assessment policies revealed that all the relevant
schools implemented various types and forms of assessment. I was particularly
interested in the “How to assess’ subsections of these policies. Although
teachers were encouraged (in the policies) to find various ways to support
learners with barriers to learning, it was not mentioned what these various ways
may be, except for ‘assistive programmes’. With the exception of the special
school, none of the mainstream schools referred to AMA, special concessions
or particularly amanuenses as a supportive measure in assessment in their
policies.
Although all three the mainstream schools’ policies recommended learning
support intervention, the township school teachers contradicted this
recommendation in the focus group interviews (TS, lines 461-470), as they
stated that they did not have learning support teachers or ‘remedial classes’.
A misperception of inclusion was reflected in the mainstream schools’
assessment policies, as it contained a separate heading, ‘Inclusive Education’
that referred only to ‘LSEN’. This indicated that inclusion was only applicable to
learners with special educational needs and not to all learners, as discussed in
White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001).
The analysis of the schools’ assessment policies confirmed what was found in
the questionnaires and focus group interviews, namely that mainstream
teachers did not implement adaptive methods of assessment in order to
support learners who experienced barriers to assessment, as this was not
stipulated in the policies. According to Goh (2004:577) and the Amendments to
the IDEA (Rickey, 2005), every school should establish consistent guidelines to
reflect the special concessions for learners with barriers to learning and to
ensure inclusion of learners with special needs, with concessions where
necessary. Lazarus et al. (1999:59) and Mittler (2000:119) also make it clear
that a School Assessment Policy should reflect what is expected from teachers
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and what they are doing to support learners – also those with barriers to
learning – in an attempt to reach the inclusive goals. These authors further
emphasize that the policies should include what resources are available to
teachers, in order to support learners that may require it.
In summary, the findings of the School Assessment Policies are tabled as
follows:
Table 5.10 A summary of the findings of the document analysis 1. All schools do baseline, diagnostic, formative and summative measures of assessment 2. The mainstream schools’ policies do not refer to AMA to support learners with barriers to assessment 3. AMA is not implemented at the investigated mainstream schools. 4. The special school’s policy recommends the implementation of various forms of AMA. 5. Three of the schools recommend learning support. 6. Mainstream schools reflect a misperception of inclusion. 7. Mainstream schools reflect a misunder- standing of ‘LSEN’. 5.8 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS OF ALL THE DATA COLLECTED In order to establish credibility in my research, I made use of a multiple method
of data collection: open-ended questionnaires (for principals and teachers),
focus group interviews, document analysis, observations and field notes. The
utilization of multiple methods of data collection is another form of ‘checking’
referred to as triangulation, which enabled me to look for convergent evidence
from different sources (Kelly, 1999a:431). I tabled the summaries of the
multiple sources next to each other (Table 5.11), in order to validate the final
themes, which are discussed in chapter six. The data from the different findings
enabled me to confirm the truth value (Tobin & Begley 2004) and to increase
the accuracy of my qualitative research findings.
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Table 5.11 Summary of the findings of all the data collected QUESTIONNAIRE FOR
PRINCIPALS QUESTIONNAIRE FOR
EDUCATORS FOCUS GROUP
INTERVIEWS DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
1. Mainstream principals do not understand inclusion
1. Most teacher participants do not understand inclusion
1. Most of the teacher participants do not understand inclusion.
1. All schools apply baseline, diagnostic, formative and summative assessment.
2. Principals are not positive about the inclusive approach.
2. Teachers are mostly negative about inclusion
2. Most teachers are negative about inclusion.
2. The mainstream schools’ policies do not refer to AMA in order to support learners with barriers to assessment.
3. Principals indicate that they are familiar with AMA.
3. Teachers are willing to support learners with barriers to learning.
3. Teachers experience many obstacles in their teaching practice.
3. AMA is not implemented at the investigated mainstream schools.
4. AMA is not implemented at the investigated mainstream schools.
4. Mainstream teachers do not understand what AMA entails.
4. Mainstream teachers are unfamiliar with AMA and amanuenses and are unfamiliar with informative documents.
4. The special school’s policy recommends the implementation of various forms of AMA.
5. Mainstream principals could not describe amanuenses correctly.
5. Mainstream teachers do not know what amanuenses is.
5. Mainstream teachers do not implement AMA.
5. The special school’s policy has an extensive description of amanuenses.
6. Principals indicate a need for information and training for their teachers.
6. AMA is not implemented at the investigated mainstream schools.
6. Efforts to implement amanuenses are done incorrectly.
6. Three of the schools recommend learning support.
7. Mainstream principals are not familiar with informative documents on AMA.
7. Mainstream teachers are not confident in identifying learners who might need AMA.
7. Teachers have a need for further training and development.
7. Mainstream schools reflect a misperception of inclusion.
8. Teachers express a need for training.
8. Special school teachers are negative about the effect of inclusion on learners in mainstream schools.
8. Mainstream schools reflect a misunderstanding of ’LSEN”.
9. Teachers do not experience support and guidance from the district support services.
10. Mainstream teachers display a misperception of ‘LSEN’.
11. Mainstream teachers need guidance on the identification of learners in need of AMA.
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The findings presented here reveal that the participants from the mainstream
schools did not understand AMA and amanuenses, as they lacked knowledge
and insight into these supportive measures. Insufficient training, guidance and
information seemed to be the major contributing factors to their ignorance. In
contrast, the participants from the special school had a vast knowledge of AMA
and a sound implementation of supportive assessment measures. The findings
also divulged that the education support services from the District Office of the
DoE lacked the expertise to support the teachers. The participants were very
negative about the education system, the general support from the district
office, as well as with the inclusive approach. The findings were substantiated
with literature.
The four major findings that emerged were:
1. Participants were negative about inclusion.
2. Participants lack knowledge of AMA and amanuenses;
3. Participants do not implement AMA and amanuenses.
4. Participants are in need of support, guidance and training.
The following chapter presents with an overview of the study, a summary of the
themes derived from the data-analysis, a discussion of the Guidelines Manual
and how it could address the findings of the research, recommendations, the
limitations of the study and conclusion.
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CHAPTER 6
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANUAL WITH GUIDELINES, RECOMMENDATIONS,
LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSION
6.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter, I presented the findings of the data-analysis and
discussed the four major themes that emerged from the data analysis. In this
chapter, I present a final summary of the findings and link it to the manual that
was developed as a series of practical and supportive guidelines for teachers
with regard to adaptive methods of assessment and amanuenses.
