the heat is up and it’s raining - naturescot...• the global average surface temperature...
TRANSCRIPT
Educational Pack Advances Series No. 7
The Heat is Upand it’s Raining
The effects of current climate changes across Scotland
i
SNH’s Advances Series No. 7 Education PackThis education pack contains 15 lesson activities covering topics applicable tothe biology, chemistry, social studies, geography, environmental science andscience curricula, up to and including standard, higher and advanced highergrades. An accompanying poster is to be used in conjunction with the pack. Itis not intended that the 15 activities be used in serial but that the pack be usedas a menu; a guide to the curriculum links of each activity are given in theintroduction.
An electronic version of the education pack is available at www.snh.org.uk sothat teachers can revise lessons to suit their needs and to download colourimages to be used in conjunction with this pack (e.g. as overhead projectoracetates).
Further copies of the education pack and poster can be obtained fromPublications, Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby, Redgorton, Perth PH1 3EW.
AcknowledgementsThanks go to Carol Inskipp for collating the original material for this pack. Weare grateful for comments on the early draft made by George Strachan(Dingwall Academy), Sandy Robertson (Teacher Training, StrathclydeUniversity), Stella Leitch (Oban High School) and Mr Henderson (DumbartonAcademy) and to Mrs Joyce Robinson for proof-reading.
We are grateful to Liz Balharry who developed the pack in its later stages andto Robert Peak (Perth High School), Les Dargie (Pitlochry High School) andMark Drennan and the Science Department staff at Glen Urquhart High School,for their help in piloting the draft pack.
The poster illustrations were drawn by: George Mitchell (the countrysideimages), Richard Bonson (the sun, moon and atmosphere columns), and GlenMcBeth (the people images and the food chains). Jan Hendry produced the linedrawings included in the Education pack.
Toni Clark and Iona Finlayson, Awareness and Involvement Unit of ScottishNatural Heritage (SNH), co-ordinated the development of the whole pack.
Alan Scott (Design and Information, SNH) organised the artwork and drew thepie-charts and bar-charts. Alison Herman (Design and Information, SNH)provided design support at the later stages of the project.
Dr Noranne Ellis (Strategic Science Adviser, SNH) provided scientific input andguidance, and is responsible for the final edits.
ii
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................ iii
Curriculum links...................................................................................................... iv
Activities
1. Ice ages and Interglacials.................................................................... 12. Scotland’s Climate: the Present.......................................................... 43. Current Climatic Change and Greenhouse Gases............................. 74. Scotland’s Climate: the Future............................................................ 125. The Effects of Climate Change on species........................................ 156. Sea Level Rise around Scotland........................................................... 197. Nature’s Calendar.................................................................................... 248. Migration Watch...................................................................................... 269. Going North............................................................................................... 2810. Feeling the Squeeze at the top of the Mountain.............................3011. Human Behaviour..................................................................................... 3312. Saving Energy and Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions................. 3613. Renewable Energy Sources.................................................................... 3914. Calculating our Carbon Dioxide Emissions..........................................4215. Cutting the Air Travel Miles for our Food.........................................45
Explanatory Notes for Teachers ........................................................................48
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 92
Other Resources......................................................................................................96
References.................................................................................................................99
iii
Introduction
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have now concluded that,“In the light of new evidence ... most of the observed warming over the last 50years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gasconcentrations (in the atmosphere)”1. The IPCC formed their opinion onobservations made at monitoring sites around the world which revealedincreasing temperatures, changes in precipitation (rainfall and snowfall)patterns, and an increased frequency of extreme weather events, such asintense rainfall events. Specifically, these include:
• the global average surface temperature increased by 0.6oC during thetwentieth century,
• the 1990s was the warmest decade since records began, and• annual rainfall totals increased in the Northern hemisphere.
By the end of the twentieth century, there was an associated 10% decline in theextent of snow cover in comparison to the 1960s, a widespread rapid retreat ofmountain glaciers in non-polar regions, and a rise in the global average sea levelof between 10-20 cm.
Greenhouse gases remain for some time in the atmosphere which means thatemissions today commit us to climatic changes for decades to come. Projectionsof future climate therefore incorporate past and current emissions ofgreenhouse gases. Depending on whether emissions of greenhouse gases todayare much reduced or continue to increase, by 2100 the projections for theglobally-averaged surface temperature are for an increase by between 1.4oC and5.8oC above the 1961-1990 average. The projected rate of warming is muchlarger than observed warming during the twentieth century and is very likely tobe without precedent during at least the last 10,000 years1.
Species and their habitats are responsive to their environment. Manifold andrapid changes in their climatic environment are already causing changes inspecies’ distributions and abundance, as well as the timings of lifecycle events,and physical and chemical alterations in habitats. It is therefore importantthat we all appreciate the causes and the scale of the impacts that currentclimatic changes are having on the planet, in order that we can make fullyinformed decisions about our lifestyles.
1 Houghton et al . (2001).
CURRICULUM LINKS
ACTIVITY
Ice
Age
s an
d In
terg
laci
als
Sco
tland
’s C
limat
e: th
e pr
esen
t
Cur
rent
clim
atic
cha
nge
and
gree
nhou
se g
ases
Sco
tland
's c
limat
e: th
e fu
ture
The
effe
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
on
spec
ies
Sea
leve
l ris
e ar
ound
Sco
tland
Nat
ure'
s ca
lend
ar
Mig
ratio
n w
atch
Goi
ng N
orth
Fee
ling
the
sque
eze
at th
e to
p of
the
mou
ntai
n
Hum
an b
ehav
iour
Sav
ing
ener
gy a
nd r
educ
ing
carb
ondi
oxid
e em
issi
ons
Ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
Cal
cula
ting
our
carb
on d
ioxi
deem
issi
ons
Cut
ting
the
air
trav
el m
iles
for
our
food
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
iv
STANDARD GRADE
BiologyThe biosphere:pollution
x x x x x
The biosphere: effectson food chains
x x
The biosphere:adaptation to change
x x x x x
The world of plants:pollution from burningfossil fuels
x x x x
ChemistryFuels: pollutionproblems associatedwith oil and gas
x x x x
Contemporary Social StudiesThe environment: pollution,lifestyle, rights andresponsibilities
x x x x x x x
The environment:heritage: conservation
x x x x x x x x x x x
The environment:planning
x x x x x x x x x x
GeographyPhysical environment:weather
x
Physical environment:people-environmentinteractions
x x x x x x x x x x
Modern StudiesRights andresponsibilities – ofcitizenship
x x x x x x x x
ScienceA study ofenvironments:pollution
x x x x x x x x x x
CURRICULUM LINKS
ACTIVITY
Ice
Age
s an
d In
terg
laci
als
Sco
tland
’s C
limat
e: th
e pr
esen
t
Cur
rent
clim
atic
cha
nge
and
gree
nhou
se g
ases
Sco
tland
's c
limat
e: th
e fu
ture
The
effe
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
on
spec
ies
Sea
leve
l ris
e ar
ound
Sco
tland
Nat
ure'
s ca
lend
ar
Mig
ratio
n w
atch
Goi
ng N
orth
Fee
ling
the
sque
eze
at th
e to
p of
the
mou
ntai
n
Hum
an b
ehav
iour
Sav
ing
ener
gy a
nd r
educ
ing
carb
ondi
oxid
e em
issi
ons
Ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
Cal
cula
ting
our
carb
on d
ioxi
deem
issi
ons
Cut
ting
the
air
trav
el m
iles
for
our
food
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
v
A study ofenvironments:adaptation tochange
x x x x x x
A study ofenvironments:conservation
x x x x x x
Energy and itsuses: Non-renewablesources ofenergy
x x x x x x x
Energy and itsuses: renewablesources ofenergy
x
Additionaltopic(s)
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
ACCESS 2
ScienceBiology: theenvironment:conserving theenvironment
x x x x x x x x x
ACCESS 3
ChemistryEveryday chemistry:fossil fuels and pollutionproblems
x x x x x x
Chemistry andLife:photosynthesisand respiration
x x x
CURRICULUM LINKS
ACTIVITY
Ice
Age
s an
d In
terg
laci
als
Sco
tland
’s C
limat
e: th
e pr
esen
t
Cur
rent
clim
atic
cha
nge
and
gree
nhou
se g
ases
Sco
tland
's c
limat
e: th
e fu
ture
The
effe
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
on
spec
ies
Sea
leve
l ris
e ar
ound
Sco
tland
Nat
ure'
s ca
lend
ar
Mig
ratio
n w
atch
Goi
ng N
orth
Fee
ling
the
sque
eze
at th
e to
p of
the
mou
ntai
n
Hum
an b
ehav
iour
Sav
ing
ener
gy a
nd r
educ
ing
carb
ondi
oxid
e em
issi
ons
Ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
Cal
cula
ting
our
carb
on d
ioxi
deem
issi
ons
Cut
ting
the
air
trav
el m
iles
for
our
food
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
vi
INTERMEDIATE 1
ChemistryChemistry andlife: thegreenhouseeffect
x x x x x x x
GeographyGlobal issues:environmentalhazards
x x x x x x x x x x x
Managing Environmental ResourcesIntroduction toenvironmentalissues: effects ofhuman activity
x x x x x x x x x x x
Introduction toenvironmentalissues:sustainabledevelopment
x x x x x x x x x x x
Introduction toenvironmentalissues: localinitiatives forenvironmentprotection
x x x x x x
Personal and Social EducationSocialawareness anddevelopment:rights andresponsibilities
x x x x x
INTERMEDIATE 2
Biology
CURRICULUM LINKS
ACTIVITY
Ice
Age
s an
d In
terg
laci
als
Sco
tland
’s C
limat
e: th
e pr
esen
t
Cur
rent
clim
atic
cha
nge
and
gree
nhou
se g
ases
Sco
tland
's c
limat
e: th
e fu
ture
The
effe
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
on
spec
ies
Sea
leve
l ris
e ar
ound
Sco
tland
Nat
ure'
s ca
lend
ar
Mig
ratio
n w
atch
Goi
ng N
orth
Fee
ling
the
sque
eze
at th
e to
p of
the
mou
ntai
n
Hum
an b
ehav
iour
Sav
ing
ener
gy a
nd r
educ
ing
carb
ondi
oxid
e em
issi
ons
Ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
Cal
cula
ting
our
carb
on d
ioxi
deem
issi
ons
Cut
ting
the
air
trav
el m
iles
for
our
food
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
vii
Ecosystems:biodiversity:pollution
x x x x x x x x x x
CURRICULUM LINKS
ACTIVITY
Ice
Age
s an
d In
terg
laci
als
Sco
tland
’s C
limat
e: th
e pr
esen
t
Cur
rent
clim
atic
cha
nge
and
gree
nhou
se g
ases
Sco
tland
's c
limat
e: th
e fu
ture
The
effe
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
on
spec
ies
Sea
leve
l ris
e ar
ound
Sco
tland
Nat
ure'
s ca
lend
ar
Mig
ratio
n w
atch
Goi
ng N
orth
Fee
ling
the
sque
eze
at th
e to
p of
the
mou
ntai
n
Hum
an b
ehav
iour
Sav
ing
ener
gy a
nd r
educ
ing
carb
ondi
oxid
e em
issi
ons
Ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
Cal
cula
ting
our
carb
on d
ioxi
deem
issi
ons
Cut
ting
the
air
trav
el m
iles
for
our
food
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
viii
ChemistryCarboncompounds:fuels: pollution
x x x x x x
GeographyGlobal issues:environmentalhazards
x x x x x x x x x x x
Managing Environmental ResourcesNatural resourceuse:environmentaleffects of energysources
x x x x x x x x x
Natural resourceuse: reducingconsumption ofnon-renewableresources
x x x x
Natural resourceuse: sustainabledevelopment
x x x x x x x x x
Ecologicalprinciples:pollution
x x x x x x x x x x x
Ecologicalprinciples:conservation
x x x x x x x
Ecologicalprinciples: impactof humanactivities onecosystems
x x x x x x x x x
Personal and Social EducationSocialawareness anddevelopment:rights andresponsibilities
x x x x x
CURRICULUM LINKS
ACTIVITY
Ice
Age
s an
d In
terg
laci
als
Sco
tland
’s C
limat
e: th
e pr
esen
t
Cur
rent
clim
atic
cha
nge
and
gree
nhou
se g
ases
Sco
tland
's c
limat
e: th
e fu
ture
The
effe
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
on
spec
ies
Sea
leve
l ris
e ar
ound
Sco
tland
Nat
ure'
s ca
lend
ar
Mig
ratio
n w
atch
Goi
ng N
orth
Fee
ling
the
sque
eze
at th
e to
p of
the
mou
ntai
n
Hum
an b
ehav
iour
Sav
ing
ener
gy a
nd r
educ
ing
carb
ondi
oxid
e em
issi
ons
Ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
Cal
cula
ting
our
carb
on d
ioxi
deem
issi
ons
Cut
ting
the
air
trav
el m
iles
for
our
food
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
ix
HIGHER
Human BiologyBehaviour,Population andthe environment:PopulationGrowth and theenvironment
x x x
GeographyCore: physical:atmosphere –global climate
x x x x
Managing Environmental ResourcesInvestigatingecosystems:effects of humanactivity onecosystems
x x x x x x x x x x
Natural resourceuse: sustainabledevelopment
x x x x x
Personal and Social EducationSocialawareness anddevelopment:rights andresponsibilities
x x x x x x x x
CURRICULUM LINKS
ACTIVITY
Ice
Age
s an
d In
terg
laci
als
Sco
tland
’s C
limat
e: th
e pr
esen
t
Cur
rent
clim
atic
cha
nge
and
gree
nhou
se g
ases
Sco
tland
's c
limat
e: th
e fu
ture
The
effe
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
on
spec
ies
Sea
leve
l ris
e ar
ound
Sco
tland
Nat
ure'
s ca
lend
ar
Mig
ratio
n w
atch
Goi
ng N
orth
Fee
ling
the
sque
eze
at th
e to
p of
the
mou
ntai
n
Hum
an b
ehav
iour
Sav
ing
ener
gy a
nd r
educ
ing
carb
ondi
oxid
e em
issi
ons
Ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s
Cal
cula
ting
our
carb
on d
ioxi
deem
issi
ons
Cut
ting
the
air
trav
el m
iles
for
our
food
Activity number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
x
ADVANCED HIGHER
BiologyEnvironmentalbiology: humanimpact on theenvironment
x x x x x x x x x x
Managing Environmental ResourcesThe environmentand humanactivity: impactsof human activityon environmentalsystems
x x x x x x
The environmentand humanactivity:innovation inprotecting theenvironment
x
The environmentand humanactivity:environmentalpolicy andinitiatives
x x x x x
Environmental GeologyConservationand problems ofresource usage
x x x x x x
PoliticsChallenge to theNation State:Explain theconcepts of thenation state andglobalisation
x
Student Activities
1
ACTIVITY 1 - ICE AGES AND INTERGLACIALS
Wobbles in the Earth’s orbit
The last global ice age started about 120,000 years ago and ended around20,000 years ago. It took another 10,000�years for Scotland to be clearof the large ice sheet that had covered it. This means that Scotland hasnow been in an interglacial period for about 10,000 years.
