the general diagnostics of liver disease · 2018. 11. 5. · hepatobiliary ultrasound (usg) rapid;...
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THE GENERAL DIAGNOSTICS OF
THE LIVER, BILIARY TRACT AND
PANCREATIC DISEASESLászló Kalabay MD PhD
2018
SEMMELWEIS UNIVERSITY
3rd Department of Internal Medicinehttp://semmelweis.hu
Liver diseases 1
Inherited hyperbilirubinemia
• Gilbert’s syndrome
• Crigler-Najjar syndrome I, II
• Rotor syndrome
Viral hepatitis
• A, B, C, D, E, other (EBV, CMV),
cryptogenic
Immune and autoimmune liver
diseases
• Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC)
• Autoimmune hepatitis (CAH)
• Sclerosing cholangitis (PSC)
• Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)
• Allograft rejection
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal
Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Liver involvement in systemic diseases
• Sarcoidosis
• Amyloidosis
• Glycogen storage diseases
• Celiac disease
• Tuberculosis
Cholestatic syndromes
• Benign postoperative cholestasis
• Jaundice of sepsis
• Total parenteral nutrition-induced
jaundice
• Cholestasis of pregnancy
• Cholecystitis and cholangitis
• Extrahepatic biliary obstruction (stone,
stricture, cancer)
• Biliary atresia
• Caroli’s disease
• Cryptosporidiosis
Liver diseases 2
Genetic liver diseases
• α1-antitrypsin deficiency
• Hemochromatosis
• Wilson’s disease
• Benign recurrent intrahepatic
cholestasis (BRIC)
• Progressive familial intrahepatic
cholestasis (PFIC) types I-III
• Others (galactosemia tyrosinemia,
cystic fibrosis, Newman-Pick
disease, Gaucher’s disease)
Alcoholic liver diseases
• Acute fatty liver
• Acute alcoholic hepatitis
• Laënnec’s cirrhosis
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver
• Steatosis
• Steatohepatitis (NASH)
Acute fatty liver of pregnancy
Drug-induced liver disease
• Hepatocellular (INH, acetaminophen)
• Cholestatic (methyltestosterone)
• Mixed (sulfonamides, phenytoin)
• Micro- and macrovesicular steatosis
(MTX, fialuridine)
Vascular injury
• Venoocclusive disease
• Budd-Chiary syndrome
• Ischemic hepatitis
• Passive congestion
• Portal vein thrombosis
• Nodular regenerative hyperplasia
Mass lesions
• Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC),
cholangiocarcinoma, adenoma, focal
nodular hyperplalsia (FNH), metastatic
tumors, abscess, cysts, hemangiomaSource: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th
Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
History and symptoms
Aspecific constitutional
• Fatigue
• Weakness, malaise
• Nausea, less commonly
vomiting (vomitus
matutinus, too)
• Poor appetite
More liver-specific
• Jaundice
• Dark urine, light stools,
Pruritus (in cholestasis)
• Fever
• Diminished libido
• Anorexia, weight loss
• Abdominal pain, bloating, and
discomfort in the RUQ region
Bloating
• Abdominal swelling (ascites)
• Change in sleep pattern and
behavior
Source: Harrison's
Principles of Internal
Medicine 19th Ed.
McGraw-Hill 2015
Major risk factors for liver disease• Details of alcohol use
• Medications (incl. herbal compounds, birth control pills,
OTC medications)
• Personal habits
• Sexual activity
• Travel
• Exposure to jaundiced or other high-risk persons
• IV drug abuse
• Recent surgery
• Remote or recent transfusion with blood or blood products
• Occupation
• Accidental exposure to blood or needlestick
• Familial history of liver disease
Source: Harrison's
Principles of Internal
Medicine 18th Ed.