6.2 OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH In Chapter one, I provided an orientation to the study and my motivation to do
the research. The research problem was formulated in terms of the research
question surrounding teachers’ understanding and implementation of adaptive
methods of assessment (particularly amanuenses) for learners with reading
and writing difficulties. The theoretical framework, namely the philosophy of
inclusion, was discussed and the ethical considerations were highlighted.
In Chapter two, I discussed the concept of assessment, which included the
purpose, principles and importance of assessment. Various types and forms of
assessment in the inclusive classroom were highlighted, mainly formative and
summative assessment.
I focused on adaptive methods of assessment in Chapter three, which can be
implemented during instruction, summative assessment and some formative
assessments. The purpose and principles of AMA were discussed. The
importance of the teachers’ and schools’ role were highlighted, particularly the
importance of the identification of learners who might benefit from AMA. An
extensive discussion on physical and sensory disabilities, as well as learning
difficulties, that may cause barriers to assessment, followed. The various
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special concessions to address barriers to assessment were discussed and
emphasis was placed on amanuenses and the implementation thereof.
In Chapter four, the research process in terms of research design, research
methodology, and data analysis was discussed. The aim of this chapter was to
ensure that the research question, as stated in chapter one, was explored and
researched in the correct manner. A qualitative research study from an
interpretive research paradigm and a case study design was conducted.
The data-analysis and findings of the qualitative questionnaires, focus group
interviews and document analysis were discussed and interpreted in Chapter five. Findings were substantiated with relevant literature.
In the final chapter, Chapter six, I provide a final summary of the findings, the
rationale for the development of a manual with guidelines; a discussion of
content of the manual; recommendations, the limitations of the study and finally
a conclusion.
6.3 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The purpose of the study was to determine Grade 7 teachers’ understanding
and implementation of adaptive methods of assessment, particularly
amanuenses, in the inclusive classroom. The principles of inclusivity do not
only apply to the curriculum, but also to assessment. Many learners with certain
barriers to learning (e.g. reading and writing difficulties) cannot be assessed in
the same way as their peers without barriers to learning, due to the effect of the
barrier on assessment performance. They will therefore require the opportunity
to display their acquired knowledge and competency, through adapted support
during assessment. Therefore, teachers need to be aware of the principles of
inclusion and how to support these learners to enable them to reach their full
potential. The findings of the research study showed that mainstream teachers
experienced many challenges in the inclusive classroom. In the following
subsections, the four major themes that emerged from the study are
summarized, which are: the participants’ experience of inclusion, their lack of
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understanding of AMA and amanuenses, the lack of implementation of AMA
and amanuenses and their need for support, guidance and training.
6.3.1 Participants’ perception and experience of inclusion In this inquiry the general attitude of the teachers towards inclusion was mostly
negative. They understood inclusion as merely the integration of learners with
disabilities into mainstream classrooms and the concept of support was seldom
reflected. The principals of the mainstream schools were negative about the
inclusion of learners with significant barriers to learning and they possibly
transferred this mind-set to their teachers, as the teachers also reflected
negativism. Although the participants felt that learners with barriers to learning
had the right to equal educational opportunities, their responses indicated that
these learners did not belong in their schools and that separate classes were
urgently needed. Marked frustration and difficulty to accept these learners in
their classrooms were often expressed – as well as that they, as teachers, did
not know how to support them. With the exception of the special school
teachers, the mainstream teachers found it difficult to accommodate diversity in
their classrooms and a sense of labelling and distancing from learners with
problems was noticed. The participants of the special school voiced their
concern about the effects of integration of learners into mainstream schools.
The participants of the mainstream schools appeared to have a misperception
of - as the participants referred to them – ‘LSEN’ (learners with special
educational needs). The teachers focused very much on the learners whose
needs could have been met in training centres and pre-vocational schools.
Those were the learners with mild to severe cognitive impairments, who did not
cope with the academic demands of the mainstream curriculum. The findings
showed that the participants did not identify learners with reading, writing and
even speech problems, as learners having ‘special educational needs’ or who
experienced barriers to learning. The last mentioned learners may have
average, even above average cognitive abilities and still may not cope with
academic demands, due to their specific learning difficulties.
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It was clear that the teachers experienced many challenges in their classrooms,
which left them frustrated, with associated feelings of helplessness. They found
it very difficult to cope with the large number of learners in their classrooms and
at the same time give attention to individual learners. The amount of paperwork
and lack of time was clearly a source of great concern for the participants. In
fact, they gave these as reasons for not being able to support learners who
required additional support in assessment.
The participants expressed their need for training, guidance and support on
many occasions during the data collection process, which is discussed in the
following subsection.
6.3.2 Participants need support, guidance and training Throughout the inquiry, all the participants expressed their frustration,
dissatisfaction and disgruntlement towards the Education Support Services
(ESS) of the local district office of the Department of Education. The
participants felt that they were at the mercy of the district officials and that they
experienced little empathy, support and guidance from them. They referred to
many aspects, such as the high demands with regard to paper work, the non-
provision of learning materials, unsatisfactory recommendations and feedback
with regard to assessment of learners, as well as insufficient, to no information
during workshops, with regard to AMA and amanuenses. Some of the teachers
expressed their dissatisfaction with the facilitators of the District Office, as
promises to be workshopped led to nothing and only vague information was
given to them in the past.
The findings further showed that the mainstream schools were not supplied
with documents with regard to adaptive methods of assessment, with the result
that the principals and teachers bore little to no knowledge of supportive
assessment practices. It is of concern that the mainstream principals - as
managers their schools – were not were not well-informed on all aspects of the
inclusive approach, which include assessment. Principals are responsible for
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ensuring that all learners who may need support, are appropriately assessed
and that application is made for special concessions.
All the teachers referred learners who displayed barriers to learning, to their
SBSTs. The findings showed that the mainstream SBSTs either referred the
learners to the DBST at the district office, or made their own recommendations
to the teachers. None of the mainstream schools had a specialist or special
education teacher on their School Assessment Teams (SAT), nor had they a
member on their SBST who had sufficient knowledge of special concessions,
as is required by the DoE (see 3.7.2, page 86). Furthermore, no indication was
given that the SATs at the mainstream schools played any role in the
assessment or identification of learners with barriers, nor made any
recommendations as to how to address the barriers. Where the special school
had the advantage of a trans-disciplinary team to assess the learners, make
appropriate recommendations to support the learners and teachers, the
mainstream schools had the fundamental problem that many of their learners
came from underprivileged homes, which could not afford assessments by
private specialists or supply the learners with the necessary assistive devices.