Global ice ages occur at roughly regular intervals. It is believed that theyare caused by variations in the way that the Earth orbits the sun. TheEarth gradually moves between its “fattest” orbit and its “thinnest”orbital shape over a 100,000 year cycle (see 1 in the diagram). Thismeans that the Earth can be quite a long way from the sun and the sun’sheat for thousands of years. Gradually, the orbit will shift back so thatthe Earth is closer towards the heat of the sun.
Figure 1.1: Orbit around the sun and angles of tilt of the Earth’s spin
The axis is slightly tilted so the spin of the planet has an angle between21o and 24.5o (see 2 in the diagram). Today, the angle of spin is about23.5o. The largest tilt of 24.5o means that the poles are pointing moretowards the sun.
The warming of the Earth by the sun is therefore affected by: (1) thedistance of the Earth from the sun (over the whole year), (2) where thepoles are pointing (for example, if the axis of rotation is 21o then theydon't point so directly towards the sun), and (3) the time of year theEarth passes close to the sun.
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1. Variations in the Earth’s orbit2. The axis ofrotation
3. The month when theEarth is closest to the sun
2
However, this is not the full story of today’s climatic changes. Climaticvariations are a part of a natural process but you will see that today’schanges are beyond this natural variation in the coming lessons!
Questions
1. (a) What happens to the Earth every 24 hours whilst it is orbitingthe sun?
(b) How long does it take for the Earth to go around (or orbit) thesun?
(c) What shape best describes the orbit of the Earth: round orelliptical?
2 . From table 1.1 (below) what has been the fastest rate of globalwarming since the last ice age, and when did it occur?
Table 1.1: Warming of the Earth since emerging from the last Ice Age
Approximate time period Warming oC Rate (oC/century)15,000 to 11,500 years ago • 10oC overall
• fastest warming was 4oCover a 500-1000 yearperiod
• 0.3oC• 0.4 - 0.8oC
10,500 to 7000 years ago 7oC 0.2oC5000 to 2500 years ago 4oC 0.2oCThe last 10,000 years 5oC 0.05oCThe last 100 years 0.5oC 0.5oCThe next 100 years 1.5-5.8oC (predicted) 1.5-5.8oC (predicted)
3. What is the predicted rate of global warming for the next century andhow does this compare to previously known rates of warming? Find thegraph which illustrates the predictions for Scotland on the poster.
4. (a) List three factors which affect whether the Earth is an ice age oran interglacial.
(b) What else might affect the temperature of the planet? List twofactors.
5. Since the end of the last ice age (approx. 10,000 years ago), Scotlandhas generally become warmer although there have been fluctuations.Look at the series of illustrations on the poster entitled ‘the changingappearance of Scotland’. Describe the changes in appearance in your
3
own words and include the timescale over which the changes happened.Were the changes in the landscape due to natural forces or humanactivities? What were the energy sources which powered the humanactivities?
6. Use the poster and a dictionary to find out the difference between‘climate’ and ‘weather’.
4
ACTIVITY 2 - SCOTLAND’S CLIMATE: THE PRESENT
The Earth has an atmosphere filled with gases
The Earth is unusual in our solar system because it has a warmatmosphere. The moon, our nearest planet, does not. The averagetemperature of the Earth is nearly 15oC whereas the averagetemperature of the moon is -6oC. This is because there is a layer ofgases around the Earth which is called the atmosphere.
The most abundant gases in our atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen.Carbon dioxide, water vapour and some other gases make up a smallproportion of the atmosphere. However, these minor gases have theability to trap heat, which means that the atmosphere acts as a blanketkeeping the planet warm. The holding of heat by some gases in theatmosphere is called the greenhouse effect, i.e. the gases hold heat fromthe sun like the glass of a greenhouse traps the heat from the sun.Therefore, the gases which hold heat are called greenhouse gases.
It’s getting warmer and wetter
In 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change stated that theEarth had warmed by between 0.4oC and 0.8oC during the twentiethcentury, depending on the location. Scotland warmed by 0.8oC like mostof the other countries in the Northern Hemisphere. By the end of the20th Century, the trend across Scotland was of a rapid warming.
The amount of rainfall each year has also increased. This increase in theannual rainfall has mainly occurred in the winter. Scotland witnessed someof the wettest years on record during the 1990s, along with many othercountries in the Northern Hemisphere. More disconcerting is theincreasing number of “heavy rain events”. A heavy rain event is when asmuch rain falls in a few hours as you might expect to fall over a numberof days. When a lot of water falls in a short time, it cannot all soak intothe soil, and this causes the extra flooding we’ve witnessed recently.
However, there were variations in climate during the twentieth century.For example, the 1940s was the warmest decade during the first half ofthe twentieth century whilst the 1970s had very cold winters.
5
A local influence
The North Atlantic Drift brings warm water to the British Isles fromtropical regions. The North Atlantic Drift is a part of a larger oceancurrent called the Gulf Stream. Like a radiator, it keeps our wintersmilder than they might otherwise be. However, it also makes our summerweather wetter because of the moist air it brings. The strength (andtherefore heat) of this ocean current has varied a lot since the last IceAge. It has therefore affected the climate of the British Isles quitedramatically.
Some predictions have suggested that global warming will result in anexcessive flood of cold water from melting ice at the North Pole enteringthe North Atlantic Ocean. This could slow down and even stop the NorthAtlantic Drift.
Figure 2.1: Ocean currents
Source: Reproduced with permission from the Press and Journal.
6
Questions
1. Study the part of the poster which illustrates and describes theEarth’s atmosphere.(a) What keeps the Earth warmer than other planets?(b) Name the two main gases in the atmosphere which do not affect
the temperature of the atmosphere.(c) Name two gases that hold heat in the atmosphere. What term
describes their ability to hold heat?(d) Why is the term “greenhouse gas” used to describe the ability of
certain gases to hold heat? Make sure you mention thegreenhouse effect.
2. (a) What is the North Atlantic Drift?(b) Where is the North Atlantic Drift ocean current in Figure 2.1?(c) Explain why Scotland might get colder as other places in the
world warm up.
3. (a) Using your answers to questions 1 and 2, give two factors whichinfluence Scotland’s climate.
(b) State whether these factors affect the climate on a global orlocal level.
4. Look at the girl with the umbrella and the boy with the snowboard onthe poster. How do these images summarise the climatic changes weare seeing in Scotland?
5. Some people call the recent climatic changes “global warming”.(a) Why is this not as accurate as calling them “climate change”?(b) Some people believe that “climate chaos” might be a better term
than “climate change”. Why?
7
ACTIVITY 3 – CURRENT CLIMATIC CHANGE ANDGREENHOUSE GASES
Greenhouse gases
The proportion of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2),methane (CH4)` and some organic compounds (e.g. CFCs) have increased asa result of the burning of fossil fuels. As a result, the Earth is nowbecoming warmer at a rate not seen for 10,000 years. This is known asthe enhanced greenhouse effect because it enhances the natural warmthof the Earth’s atmosphere.
As fossil fuels continue to be used, predictions can be made about theexpected increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Theseestimates are used to predict the increase in temperature over the next100 years. The predicted increase of between 1.4oC and 5.8oC over thenext century is exceptionally rapid and far exceeds any previously knownfluctuations in temperature.
Venus has a dense atmosphere filled with carbon dioxide. Thetemperature of Venus’s atmosphere is about 500oC (which is hotter thanan oven!).
CO2
CO2
CO2H2O
H2O
H2O
CH4 N2O
N2O
H2O
H2ON2O
N2O
N2O
N2O
H2OH2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
CH4
CH4
CH4
CH4
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2CO2
CO2CO2
H2O
H2O
H2O
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
Gases in the atmospherebefore Industrialisation
Gases in the atmosphereafter Industrialisation
The Earth’s surface The Earth’s surface
Top of the atmosphere H2O Top of the atmosphere
8
Questions
Part A – the greenhouse gases
1. Which gases have increased in the atmosphere since industrialization?2. Using Figure 3.1, which greenhouse gas contributes to the greatest
degree of warming?
Figure 3.1: The contribution to warming by the main greenhouse gasesSource: The UK Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research.
3. Why is Venus so hot?4. Find the graph on the poster which shows the changing temperature
trend for the Northern Hemisphere over the 20th Century. How wouldyou describe the changes in temperature between 1880 and 2000?
5. What is the predicted temperature range for Scotland in 2020 ?
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Part B – the trends
1. Describe the trends shown in the graph below.
Figure 3.2: Average global temperature at Earth’s surface 1950 – 2000Source: Reproduced with permission from Abramovitz (2002).
2. Use the figures in table 3.1 below to plot a graph of carbon dioxideconcentration in the atmosphere (parts per million) against year.
Table 3.1: Concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 1960to 2000
Year Atmospheric Carbon dioxideConcentration (parts per million)
1960 3171965 3201970 3261975 3311980 3391985 3461990 3541995 3612000 369
Source: Keeling and Whorf (2002).
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3. In 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change stated:‘’In the light of new evidence … most of the observed warming over thelast 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhousegas concentrations”. Compare your graph with Figure 3.2. Are youinclined to agree with them? Why?
Part C – the countries most responsible for climate change
1. Plot a bar chart of carbon dioxide emissions per person (metric tons)in 1997 from the figures in table 3.2 below:
Table 3.2: Carbon dioxide emissions per person from ten differentcountries
Country Tonnes of Carbon dioxideemitted per person
United States 20.3Australia 17.3Netherlands 10.4Japan 9.2UK 8.9Brazil 1.8Peru 1.2India 1.1Nigeria 0.8Rwanda 0.1
Source: Human Development Report (2001).
2. In 1997, which five countries on your bar chart emitted:a) the greatest amount of carbon dioxide per person?b) the least amount of carbon dioxide per person?c) What is the average amount of carbon dioxide emitted, per person,
across the countries?
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3. Now compare your results with the figures in table 3.3 below.
Table 3.3: Carbon dioxide emissions per person, comparing those inindustrialised (or developed) countries to other countries
Countries Tonnes of Carbon dioxideemitted per person
Developing 1.9Least developed 0.2Industrialised 11.0
Source: Human Development Report (2001).
(a) Which industrialised nations have per capita carbon dioxideemissions above the average? Use your bar chart.
(b) How many times greater is the average per capita carbon dioxideemission of industrialised countries than the least developednations?
(c) Why do developing countries emit more carbon dioxide per personthan least developed?
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ACTIVITY 4 – SCOTLAND’S CLIMATE: THE FUTURE
Climate change scenarios
Scientists have produced various scenarios of the UK’s future climate.“Scenarios” are storylines describing “what if” circumstances. They arenot predictions because we do not know the level of greenhouse gasesthat individuals and countries will emit in the future. One storyline, ascenario based on the assumption that a lot of greenhouse gases will beemitted, describes a climate where temperatures rise is rapid and rainfallpatterns change a lot. A scenario where the level of greenhouse gasesemitted is expected to decline, the climate is shown to stabilise by theend of the century.
Four scenarios have been developed to cover a range of possible futureclimates related to differing levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Theseare:• Low• Medium-Low• Medium-High and• High.
The summary figures below give the range from the Low scenario (that is“low” level emissions of greenhouse gases) to the High scenario (i.e. wherethere are “high” level emissions of greenhouse gases).
By 2100, scenarios of climate change indicate that Scotland may:• warm by between 2.0oC and 3.5 oC.• have wetter winters (by as much as a third more rain than last century
in some areas) and drier summers (by between 10% and 50%).• have faster wind speeds.• a 10-20% increase in the severity of floods, particularly in inland
areas.
The climate scenarios for the world suggests that on average the planetmay warm by between 1.4oC and 5.8oC.
It’s very unfortunate, but the greenhouse gases we emit today will last inthe atmosphere for many, many years. Therefore we know that theplanet will continue to get warmer during this century.
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A local effect on Scotland
Whilst the globe may continue to get warmer, Scotland may not ifclimatic changes cause the North Atlantic Drift to slow down. This meanswarm waters from the Gulf of Mexico may not reach the shores ofBritain. This would be the result of a lot of cold fresh water entering theNorth Pole flooding the north part of the North Atlantic Ocean frommelting ice at Greenland. Scientific models suggest that the NorthAtlantic Drift will not completely stop before 2100.
Figure 4.1: Ocean currents
Source: Reproduced with permission from the Press and Journal.
Questions
1. Why do scientists produce ‘scenarios of change’ for the future climaterather than make predictions?
2. Unless industrialised countries significantly reduce their greenhousegas emissions, by 2100 global concentrations of greenhouse gases willbe much higher than today. Using the figures for the High scenarioof concentrations of greenhouse gases emissions, describe howScotland’s climate might change by the year 2100.
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3. If the North Atlantic Drift (an ocean current) slows down or stops,yet global warming continues, describe three possible scenarios forScotland’s climate.
4. (a) As a class, decide which scenario is most likely to occur by theend of this century. Why won’t scientists commit themselves tostating which scenario(s) might be more likely to occur?
(b) Divide into groups and each group select a topic from this list:farming, travel, outdoors recreation, houses, or something else.
(c) Discuss possible problems and benefits which your climate changescenario will bring.
(d) Report your ideas back to the class.
5. (a) Have you heard of an international agreement to reducegreenhouse gas emissions? What is it called?
(b) What are the main problems for ensuring that this internationalagreement is adhered to?
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ACTIVITY 5 – THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ONSPECIES
A change in climate and species’ distributions
The geographical distribution of a species is usually closely related tosome aspect of the climate. For example, species we associate with thewarmer climates of the European continent (like vines) would be killed bythe frosts we have in Britain, so they are restricted to southern areasfree of frosts. Within Britain, we associate some species of trees likebeech, horse chestnut and lime, with the warmer climate of England, andonly see species typical of cold climates (like the arctic) in the north ofScotland or at the tops of mountains.
A warming of the climate means that species have an opportunity to movenorth and/or uphill. This is not a bad thing. However, it is the currentrapid rate of warming that is causing greatest concern. In 2002 UKscientists suggested that by 2100 Scotland may warm by between 2.0oCand 3.5oC.
Unless the species can fly, it may not be able to keep pace with the shiftin the locations where the climate it requires occurs. Buildings andmotorways act like barriers to the dispersal of species in the landscape.Some species are also restricted to a particular type of habitat (e.g. wetmarshland) or a food plant. Such species are likely to be most adverselyaffected by a warming climate.