McGraw-Hill 2012
Physical examination
Inspection: icterus (sclera, skin) spider teleangiectasias,
palmar erythema, excoriations (pruritus!), xanthomas,
xanthelasmas (hypercholesterinemia), changes in hair
pattern (female type in males), gynecomastia, soft, small
testes, prominence of cutaneous veins, haemorrhoid
veins (portosystemic shunts)
Palpation: size-form-consistency: smooth, nodular, hard,
rockhard, firm-sharp edge, rounded edge, irregular edge,
abdominal mass, tenderness ascites (ballottment)
• cholecyst: Courvosier’s sign
• spleen (splenomegaly in portal hypertension)
Percussion: ascites (as dullness), size and shape of the liver
neurologic examination - flapping tremor
Constellation of
symptoms reported
by patients with
acute hepatitis B
virus (HBV)
Source: Images MD
Icterus
Spider nevi
Source: Medical-On-Line AlamySource: slideshare.net
Ascites
Source: murrasaca.comSource: en.wikipedia.org
Severe protein malnutrition in a patient with
end-stage liver disease
Source: Images MD
Large esophageal varices
Source: Images MD
Pruritus and palmar erythema
Source: Medical-On-Line AlamySource: imgarcade.com
Source: empills.com
Metabolism in liver diseases
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM:
• maintenance of blood glucose level in fasting state is
impaired (glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis)
• glucose intolerance (insulin is diverted to peripheral
circulation via portosystemic shunts)
LIPID METABOLISM:
• in cholestasis, se. cholesterin , phospholipids ,
xanthomas, xanthelasmas
AMINO ACID AND PROTEIN METABOLISM:
• albumin (hypalbuminaemia, edema, ascites)
• clotting factors (prothrombin!)
• transferrin
• 1-antitrypsin
BIOTRANSFORMATION AND DETOXIFICATION:
• ammonium urea (Krebs-Henseleit) = hyperammoniemia
Important diagnostic tests in common liver diseases
Disease Test
Hepatitis A Anti-HAV IgM
Hepatitis B
Acute
Chronic
HBsAg and anti-HBc IgM
HBsAg and HBeAg and/or HBV DNA
Hepatitis C Anti-HCV and HCV DNA
Hepatitis D (delta) HBsAg and anti-HDV
Hepatitis E Anti-HEV
Autoimmune hepatitis ANA, SMA, se. IgG↑, compatible histology
Primary biliary cirrhosis AMA, se. IgM↑, compatible histology
Primary sclerosing cholangitis p-ANCA, cholangiography
Drug-induced liver disease History of drug ingestion
Alcoholic liver disease History and compatible histology
Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis USG or CT evidence of fatty liver, compatible histology
α1 Antitrypsin disease α1-AT levels↓, phenotypes PiZZ or PiSZ
Wilson’s disease Se. ceruloplasmin↓, urinary copper↑, hepatic copper level↑
Hemochromatosis Iron saturation↑, se. ferritin↑, testing for HFE gene mutations
Hepatocellular cancer Elevated AFP > 500; USG or CT image of mass
Source:
Harrison's
Principles of
Internal
Medicine
19th Ed.
McGraw-Hill
2015
A simplified diagnostic approach in patients presenting
with acute hepatitis
Serologic tests of patient's serum Diagnostic interpretation
HBsAg IgM
anti-HAV
IgM
anti-HBc
anti-
HCV
+ - + - Acute hepatitis B
+ - - - Chronic hepatitis B
+ + - - Acute hepatitis A superimposed on
chronic hepatitis B
+ + + - Acute hepatitis A and B
- + - - Acute hepatitis A
- + + - Acute hepatitis A and B (HBsAg
below detection threshold)
- - + - Acute hepatitis B (HBsAg below
detection threshold)
- - - + Acute hepatitis C
Markers of inflammation in liver
disease
• SGOT = serum glutaminic acid-oxalacetic acid
transaminase = ASAT = aspartate
aminotransferase. Present in mitochondria and
cytoplasm.
• SGPT = serum glutaminic acid-pyruvic acid
transaminase = ALAT = aspartate
aminotransferase. Present in cytoplasm.
→ hepatocyte damage
• -glutamyl transpeptidase (GT)
Markers of cholestasis
• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP, SAP)
• Leucine aminopeptidase (LAP)
• 5’-nucleotidase
Tests of protein synthetizing
capacity of the liver
SERUM ALBUMIN AND GLOBULIN:
• albumin decreases (so is colloid osmotic
pressure)
• globulins increase, A/G ↓
PROTHROMBIN TIME:
• vitamin K-dependent clotting factor,
produced exclusively by the liver
Zone
electroph
oresis
pattern in
liver
cirrhosis
Other serum markers of liver disease
• Liver-specific glycoproteins: α2-macroglobulin
• Acute phase reactants:
– positive: C-reactive protein, (CRP), α1-acid
glycoprotein (orosomucoid), serum amyloid A
(SAA)
– negative: albumin, transferrin, fetuin-A
• Serum lipids and lipoproteins
• Elements: iron, copper
Evaluation of
abnormal liver
tests
Source: Harrison's
Principles of Internal
Medicine 19th Ed.