The findings further revealed that none of the recommendations made by either
the DBST or the SBSTs of the mainstream schools included any
recommendation with regard to AMA or amanuenses. The ability and expertise
of the DBST to advise teachers on the most appropriate assessment supportive
measures were clearly lacking. In fact, some teachers voiced their reluctance to
be trained by the DBST as “…they know nothing”. It was clear that all the
participants, those of the special school included, had a clear mistrust and lack
of faith in the ability of the district office to offer support, guidance and training. I
am of the opinion that, if the teachers had more knowledge and an
understanding of AMA, they would have dealt more empathetically with the
learners who experienced problems and would have endeavoured to address
the possible barriers to assessment. However, they very often stated that they
were not trained to perform these roles.
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It was clear that the participants’ years’ of experience did not make any
difference with regard to knowledge of adaptive methods of assessment.
Thirteen of the twenty participants had more than 10 years experience, while
four teachers had one to five years teaching experience. With the exception of
the special school participants, the younger mainstream teachers were just as
unfamiliar with AMA as the older, more experienced participants. This was an
indication that training in AMA was not provided for students who recently
completed their studies.
Although many of the mainstream participants indicated that they were
competent in identifying learners with barriers to learning, they did not include
learners with specific reading and writing difficulties, even one with a hearing
impairment, in their statements as learners experiencing ‘special needs’.
However, these participants stated that they would benefit from more
information on the identification of learners requiring AMA and amanuenses, as
well as on how to implement it. The need for training featured very strongly in
the focus group interviews. All the participants, in particular the township school
teachers, expressed their immense need to be ‘work shopped’ on AMA.
I maintain that the accurate identification of learners with specific reading and
writing difficulties and the subsequent implementation of adapted methods of
assessment, will give these learners an equal opportunity to achieve
satisfactorily alongside their non-disabled peers in the same classroom. All
learners, whether they experience barriers to learning or not, have their own
unique strengths - which should be identified and utilized - in order to assist
them in reaching their maximum potential. Should a learner be unable to
perform satisfactorily on a written level, his strengths may lie in his verbal
competency. Oral assessment (amanuenses) could then be beneficial for such
a learner.
This brings me to the following subsection, which summarizes the findings on
the participants’ understanding and implementation of AMA and amanuenses.
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6.3.3 Participants lack understanding and implementation of AMA and amanuenses The findings of this research study clearly showed that the participants of the
mainstream schools did not understand what was meant by ‘adaptive methods
of assessment’, which is the terminology used in documents and circulars of
the national and regional Departments of Education. Even when the words
‘special concessions’ were used in the questionnaires and in the focus group
interviews, the participants’ confusion, uncertainty and surprise was obvious.
Their lack of knowledge also became evident in the various remarks they
made, such as that they did not know how to assist a learner who could not
read; whose written work was illegible and that they understood verbal
assessment as speaking to a learner in his mother tongue. All the mainstream
participants acknowledged that they had many learners with reading problems
in their classes. Feelings of helplessness and frustration were frequently voiced
during the interviews and cries for help (“What must I do as a teacher?”, “How
do I accommodate that child?”), further strengthened my conclusion that the
participants were unaware of the valuable tool of AMA, which they could have
benefited from. It was clear that even the learning support which was provided
to learners after school, did not solve the teachers’ inability to assist the
learners experiencing academic problems in the classroom.
The findings further revealed that all the teachers applied formative and
summative assessment in their classrooms, but that only the special school
implemented adaptive methods of assessment - both in the classroom and in
examinations. The mainstream teachers proved not to be heedful to learners
with specific learning difficulties and as they were not aware of AMA, these
learners were not given the opportunity to display their knowledge through an
adapted form of assessment. The teachers were rather alert to learners with
cognitive barriers (as discussed in 6.3.1). All the learners in the mainstream
schools were assessed in the same manner during classroom tests and
examinations. The findings showed that assessment in the inclusive classroom
was not based on the diverse needs of the learners, as there was no attempt to
remove barriers to assessment by using AMA, because the teachers were not
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familiar with these. Reading to the learners in the classroom and time
allowances to complete work were mentioned as standard procedures, but
were not identified as specified adaptive methods of assessment with the intent
to support learners during examinations. Low expectations for learners with
barriers to learning were reflected in the attitudes of the teachers, as a result of
an underestimation of the learners’ abilities and strengths, as well as a lack of
knowledge of special concessionary measures. This reflects a “...pernicious
and pervasive form of exclusion” (Mittler, 2000:76).
The mainstream teachers’ ignorance of amanuenses was also very obvious.
They were unaware of this form of assessment support and due to their
unfamiliarity with the word, it was mispronounced, or it triggered spurts of
laughter and humorous comments. Two of the mainstreams schools’ Grade 4
teachers performed the procedure as an experiment as part of their studies, or
as support to an autistic learner, but the participants did not identify it as
‘amanuenses’. The Grade 7 teachers used in this study did not implement
amanuenses themselves. Although the Grade 4 teachers displayed an attempt
to assist the learners by means of amanuenses, their procedures were
incorrect (see sub-theme 3.3.2, page 244) and in my opinion, not in the best
interest of the learners.
As mentioned in chapter one (see 1.2), I experienced an increase in the
number of referrals to special schools, mainly by parents. Based on the findings
of this study, the reason may well be that parents felt that their children’s needs
were not met in mainstream schools. In a study performed by Rickey (2005:5) it
was stated that, should learners with disabilities not be given the opportunity to
alternative methods of assessment it will, in some cases, prevent them from
continuing to tertiary education.
The findings presented here indicated that, despite the time span of 10 years
since White Paper 6 was introduced, many teachers were still unaware of the
supportive assessment measures for learners who may benefit from it. A
reason may be that the schools did not receive informative documents with
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regard to AMA and although White Paper 6 proclaims that learners should be
supported in assessment, it does not describe how it should be done. It
appeared that teachers were still teaching – and assessing - in the traditional
way; that all learners were assessed in the same way and that assessments
were not adapted for eligible learners, according to the inclusive approach. The
lack of knowledge and implementation of AMA, deprived learners of equal
opportunities in the inclusive classroom, their right to acceptance and
participation, as well as opportunities to progress as valued members of
society.