At the southerly edge of its range a species may:
(i) experience a climate which is too warm for it and/or(ii) find that species more adapted to the new, warmer climate are
moving in and competing with it for space, food and water.
In either case, the species will decline at its southerly edge, eitherbecause it produces fewer offspring or because its offspring are lessequipped to survive.
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Figure 5.1: Winners and Losers
WINNER
beech
LOSER
Scottish primrose
WINNER
large skipper
LOSER
redshank
WINNER
nuthatch
LOSER
mountain ringlet
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(a) ... is a small flower, native to Scotland,i.e. it is found no where else in the world.Its distribution in Scotland spans only 200km from its southern to its northern limits.The area of suitable climate for the speciesis expected to reduce and perhapsdisappear by the 2050s.
(b) ... is a butterfly currently found inEngland and Wales, and the south-westof Scotland. As temperatures rise, it islikely to spread through the CentralValley and up the east coast by the2050s.
(c) ... is not native to Scotland yet is oftenplanted in parks and gardens. In the past,it tended not to be able to produce saplingsin Scotland. In Argyll and Fife it hasstarted to produce saplings in recent years.Its leaves are now appearing 2-3 weeksearlier.
(d) ... is an upland butterfly speciesthat occurs in very few areas in thewest of Scotland, in the English LakeDistrict and usually above 500 m acrossmainland Europe. It is predicted tobecome extinct in Britain by the 2050sas areas with suitable climatedisappear.
(e) ... is a wading bird which uses coastalsaltmarshes in winter. The saltmarshesprovide food such as marine worms, snailsand shrimps. It is one example of a waderthat could lose feeding grounds if sea levelsrise.
(f) ... is a woodland bird that currentlyoccurs in only about five sites insouthern Scotland as well as in England,Wales and mainland Europe. It isalready expanding its range northward.By the 2020s, suitable climate for thenuthatch is predicted in southern andcentral Scotland.
Information from Harrison et al. (2001).
Questions
1 . Match the species descriptions and match them to the speciesillustrated in the figure “Winners and Losers”.
2. Two of the three “winners” are winged species.(a) Why does having wings help the species deal with the warming
aspect of climate change?(b) Why is beech able to quickly colonise the North even though it
has no wings?
3. List the three species labelled as “losers” on three separate lines. Foreach one, outline why the climate becomes unsuitable or how theclimate influences other things to become unsuitable.
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4. Scientists believe that current climatic change is too rapid for mostspecies to cope with. List three reasons why species might find itdifficult to move north and uphill as the climate warms.
5. (a) If a particular species produces fewer offspring each year as aresult of climatic changes, what will eventually happen to thespecies?
(b) List three non-climate issues which are likely to mean a specieswill be even more adversely affected by the current climaticchanges.
6. (a) If the average annual temperature across Scotland increases by2.0oC, how far north would climate space for species move?There are two answers for this!
(b) If the average annual temperature across Scotland increases by3.5oC , how far north would climate space for species move?There are two answers for this!
(c) Why have you been asked to consider the movement north ofclimate space with 2.0oC and 3.5oC?
(d) For each of the four distances you have calculated above, use anatlas or a globe to give the new locations. (You only need to do arough approximation.)
(e) Which scenario of warming, the 2.0oC scenario or the 3.5oCscenario, is most likely to have the greatest adverse impact onspecies? Why?
7. Do you think that there will be more winners or more losers underclimate change? Why?
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ACTIVITY 6 - SEA LEVEL RISE AROUND SCOTLAND
Sea level rise
Scotland’s sea levels are predicted to continue to rise as the Earth’sclimate becomes warmer (Figure 6.1). This is because ice in the polarregions and mountain glaciers is melting and the melt-water is enteringthe oceans. There is also some expansion in the seawater as it heats up(warm water occupies a greater area than cold water). This is known asthermal expansion. As well as sea levels rising, an increase in the numberof storms means a greater erosion of intertidal (or coastal) areas, such asmudflats, saltmarshes and sand dunes.
Coastal habitats
Mudflats, saltmarshes and sand dunes cover several hectares of open landat the coast. Such intertidal habitats contain large populations of marineworms and molluscs. The presence of these invertebrates means thatintertidal habitats are good feeding grounds for thousands of wildfowland ‘stopover’ sites for migrating birds.
If these intertidal habitats are completely covered or eroded by the sea,the neighbouring land is also at risk of falling into the sea. This is coastalerosion. This is already being seen along the east English coast where sealevel rise has been much greater than around Scotland.
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Figure 6.1: Predicted sea level rise around Scotland for 2050
Reproduced from Hill et al. (1999).
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Managed retreat or coastal realignment
It is expensive to prevent coastal erosion and flooding. Some areasaround coastal towns, industrial installations and nuclear power stationsmust be protected from flooding by the sea at all costs. However, toprevent the loss of valuable intertidal habitats it is sometimes feasible toallow certain areas, such as farmland, to be flooded by the sea. Such ascheme to allow the flooding of land by the coastline is called ‘coastalrealignment’ or ‘managed retreat’.
It can take several years for newly flooded coastal land to becomemudflats, saltmarsh and sand dunes colonised by species typical of thesehabitats. Meanwhile, these areas protect neighbouring land because theyabsorb the energy of high tides, especially during storms.
An example of coastal realignment
Nigg Bay lies on the north side of the Cromarty Firth. In 2001, the RoyalSociety for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) bought more land at Nigg toextend the “Nigg and Udales Bay” Nature Reserve. The reserve is nownearly 1600�ha. The reserve has most of the Cromarty Firth’s winteringpopulations of knot, bar-tailed godwit and pink-footed goose. This area isan internationally important location for these bird species.
About 50 years ago on the west side of the reserve, a sea wall was builtto surround 25 hectares of marshland. The marshland was drained andused as a field to graze cattle. Now the sea is high enough to flood thefield at high-tide.
In 2003, the field was allowed to flood as part of a coastal realignmentproject. It is hoped that over time the area will develop into intertidalmudflats and saltmarsh. Various waders have already been seen on thenew wetland.
The project has cost £3,600 and is believed to protect other areasnearby which would otherwise be vulnerable to flooding by the sea. Thealternative may have been to build a new wall which would have cost anestimated £15,000.
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Figure 6.2: A photograph of coastal realignment at Nigg Bay
Photo: RSPB
Questions
1. (a) Use Figure 6.1 to find out how much the sea near your home mayrise by 2050.
(b) Work out how many centimetres a year this is (i.e. assume the riseoccurs between 2000 and 2050).
(c) This diagram is just one set of predictions for sea level rise.What factors might mean that it turns out to be incorrect?
2. Look at the poster. What is the heading for the sea level riseillustration? Why is it called this?
3. (a) Why are mudflats, saltmarshes and sand dunes called “intertidal”habitats?
(b) Why are these intertidal habitats important for wading birds andwildfowl?
(c) Why are mudflats and beaches important for humans in coastalareas? Remember the sea can be very powerful.
4. List three advantages in allowing coastal realignment at Nigg Bay.
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5. Imagine that you work for the RSPB and that you have been asked towrite a report to explain how and why you will carry out the coastalrealignment. Include:
• details of the rate and level of rise in sea level (use Figure 6.1);• the measures you are carrying out to prevent accidental flooding
of neighbouring land;• describe plant and bird species associated with intertidal habitats
which will benefit.
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ACTIVITY 7 - NATURE’S CALENDAR
Phenology
The study of the recurrence of natural events by species (e.g. such asthose in spring and autumn) is called phenology. It can also be describedas observing nature's calendar. It includes recording the time the firstcuckoo is heard or when blossom is first seen. Phenology not only providesevidence that climate change is happening, but defines how fast it isoccurring, and how it is having an effect on our wildlife.
Between the 1960s and 1999 across Europe, spring events became aboutten days earlier and autumn events nearly five days later. Britain hadthree more weeks of growing season in 1998 than in 1962. Examples ofearlier springtime events are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Examples of earlier spring time events in Britain with a 1oC risein annual temperature
Spring time event Days earlier for each 1oC riseTrees leaves first appear, e.g. oak in leaf 5-7 daysRobins & chaffinches laying eggs approx. 3 & 2 days respectivelySwallows arriving in Britain 2-3 daysArrival of newts to ponds 9-10 daysSpawning of frogs 9 daysFirst flights of butterflies: painted lady,small copper and orange tip
10, 9 & 5 days respectively
Sources: information has been taken from various scientific papers. Seewww.snh.gov.uk/trends/climate.
Questions
1. Why are spring events becoming earlier and autumn events becominglater?
2. If Scotland warms by 2.0oC by the 2050s, how much earlier willspring be for1. tree leaves,2. robins laying eggs,3. the first appearance of the painted lady butterfly?
3. (a) An illustration on the poster tells a story about a tree, a butterflyand a bird. (i) What is its title? (ii) Why is it called that?
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(b) Use the pictures to describe how differences in the response rateof species to warmer springs can affect the survival of a species.
(c) Is rapid climate change a good or a bad thing for species? Explainyour answer.
4. The Woodland Trust and the Centre for Ecology and Hydrologymonitor changes to nature's events with information sentin�from��volunteers. They have information on their website,www.phenology.org.uk.
(a) List five species being observed.(b) List five different activities being observed.(c) Is this the spring or autumn set of trends? What is the date
today?(d) Go to option 4 (“View Trends”) on the phenology website. Look at
the four sample graphs provided. Chose one and write down itstitle and the trend (if any) which it shows.
(e) Think critically about the data set available for the graph. Arethere many years with missing data? Do we know where in the UKthe recorders lived? Is there a large variation betweenconsecutive years? Do we have enough records to reliably showthe trend?
(f) If the phenology web site remains active for the next ten years,give two reasons why the evidence for changes in the timing ofspring and autumn events will become more reliable.
5. Go to the ‘Live maps’ section of the phenology website and see howspring and autumn events vary across the UK.
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ACTIVITY 8 - MIGRATION WATCH
Migration
Migration is the movement of species at predictable times each year,usually to and from breeding areas. Species migrate to areas when theirfood sources become plentiful there, usually arriving at particular timesin the year. Some migrants overwinter at their destination. Migratoryspecies include birds, fish, butterflies, and whales.
Species that return to Scotland each spring are called summer migrants.An example is the swallow. These species stay for our summer and breedhere. In late summer or early autumn they leave to spend the winter inAfrica. Have you ever thought about where the first swallow of thespring is seen in Scotland? And what date the swallow is first seen?
Recent c
Observations on where and when migratory bird species have been seenhave been recorded. Using climate data enables us to see to what extentthe climate can explain any changes in timing of migration. For example,the earlier arrival of some migrants can be related to higher-than-usualtemperatures along migration routes. It has been calculated that thearrival of the swallow in Britain may become earlier by 1 to 3 days foreach 1oC increase in annual temperature. However, different species ofplants and animals respond at different rates to climate change. Oaktrees, for example, put out new leaves 5-7 days earlier for each 1oCincrease in annual temperature, and butterflies are first seen up to tendays earlier.
The first swallows areusually seen on the southcoast of Eng l and ,sometimes as early as mid-March. By mid-April,swallows usually arrive atShetland. By the middle ofMay, the majority ofswallows have arrived.Exceptionally, swallows arerecorded as early asFebruary.
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Migration Watch
Migration Watch records the arrival and dispersal of spring migrantsacross Britain and Ireland. The idea is to note the spring migrants you seeeach day and enter your observations on the Migration Watch web pagerun by the British Trust for Ornithology. Every night the MigrationWatch computer produces up-to-date maps showing the arrival andspread of the different species of summer migrants throughout Britainand Ireland. The project began in spring 2002 and is expected tocontinue until at least 2004.
Questions
Look at the website www.bto.org/migwatch to learn about a particularbird migrant.
(a) Click on “Focus on species” and choose a species. Write down thename of the species you have chosen.
(b) When does this species come to Britain? Why? Describe themigration route.
(c) Go to ‘first dates and counts’ for this species. When and where isthe first record for Britain for the latest year?
(d) Click on “Animated maps” for the latest year (e.g. 2004) for thisspecies (it may take a while to load). When did most of the birdsarrive in Britain this year? Was this later or earlier than last year?
(e) What does it feed on?(f) How could the changing climate affect your species? (Think about
the weather on its migration route and availability of food for thechicks.)
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ACTIVITY 9 – GOING NORTH
An example of a northern species
The Scottish primrose is endemic to Scotland. ‘Endemic’ means it onlyoccurs here and nowhere else in the world. However, the Scottishprimrose does not occur all over Scotland. It is only found along thenorth coast and on the Orkney Isles.
The many pink flowers form a small ball supported by a 5 cm tall stem.Each pink flower has a yellow centre. It grows on windswept headlandsand dunes at the coast amongst grasses and sedges. At these sites, thestrong winds and salt spray keep the grass and other plants short,allowing the primrose space to grow with them. Further inland it would beovergrown and outcompeted by the taller grasses.
Figure 9.1: The Current distribution of the Scottish primrose
Photo: SNH
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The survival of the Scottish primrose depends upon fertile seed beingproduced each year which means that the soil and the climate need to beright for the seeds to germinate and grow into mature plants.
It is thought likely that by the 2050s, the average annual temperaturewill have increased by 1oC. This means that the most suitable climate forthe Scottish primrose would have moved northwards by between 250 and400 km. But can the Scottish primrose move that far in 40-50 years?
Questions
1. Use the map above to work out what is likely to happen to the mostsuitable climate space for the Scottish primrose by the 2050s(assuming a 1oC rise in the temperature) by following theseinstructions:
i) Draw a horizontal line across the map where the southern limitof distribution of the primrose occurs today.
ii) Place your ruler along the scale to see how many mm there areto 100 km. Work out how many mm represent (a) 250 km and(b) 400 km.
iii) Draw two arrows running northwards from the southern limit ofwhere the Scottish primrose currently occurs for (a) 250 kmand (b) 400 km.
iv) If the southern limit of the Scottish primrose moves north bybetween 250–400 km, will there still be suitable habitat for thisplant in Scotland? Where will it be?
2. If the average annual temperature across Scotland rises by 3.5oC by2100, the most suitable climate for Scottish primrose would havemoved to the Arctic Ocean. Use an atlas to list countries that occuron the same latitude as the Arctic Ocean.
3. The seeds of the Scottish primrose are unlikely to disperse to anydistant location by themselves. Suggest two activities we mightconsider doing to help the Scottish primrose survive.
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ACTIVITY 10 - FEELING THE SQUEEZE AT THE TOP OFTHE MOUNTAIN
A loss of snow
As the climate becomes warmer, the tops of mountains also becomewarmer. Mountains over 1000 m usually have ice and snow patches all yearround, with deep snow covering their tops during the winter months. Foreach 1oC increase in annual temperature it is estimated that the limits forthese cold conditions will move uphill by between 200 and 250 metres.