McGraw-Hill 2015
Evaluation of
chronically
abnormal
liver tests
W/U: workup
Source: Harrison's
Principles of Internal
Medicine 19th Ed.
McGraw-Hill 2015
Variant syndromes in autoimmune hepatitis
Source: Images MD
Mitochondrial and smooth muscle
antibodies
Imaging techniques in liver disease
• Ultrasonography
• CT
• MRI
• Angiography
• Fibroscan
Liver
abscess on
abdominal
USG
Source: Images MD
Ultrasound and
liver scan:
hepatic angioma
Source: Images MD
Ultrasound: periportal fibrosis
Source: Images MD
CT: small
hepatocellular
adenoma
(upper) and
cyst (lower) in
the liver
Source: Images MD
Multiple liver abscess
Source: Images MD
Abscess on liver 99Tc
scan
Source: Images MD
MRI: Hepatocellular carcinoma
Source: Images MD
MRI for hepatic metastases of colon cancer
Source: Images MD
Hepatic arteriogram in focal nodular
hyperplasia
Source: Images MD
Portal venography
Source: Images MD
Positron emission tomography for hepatic
metastases of colon cancer
Source: Images MD
Fibroscan - alternative to liver biopsy?
Source: samitivehospital.com
Liver biopsy
A, Prominent portal
inflammation and occasional
peripheral piecemeal necrosis.
B, Section displaying one of
many portal-containing
lymphoid aggregates with
germinal center formation.
Portal lymphoid infiltrates with
germinal center formation,
although not pathognomonic,
occur with relatively increased
frequency in chronic hepatitis
C.
Source: Images MD
Fatty liver (left) and cirrhosis (right)
Source: Images MD
Primary biliary cirrhosis
Source: Images MD
Genetic testing
• HCV infection
• Hemochromatosis (HFE)
• Wilson’s disease (ATP7)
PCR
For the determination of viral copy number
(„viral load”) in hepatitis B and hepatitis C
The entoero-
hepatic
circulation of
bilirubin
Blood(plasma)
hemoglobin (70%)other heme
proteins (30%)
Intestinal
lumenRES
verdoglobin
biliverdin
bilirubinbilirubin
mesobilirubin
urobilinogenstercobilinogen
LIVERbilirubin-glucuronide
0.5 mg%
Biliary tract
Portal vein
Hemorrhoidal veins
Kidney
Urine Stoolurobilinogenurobilin
approx. 4 mg/day
stercobilinurobilin
approx. 200 mg/day
The hepatobilary tree
Source: Images MD
CholelithiasisSymptoms
• Predisposing factors: 3F: female, fat, forty/fifty
• Occur following fatty meal
• Typically crampy pain n in the right upper quadrant, radiating to the
tip of the scapula
Laboratory findings
• Signs of inflammation, more expressed when cholecystitis is
present. elevated ESR, CRP, leukocytosis with the shift to the left
• Signs of obstruction only in choledocholithiasis
Treatment
• Cholecystectomy (laparoscopic preferred), in case of cholecystitis:
antibiotics (amoxicillin, metronidazole)
Complications
• Acute and chronic cholecystitis (gallbladder cc!)