To summarize, I refer back to the questions teachers needed to ask
themselves about their assessment practices (see 2.7, page 52), as stipulated
in the Assessment Guideline for Inclusion (DoE, 2002a:7). The findings showed
that quite a number of aspects were not addressed by mainstream participants,
namely the following:
- Not all learners were treated fairly, particularly those who experienced
barriers to learning and assessment;
- Assessment practices were not always non-discriminatory, as learners with
barriers to assessment were not supported in the assessment process;
- Assessment practises were not aimed at increasing learning and
participation and minimizing exclusion;
- Assessment approaches were not aimed at minimizing categorization of
learners, as all learners in mainstream schools were assessed in the same
way. This could lead to learners with barriers to assessment, not
succeeding or reaching their full potential, and adapted assessment
methods were not used to allow all learners to display their skills.
In answer to the research question “How do Grade 7 teachers at four primary schools understand and implement adaptive methods of assessment (particularly amanuenses), for learners with reading and writing difficulties?”, the findings of this study indicated that particularly the
mainstream Grade 7 teachers, did not understand or implement adaptive
methods of assessment or amanuenses at their schools. In answer to the sub-
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question, “What are the teacher needs with regard to implementing adaptive methods of assessment in the inclusive classroom?” the findings
showed that teachers needed more information and training on AMA,
particularly amanuenses.
Based on the findings of this study, I developed a manual with supportive and
empowering guidelines, which is discussed in the following sections.
6.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MANUAL WITH SUPPORTIVE AND EMPOWERING GUIDELINES I preferred to use the term ‘special concessions’ in the manual, as I was of the
opinion that this term could be a more understandable to teachers than
‘adaptive methods of assessment’. The content comprises of a clarification of
concepts relating to the whole spectrum of special concessions, which includes
a short discussion on what inclusive education entails, pointers to identify
barriers to assessment and choosing an appropriate concession to support
learners in the assessment process. I also discussed the various special
concessions, as presently listed on the prescribed application form for special
concessions, with particular emphasis on amanuenses. Finally, guidelines were
provided with regard to some administrative issues surrounding special
concessions, which include the following: the responsibilities of the SBST’s,
the procedure of deciding upon a concession; the process of referral to the
DECC; the training of learners, an example of a motivational letter which should
accompany the application form to the DECC, an example of a completed
application form and an example of a Concessions Register (which I discuss in
subsection.6.4.2.4).
Figure 6.1 presents the lay-out of the manual.
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Figure 6.1 Lay-out of the Guidelines Manual
INTRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. KEY TERMS
Understanding inclusion What are special concessions? What are barriers to assessment? Who is the learner with special needs (LSEN)?
B. PRINCIPLES OF SPECIAL CONCESSIONS
C. IDENTIFICATION OF BARRIERS TO ASSESSMENT
1. Reading difficulties 2. Writing difficulties 3. Spelling problems 4. Problems with mathematics 5. Poor written expression 6. Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 7. Visual impairments 8. Hearing impairment 9. Physical disabilities
D. CATEGORIES OF SPECIAL CONCESSIONS
E. DESCRIPTION OF
SPECIAL CONCESSIONS
1. Additional time 2. Reading to the candidate 3. Computer 4. Enlarged print 5. Planning aid 6. Rephrasing 7. Transcription 8. Dictionary 9. Interpreter 10. Alternative questions 11. Separate venue 11. Amanuenses
F. ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES WITH REGARD TO SPECIAL CONCESSIONS
1. Who decides? Procedure of referral and deciding upon concessions
2. Training of learners 3. Addressing the lack of staff and venues. 4. Example of motivational letter 5. Example of completed Application Form 6. Example of Declaration by the Amanuensis. 7. Example of the Concessions Register REFERENCES
273
The manual was designed to serve as a ‘hands-on” tool for choosing a
concession, together with guidelines on how it should be implemented. The
manual could be beneficial not only to teachers, but also to officials from the
education support services of the Department of Education, as well as
educational psychologists. Each of the main themes derived from the study,
was taken into consideration in the planning and design of the manual. In the
following subsections, I discuss how the manual addresses the findings of the
study.
6.4.1 Addressing teachers’ misunderstanding of inclusion My motivation to explain inclusion under the heading ‘Key Terms’ in the
manual stemmed from the research findings, namely that teachers did not fully
understand the concept of inclusion. I defined inclusion and emphasized the
concept of support to all learners and that schools should change, in order to
accommodate and address diversity. As it emerged that the mainstream
participants had a misperception of LSEN, I gave a short discussion on which
learners may be regarded as learners with ‘special educational needs’.
Because the concept of support - in particular support with regard to
assessment - did not feature in the qualitative questionnaires, the focus group
interviews or in the School Assessment policies, I gave a short overview of
what support in assessment entails. This was substantiated with relevant
statements taken from documents of the Department of Education.
6.4.2 Addressing teachers’ lack of understanding and implementation of AMA I combined this section with teachers’ need for training, guidance and support
(see 6.3.2, page 265), as it goes hand in hand with their unfamiliarity with AMA
and special concessions. Based on the findings, I firstly discussed several key
terms in the manual, to enlighten the reader on the concepts ‘adaptive methods
of assessment’, ‘special concessions’ and ‘barriers to assessment’. My purpose
was to make the reader aware of the existence of the various special
concessions and that some learners may need alternative ways to show what
they know during the assessment process. Following these definitions, I
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discussed the important principles of special concessions, which are imperative
to the correct planning and implementation thereof.
6.4.2.1 The identification of barriers to assessment My motivation to describe the various barriers to learning, which may adversely
effect a learner’s ability to achieve satisfactorily in tests and examinations,
stemmed from the findings that the mainstream teachers did not consider
learners with reading, writing, speech and hearing difficulties as those who had
‘special needs’ – and who might have special needs with regard to
assessment. The participants were not knowledgeable about barriers to
learning, which could cause barriers to assessment. A number of ‘tell-tale’
signs were provided in the manual, in order to give teachers an indication of
what to look out for. In every section, after a barrier to learning was described, I
indicated the possible concessions that could be considered for that specific
barrier. Because many learners would not be able to afford assessments by
private professionals, I provided Dednam’s (2005:133) suggestions to teachers,
in order to assist them in determining a learner’s specific reading difficulties.
However, these procedures cannot replace the specialized assessment by
appropriate professionals, which is a requirement of the Department of
Education (2006b:77).
In addition to suggested special concessions in each section, I used some
icons throughout the manual, in order to focus the reader’s attention on
different aspects. They were indicated as follows in the manual:
Important information to take into account
A bright idea or suggestion An activity the reader should perform
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To address the teachers’ lack of understanding of adaptive methods of
assessment and special concessions, I described these in the manual, as
discussed below.