At the tops of Scotland’s mountains, species adapted to the coldconditions include slow-growing plants, mosses and liverworts,invertebrates (e.g. beetles and spiders), and birds. These species aredescribed as ‘arctic’ species because they are comfortable in the kinds of
31
conditions found in the cold arctic. Some of these species are describedas ‘alpine’ species indicating that they also occur in the very highmountains in the Alps. Bird species include the snow bunting and thedotterel. Plant species include several types of saxifrage and trailingazalea (Figure�10.1).
Figure 10.1: Trailing Azalea
The trailing azalea is related to the azaleas and rhododendrons in gardensbut it is much smaller. It is our only native azalea. It has pink flowersthat are only 2-3 mm long and grows close to the ground. It grows veryslowly; a plant that is 50 years old may only have a stem one metre long.Trailing azalea occurs in mountains in Scotland, England, Wales, Norwayand the Alps at altitudes above 400�metres. Some estimates fromclimate change calculations predict that Scotland may warm by between2oC and 3.5oC by the 2100. If these calculations are correct, then manyareas where trailing azalea currently exists in the British Isles willdisappear.
Questions
Look at the illustration “the squeeze for living space” on the poster.
1. (a) Which kinds of species are moving off the mountain? Why canthey?
(b) Where do you think they are going?(c) Why is the title called “squeeze for living space”?
2. The highest mountain in Scotland is Ben Nevis. Its highest point isabout 1300 metres above sea level. Trailing azalea currently occurs600�metres above sea level. An increase in the average annual
32
temperature of 1oC is estimated to shift the climate uphill by about200�metres.
(a) Draw a simple diagram of Ben Nevis, 13cm high (to present 1300mabove sea level). Draw a line across at 600m to indicate where thelowest limits of trailing azalea grows, and label it.
(b) Draw dashed lines across the mountain at every 200m intervalsabove the lower limit for trailing azalea. Label them as 1oC rises inannual temperature.
(c) How many degrees Celsius rise will it take before there is nosuitable climate space at the top of Ben Nevis for trailing azalea?
3. (a) What is the expected rise in temperature for Scotland for theend of the century?
(b) What is the implication for trailing azalea and other arctic-alpinespecies like it?
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ACTIVITY 11 - HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Look at the following cartoons about climate change. They illustrate someenvironmental issues related to climate change.
Questions
1. For each cartoon, what is the message that it is trying to put across?
2. Do you agree with the messages in each of the cartoons? Give reasonsfor your answers.
Cartoon 1: I planted a tree
By Lawrence Moore in Tiempo No. 11, May 1994.
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Cartoon 2: I don’t see my air pollutants
From Agarwal, A. and Narain, S. (1992) Towards a green world. Centre forScience and Environment, New Delhi, India.
Cartoon 3: My idea of progress
By Chris Madden in When humans roamed the Earth. EarthscanPublications Ltd, London. http://www.cagle.slate.msn.com
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Cartoon 4: I only need to spread the message
By Chris Madden in When humans roamed the Earth. EarthscanPublications Ltd, London. http://www.cagle.slate.msn.com
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ACTIVITY 12 - SAVING ENERGY AND REDUCINGCARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
Background
Burning fossil fuels (e.g. oil, coal and gas) release energy which is turnedinto heat (e.g. gas fires, oil central heating) or into electricity.Electricity is then used for lighting, heating and powering appliances suchas cookers, music stereos and the TV. In producing energy from theburning of fossil fuels, a number of gases are produced including carbondioxide (CO2). Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which contributes mostto the warming of the Earth’s atmosphere and therefore to climatechange. However, energy is often wasted unnecessarily.
Conserving energy at home and at schoolEnergy can be conserved (or saved) by:
(1) Increasing the insulation in the walls and roof spaces, andaround water tanks and hot water pipes. Doors and windows canbe double glazed and not left open when the heating is on.
(2) Switching off all energy-using devices as soon as they are nolonger needed, e.g. lights, heaters, televisions, computers etc.
(3) Checking that the temperatures for the central heating, thewashing machine and the hot water are not unnecessarily high.This also includes checking that the settings for therefrigerator and the freezer are not unnecessarily low (becausethese use energy to keep food cool).
Energy efficient shoppingAs a consumer you can chose energy efficient goods. Energy efficientgoods include recycled products as these require less energy tomanufacture. You can also chose to buy local food and goods as these willhave travelled less distance and therefore used up less energy in theirtransport. For example, when you buy an apple grown in Britain it will havetravelled less far and used less energy than an apple from South Africaor New Zealand.
TravellingCycling and walking are not only good exercise, they also get people aboutwithout burning fossil fuels. All other forms of transport contribute toclimate change, unless their energy source has been obtained fromrenewable sources. The faster the travel, and the further the travel, the
37
more greenhouse gases are emitted. A quick acceleration will use morefuel than a vehicle travelling at its cruising speed. The more passengers avehicle can take, the more fuel efficient it becomes. Thus trains andbuses, provided they are well occupied, are generally more fuel efficientthan cars (if you consider the energy used per person carried).
MitigationYou might have read or heard about the term ‘climate change mitigation’in the news. Mitigation is anything that reduces the casual factor ofanything bad, so reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere,however it is done, is climate change mitigation.
Questions
1. Nine energy-saving activities are listed in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1: Energy saving activitiesEnergy saving activities Reduce your CO2
emissions(kg per year) by:
1 Switching lights off in an empty room 190 – 5002 Turning off electrical appliances at the set (e.g. the TV) rather
than leaving it on stand-by27
3 Turning off your computer when not in use Not available4 Letting clothes dry naturally 1505 Is your thermostat set higher than 21ºC?
If so, for every 1ºC you turn it down you can cut your heatingcosts by 10%
Up to 350
6 Cooking with lids on pans 40 (Gas)70 (Electricity)
7 Keeping your fridge/freezer at the right temperature, i.e. 3ºCfor a fridge and -15º C for a freezer
5-10 for each 1oC
8 Run the washing machine and dishwasher with full loads 90 – 1009 Using low temperature (or economy) washes where possible for
the dishwasher and washing machine120
Source: Global Action Plan website http://www.carboncalculator.org/save/home1.html
(a) Which three energy saving activities are likely to have thegreatest effect in reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions over ayear?
(b) The table does not indicate how much carbon dioxide can besaved by turning off a computer. Work out how many kg CO2 youmight save each year if you turned the computer off (compare itto something similar in the table).
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(c) If you carried out ALL the energy-saving activities in the table,what is the most kg of CO2 you could save being emitted eachyear? (Assume your fridge is set at 2ºC and your freezer at�-20ºC.)
2. Everybody can take responsibility for using energy carefully andresponsibly.(a) Give seven ways in which you could reduce the carbon dioxide
released into the atmosphere. (Include 3 which are NOT given inTable 12.1.)
(b) Imagine you are the boss of a large company. Give seven ways inwhich you could ensure that your company mitigates the effectsof climate change. (Include 3 which are NOT given in Table 12.1.)
3. (a) Make a list of areas of the house where insulation may reduceheat loss.
(b) What else can you do to reduce heat loss from a house?(c) In the long-run, why is it cheaper to insulate a building?(d) What other advantage is there in insulating and draught-proofing
a building? (However, ensuring that there is some ventilation isimportant.)
4. List a number of ways in which your school can reduce the levels ofgreenhouse gas emissions. You might want to look atwww.globalactionplan.org.u./aboutus/atschool.htm.
5. Find out more about simple ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions bygoing to the web site www.futureforests.com/explainmore.
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ACTIVITY 13 - RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
The generation of Hydro-electricity
The production of electricityfrom Wind power
Fossil fuelsVegetation removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by incorporatingcarbon into the plant structure. Plants are carbon structures! Oil, gasand coal were created millions of years ago when vegetation was buried inswamps and formed peat. Over several millions of years, the layer ofdead vegetation became compressed under high temperatures andpressure. Variations in temperature and pressure meant that in someplaces oil or gas was created whereas in other places coal formed.
Vast quantities of these carbon reserves have been used up and returnedto today’s atmosphere in only 250 years. This is a tiny fraction of thetime it took to make them. These fuels are therefore considered not tobe renewable.
Replacing fossil fuelsWe can reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into our atmosphereby being careful in how we use energy (energy efficiency) and reducingthe amount of energy we use (saving energy). We can also reduce carbondioxide emissions by replacing the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal andgas) with energy produced from renewable sources.
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Renewable energy“Renewable” resources are those which can be reproduced or continuallyharnessed and therefore be as freely available for future use. Theyharness the natural energy present in today’s environment and thus arelikely to minimise any emissions of greenhouse gases. Renewable energycomes from• wind power,• tidal power,• wave power, hydro power (where moving water or air turns turbines to
generate electricity),• solar power (the energy in sunlight generates electricity) and• from burning plant oils or fast growing wood.
Scotland already has hydro-electric power stations and many new windfarms are being built on the hills. Many individuals use solar power forlights, heating and electric fences.
BiofuelVegetable oils such as oilseed rape, sunflower oil, palm oil and coconut oilcan be burned as fuel. This fuel is termed biofuel or biodiesel. InScotland, some cities use buses which run on biofuel. Biofuel can also beused to fuel trucks, tractors and boats.
Energy cropsBurning wood as a source of energy produces carbon dioxide. However, aslong as quick-growing species are used, and that whatever is cut down isimmediately replanted, then as much carbon dioxide will be taken out ofthe atmosphere by the new growth as is released into the atmosphere.Alas, there usually is a time lag between the release of carbon dioxidethrough burning and the taking up of the carbon dioxide by the newgrowth of most trees. However, fast growing wood like willow or poplarcan be grown like a crop, harvesting it to burn in especially-adapted powerstations! These crops are therefore called energy crops.
Questions
1. (a) Name three fossil fuels.(b) Explain why they are called ‘fossil’ fuels.
2. Why are renewable sources of energy called “renewable”?
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3. List six sources of renewable energy.
4. Which sources of renewable energy produce carbon dioxide? Explainwhy these do not necessarily contribute to climate change.
5 . Design a poster to explain and illustrate the difference betweenrenewable sources of energy and fossil fuels. You can find out abouteven more types of renewable energy on the internet, such as at “TheRenewable Energy Trail” on www.dti.gov.uk/energy/renewables byclicking on ‘Planet energy’.
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ACTIVITY 14 – CALCULATING OUR CARBON DIOXIDEEMISSIONS
It’s our lifestylePeople in industrialised nations all contribute to climate change becausewe all use energy generated from burning fossil fuels. These fuels emitgreenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide which accumulate in theatmosphere and are causing a global increase in temperature.
The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution stated that the UKneeds to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 60% by 2050. The UK andScottish governments have decided to try to reach a 20% reduction from1990 levels by 2010. Many individuals are also trying to reduce theircarbon dioxide emissions. There are a number of websites available whichassist with these calculations, e.g. www.carboncalculator.org.uk,www.globalactionplan.org.uk, www.chooseclimate.org.
1. Calculating carbon dioxide emissions from our travelUse table 14.1. Show all your calculations and remember to put on thecorrect units, e.g. “kg of carbon dioxide per day” or “per person” or “peryear”.
Table 14.1: A comparison of carbon dioxide emissions for differentforms of transport (values averaged from a number of websites)Form of transport Carbon dioxide emissions (Kg per
km/passenger)Long distance bus 0.05 (80% occupancy)Urban bus 0.1 (80% occupancy)Car (petrol, large engine) 0.33 (driver only)Car (LPG, large engine) 0.23 (driver only)Car (petrol, small engine) 0.19 (driver only)Car (LPG, small engine) 0.15 (driver only)Trains 0.04 (80% occupancy)International flight 0.23(80% occupancy)Domestic flight 0.37 (80% occupancy)
(a) How much carbon dioxide is emitted by one person driving 30 kmeach day into work and back. Assume that this is a large petrolengine car. How much would be emitted each year (assuming aworking year of 220 days)?
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(b) (i) How much carbon dioxide is emitted by one person driving30�km each day into work and back in a small LPG car?
(ii) When this person gives a lift to two other people, the car uses20% more fuel. What would be the emission per person eachday?
(c) Spain is about 19,000 km away from Scotland.(i) How much carbon dioxide is emitted for one person to fly to
Spain and back assuming that the plane is 80% full?(ii) How much carbon dioxide is emitted for one person if the plane
is only 40% full?
(d) Apart from the engine size and type of fuel, what else will affectthe fuel consumption of a car and therefore annual carbon dioxideemissions?
(e) Water vapour and nitrous oxide are also produced when fossil fuelsare burnt. At ground level these have little greenhouse effect but inthe sky these pollutants become as significant as carbon dioxide, asshown in table 14.2. Since trains are not able to take such directroutes as aircraft, whilst a 1000 km journey from Scotland to Franceby air may be equivalent to a 1500km journey by train. Calculate andcompare the two methods of transport for total emissions (kg CO2
equivalents) per passenger, travelling (i) 1000km by plane and (ii)1500 km by train.
Table 14.2: Carbon emissions per passenger for trains and aircraftTrain Aircraft
CO2 emissions per passenger (kg/km) 0.04 0.23Factor that takes into account the totalgreenhouse gas emissions
1.1 3
Total emissions (CO2 equivalents) perpassenger (kg/km)
0.044 0.69
Source: www.chooseclimate.org
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2. Calculating carbon dioxide emissions from energy used at home
(a) Using Table 14.3, calculate the carbon dioxide emissions from afamily home which uses 2000 litres of heating oil and 1900 units ofelectricity per year.
Table 14.3: Carbon dioxide emissions from energy sources used at homeFuel source Conversion factor for kg CO2Kilowatt hours of gas 0.19Litre of heating oil 2.68Kilowatt hours (units) of electricity 0.43Green tariff electricity 0Kilogram coal 2.42Source: www.defra.gov.uk/environment/envrp/gas/OS.htm
(b) It is more usual to represent carbon dioxide emissions on a perperson basis. This home has 5 family members, what are the carbondioxide emissions per person?
3. Other sources of carbon dioxide emissionsThere are many other energy consuming products and services which weuse on a regular basis but we have not considered above. Choose an itemof clothing or food you have bought recently and list the steps in itsproduction and journey to you which involved the use of fossil fuels.
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ACTIVITY 15 - CUTTING THE AIR TRAVEL MILES FOROUR FOOD
Where food comes from
Large emissions of various greenhouse gases come from aeroplanes. Withthe number of flights increasing, the quantities of greenhouse gasesemitted each year by planes is increasing. Most emissions are frominternational flights.