• Choledocholithiasis, biliary tract obstruction
• Hydrops, empyema
• Perforation of the cholecyst
• Gallstone ileus
Acute cholecystitis
Symptoms
• as above + fever, chills
Laboratory findings
• Elevated ESR, CRP, leukocytosis with the
shift to the left
Treatment
• Cholecystectomy (emergency or elective)
• Antibiotics (amoxicillin, metronidazole)
Choledocholithiasis
Symptoms
• Typical pain + jaundice, dark urine, clay-like stool
Laboratory findings
• Direct hyperbilirubinemia, elevated serum alkaline phosphatase,
(less elevated serum transaminases)
• Usually signs of inflammation (ESR, CRP, leukocytosis)
Differential diagnosis
• Other causes of biliary tract obstruction: cholanciocarcinoma, Vater
papilla sclerosis or carcinoma, primary sclerotizing cholangitis
• Courvoisier’s sign: jaundice with painless palpable gallbladder
Therapy
• Surgical: choledochotomy, cholecystectomy
• ERCP
Diagnostic evaluation of the gallbladder 1
Diagnostic advantages Diagnostic limitations Comment
Plain abdominal X-ray
Low cost
Readily available
Relatively low yield
?Contraindicated in
pregnancy
Pathognomic findings:
calcified gallstones,
limey bile, porcelain
gallbladder,
emphysematous
cholecystitis, gallstone
ileus
Gallbladder ultrasound (USG)
Rapid; Accurate
identification of gallstones
(>95%); Simultaneous
scanning of gallbladder,
liver, bile ducts, pancreas;
„Real-time” scanning allows
assessment of gallbladder
volume, contractility; May
detect very small stones
Bowel gas, massive
obesity, ascites,
recent barium study
Not limited by
jaundice, pregnancy
Procedure of choice to
detect stones
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Diagnosis of stone disease by ultrasound
Source: Images MD
Diagnostic evaluation of the gallbladder 2
Diagnostic
advantages
Diagnostic limitations Comment
Radioisotope scans (HIDA, DIDA, etc.)
Accurate
identification of
cystic duct
obstruction
Simultaneous
assessment of bile
ducts
?Contraindicated in
pregnancy
Se Bi >103-205 uM/L
Cholecystogram low
resolution
Indicated for
confirmation of
suspected acute
cholecystitis
Less sensitive and less
specific in chronic
cholecystitis
Useful in diagnosis of
acalculous
cholecystopathy, esp. if
given with CCK to
assess gallbladder
emptying
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Healthy subject compared with patient with
cholelithiasis
Source: Images MD
Diagnostic evaluation of the bile ducts 1
Diagnostic
advantages
Diagnostic
limitations
Contra-
indications
Compli-
cations
Comment
Hepatobiliary ultrasound (USG)
Rapid;
simultaneous
scanning of
gallbladder,
liver, bile
ducts,
pancreas
Bowel gas,
massive
obesity,
ascites,
barium, portal
bile duct
obstruction
Poor
visualization of
distal common
bile duct
None None Initial
procedure of
choice in
investigating
possible
biliary tract
obstruction
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Ultrasonography of duct stones is not as reliable
as of those in the bile duct
Source: Images MD
Diagnostic evaluation of the bile ducts 2
Diagnostic
advantages
Diagnostic
limitations
Contra-
indications
Compli-
cations
Comment
Computer tomography (CT)
Simultaneous
scanning of
gallbladder, liver,
bile ducts,
pancreas
Accurate
identification of
dilated bile ducts,
masses
Not limited by
jaundice, gas,
obesity, ascites
High-resolution
image
Guidance for
fine-needle
biopsy
Extreme
cachexia
Movement
artifact
Ileus
Partial bile tract
obstruction
High cost
May not be
readily available
Pregnancy Reaction to
iodinated
contrast, if
used
Indicated for
evaluation
of hepatic or
pancreatic
masses
Procedure
of choice in
investigating
possible
biliary
obstruction
if diagnostic
limitations
prevent
USG
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
CT of the biliary tract: choledocholithiasis (left) and
gallbladder carcinoma with local invasion and a
separate metastasis near a percutaneous
transhepatic biliary stent (right)