6.4.2.2 Description of the various special concessions After the informative guidelines on the identification of possible barriers to
assessment, every special concession - as stated on the prescribed application
form - was described, to inform the reader on what they are and how they
should be implemented. However, with regard to some of the special
concessions indicated on the prescribed application form, no recent definition,
description and criteria, could be found in South African literature, documents
or circulars. I refer to concessions such as the ‘Use of a dictionary’, ‘Interpreter’
and ‘Rephrasing’. With regard to ‘Alternative questions’, I could not find any
description or criteria for implementation whatsoever and the GDE, as well as
the National Department of Education, could also not supply me with any
information. I found some literature on ‘Alternative questions’ in international
documents and I obtained some information on ‘Interpreter’, from a school for
the blind and visually impaired.
I discussed amanuenses in detail in the manual. Every step in the
implementation of amanuenses was described – from choosing an amanuensis
(scribe), the important requirements before, during and after the procedure - up
to significant issues relating to language papers for senior learners.
Amanuenses can be granted to learners from as early as Grade 4 and is not
applicable to senior learners only. As language papers for senior learners in
Grades 10 – 12 have specific requirements, I therefore paid special attention to
the implementation of amanuenses in these papers. In my discussion of
amanuenses, I kept to black print for learners from Grades 4 to 12 and used
red print when referring to Grade 12 learners writing the final National Senior Certificate examinations.
I allocated a colour code to every concession with the purpose of making it
easier for the reader to locate the specific concession s/he wishes to peruse. A
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coloured bar on the side of every page indicated the specific concession that
was described.
As most mainstream participants bore little to no knowledge with regard to
special concessions, I found it necessary to add a section describing the
important administrative issues that should be taken into consideration. I
discuss these issues in the following subsection.
6.4.2.3 Administrative procedures with regard to special concessions In order for teachers to follow the correct procedures when choosing
concessions, as well as when applying for concessions, the role of the SBST
was outlined in the form of diagrams. The training of learners was emphasized
and guidelines were included on what information should be given to the
learners. In that the participants expressed their lack of staff, resources and
venues to implement AMA, I included some ideas how to address these
challenges. Finally, I included examples of a motivational letter, a completed
application form and an example of the ‘Declaration by the Amanuensis’. I
designed this form in 2009 (which was since adapted by the DECC and has
been distributed to schools that employ amanuensis for the National Senior
Certificate examinations).
6.4.2.4 The purpose of the Concessions Register It is a requirement of the Department of Education that schools keep record of
the special concessions that were granted to a learner (see subsection 3.7.1,
page 85). In order to simplify record-keeping of concessions granted to
learners, I designed a Concessions Register (Appendix 6) in collaboration with
the coordinator of the DECC in the Gauteng East district, with the purpose of
recording a history of concessions granted to a learner This form is intended to
be kept in the learner’s Learner Profile and should be updated annually. When
the learner is registered for the NSC exit examination, a copy of the
Concessions Register has to be attached to the application form for special
concessions. This will confirm the history of special concessions. The
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Department of Education has acknowledged this contribution, which can be
viewed in Appendix 7.
Another advantage of the register is the prevention of possible abuse of special
concessions. Unfortunately there are some schools that apply for special
concessions in the learners’ Grade 12 year, without any evidence of a history of
concessions. During 2010, all the special schools in the Gauteng East district
were supplied with the Concessions Register, in order to start recording the
history of concessions approved for eligible learners.
The limitations of the study are discussed in the following section. 6.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to explore, describe and interpret Grade 7
teachers’ understanding and implementation of adaptive methods of
assessment and in particular, amanuenses.
Adaptive methods of assessment are to be implemented for eligible learners
from an early stage, in order to address their assessment needs. When
learners reach the exit phases of Grades 9 and 12, evidence of a history of
concessions must be supplied to the Department of Education. In this study,
Grade 7 teachers were selected, as it was presumed that they had already had
the opportunity to identify learners with specific barriers to learning and whose
barriers caused barriers to assessment. The limitation of this study is that only
primary schools’ teachers were selected for participation. This study did not
purport high school teachers. A relatively small group of 16 teachers and 4
principals at four primary schools were selected as participants. Although the
information obtained was useful for increasing the knowledge base and
directing further study in this area, the findings cannot be generalized for larger
groups of teachers. It is possible that different results may be established, if
divergent schools such as primary or high schools in other regions are studied.
The findings of this study cannot be regarded as applicable to all teachers and
districts.
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A limitation of the manual with guidelines for teachers is that a manual cannot
replace actual personal training. It does not provide opportunities for practical
demonstrations, opportunities for trainees to ask questions, or to clear up any
uncertainties. The manual will be a valuable tool, provided that it has been
accompanied by several training sessions, such as in workshops.
Recommendations for future research, policy and practice as well as
recommendations are discussed in the following section.
6.6 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY Based on the findings of this study, recommendations for further research and
the contribution for practice and policy are discussed below.
6.6.1 Recommendations for future research The findings presented in this study, showed that the implementation of
supportive assessment measures appeared to be a complex issue for teachers.
Although many South African documents stipulate that district offices and
school-based support teams are responsible to support and guide teachers,
little to no evidence was found in this study that these parties were able to
render the required support, in order to meet the assessment needs of eligible
learners. The result is clear – many learners are deprived of the opportunity to
successfully show what they know during formative and summative
assessment, with the possibility of the failing, dropping out of school and
consequently emotional harm.
It is recommended that research be conducted with the purpose of determining
the reasons why district officials - as the prime agents of the rendition of
support and guidance - are not proficient to fulfil this requirement. Special
efforts need to be made to augment their knowledge and their
recommendations with regard to the implementation of AMA, in order to
accomplish the principles of inclusion. Such research may generate valuable
recommendations for school-based and district-based staff development.
279
Special schools for learners with physical, sensory, neurological disabilities and
specific learning difficulties in South Africa, all implement special concessions
for eligible learners. An interesting topic for future research may well be the
investigation of the impact, efficacy and validity of assessment results when
special concessions were provided. In addition, valuable insight into learners’
and teachers’ experiences with regard to AMA would be beneficial to future
planning and recommendations.
6.6.2 Recommendations and contribution towards policy Currently there is no comprehensive national policy with regard to the
implementation of special concessions in South Africa. In comparison with the
extensive document in the United Kingdom, the ‘Joint Council of Qualifications’
(JCQ, 2009), South Africa appears to be far behind with regard to a detailed
lay-out of all the issues with regard to special concessions. It is recommended
that the National Department of Education compile such an extensive policy,
which should be provided to all district offices and schools. A clear description
of the various special concessions, such as ‘alternative questions’, ‘interpreter’
and the ‘use of a dictionary’, is urgently required, as little to no information on
these concessions, is available. However, these concessions appear on the
prescribed application form, but teachers and other professionals will not know
what the criteria are, due to the lack of definitions or descriptions.