Perhaps you have never travelled in a plane? However, you are stillcontributing to air travel. Before engines were invented, everyone’s foodcame from nearby – no further than some-one could walk or a horse couldpull a cart to market. Pollution? None! Today most of our food and drinktravels thousands of miles before you get it. For example, a traditionalScottish meal of roast lamb and apple pie could have travelled up to12,000 miles to reach your plate:
• perhaps the lamb came from New Zealand,• onions from Spain, and• the apples may have come from South Africa.
On average, vegetables travel 600 miles to your supermarket, some ofthem by plane and all of them by lorry.
Out-of-season food
We have now become used to eating what we like, whenever we want.Thanks to air transport, strawberries and green beans are now availablethroughout the year at supermarkets.
Of course, we have to pay more for out-of-season foods. Obviously, somefood like bananas and oranges cannot grow in Scotland, but the south iswell suited to soft fruits like strawberries and raspberries. We could eatmore of these. Using polytunnels and heated greenhouses can alsoincrease the range of food which can be grown in Scotland.
Questions
1. (a) Make a list of ten different foods you eat each week in a columndown your page.
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2. (b) Find out the country of origin for each food type. If the labelsdon’t tell you, ask at your supermarket.
Add up the miles that these ten foods have travelled using the tablebelow.
Table 15.1: Distances of thirteen countries from ScotlandCountry of Origin Approximate distance from Scotland (miles from
centre)Canada 4,000Denmark 600England 250France 950Greece 2,000Holland 900India/Sri Lanka 5,000Israel 2,700Italy 1,300New Zealand 12,000South Africa 6,000Spain 1,200USA 4,000
3. Visit a supermarket and choose 3 products and construct three tableslike the examples below. You can choose your own countries andproducts or use these examples. Does the price of goods reflect thedistance they have travelled?
Country of origin SouthAfrica
France England USA
price per Kg ofApples
Country oforigin
New Zealand France Scotland Mexico
price per 100gof honey
Country oforigin
NewZealand
Scotland England Ireland Denmark Unknown(Mixedorigins?)
price per Kgof Butter
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4. What conclusion do you draw about the relationship between the priceof goods and the distance they have travelled?
5. Do you think it would be a good idea to introduce a ‘carbon tax’ or an‘energy tax’ onto food and other goods? Do you think it would helpreduce carbon emissions and thus reduce the rate of climate change?What would the disadvantages of a carbon tax be?
6. Do you think that in 50 years time, products will have to be labelledwith their food miles or the amount of energy consumed in theirproduction? As a consumer would you want this to happen? Why?
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Explanatory Notes for Teachers
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Summary of Contents
Activity 1 – Ice ages and Interglacials
Activity 2 – Scotland’s Climate: the Present
Activity 3 – Current Climatic Change and Greenhouse Gases
Activity 4 – Scotland’s Climate: the Future
Activity 5 – The Effects of Climate Change on Species
Activity 6 – Sea Level Rise around Scotland
Activity 7 – Nature’s Calendar
Activity 8 – Migration Watch
Activity 9 – Going North
Activity 10 – Feeling the Squeeze at the top of the Mountain
Activity 11 – Human Behaviour
Activity 12 – Saving Energy and Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Activity 13 – Renewable Energy Sources
Activity 14 – Calculating our Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Activity 15 – Cutting the Air Travel Miles for our Food
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ACTIVITY 1 - ICE AGES AND INTERGLACIALS
Aim: To understand why the Earth’s climate changes on a regular basis.
Objectives1. To appreciate that there are changes in the shape of the earth’s orbit
and angle of spin and that these relate to glacial and interglacialperiods.
2. To recognise that there have been fluctuations in the Scottish climateover the last 10,000 years (i.e. since the end of the last Ice Age).
3. To realise that there is a difference between the terms ‘climate’ (along-term general description) and ‘weather’ (a day-to-day descriptionof changes in the climate).
Useful additional resources• Visual aids such as slides or overheads of glacial and interglacial
periods.• Ice cap scenery e.g. from David Waugh – the New Wider World.• Globe and overhead light.• Text book diagrams showing the passage of the earth in its orbit.
Teaching timeApprox. 50 minutes for standard grade.
Background informationIn the past the Earth has experienced very cold times called glacialperiods when ice and snow cover have been at their maximum. Warmertimes have also occurred and these are called interglacial periods. Weare in an interglacial period at the moment. The last glacial period endedaround 10,000 BP (Before Present). The Earth has experiencedfluctuations between glacial and inter-glacial periods throughout itshistory. These are believed to be caused by three main factors related tothe orbit of the Earth around the sun. These are:
1) Variations in the Earth’s elliptical orbit which has a cyclical period of100,000 years.
2) The Earth’s axis of spin varies its tilt between 21 and 24.5o having acyclical period of 41,000 years. Currently, the tilt is 23.5o.
3) The time of year the Earth passes close to the sun (9000 years agothis occurred in July, today it occurs in January).
The axis of tilt is best considered as a line through the two poles.
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Setting the sceneSet the scene using slides, diagrams or photographs of active glaciersadvancing and retreating and explain that ice has advanced and retreatedover Scotland using overhead diagrams. Explain that the followingdemonstrations aim to show why we have had these ice ages andinterglacials.
Class activityDemonstrate the Earth’s orbit about the sun using an overhead light andglobe. Remind students about how day and night occurs and how long ittakes for the Earth to orbit the sun. Then get the students todemonstrate the first two scenarios: (1) a ‘fat’ ellipse (2) a ‘thin’ ellipse
Ask the students to consider how the amount of heat energy received bythe Earth changes at different states of orbit.
In reality, the Earth will move from one orbit to another SLOWLY over a100,000 time period.
Then discuss angle of tilt. The most significant areas of the planet toreceive heat are the poles. Demonstrate how the amount of heat receivedat the poles changes with the angle of tilt. Then get the students todemonstrate two more scenarios:(3) a fat ellipse using a 21o tilt in axis.(4) a thin ellipse using a 25.4o tilt.
Ask the students to consider how the amount of heat energy received bythe Earth at the poles changes as the tilt in axis changes.
Thus when the poles are tilted more towards the sun in a thin orbit, thenthe Earth is much warmer and in an interglacial period.
Student activityStudents read about ‘wobbles in our orbit’ and answer the questions fromActivity 1.
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Answers to Questions1. (a) The earth turns on its axis every 24 hours giving rise to night
and day as opposite sides of the Earth turn to face the sun.
(b) It takes 365 _ days for the earth to orbit the sun (thus theextra day in the leap year calendar).
(c) Elliptical.
2. The fastest rate of warming was over 11,500 years ago as theEarth emerged from the last ice age. A comparable rate of warminghas happened this century.
3. The predicted rate of warming for the next century is 1.4 - 5.8oCand greatly exceeds previously known rates of global warming.
4. (a) Three factors which affect the cyclical warming and cooling ofthe Earth are: the shape of the Earth’s orbit, the angle of tiltof the Earth’s rotation, and the time of the year the Earthpasses closest to the sun.
(b) Other factors can include: sun flares (or sunspots), volcaniceruptions (which cause a reduction in the sun’s heat reachingthe surface of the planet), and changes in ocean currents.(Some students might state greenhouse gases now.)
5 . The last ice age was a natural event, the ice retreated about12,500 years ago.
The ground left bare by the ice was colonized by plants andanimals. Eventually 7000 years ago, forests covered Scotland. Thiswas a natural sequence of events.
There was a dramatic increase in rainfall about 4500 years ago andbog and peat replaced many woodlands. This was a natural series ofevents.
As human started to use animals and tools for farming they wereable to physically change the landscape. Forests were cut down forfuel, building materials and to create fields (1700 years ago).Wood and peat are burnt for energy (heat and cooking). Animalsprovide the energy for moving tools such as ploughs and fortransport.
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Since the industrial revolution humans have used machines as wellas animals to change the landscape. Most of our energy forfactories, machines, transport, heat and cooking comes fromburning fossil fuels.
6. Climate refers to the average weather over a long period, usually30�years. The climate describes the winter and summertemperature patterns as well as wind and rainfall patterns.Weather is the daily manifestation of the climate.
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ACTIVITY 2 - SCOTLAND’S CLIMATE: THE PRESENT
Aim: To recognise that climatic changes across the globe over the lastcentury are rapid and related to emissions of greenhouse gases.
Objectives1. To recognise that the Earth has an atmosphere filled with gases, with
some of these gases having the ability to retain heat, hence beingcalled greenhouse gases.
2. To be able to recognise carbon dioxide, methane and some organiccompounds (e.g. CFCs) as greenhouse gases.
3. To recognise that there have been rapid changes in climate in theNorthern Hemisphere over the last 100 years: for temperature,rainfall and extreme events such as storms.
Useful additional resourcesSlides of atmospheric pollution and flooding.
Text book photographs of atmospheric pollution and flooding (e.g. trafficcongestion and Industrial pollution in David Waugh – the New WiderWorld).
Laminated newspaper clippings about recent floods or heat waves inScotland and Europe.
Teaching time40 - 50 minutes for standard grade.
Background informationRadiation from the sun is absorbed by the Earth’s surface. As theEarth’s surface warms up, it releases heat to the atmosphere. Some ofthis heat escapes into outer space, but some of the gases in theatmosphere, known as greenhouse gases, behave like the glass of agreenhouse. They retain much more of the heat in the Earth’satmosphere. The more greenhouse gases there are in the atmosphere thewarmer the Earth becomes.
Natural greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour,but scientists now detect greater concentrations of carbon dioxide andmethane, and note the presence of man-made gases like nitrous oxide and
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other organic gases that also act like greenhouse gases. These are dealtwith in greater detail in Activity 3.
The term “climate change” usually refers to relatively recent changes inclimate that have been observed since the early 1900s. The top tenwarmest years since records began in 1860 have all occurred since 1980.Of these, the 1990s is the warmest recorded decade. The year 1998 wasthe warmest on record with 2001 being the second warmest on record.Global average temperatures have increased by 0.60C since 1860 and arebelieved to be warmer now than at any time in the last 1000 years. Thesefigures come from the United Kingdom Climate Impact Programmewebsite http://www.ukcip.org.uk
Setting the SceneVisual aids, slides and/or photographs can be used to introduce theconcept of atmospheric pollution from carbon dioxide. The consequencesof climate change such as extreme weather scenarios, floods and heatwaves could be talked about using newspaper clippings of e.g. the Tayfloods of 1993 and the European heat wave in 2003. The film “The DayAfter Tomorrow” (released May 2004) illustrates the very worst ofclimate chaos (in true Hollywood style) as a result of the North AtlanticDrift turning off but the scenario is not based on sound science. If theNorth Atlantic Drift were to turn off, then the global warming effect islikely to mitigate against the local cooling and possibly surpass it. Therewould not be a global ice age as a consequence of changes in the oceancurrents. Effects resulting from the North Atlantic Drift turning offwould take years or decades (not days).
NOTE: a full explanation of the North Atlantic Drift and its possibleslowing down is given in the Teachers’ Notes in Activity 4.
Student activityStudents read through activity 2 and answer the questions.
Answers to questions1. (a) The atmosphere keeps the Earth warmer than the moon.
(b) Oxygen and nitrogen are the main gases in the atmosphere whichare not greenhouse gases and therefore do not affect thetemperature.
(c) Carbon dioxide and water vapour are two natural gases which holdheat in the atmosphere. They are called greenhouse gases.
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(d) The glass in a greenhouse allows sunlight to enter and heat theground. As the ground heats up, this warms the greenhouse.When sunlight penetrates the atmosphere, it finally reaches theground which it heats up. The heat emitted from the Earth’ssurface is trapped by gases in the atmosphere which have theability to retain heat. Gases which trap heat from the sun andwarm the Earth are therefore called ‘greenhouse gases’.
2. (a) The North Atlantic Drift is part of a large ocean current calledthe Gulf Stream which brings warm water from tropical regionsto the British Isles and makes British winters milder than usualfor our latitude.
(b) It is a part of the warm current (the dark thick line in Figure 2.1)going from the Gulf of Mexico up to Iceland and Greenland.
(c) As the ice caps in the north melt, they release freshwater intothe seas which might interfere with the North Atlantic Drift; ifthis current is slowed or stopped before it reaches Scotland thenScotland may become colder.
3. Two factors which influence Scotland’s climate are:
(i) The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere – globaleffect on climate.
(ii) The Gulf Stream, or the North Atlantic Drift – local effect onclimate.
4. Although it’s getting warmer, it’s also getting wetter. Its warmer inwinter and so rain is more likely than snow, and overall moreprecipitation (rain or snow) will fall. It may also be wetter as well aswarmer in summer too.
5. (a) It is better to talk about climate change than global warmingbecause ‘warming’ does not incorporate all the changes that couldtake place, such as an increase in e.g. flooding and rain fall.
(b) The term “change”, does not describe the unpredictableextremes of weather that could happen, e.g. flooding and stormsone year and droughts or harsh winters the next, therefore‘climate chaos’ might be a better description.
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ACTIVITY 3 – CURRENT CLIMATIC CHANGE ANDGREENHOUSE GASES
Aim: to recognise that the increasing levels of greenhouse gases in theatmosphere are directly related to the climatic changes observed overthe last 100 or so years, and to recognise that carbon dioxide is the maingreenhouse gas.
Objectives1. To relate global temperature increase to increases in the atmospheric
levels of carbon dioxide.2. To appreciate that greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, water vapour and other chemicals likechlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
3 . To recognise that the countries most responsible for emittinggreenhouse gases are industrialised countries which use most energyper person.
Resources requiredThe poster, graph paper.
Teaching timeApprox. 50 minutes for standard grade.
Background informationChlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are one example of a group of chemicals thatare able to retain heat and remain in the atmosphere. They have alsobeen implicated in the destruction of the stratospheric ozone-layer whichis a protective layer of ozone above the troposphere where all life lives.They are therefore both greenhouse gases and destroyers of the ozonelayer, but stress to the pupils that the destruction of the ozone layerdoes not directly affect the Earth’s atmosphere; destruction of thestratospheric ozone layer means that harmful UV-light can get throughi.e. causing skin cancer.
Student ActivityPart A – the greenhouse gasesThe poster is used to find out about the greenhouse gases in theatmosphere.
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Answers to Questions1 . Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane have increased in
concentration in the atmosphere since industrialization.2. Carbon dioxide contributes most to a global warming3 . Venus is so hot because its atmosphere is completely filled with
carbon dioxide.4. Although yearly averages are very variable, there has been a clear
increase in temperature between the beginning of the century and theend.
5. The predicted temperature range for Scotland in 2020 is 7.9-8.0oC.(The students should use the poster to obtain these figures. Thegraph on the poster extrapolates roughly; it is only indicative.)
Part B – the trends1. Figure 3.2 shows that the trend is for increasing temperatures since
the 1960s although there are large fluctuations in averagetemperature between individual years.