Source: Images MD
Diagnostic evaluation of the bile ducts 3
Diagnostic advantages Diagnostic
limitations
Contra-
indications
Compli-
cations
Comment
Magnetic resonance cholagiopancreatography (MR)
Useful modality for
visualizing pancreatic and
biliary ducts
Can identify pancreatic
duct dilatation or stricture,
pancreatic duct stenosis,
and pancreas divisum
Has excellent sensitivity
for bile duct dilatation,
biliary stricture, and
intraductal abnormalities
Cannot
offer
therapeutic
intervention
Some metal
alloy
implants
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
MR of the biliary tract: choledocholithiasis (left),
cholangiocarcinoma surrounding the middle
hepatic vein and a second lesion posteriorly and
medially near the spine (right)
Source: Images MD
Diagnostic evaluation of the bile ducts 4
Diagnostic
advantages
Diagnostic
limitations
Contra-
indications
Compli-
cations
Comment
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatogram (ERCP)
Simultaneous
pancreatography
Visualization/biopsy
of ampulla and
duodenum
Best visualization of
distal biliary tract
Bile or pancreatic
cytology
Endoscopic
sphincterotomy and
stone removal
Biliary manometry
Not limited by
ascites,
coagulopathy,
abscess
Gastroduodenal
obstruction
?Roux en Y
biliary-enteric
anastomosis
Pregnancy
Acute
pancreatitis
?Severe
cardiopulmonar
y disease
Pancreatitis
Cholangitis,
sepsis
Infected
pancreatic
pseudocyst
Perforation
(rare)
Hypoxemia,
aspiration
Cholangiogram
of choice in:
Absence of
dilated ducts
?Pancreatic,
ampullary or
gastroduodenal
disease
Prior biliary
surgery
PTC
contraindicated
or failed
Endoscopic
sphincterotomy
a treatment
possibility
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
ERCP: choledocholithasis
(top left), patent
pancreatic and occluded
common bile duct (bottom
left) and long stricture of
the common hepatic duct
(bottom right)
Source: Images MD
Sphincterotomy and stone extraction of common bile duct
stones
Source: Images MD
Diagnostic evaluation of the bile ducts 5
Diagnostic
advantages
Diagnostic
limitations
Contra-
indications
Compli-
cations
Comment
Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiogram (PTC)
Extremely
successful when
dilated ducts are
dilated
Best visualization
of proximal biliary
tract
Possible separate
visualization of
obstructed left
ductal system
Bile
cytology/culture
Percutaneous
transhepatic
drainage
Nondilated or
sclerosed
ducts
Pregnancy
Uncorrectable
coagulopathy
Massive
ascites
Hepatic
abscess
Bleeding
Hemobilia
Bile peritonitis
Bacteremia,
sepsis
Largely
replaced by
CT and
MRI
Usually
initial
cholangio-
gram of
choice
when bile
ducts are
dilated
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Percutaneous
transhepatic
cholangiography
(PTC): extensive
perihilar
cholangiocarcinoma
with extension into
secondary
intrahepatic
branches
Source: Images MD
Diagnostic evaluation of the bile ducts 6
Diagnostic
advantages
Diagnostic
limitations
Contra-
indications
Compli-
cations
Comment
Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS)
Most sensitive method to detect ampullary stones
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
The diagnosis of pancreatic diseases -
general considerations
• Relative inaccessibility to direct examination and nonspecific nature of abdominal pain
• >90 % of the pancreas must be damaged before maldigestion of fat and protein is manifested.
• Pancreatic exocrine function becomes abnormal only when >60% of exocrine function has been lost
• Acute pancreatitis: severe, constant epigastric, belt-like pain that radiates through to the back, along with an elevated blood amylase level
• Chronic pancreatitis: hypertriglyceridemia, vitamin B12 malabsorption, hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperglycemia, ascites, pleural effusion, and chronic abdominal pain with normal blood amylase levels.