It is a further recommendation that re-consideration is given to the concession
of ‘Rephrasing’. Internationally, rephrasing is granted to learners who require a
simplified version of unfamiliar or abstract words, or who have below average
reading comprehension (JCQ, 2009; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2004:342). I
vigorously investigated the origin of the prerequisite that rephrasing may only
be granted to learners with hearing impairments in South Africa, but I was
unsuccessful in obtaining this information from the Department of Education. I
strongly recommend that South African learners with poor reading
comprehension also be granted rephrasing as a concession, provided that the
application be accompanied by motivational reports from an educational
psychologist and speech/language therapist. With regard to the use of a
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dictionary, the Department of Education should also consider allowing learners,
whose language of learning and teaching is not their home language (second
language learners), to use a dictionary in subjects other than language papers -
as is the case internationally.
Based on the findings of the study, a further recommendation is that the South
African term ‘adaptive/alternative methods of assessment’, be replaced with the
more comprehensible term ‘assessment accommodations’ in future documents
or circulars. Another concept that needs clarification is the term ‘LSEN’, since it
appeared in this study that there was a general misunderstanding that learners
with special needs are those with intellectual impairments. The implication of
this misunderstanding may be that learners without cognitive impairments, but
who experience reading and writing difficulties, may not be deemed as learners
who experience specific needs, such as special assessment needs. Teachers’
conception of learners with special educational needs need to change, by
perceiving them as learners with barriers to learning. Their traditional way of
thinking should also shift to the practising of inclusion.
In the Grade 12 NSC examination, it is expected that the candidates do a first
draft of each of the three questions in Language Paper 3 (Creative Writing), in
the examination answer book. It is a practical problem for the amanuensis to
write down the learner’s dictation in the same answer book, whilst the learner is
continuously paging back to his first draft, in order to read it to the amanuensis.
It is strongly recommended that candidates (who were granted amanuenses),
be allowed to do their first drafts in a separate answer book, which can then be
attached to the original answer book afterwards.
Learners with severe dyslexia are often not able to write a legible first draft and
are, in addition, often not able to read their own efforts back to the amanuensis.
The Department of Education should consider allowing such learners to dictate
their first drafts to the amanuensis. Learners with severe physical disabilities,
who cannot write due to severe athetoid cerebral palsy or amputated/deformed
hands, have no choice but to dictate their drafts and I am strongly of the
opinion that this should also be allowed for the learner with severe dyslexia.
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This specific learner is receiving amanuenses because of a writing difficulty,
which has been aggravated by a reading difficulty.
The training and appointment of ‘special needs coordinators/specialists’ at all
schools is highly recommended, as it was apparent in the research findings that
such coordinators can play a vital role as members of SBSTs, to support and
guide teachers on site. Very few mainstream schools, in particular the schools
in disadvantaged areas, have access to specialized services. The DoE
acknowledges that the number of specialized professionals such as
psychologists, speech- and occupational therapists working within the system,
is seriously inadequate “...in the face of the extent of the need” (DoE, 2005a).
An alternative may also be that specialists ‘on call’, or visiting consultants, can
be employed by the DoE to assist schools in cases where, for example, specific
learning difficulties need to be verified. Furthermore, I would like to emphasize
the recommendation of the Department of Basic Education in the Guidelines of
Inclusive Teaching and Learning (DBE, 2010:13) and I quote: “...norms and
standards for the provision of resources and assistive devices for learning with
disabilities have to be developed in order for funding to be channelled towards
providing support for such learners in mainstream schools”. This is particularly
applicable to underprivileged learners who might be in need of e.g. computers,
tape/CD aid, magnifying equipment and hearing aids.
Finally, training at tertiary level should include specific modules on all possible
barriers to learning, which should include the identification of several types of
physical, sensory, neurological disabilities and specific learning difficulties; how
these impairments could influence learners’ access to examination, as well as
how these barriers to assessment should be addressed through adaptive
methods of assessment. I trust that my Guidelines Manual may contribute
towards the composition of a national policy on special concessions.
6.6.3 Contribution towards practice The Guidelines Manual can contribute to the enhancement of teachers’
knowledge and implementation of supportive assessment measures to learners
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with specific barriers to learning. This will provide these learners with equal
opportunities to achieve to their full potential, enhance their motivation to learn
and boost their self-confidence.
The manual may be used as a valuable tool for training purposes. Pre-service
educators, in-service educators and educational psychologists may benefit
from the information as presented in the manual. However, as suggested in the
limitations of this study, personal training in addition to the manual is the ideal,
as it will provide students, teachers and educational psychologists with the
opportunity to ask questions and clarify uncertainties.
I believe that, should principals and teachers become increasingly aware of the
variety of barriers to learning that may cause barriers to assessment, they will
adapt their schools’ assessment policies accordingly, in order to make
provision for these learners through AMA. To be able to do this, mainstream
schools and class teachers should be provided with the appropriate support,
information and resources to develop effective assessment procedures for
learners with barriers to learning.
The manual may also serve as a valuable tool for educational psychologists in
private practice. I have, in the past, encountered many psychologists who were
unfamiliar with the various special concessions - and therefore did not make
appropriate recommendations to parents and schools. Educational
psychologists also need to be well-informed on ways to address the barriers to
learning that may hamper a learner’s access to assessment. Training
opportunities for psychologists in practice, could serve this purpose.
6.6.4 Contribution towards theory The findings presented in this study, indicate that a major contributing factor to
the lack of knowledge and implementation of AMA is the lack of training thereof
in teacher education. On a theoretical level, this inquiry contributes to the
development of a body of knowledge of adaptive methods of assessment in
teacher training, to the ultimate benefit of learners with disabilities and learning
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difficulties. As there is no clear, comprehensive theoretical underpinning
regarding AMA and special concessions in education in South Africa, this study
will contribute to the development of such a theoretical framework. 6.7 FINAL WORD The findings showed that mainstream teachers, as well as the district’s ESS,
lacked knowledge and expertise on AMA (including amanuenses), resulting in
the lack of implementation thereof. Clear and comprehensive district and
national guidelines, support and training opportunities in the use of AMA, were
found to be inadequate.
The aim of inclusive education is to focus on increasing the quality of education
for all learners, including those with barriers to learning. We as teachers and
educational psychologists, carry a distinctive responsibility to enhance the
values of human dignity, acceptance, non-discrimination and equal
opportunities for all, in order to support learners to reach their full potential. One
of the ways to ensure that these values are adhered to is to meet the needs of
learners with barriers to assessment, by providing them with opportunities to
access examinations in a different or adapted way. Every teacher should
therefore become a skilled assessor – not only on traditional forms of
assessment, but also with regard to adaptive measures of assessment.