2. Students plot a graph using the data given.3. The students should be able to see the relationship between rising
global temperatures since 1950 (Figure 3.2) and the rise in carbondioxide emissions since 1960 (their graph).
The rise in global temperatures has clearly occurred alongside globalincreases in carbon dioxide – a major greenhouse gas. It does thereforeseem likely that the two are connected.
Student activity / homework exercisePart C – the countries most responsible for climate changeThe questions and graphs assess which countries are most responsible forclimate change. Access to the internet is needed for question 4.
Answers to questions1. Bar chart.2. (a) The 5 countries which emitted the most carbon dioxide per
person were: United states, Australia, Netherlands, Japan andUK.
(b) The 5 countries which emitted the least carbon dioxide perperson were: Rwanda, Nigeria, India, Peru and Brazil.
(c) 7.1 tonnes of carbon dioxide per person.
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3. (a) United States and Australia have per capita carbon dioxideemissions well above the average.
(b) The average per capita carbon dioxide emission of Industrialisedcountries is about 5.8 times greater than the average for theleast developed nations.
(c) Developing countries are becoming more industrial, using cars andbuilding factories (etc.)
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ACTIVITY 4 - SCOTLAND’S CLIMATE: THE FUTURE
Aim: To recognise that the climate across Scotland will change noticeablyduring our lifetime.
Objectives1. To be able to recognise that there are general trends that are certain
to occur.2. To recognise that predicting the degree and rate of change is not
easy. Hence, scientists talk of “scenarios” of climate change for thefuture and not “predictions”. Scenarios outline how the climate maychange, not how the climate will change.
3. To be able to describe two scenarios of climate change for Scotlandfor the end of the century.
4. To recognise that there may be a local oceanic change which mayaffect the climate of Scotland.
Useful additional resourcesAn overhead of the global conveyor belt diagram (see student activitysheets).Overheads of graphs 3.1 & 3.2 (see previous activity).
Teaching time30 - 40 minutes for standard grade.
Background informationHow much the climate continues to change will be affected by thequantities of greenhouse gases emitted. Using computer models of theEarth’s climate system, scientists have described different scenarios ofclimate change. These scenarios reflect uncertainties about the futurebecause no-one can be sure about the rate of emissions of greenhousegases into the atmosphere. In the UK, four scenarios have beendeveloped to cover a range of possible future climates: Low, Medium-Low,Medium-High and High – labelled according to the level of greenhouse gasemissions. The figures given in the text are those for the Low (emissionsof greenhouse gases) scenario and the High (emissions of greenhousegases) scenario to describe the fullest range.
The difference between predictions and scenarios is that predictions givea more certain level of occurrences; scientists feel uncomfortable aboutdoing this, so describe scenarios instead.
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Note that there is no direct link between compliance with the KyotoProtocol (i.e. mechanisms to reduce greenhouse gas emissions) and the lowscenario, although if mechanisms to reduce greenhouse gas emissions areadhered to, then it is more likely that climatic changes will follow thosedescribed by the low emissions scenario. Likewise, we can’t say that“business as usual” (i.e. the continuation of emissions of greenhouse gasesas the same rate as today) relates to any particular scenario.
A local effect on ScotlandThe conveyor-belt mechanism in the North Atlantic ocean works like this:
1. Warmer, salty water arrives in the Greenland Sea and cools. As itcools, it becomes denser and sinks.
2. The sinking, salty water moves beneath the warmer water and movessouthwards.
3. This draws the warmer waters from the south northwards.
Freshwater entering the sea from melting ice sheets is lighter than thesalty water. If too much enters, it disrupts this conveyor-beltmechanism.
Setting the sceneIf students are new to the concept of climate change explain that sincethe industrial revolution more and more carbon dioxide and otherindustrial gases have been added to the atmosphere. These gases trapheat and are called greenhouse gases, and there is now good data linkingrising world temperatures to rising atmospheric concentration of carbondioxide and other greenhouse gases (graphs from Activity 3 could beshown on overheads). The greenhouse gases are mainly coming from theburning of fossil fuels.
Explain that although we know that global temperatures will keep rising, itis difficult to predict precisely what is going to happen to Scotland’sclimate in the future as we do not know future levels of global greenhousegases, precisely how these levels will affect the temperature of the worldand how world temperatures will affect Scotland. An overhead of theglobal conveyor belt diagram could be used to explain to the class at thisstage just how complicated it is to predict what will happen locally whenglobal temperatures rise.
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Answers to questions1. Scientists produce ‘scenarios of change’ for the future climate rather
than make predictions because they are uncertain about the futurelevels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and also about how theclimate will respond to increased atmospheric concentrations ofgreenhouse gases.
2. The students to put this in writingClimate variables Change by the year 2100Temperature Increased by between 2.0oC and 3.5oCWinter rain up to 30% increaseSummer rain between 10% and 50% decreaseWind speed possibly faster by 4%Flooding between 10% and 20% increase in severity
3. Scenario 1. Scotland becomes very cold, almost like a mini ice age.Scenario 2. Scotland’s climate retains a similar temperature as thedegree of cooling (from the switching off of the North Atlantic Drift)equals the degree of warming (from global emissions of greenhousegases).Scenario 3. Scotland warms but at a slower rate than predicted bycurrent climate change models.
The next two questions can be a class discussion:4. (a) No-one knows which climate change scenario is most likely to
occur by the end of the century. It depends upon how muchnations and individuals reduce their emissions; if they do not try,it would seem likely that we could see the climate associated withthe High emission scenario.
(b) Get as many details as possible on storms, flooding, annualrainfall, temperature, wind speed, whether the timing of autumnand spring has changed, whether there is more sunshine or morecloud cover. Whether there are changes in seasonal differences.
(c) Divide the class in to groups and get each group to chose one ortwo areas of life such as outdoor sports, tourism, farming, naturalworld – plants and animals, travel, etc. Each group then discussesthe possible problems, advantages and changes which might occurbecause of climate change. Ask them to consider generaleconomic aspects such as the cost of living, council tax andinsurance as well.
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5. (a) The Kyoto Protocol. (Kyoto was the location in Japan at whichmany countries agreed that there was a need to reducegreenhouse gas emissions in 1997).
(b) There are two main answers:- (i) The will of governments toenforce change in people’s behaviour, such as encouragingalternative forms of transport and renewable energy, (ii) Theuptake of responsibility by each individual to ensure we reducegreenhouse gases.
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ACTIVITY 5 - THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ONSPECIES
Aim: to recognise that climate change will alter the locations whereclimate is suitable for species.
Objectives1 . To appreciate that the distribution of species is related to the
climate, e.g. arctic species live in the northern arctic regions andMediterranean species near the Mediterranean. This includesappreciating that there is a northern limit and a southern limit ofrange for each species.
2. To recognise that the rapidity of the current changes in temperatureand rainfall means that some species will be unable to re-distributethemselves quickly enough and find locations where the climate issuitable.
3. To recognise that some species (particularly the northern and arcticspecies) in Scotland may find themselves with nowhere suitable tolive, as the climate changes.
Resources requiredScissors & glue. World Atlases. If possible, a globe.
Teaching time40-50 minutes for standard grade.
Background informationIn reality, the northern and southern latitudinal limits of a species’distribution varies between countries, depending on the climate. Thisneed not be pointed out to the pupils but it may come up in discussion. Inaddition, some species, like the beech tree, is found further north thanits limit for regeneration, because it is planted. Therefore beech is a“winner” because it has already been planted in areas which are nowbecoming suitable for regeneration. The predicted rise of 1.4-5.8oCacross the planet is exceptionally rapid, and so is the 2.0-3.5oC forScotland. The suitable climate for a species may move north by 250-400km or uphill by 200-275m for each 1oC rise in temperature. (This isconsidered in detail in Activities 8 and 9.) In Scotland, by the 2050s,isotherms (temperature bands) may have moved 375-800km furthernorth and 300-550m higher up the hill. There is no evidence that speciescan move at these rates and there is concern that the rate of climate
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change could be too rapid for many species to adapt. Of particularconcern is:
a) obstacles/barriers in the landscape, e.g. large motorways, urban areas,even large lochs, which prevent or hinder dispersal;
b) too few suitable habitats in more northerly locations, e.g. chalklandspecies (a number of plant and butterfly species) will find very fewchalkland grasslands in Scotland. There are extensive chalk grasslandsin England;
c) species reliant on a particular species may find that its host species isnot available in more northerly locations, e.g. one butterfly species,the brimstone (it’s a yellow butterfly) requires to feed on buckthorn(a prickly coastal plant) which is less frequent in Scotland.
Setting the sceneAsk the students to think about what they will be doing in the year 2050,how old will they be, and whether they expect the plants and animals andlandscape around them (farmers crops, woodland, heathland) to be similarto what it is today or to have changed due to climate change? Would theybe concerned if some of Scotland’s native species had disappeared? Whywould they be concerned?
Student activityStudents read activity 5, complete table 5.1 and answer the questions.
Answers to questions1. Matching the text to the figures should be straightforward.
Beech – cScottish primrose – aLarge skipper – bRedshank – eNuthatch – fMountain ringlet - d
2. (a) Winged species can move over great distances; rootedspecies (plants and trees) rely on seed dispersal and theseeds may not move far from the parent plant.
(b) Beech has been planted further north than the locationswhere climate has been suitable to regenerate. Now asuitably warm climate is moving from the south to the areaswhere beech has been planted and beech seedlings can nowgrow.
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3.Loser species Reason why it loses outScottish primrose It only exists in a small area of northern Scotland, this
becomes too warm and it cannot go further north as there isno land only sea.
Mountain ringlet It only exists in a few upland areas of Scotland and England asthe climate becomes warmer it moves higher up the mountainsuntil even the highest places become unsuitable.
Redshank Sea level rise and storms affecting the coast are expected toreduce the area of mudflats for the waders to feed.
4. (i) There is a barrier to species dispersal across the landscapesuch as large built up areas or rivers.
(ii) There is no suitable habitat in new locations where theclimate is suitable (there might be no high enough mountains,no more land only sea, or a species may need marshes orwetlands of which there are no more further north).
(iii) The species may need another species such as a food plant, orplaces to lay eggs or built nests and these structures orplants are not available further north.
5. (a) It will decrease in number and may eventually become locallyextinct.
(b) Three non-climate issues likely to mean a species is moreadversely affected by climate change are (i) those that arealready rare, (ii) those that require cold environments and (iii)need a very specific habitat or food plant.
6. (a) 2.0oC x 250 km = 500 km2.0oC x 400 km = 800 km
(b) 3.5oC x 250 km = 875 km3.5oC x 400 km = 1400 km
(c) UK scientists suggest that Scotland may warm by between2.0�and 3.5oC, the lower and upper limits of potential climatechange by 2100.
(d) 500 and 800 – Norwegian Sea875 and 1450km – Arctic Ocean
(e) A warming of 3.5oC by 2100 will have the greatest adverseimpact on species because it would shift climate space thefurthest north and many species will have problems movingnorth at that rate.
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7. There will be more losers because many species are not capable ofrapid dispersal and, even if they could disperse rapidly, they wouldneed to find the right habitat and food source in the new locations.
Suggestion for homeworkActivity 9 (Going North) or Activity 10 (Feeling the Squeeze at the Topof the Mountain) could be given as homework or used as follow-onquestions.
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ACTIVITY 6 – SEA LEVEL RISE AROUND SCOTLAND
Aim: to appreciate the extent of sea level rise around Scotland andconsequences for coastal habitats and species.
Objectives1. To appreciate the rate of sea level rise around Scotland and that
there are regional differences.2. To be able to describe some coastal habitats and species which will be
adversely affected by these changes.3. To learn about coastal realignment (also known as managed retreat)
through the use of an example at Nigg Bay.
Resources requiredThe poster, coastal habitat and species books (especially for plants andbirds in question�5).
Useful additional resourcesSlides / pictures, power point images of sea defences and coastal erosion,mudflats, intertidal areas and waders. Ask the students what wouldhappen to the places shown in the slides if the sea level rises. Slides ofstorms and flooding or dramatic pictures showing the contrast betweenwhen the tide is in, and when it is out would also be valuable. Slide ofScotland to show the location of Nigg Bay.
Teaching time30-40 minutes for standard grade.
Background informationNot referred to in the activity is the fact that the mainland of Scotlandis still rising as a result of the loss of the ice at the end of the last IceAge (referred to by geologists as isostatic readjustment or rebound).The land was compressed by the weight of ice upon it. Most compressionoccurred around Rannoch Moor, thus around Argyll the land is risingfastest and thus the rate of sea level rise is slowest. The rate of landuplift has so far been greater in Scotland than the rate of sea level rise.However, sea level rise is expected to increase and become greater thanthe rate of land uplift during this century. It may be interesting to pointout that because England had less ice on it (in the last Ice Age), the landwas less depressed and therefore is not experiencing land uplift. Sea
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level rise is already causing much erosion around the south and eastcoasts of England.
Setting the sceneUse available photos, slides or pictures to introduce the class to theimpact of sea level rise, how it will affect erosion of headlands, reductionin area of beaches and intertidal areas if the sea is held back fromcreating intertidal areas in land, by sea defences. Ask the class to thinkabout which types of people will be most affected (farmers?, holidayresorts? ) whether they themselves will be affected, and which types ofanimals and plants will be affected?
Student activityStudents read the information given for activity 6 and answer thequestions.
Answers to questions1. Example: The sea level near Inverness may rise by 25.0 – 29.9 cm by
2050s. This is 0.5 – 0.6 cm/year.2. The heading for the sea level rise illustration is ‘The squeeze for living
space’.It is called this because as sea levels rise there will be less landavailable for all the species and humans who used to live in the coastalareas.
3. (a) Intertidal habitats occur between the highest and lowest tidemarks.
(b) They are very important habitats as they contain invertebratefood prey for thousands of migratory birds - waders and wildfowl.
(c) Intertidal habitats provide a buffer zone which protect farms,houses and developed areas on the coast from erosion andflooding by the sea, especially during high tides and storms.
4. Advantages of allowing coastal realignment at Nigg Bay are: (1) it helpsprevent erosion and flooding of other areas nearby, (2) it returns anarea of previously drained land to its natural state and provides newfeeding grounds for birds (3) it’s an easier and cheaper option thantrying to fight the flooding with sea defences.
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5. • Rate of rise will lie between under 0.4 cm/year and over 0.6cm/year.
• Earth banks, stone walls etc. may be needed around lowest lyingland surrounding area to be flooded.
• Waders and wildfowl would occur on mudflats and saltmarshes,e.g. knot, some ducks, teal, widgeon, grey plover. Sandy beachesand dunes may contain birds such as sanderling, and wheatear.
Mudflats and saltmarshes will contain specialist plants such as sealavender, sea purslane and sea aster. Sand dunes are usuallycovered with marram grass and, more inland, will have generalgrass species, scrubby trees and marshy areas with reeds andrushes.