Addressing the assessment needs of learners with disabilities and learning
difficulties, is a challenge for teachers and a stepping stone to success for
learners. With the aid of adaptive methods of assessment and special
concessions, many learners will be able to obtain Grade 12 and further
qualifications - to become valued, confident citizens - in spite of the barriers
they are burdened with. Success is possible for all learners with disabilities and
I conclude with a quote by Blunkett (cited in Mittler, 2000:61):
“Success for a few was an option in the past, Success for all is the challenge now”
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1 - Ethical Clearance
Appendix 2 - Letter of permission from the Department
of Education
Appendix 3 - Letter to principal
Appendix 4 - Letter of permission from a principal
Appendix 5 - Example of consent form for participants
Appendix 6 - Example of the Concessions Register
Appendix 7 - Acknowledgement from the DoE
Appendix 8 - Declaration by the Amanuensis
Appendix 9 - Example of Certificate of Training
Appendix 10 - Questionnaire for the principals
Appendix 11 - Questionnaire for the educators
Appendix 12 - Letter of Editing
Appendix 13 - Example of data-analysis of a focus group interview
---o0o---
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APPENDIX 1 - ETHICAL CLEARANCE
304
APPENDIX 2 LETTER OF PERMISSION FROM THE DoE
306
APPENDIX 4 - LETTER OF PERMISSION FROM A PRINCIPAL
307
APPENDIX 5 - EXAMPLE OF CONSENT FORM FOR PARTICIPANTS
308
309
APPENDIX 6 - EXAMPLE OF CONCESSIONS REGISTER
310
APPENDIX 7 - ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FROM THE DoE
311
APPENDIX 8 - DECLARATION BY THE AMANUENSIS
DECLARATION BY AMANUENSIS To be completed by the amanuensis
Examination cycle: __________________________ Exit exams: _________________ I ________________________ ID ____________________ PERSAL _____________ Declare that:
1. I have been trained and certified by the DECC to be fully trained to conduct an amanuenses.
2. I declare that in no instance I am related to the candidate, a direct relative, a close friend or children of a close friend or the relevant subject teacher where I act as amanuensis.
3. I fully understand that the professionalism and integrity of the amanuensis must be maintained at all times and that the candidate must not gain an unfair advantage by any action and under any circumstances. This includes any form of expectation that might convey the answer to a question, facial expression or gesture that could result in the learner reconsidering changes in his/her answer, verbal expression, clues or remarks that could benefit the learner.
4. I declare that the answers are written down exactly as given by the learner. Signature: ______________________________ Signed by (print name): _________________________ at (venue) ________________ On this _______________ day of __________________________ 20 _______ Signature of Principal: ______________________________ Date: ___________________________ Please complete in duplicate. A copy to be kept at the District and centre for reference
purposes.
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APPENDIX 9 - EXAMPLE OF CERTIFICATE OF TRAINING
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APPENDIX 12 – LETTER OF EDITING
Notification of Language Editing by
AMANDA WRIGHT
Freelance proof reader and editor
Cell 083 389 3008 P O Box 13028
Email: [email protected] Witfield
24 November 2011 1467
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
This letter serves to confirm that in October and November 2011, I did the
proofreading and the language editing of
The implementation of adaptive methods of assessment (particularly
amanuenses) at four schools in the Gauteng East District
by
RONELLE DALENE VENTER
This included references and the manual and involves proof reading, language, style
and grammar editing; checking the text for clarity of meaning and tenses. I have
written the corrections on the hard copy and have returned the document to the
author, who is responsible for inserting these.
______________________________
AMANDA WRIGHT
BA HDE FDE
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APPENDIX 13 EXAMPLE OF DATA ANALYSIS - FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW (TOWNSHIP SCHOOL) How do Grade 7 teachers in four schools understand and implement adaptive methods of assessment (particularly amanuenses) for learners with reading and writing difficulties? ........ Emotional response - ER; Attitude teacher towards LSEN and other learners - AT; Emotional frustration
........ Negative towards inclusion – NI; negative re district – ND; re educational system – NE
........ Teacher knowledge / Lack of knowledge - K, LK; understands benefits - UB; Lack of knowledge
..... .. Teacher assessment - TA;
........ Implementation – IM; Lack of implementation - LI; willingness to implement - WI;
........ Too much paperwork - PW; time constraints - TC; learner needs not met - LN; Obstacles in implementation
finances - F; big classes - BC; behaviour learners - BL;
........ Collaboration / cooperation: with district - CD; with parents - CP, with school - CS;
........ Identification of barriers to learning - ID;
........ Teacher training, skills and needs -T; Lack of training - LT; need training - NT; Teachers’ needs
need for resources - NR; inadequate training - IT; willingness to learn more – WL
TRANSCRIPTION TOWNSHIP SCHOOL 132 TT2: Even there are teachers because... you know 133 you... you find that they train us for only a week, nê? 134 Only a week and they expect us to do wonders, but 135 the rest of the year and the rest of our teaching 136 careers... so the support... we don’t get support in...
Training: for only a week Expectations: They expect us to do wonders Support: we don’t get support in our district
Inadequate training IT Unrealistic expectations ND Lack support from the district Dissatisfaction with district ND Feelings helplessness ER
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137 in our district. 138 139 R; From the district? 140 141 TT2: From the district’s side, yes. We don’t get 142 much training, you see. Because you cannot teach 143 somebody for a week and then you expect that 144 someone to be an expert on that eh... specific area.
Don’t get much training Expectations: can’t expects with one week’s training to be an expert
Lack of training / inadequate training IT Unrealistic expectations from DoE ND
145 TT1: And some of the facili... the facilitators too… 146 they can’t just deliver…
Facilitators: the facilitators can’t deliver Dissatisfaction with trainers – ND training not adequate IT
147 148 TT3: Hmm. 149 150 TT1: They expect us to do something what you 151 don’t understand and they can’t even present 152 themselves, you know, you must just guess what 153 they are saying just guess.
They expect us to do something you do not understand The facilitators can’t inadequately trained
Unrealistic expectations LK Inadequate training IT Dissatisfaction with DoE officials ND
154 182 445 446 R: What kinds of 447 assessments do you generally use in the classroom?
448 449 Silence. Uncertain? 450 451 R: There are different types of assessments 452 453 TT2: Hm. 454
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455 TT1: We do… different kinds of assessment... 456 457 TT2: We like to start with the baseline if maybe you 458 are asking on those areas, nê?
Assessment: Do baseline uncertainty: if maybe you are asking on those areas, nê?
Baseline assessment TA
459 460 R: Ja. 461 462 TT2: Yes and then if I can mention them we do 463 summative, we do formative
Assessment: summative and formative Performs diff types assessment TA
464 465 TT3: Formative 466 467 TT2: We do diagnostic. At the baseline, we 468 diagnose, nê, and then after that we we look at the 469 problem that’s where you refer... identify that this 470 one has this problem, he need to be taught like this 471 and to be assessed like this. But what we don’t do 472 because of time frame, we don’t go deeper in this 473 individual assessment because it’s time-consuming.
assessments: We do diagnostic refer Do not implemented individual
assessment because it’s time-consuming
Types of assessment TA Collaboration SBST CS No implementation of individual assessment. LI Time constraint. TC
474 475 R: Like what? 476 477 TT2: Like the... the... the... expressive language, nê? 478 479 R: Ja? 480 481 TT2: We assess them. We assess them not all of us 482 because we are not all of us work shopped or trained
LSEN process not fully implemented Not work shopped how to assess.
Inadequate training. IT Dependent on
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483 to do such things. The only thing that they do now, 484 they just take the... those coordinators…
Not trained to do ‘such things’ workshops/training. T
485 486 R: Hm. 487 488 TT2: the SBST coordinators to to go for a workshop 489 for one hour two hours and then you come with that 490 little knowledge you share with the educators – we 491 do what we understand, so we also do the individual 492 at least we... we are trained for the read. We train 493 ourselves to assess a learner individually. And the 494 summative we do for all the learners.
Has ‘little knowledge’ to share with educators; SBST coordinator go for a
workshop Trained for the read Train ourselves to assess a learner
individually Teachers are unaware of the type
of assessment needed for LSEN: do summative with all the learners
Workshops not sufficient IT Collegiality CS Willingness to try WL Lack of knowledge LK Dependent on themselves - Inadequate training IT Summative – all learners assessed in same way TA
495 R: Is that the tests and examinations? 496 497 TT2: The tests and examinations, yes. 498 499 R: And the formative ones? 500 501 TT2: The formative, yes, we also do I must say 502 assignments, examinations, projects and 503 researches and we do all those things.
Methods of assessment: formative – assignments, examinations, projects and researches
Apply various forms of assessments TA
504 505 TT1: But now we most of the times we still 506 experience problems with this, you know these 507 learners, you know, because now you find that the 508 children who can master that assessment it’s only
Implementing: Still experience problems with
assessments; in class we are having forty
Problems with implementation IM Big classes BC No time TC
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509 because, in class we are having forty learners, you 510 might find that it’s a part of the class we can just 511 master that LO, the rest you need to go down to their 512 own level and you know it... it needs time.
learners need to go down to their own level it needs time
Misperception of LSEN ID
513 514 R: Hm. Hm. 515 516 TT1: And you need to have uh more examples, you 517 know more materials, you understand, to meet their 518 level of understanding.
Implementing: Needs more examples, materials to meet their level of understanding.
Needs in implementing inclusion. NE, Lack resources NR
519 520 R: Hm. 521 522 TT1: It’s is very frustrating because now if you can 523 have, can take ten learners who cannot master that 524 learning outcome it’s very frustrating for you as an 525 educator.
Implementing: It’s is very frustrating
Problem implementing inclusion NI Frustration ER
526 527 TT2: Hm. 528 529 TT1: Because those learners they progress from 530 Grade three say Grade 3, now they’re in Grade 6, 531 now you find a learner in Grade six who cannot just 532 write even just a paragraph.
Implementing: scholastic ability of learners is poor: Learner promoted all the time, but cannot even write a paragraph
Dissatisfaction – system NE Writing barrier – AMA not considered LK, LI Frustration ER Identification ID
533 534 R: Hm 535 536 TT1: You know, it’s… it’s just frustrating! it’s just frustrating! frustration. ER
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537 684 685 R: And how did they say must you assess these 686 learners in an examination?
Repeats question
687 688 TT2: In assessment they told us about the 689 amauenses, amninuenses if I pronounce it correctly 690 and with this we don’t know this, this is just a 691 skeleton to us, we don’t know this thing and we are 692 not trained about this thing because they told us 693 about the the individual eh assessment and we have 694 not been trained we don’t we are just blank about. 695 that.
Amanuenses: Cannot pronounce the word We don’t know this we don’t know this thing we are not trained about this thing We are just blank about it “this thing”
Teacher training and skills inadequate IT Unfamiliar with amanuenses LK Uncertainty - “This thing” LK
696 697 TT1: I should think maybe our problem would be 698 easy, eh would we not have so many learners who 699 are having what is a problem to us, if we were 700 remedial teachers.
Have too many learners Teacher training: if we were remedial teachers
Teacher training and skills inadequate IT Too many learners BC Knowledge will help them NT
701 978 979 R: Do you give him the opportunities in the 980 summative assessment to speak his answers when 981 he cannot write you will read the question to him, can 982 he answer to you?
983 984 TT3: That’s what we haven’t done. That’s what the 985 amanuenses that they told us last term, that we 986 haven’t practised yet. It was during the end of the 987 term.
Teachers are slow at implementing AMA: That’s what the amanuenses that they told us last term, that we haven’t practised yet
No implementation of AMA LI Inadequate training/info IT No experience of AMA yet LK
988
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989 TT1: We still have the problem especially when 990 dealing with uh writing, you know, if the child cannot 991 understand, you know eh express himself in writing. 992 So what must I do as a teacher, you know…
Teachers inadequate training: still have a problem to deal with dealing with writing Teacher uncertain what to do.
No implementation of AMA LI No experience of AMA LK Lack of knowledge Cry for help, helplessness ER
993 994 R: Hm. 995 996 TT1: So that that child can progress to the next 997 grade, what must I do. So now I’m still having 998 problems with that.
What must I do?
Inadequate knowledge/training LK, T Helplessness ER Uncertainty. Needs help LK
999 1000 R: So you still need answers to what must I do as 1001 a teacher…
1002 1003 TT1: Yes 1004 1005 TT2: Hm. 1006 1007 R: …to help a child who cannot write. 1008 1009 T1: Yes, who cannot write. 1010 1178 1179 R: You all indicated that you have a need for 1180 training. Who do you think should do this training?
1181 1182 TT2: All of us need the training... the teachers All need training Need for training NT