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ACTIVITY 7 – NATURE’S CALENDAR
Aim: to recognise that the timing of events in the life cycle of a speciescan be affected by climate and that this can have a knock-on effect toother species.
Objectives1 . To be able to list a number of lifecycle events that occur with
seasonal changes in climate.2. To be able to describe the rate of change in the onset of spring
events and the delay of autumn events over the last century,recognising that there are differences in response to climatic changesby different species.
3. To appreciate that some species depend on other species appearing atthe same time in spring, e.g. the predator species relying on the foodspecies or a pollinator at the same time as a flower.
4. To be able to give an example of a food chain being disrupted bywarmer spring temperatures.
Resources requiredAccess to the website: www.phenology.org.uk for questions 4 and 5.The poster.
Useful additional resourcesExtracts or headlines from newspaper clippings about climate change.News releases from the met office web site (www.metoffice.com).
Teaching time30-40 minutes for standard grade.
Background informationPhenology in the spring includes monitoring the dates of:• leaf appearance;• flowering;• re-appearance of species (arrival of summer migrants or emergence
from hibernation);• nesting activity;• spawning, egg laying etc.
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In autumn, it includes the dates of:• leaf fall;• departure of migrating summer birds;• arrival of winter birds;• fruit formation.
Some seasonal events are triggered by day-length, particularly forflowering species, but that only about a third of flowering plants are onlyaffected by day-length.
Setting the sceneAsk the class if the older members in their families ever reflect that‘winters are not like they used to be’ or that spring is earlier and autumnlater than when they were young. Use extracts or headlines fromnewspaper clippings to show how Scottish weather appears to bechanging. Ask the pupils what they would use to measure the beginning ofspring or autumn. Help them to think about what spring and autumnactually mean, is it just the weather or is it the reaction of species to theweather?
Student activityStudents read activity 7 and answer questions.Access to the website: www.phenology.org.uk is needed for questions 4and 5.
Class activityThe class could use the newspaper articles, the poster provided and theinformation they gain from the phenology website to design their ownposter to illustrate the affect of climate change on spring or autumnevents.
Answers to questions1. Spring events are earlier and autumn events later because spring and
autumn temperatures are warmer due to climate change.
2. If Scotland were to warm by 2.0oC by the 2050s, spring would beearlier by :1. 10 - 14 days for tree leaves,2. 4 - 6 days for robins laying eggs,3. 20 days for the first appearance of the painted lady butterfly.
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3. (a) The information on the poster describing changes in phenology iscalled ‘ wait for me!’ because the insects in this example havehatched earlier than usual because of the warmer weather. It’sthe bird that is slow to respond.
(b) The rate of response by species to warmer springs is not identicalas it varies between species. In the illustration, the butterflyand the tree leaves appear earlier than before. This means thatthe caterpillars hatch earlier. However, the bird is now only nestbuilding when the caterpillars hatch which means that when thebird’s eggs hatch there are no caterpillars left to eat and theyoung birds die. If the hatching of young birds is no longersynchronised with a plentiful supply of food, few young birds willsurvive each year and the species will disappear from that area.
(c) Rapid climate change will be a bad thing for a number of speciesas species will vary in their ability to respond to it and thesynchronisation of the life cycles of predators and prey will bedisrupted, leaving a number of species without a (or less) foodsupply for their young.
4. (a) For example in autumn: ash, rowan, oak, fieldfare, swallow.(b) For example in autumn: leaf fall, tree fruits ripe, bird arrival,
bird departure, first flowering.(c) Autumn or spring?(d) One of the following:
Trends in swallow first seen 1891 – 2000.Trends in bumble bee first seen 1920 –2000.Trends in pedunculate oak first leaf 1938-2000.Trends in frog spawn first seen 1938-2000.
(e) There are many years with missing data. The records may havebeen taken from any where in the UK. There is a large variationin the timing of events between consecutive years and there arecomparatively few recent records (generally only for the years1998, 1999, 2000). We cannot really yet tell whether the lastthree years are high, low or average records for this end of the20th century.
(f) If the phenology web site remains active for the next ten years(1) We will have a larger data set to compare with the records forthe earlier half of the 20th century and so average values andtrends become more reliable. (2) We will have a much moredetailed data set covering many more species and events whichcan be compared over a ten year period. Pupils may also recognisethat location of records and the search effort of the recorder
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will affect the data. The phenology web site enables comparisonto be made between years for particular areas of the country andfor individuals recording under repeatable conditions.
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ACTIVITY 8 - MIGRATION WATCH
Aim: To appreciate that migratory species are affected by the globalchanges in temperature.
Objectives1 . To understand what migration is and why some species need to
migrate.2 . To appreciate that for most species a critical temperature is a
determinant to initiate migration.3 . To recognise that differing sensitivities of species to rising
temperatures means that arrival at a traditional breeding site maybecome disassociated with the appearance of a food source.
Resources requiredPupils will need to use the website www.bto.org.migwatch for all questions.This might, therefore, be more useful as a homework activity.
Teaching timeApprox. 40 minutes for standard grade.
Student activityStudents read activity 8 and answer the questions.
Answers to questions(a) For example, swallow.(b) It comes to Britain in the spring to breed. It leaves South
Africa in late February and crosses Europe arriving in Britainand Ireland from mid march onwards.
(c) The first record for 2003 was on 5th March and was from westSussex.
(d) Most birds arrived in the week starting 20th April. Note thatthere are year to year variations, so it is possible that aparticular bird species could arrive LATER this year than lastyear. You might need to point out the need to detect TRENDS(in comparison to yearly fluctuations) to the class if this is thecase.
(e) Swallows are aerial feeders, feeding on insects.(f) Increasing wet, windy and stormy weather in Spring could blow
swallows off route making them arrive late or not at all. Insectlife might emerge well before the swallows arrive. If they feed
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on insects which only have a short life span as a winged adult,there will be fewer insects about when the swallows are feedingyoung and therefore less young swallows will survive.
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ACTIVITY 9 - GOING NORTH
This activity could be a homework question after activity 5 or could beintroduced alongside activity 10, with pupils selecting either ‘north’ or‘uphill’. A short discussion session at the end of the lesson would allowconclusions from the two activities to be compared.
Aim: To appreciate that as climate moves north, species need toredistribute.
Objectives1. To recognise that most species have a southern limit and a northern
limit to their distribution, and that these limits are usually determinedby climatic factors.
2. To recognise that rising temperatures means that the most suitableclimate associated with a particular species is moving north.
3. To appreciate that a species cannot always move north as fast as theiroptimum climate.
4. To appreciate that species may not have any suitable habitat anyfurther north, even if it could move as fast as its optimum climate.
Resources requiredRulers, World atlases or a globe for question 2.
Useful additional resourcesSlides, photos, pictures of well-known endangered or extinct animals andplants.
Teaching timeApproximately 30 minutes.
Background informationA parallel activity considers the movement of species uphill (Activity 10).However, it is important to emphasise that suitable climate space canmove both uphill and northward. Therefore, some southerly species mayrelocate uphill as well as dispersing northward.
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Setting the sceneShow the class photos, slides, pictures of extinct or endangered animalsand plants and also the Scottish primrose. Ask the class what the link isbetween these species. Discuss reasons for extinctions and discusswhether the class might feel that rapid climate change could lead to theextinction of the Scottish primrose in the wild (as the habitat willbecome unsuitable in Scotland and it is presently found no where else inthe world).
Student activityStudents read activity 9 and draw diagrams to answer question 1 and usea map to answer question 2.
Answers to questions1. The northern tip of Shetland should be just within the southern limit
for the Scottish primrose.2. Countries at the same latitude as the Arctic Ocean include Russia,
Greenland and northern Canada.3. We could consider taking seeds or plants to the new suitable locations;
and/or keeping the Scottish primrose in botanical gardens, like theone in Edinburgh.
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ACTIVITY 10 - FEELING THE SQUEEZE AT THE TOP OFTHE MOUNTAIN
This activity could be a homework question after activity 5 or afteractivity 9 or could be introduced alongside activity 9, with pupils selectingeither ‘north’ or ‘uphill’. A short discussion session at the end of thelesson would allow conclusions from the two activities to be compared.
Aim: To appreciate that species adapted to cold conditions at the tops ofmountains will find that temperatures are getting too warm.
Objectives1. To recognise that the occurrence of some species in Scotland are
restricted to the tops of mountains.2. To appreciate that warming temperatures will mean that these species
must move elsewhere or die.3. To be able to list some arctic-alpine species likely to disappear from
Scotland during this century.4. To recognise that animals that can fly are likely to be able to move
elsewhere, unlike plants.
Resources requiredRulers, the poster.
Teaching timeApproximately 30 minutes.
Background information & Setting the sceneSee notes for Activity 9.
Student activityStudents read activity 10 and draw diagrams and answer questions.
Answers to questions1. (a) Bird species are moving off the mountain because they can fly
away to a more suitable climate.(b) The birds will fly to more northerly latitudes or countries with
mountains.
2. (a) The diagram should be a 13cm high triangle. A line at 6 cm (600m)should be labelled as the lowest limit for trailing azalea.
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(b) There will be no suitable climate space for training azalea after a3.5oC rise.
3. (a) Current models predict that Scotland may warm by between2oC and 3.5oC by the 2100.
(b) The implication is that arctic-alpine species are going to havevery little area where the climate is suitable, and many arctic-alpine species are likely to disappear from the British Isles.
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ACTIVITY 11 – HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
This activity could be a homework question after activity 2, 3 or 4.
Aim: To consider general attitudes to current climatic changes.
Suggestions for using the cartoonsStudents could do the activity as individuals or in small groups. A classdiscussion could follow to check that the meaning of the cartoons wasunderstood. The students could then be asked to design their owncartoon, as individuals or as a group, to illustrate a message about climatechange.
Cartoon 1 - Pollution from cars is related to the current climatic changesas is air travel for foreign holidays. Burning fossil fuels has an immediateeffect on the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere whereas it will take 30-40 years to remove the equivalent carbon from the atmosphere byplanting trees.
Cartoon 2 – Developed countries are largely responsible for the increasein greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and should look to making lifestylechanges themselves before expecting less developed nations to altertheir way of life. It also shows the lack of appreciation by the rich manthat burning fossil fuels makes an immediate contribution to carbondioxide in the atmosphere.
Cartoon 3 - Our current ways of living are unsustainable, and perhaps notas desirable as we seem to think they are (e.g. traffic jams).
Cartoon 4 – Genuine action is required to counter climate change. Talkingabout “saving the planet” or belonging to the “right” club or organisationis not enough.
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ACTIVITY 12 - SAVING ENERGY AND REDUCINGCARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
Aim: To enable students to find out about carbon dioxide emissions in thehome and from transport.
Objectives1. To recognise that carbon dioxide emissions can be reduced by being
energy efficient, by not using as much energy and by recyclingmaterials.
2. To give ideas on how to take personal action in reducing carbon dioxideemissions.
Resources requiredComputers for questions 4. & 5. Pupils are asked to look at particular websites and could investigate the site, in pairs, at intervals of 5-10 minutes,if computers are limited.
Useful additional resourcesSimple overhead of the carbon cycle. Geological time scale chart showingwhen the fossil fuels were made. Overhead of figures 3.1 and 3.2 fromactivity 3.
Teaching time30-40 minutes.
Background informationEnergy efficiency is usually associated with, for example, improvinginsulation in house walls or lagging hot water pipes. However, consumerscan choose energy efficient products every time they go shopping. Itemsmade of natural materials such as wood, wicker and stone use littleenergy in their production as compared to man-made materials such asplastics. Goods which come from abroad and have travelled thousands ofmiles use more energy in their transportation than goods which have beenproduced locally. Fridges, freezers, light bulbs and cars can be producedand used more efficiently in order to reduce energy use. Recycling glassand aluminium requires less energy than production from their raw state(aluminium ores and sand). Fossil fuel use can also be reduced byincreasing the global use of renewable energy sources (for example solar,hydro and tidal power). Note that Activity 13 is about renewable sourcesof energy.
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Setting the sceneDraw a simple diagram of the carbon cycle and explain how carbon is tiedup in living plants and animals and released as carbon dioxide when theydie and decompose. Explain how carbon can be locked up inside trees for100s of years (until they are cut down or die) or inside the earth forhundreds of millions of years as oil, natural gas and coal. Thus the carbonin oil, gas and coal was taken out of the atmosphere hundreds of millionsof years ago by plants and is only now being released back into theatmosphere when we burn these fuels. Emphasise that it is thought thatfossil fuels are now being burnt in large enough quantities to actuallychange the atmosphere and the average temperature of the planet. Itmay be useful to show the graphs from activity 3 which illustrate this.
Student activityStudents read activity 12 and answer the questions.
Answers to questions1. (a) Turning off lights and turning down thermostats are the
activities most likely to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissionsover a year.
(b) A computer is similar to a television so if they are left on standby for similar lengths of time then, 27 kg CO2
(c) 1,404 kg CO2
2. (a) Suggestions: turn off lights; turn down heaters; switch off phonechargers, televisions and computers when not in use instead ofleaving them on stand by; shut doors; ask adults to check thefridge, freezer, water heater is set correctly; buy local productsor products from Scotland if there is a choice; avoid buying goodswhich are flown to this country; buy recycled goods and goods inrecycled containers; recycle plastic, aluminium, glass, paper.Cycle or walk to school instead of taking the bus or car, or sharelifts if using a car.
(b) Suggestions: Replace lights with energy efficient lights; insulateall buildings and turn heaters down; use rail networks to transportgoods rather than roads; use less plastic and chose recyclable andnatural products rather than man- made products; install windturbine or solar panels for power generation. Make it companypolicy to buy quality long lasting products instead of cheapershort- lived alternatives and to favour local products andresources when available.
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3. (a) Floors, walls, roof spaces, hot water tanks and hot water pipescan all be insulated and windows can be double-glazed.
(b) Reduce drafts by shutting doors and windows or using draftexcluders.
(c) Although insulation is expensive it is only paid once. Heating billshave to be paid every year. Eventually, the cost of the insulationis paid for by the savings in heating costs.
(d) Insulated, cosy houses, without drafts are more pleasant to livein and, especially if you are old, you do not suffer from coldhands and feet.
4. Turning down the heating, investing in better insulation, and askingstaff and pupils to keep doors and windows closed. Turning off lights,computers and heaters when they are not needed. Using energyefficient light bulbs. Using recycled products and encouraging staffand pupils to recycle materials. Encouraging staff and pupils to walkor cycle to school. Making it school policy to buy quality, long lastingproducts instead of cheaper short-lived alternatives and to favourlocal products and resources when available.
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ACTIVITY 13 - RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Aim: To enable students to distinguish between fossil fuels and renewableenergy sources.
Objectives1. To understand that carbon dioxide is released when fossil fuels are
burned to generate power and it is this which is causing climatechange.
2. To realise that renewable energy sources are not used up and do notcontribute to climate change.
3. To recognise that by planting and harvesting quick-growing wood as anenergy source there is no net gain in carbon dioxide emissions into theenvironment.
4. To be able to list at least four sources of renewable energy.
Resources requiredComputers for questions 5. Pupils are asked to look at particular web siteand could investigate the site, in pairs, at intervals of 5-10 minutes, ifcomputers are limited.
Teaching time30-40 minutes.
Background informationIn 1997, at Kyoto (Japan), many countries agreed to reduce carbonemissions. The UK government agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissionsby 12.5% below the amount the UK emitted in 1990. This would need to beachieved within the four-year period 2008-12. In fact, both the UK andScotland have decided to try to reach a 20% reduction from 1990 levelsby 2010 because they realise that the Kyoto protocol does not go farenough. For example, the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollutionstate that the UK needs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 60% by2050. Thus there is now a greater incentive to invest in renewablesources of energy. These include harnessing energy directly from the sun(solar power), the wind, tides, waves, falling water (hydro schemes),geothermal energy and growing energy crops which produce wood or plantoils (poplar, willow, palm oil, coconut oil). The magazine SEPAView(Scottish Environmental Protection Agency) has a number of pages onnational and international progress in renewable energy schemes. Thereis also an excellent web site which provides a renewable energy trail for
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the 11-16 age group. It contains many photographs and examples fromScotland and the UK. Go to www.dti.gov.uk/energy/renewables and clickon ‘Planet energy’.
NOTE: Nuclear energy is contentious although some students may pointout its merits. The issues with nuclear power are (a) the risk of highdoses of radiation being emitted if the power plant is damaged resultingin persistent harmful radiation in the environment, as well as (b) theproblems surrounding long-term storage of radioactive waste material.
Setting the sceneThe activity follows on well from activity 12. If activity 12 has not beendone then see ‘setting the scene’ for activity 12.
Student activityStudents read the introduction to activity 13 and answer questions.Question 5 directs them to a web site, this could be done, in pairs, at anypoint in the activity if computers are limited.
Class activityThe class could design posters or a single poster to explain thedifference between fossil fuels and renewable sources of energy, theweb site will help with getting ideas for illustrations.
Answers to questions
1. (a) Three fossil fuels are, coal, oil and natural gas (diesel and petrolare derivatives from oil).
(b) They are called fossil fuels as they were made from the remainsof plants which grew millions of years ago.
2. “Renewable” resources of energy are those which are not used up, orwhich can be replaced by replanting, they will therefore always beavailable for future use.
3. Sources of renewable energy are: Wind, tidal, solar, wave, hydro, plantoils and wood.
4. Plant oils and wood produce carbon dioxide when burnt yet do notcontribute to climate change provided they are from fast growingspecies and replanted when harvested. They only release back intothe atmosphere the carbon which they removed as they grew, thusprovided more crops and trees are planted to replace them there is nonet gain of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
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ACTIVITY 14 - CALCULATING OUR CARBON DIOXIDEEMISSIONS
Aim: To appreciate that we all contribute towards climate change throughparticipating in activities which cause carbon dioxide to be released intothe atmosphere.
Objectives(a) To compare carbon dioxide emissions from travel using different
forms of transport.(b) To appreciate that partially filled vehicles will be less energy
efficient per person carried than full vehicles.(c) To calculate carbon dioxide emissions from household bills.
Resources requiredCalculators.
Teaching time30-40 minutes.
Setting the sceneRemind the students about the link between burning fossil fuels whichrelease carbon dioxide which is contributing to current changes inclimate. Challenge the students to think about how dependent we all areon fossil fuels by thinking about our clothes, our food, hot water etc.Specific questions could be asked to find out, for example, how manypupils travel to school using fossil fuels, and the kind of heating pupils useat home. Note that about 3% of electricity generated in the UK is fromrenewable sources, although it is higher in Scotland at 10-11% (2002figures).
Student activityStudents read activity 14 and answer questions.
Answers to questions1 (a) Daily emission of carbon dioxide from driving = 30 km x 0.33 = 9.9
kg of carbon dioxide per day. Annual emission = 30 x 0.33 x 220 =2,178 kg of carbon dioxide per year.
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(b) Daily emission of carbon dioxide per driver = 30 km x 0.15 = 4.5kgof carbon dioxide per day. With 3 people the car emits 20% moreCO2 = 5.4 kg of CO2.
With 3 people the emission per person is down to 5.4/3 = 1.8 kg ofCO2 per person per day.
(c) Spain to Scotland = 1920 km = return trip of 3,840 km At 80% occupancy, each passenger emits 0.23 x 3,840 = 883.2 kg
carbon dioxide per person. If the plane was only 40% full, the emissions per passenger would
double to 1,766 kg.
(d) Other factors which will affect fuel consumption: the aerodynamicdesign of the car; whether the windows or sunroof are open;whether there is a roof rack; how heavily laden the car is; the typeof journey (is it being driven in low gears with many stops andstarts (traffic jams in towns) or at its most economical cruisingspeed along a motorway; how well serviced the car is (tyres atcorrect pressure, fuel filters clean etc.); the driver (use of speed,gears and brakes).
(e) (i) By plane: 1000 km x 0.69 = 690 kg CO2 equivalents perpassenger;
(ii) By train: , 1500 km x 0.044 = 66Kg CO2 equivalents perpassenger.
2. Carbon dioxide emissions from the oil: 2000 x 2.68 = 5,360 kg. Carbon dioxide emissions from electricity: 1900 x 0.43 = 817 kg. Total emissions for the house = 6,177 kg carbon dioxide per year. Emissions per person = 6,177/5 = 1,235.4 kg carbon dioxide per person
per year.
3. For example: tuna sandwich Diesel fuel for the fishing fleet, production of tins to transport the
tuna to Scotland; diesel fuel for growing and harvesting wheat crop tomake the flour; electricity to bake the bread; diesel fuel to transportthe bread to the shop; energy used to make the paper and plasticpackaging for the sandwich.
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Homework suggestionPupils could be asked to estimate their own household carbon emissionsper year using the information in the tables. They would need to bereminded to divide the heating and electric values by the number offamily members, and think of all their travel (to school, at weekends, toclubs, on holidays).
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ACTIVITY 15 - CUTTING THE AIR TRAVEL MILES FOROUR FOOD
Aim: To appreciate that the transport of supermarket foods around theglobe is contributing to climate change.
Objectives1. To calculate the distance travelled by common food items.2. To recognise that the price of food does not necessarily reflect the
distance it has travelled.3. To discuss the merits of labelling or pricing food to reflect their air
travel miles.
Resources requiredA method of finding the price and source of items of food is required.Students could use a supermarket website or questions 1 and 3 could beset as homework prior to this activity. Alternatively questions 1-4 couldbe set as homework prior to a class discussion of questions 5 and 6.
Useful additional resourcesApples from different countries of origin.
Teaching time10 minutes one lesson to set the scene and give the homework task(questions 1-4). 10 minutes a following lesson to do or discuss questions5�& 6.
Setting the scene / class activityThe class could be shown 3 or 4 different apples and asked which onethey would buy. The apples could then be set out on the front deskranked in order of majority preference. The students could then be toldthe price of each apple, and asked if that affects their ranking of theapples as a class. They could then be asked to guess where each apple hadcome from and how far each had travelled. Each apple could then be givena mileage tag (using table 15.1 in the student activities). Again the classcould be asked to re-rank the apples in order of preference. Conclusionscould be drawn by the class about marketing and how effected peopleschoices are by appearance, price and country of origin.
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Student activityStudents read activity 15 and answer the questions. Note the resourcesrequired.
Answers to questions(source Tesco 11/09/2003)Country of origin South
AfricaFrance England USA
price per Kg ofApples
99p £1.39 £1.39
Country oforigin
New Zealand France Scotland Mexico
price per 100gof honey
59.3p 58.6p 52.7p
Countryof origin
NewZealand
Scotland England Ireland Denmark Unknown(Mixedorigins?)
price perKg ofButter
£3.08 £3.00 £3.28 £3.12 3.36 £2.16
1. There appears to be little or no relationship between the price ofgoods and the distance they have travelled.
2. It might help to introduce a ‘carbon tax’ or an ‘energy tax’ onto foodand other goods as it would encourage people to buy local produce orproducts which are not transported by plane. However it maydisadvantage developing nations. Food might also become moreexpensive and more seasonal. People might not be able to afford itemslike bananas and oranges. These disadvantages are balanced againstthe cost of allowing rapid climate change to continue and havingdisruptions in weather patterns as a consequence.
3. If climate change is rapid then we may be compelled to take manymore measures to help reduce carbon emissions such as labellingproducts with their food miles or the amount of energy consumed intheir production. As a consumer pupils may wish this to happen as theycan then make more informed choices about what they buy.
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Glossary
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GLOSSARY
Biodiversity: covers the whole range of variation in living things: geneticvariation, species variation and ecosystem variation – in other words, thevariety of life.
Climate: average weather over a long period (usually 30 years or more) ina particular region.
Climate change: variations in climate as a result of natural variations orthe result of emissions of greenhouse gases by human activities.
Climate change scenarios: illustrate possible changes to our climate,each one making assumptions about future levels of greenhouse gases inthe atmosphere and how the climate responds to increasedconcentrations of greenhouse gases.
Community: a group of populations of plants and animals in a givenlocation.
Conservation (of nature): management of the Earth’s natural resourcesand environment to ensure their quality is maintained and that they arewisely used.
Dominance: condition in species communities in which one or more species,by means of their number, coverage or size, have considerable influenceupon or control of the conditions or existence of associated species.
Ecosystem: the species community together with non-living environmentwith which it functions.
Endemic species: a species of plant or animal confined to a particularregion, country or island and having, so far as is known, originated there.
Environment: of an organism consists of all the factors (biological,chemical and physical) that affect it.
Extinct: no longer in existence, no longer living.
Food chain: describes the dependence for food of organisms upon othersin a series, beginning with plants and ending with carnivores.
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Fossil fuel: fuel, such as coal, oil or gas that is formed from thedecomposition of animal and plant remains.
Global warming: gradual rise in temperature over all the Earth’s surface.
Greenhouse effect: natural effect caused by the accumulation of carbondioxide, water vapour and other gases in the atmosphere insulating theEarth, preventing heat loss and raising atmospheric temperature
Greenhouse gases: gases causing the greenhouse effect.
Habitat: the place or type of site where a plant or animal naturallyoccurs.
Intertidal zone: the coastal zone between the highest and lowest tides.
Mitigation: of climate change activities are aimed at reducinggreenhouse gas emissions, i.e. reducing the causes of the change.
Native species: a species that occurs naturally in an area.
Natural heritage: land, water and wildlife form Scotland’s naturalheritage.
Natural regeneration: growing again naturally.
Pollution: presence of abnormally high concentrations of harmfulsubstances in the environment, often put there by people.
Population: group of individuals of a single species.
Precipitation: rain, sleet, hail or snow.
Renewable energy: energy generated from sources that can be replacedor replenished e.g. wind, wave, solar, tidal, and coppicing.
Species: a group of organisms formally recognised as distinct from othergroups; the basic unit of biological classification.
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Sustainable use: use of a resource that can be continued on an on-goingbasis without depleting or damaging it. Sustainable activities meet theneeds of the present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs.
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Other Resources
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WEBSITES
CLIMATE CHANGE
Scottish Executive Climate Change Sitehttp://www.scotland.gov.uk/climatechange/Includes background information on impacts and action being taken toreduce impacts, latest news and research results.
Learning and Teaching Scotland Education Sitehttp://www.LTScotland.com/climatechangeFor Scottish school children and their teachers, includes classroomactivities.
The UK Phenology Networkhttp:/www.phenology.org.ukA site collating and presenting information on the timing of spring andautumn events observed by volunteers.
United Kingdom Climate Impacts Programmehttp://www.ukcip.org.ukHelps organisations assess how they might be affected by climate changeso they can prepare for its impact. Includes useful backgroundinformation and up-to-date research results on climate change impacts inthe UK.
Climate Research Unit, University of East Angliahttp://www.cru.uea.ac.ukOne the world’s leading institutions concerned with the study of climatechange. Includes information sheets and topical research results.
UK Government Department of Environment, Food and Rural AffairsEducation Site http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/schools/index.htmHas sections for primary and secondary students. Includes sections oncauses, impacts, Government action, what students can do and studentactivities.
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WWF International Climate Change Campaignhttp://www.panda.org/climateHas useful information on causes, impacts and solutions including graphicsand latest news on international action to combat climate change.
Friends of the Earth Climate Change Campaignhttp://www.foe.co.uk/climatechange/Includes background information and useful data.
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REFERENCES
Abramovitz, J.N. (2002). Vital signs 2002: The Trends that are Shapingour Future. Worldwatch Institute, United Nations EnvironmentProgramme. New York.
Harrison, P. A., Berry, P. M. and Dawson, T. P. (eds.) (2001). ClimateChange and Nature Conservation in Britain and Ireland: Modelling NaturalResource Responses to Climate Change (the MONARCH project). UKCIPTechnical Report. Oxford.
Hill, M.O., Downing, T.E., Berry, P.M., Coppins. B.J., Hammond, P.S.,Marquiss, M., Roy, D.B., Telfer, M.G. and Welch, D. (1999). ClimateChanges and Scotland’s Natural Heritage: an Environmental Audit.Scottish Natural Heritage Research, Survey and Monitoring Report No.132. Scottish Natural Heritage, Perth.
Hiscock, K., Southward, A., Tittley, I., Jory, A. and Hawkins, S. (2001).The impact of climate change on subtidal and intertidal benthic species inScotland. Scottish Natural Heritage Research, Survey and MonitoringReport Scottish Natural Heritage, No. 182. Scottish Natural Heritage,Perth.
Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P.J.,Doig, X., Maskell, K. and Johnson, D.A. (2001). Climate Change 2001: theScientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the ThirdAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Hulme, M., Jenkins, G. J., Lu, X., Turnpenny, J. R., Mitchell, T. D., Jones,R. G., Lowe, J., Murphy, J. M., Hassell, D., Boorman, P., MacDonald, R. andHill, S. (2002). Climate Change Scenarios for the United Kingdom: TheUKCIP02 Report. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Universityof East Anglia, Norwich.
Human Development Report (2001). United Nations Development Report.Oxford University Press, New York.
Keeling, C. D. and Whorf, T. P. (2002). Atmospheric CO2 records fromsites in the SIO air sampling network. In Trends: A Compendium of Data
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on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak RidgeNational Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.