Cullen’s sign in acute panrcreatitis
Source: Images MD
Peritoneal aspirates in acute pancreatitis
The color of the peritoneal aspirate of patients with acute pancreatitis can
differentiate mild from severe disease. The darker the color (caused by blood,
due to hemorrhagic pancreatitis), the greater the severity of the disease is.Source: Images MD
Fat necrosis
seen at
surgery
Acute
necrotizing
pancreatitis
Source: Images MD
Pancreatic enzymes in body fluids 1 (frequently used)
Test Principle Comment
Serum
amylase
Pancreatic inflammation
leads to increased
enzyme levels
Simple; 20-40% false positives
and negatives; reliable if test
results are 3 times the upper limit
of normal
Urine
amylase
Renal clearance of
amylase is increased in
acute pancreatitis
Inferquently used
Ascitic fluid
amylase
Disruption of gland or
main pancreatic duct
leads to increased
amylase concentration
Can help establish diagnosis of
acute pancreatitis; false positives
occur with intestinal obstruction
and perforated ulcer
Pleural fluid
amylase
Exudative pleural effusion
with pancreatitis
False positives occur with
carcinoma of the lung and
esophageal perforation
Serum
lipase
Pancreatic inflammation
leads to increased
enzyme levels
Positive in 70-85% of cases
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Pancreatic enzymes in body fluids 2 (rarely used)
Test Principle Comment
Amylase
isoenzymes
P isoamylases arise from
the pancreas; S
isoamylases are from
other sources
More sensitive than total amylases
in diagnosis of acute pancreatitis;
useful in identifying nonpancreatic
causes of hyperamylasemia
Serum
trypsinogen
Pancreatic inflammation
leads to increased enzyme
levels
Elevated in acute pancreatitis;
decreased in chronic pancreatitis
with steatorrhea; normal in chronic
pancreatitis without steatorrhea
and in steatorrhea with normal
pancreatic function
Pancreatic
polypeptide
(PP)
PP confined almost totally
to the pancreas; release
stimulated by nutrients
and hormones; such
release correlates with
pancreatic enzyme
secretion
Basal, meal- and hormone-
stimulated (by secretin or CCK) PP
levels decreased in chronic
pancreatitis; a fasting PP level >
125 pg/mL argues against chronic
pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 18th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2012
Serum
trypsin levels
in chronic
pancreatitis
Source: Images MD
Morphological studies of the pancreas 1
Test Principle Comment
Abdominal
plain film
Can be abnormal in
acute and chronic
pancreatitis
Simple; normal in > 50% of
cases of both acute and chronic
pancreatitis
Upper GI X-
rays
Now obsolete
Ultrasono-
graphy
(USG)
Can provide information
on edema, inflammation,
calcification,
pseudocysts, and mass
lesions
Simple, noninvasive; sequential
studies quite feasible; useful in
diagnosis of pseudocyst limited
by interference with bowel gas
CT scan Permits detailed
visualization of pancreas
and surrounding
structures, pancreatic
fluid collection,
pseudocyst, degree of
necrosis
Useful in the diagnosis of
pancreatic calcification, dilated
pancreatic ducts, and pancreatic
tumors; may not be able to
distinguish between
inflammatory and neoplastic
mass lesionsSource: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Pancreatic calcification on plain abdominal
radiograph
Source: Images MD
Barium studies of the GI tract to evaluate patients
with suspected pancreatic cancer
Source: Images MD
Pancreatic ultrasonography: calcification and
dilated, segmented pancreatic duct (left) and a
pseudocyst (right)
Source: Images MD
A CT scan of the pancreas indicating gas bubbles
within the substance of the pancreas
Source: Images MD
CT: diffuse pancreatic calcification (left) and a
pseudocyst in the head of the pancreas (right)
Source: Images MD
Morphological studies of the pancreas 2
Test Principle Comment
Endoscopic
retrograde
cholangio-
pancreatography
(ERCP)
Cannulation of pancreatic
and common bile duct
permits visualization of
pancreatic-biliary ductal
system
Provides diagnostic
data in 60-85% of
cases; differentiation
of chronic pancreatitis
from pancreatic
carcinoma may be
difficult; now
considered primarily a
therapeutic procedure
Endoscopic
ultrasonography
(EUS)
High-frequency transducer
employed with EUS can
produce very high-resolution
images and depict changes
in the pancreatic duct and
parenchyma with great
detail
Can be used to
assess chronic
pancreatitis and
pancreatic carcinoma
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Arteriogram: „leaking” contrast material from the
splenic artery into large pseudocyst
Source: Images MD
ERCP: primary sclerosing cholangitis (left)
and tapering of distal common bile duct
resulting from pseudocyst or fibrosis in the
head of the gland (right)
Source: Images MD
ERCP: Minimal dilatation of the pancreatic duct
(left) advanced chronic pancreatitis, „chain-of-
lakes” (right)
Source: Images MD
Endosonographic
(EUS) image of the
body of the
pancreas with a
visible pancreatic
duct (thin arrow)
and calcifications
within the gland
(thick arrow). The
circular target
structure in the
center is the
instrument
Source: Images MD
Morphological studies of the pancreas 3
Test Principle Comment
Magnetic
resonance
cholecysto-
pancreatography
(MR)
3D rendering has been
used to produce very
good images of the
pancreatic duct by a
noninvasive technique
Has largely replaced
ERCP as a diagnostic
test
Pancreatic
biopsy with USG
or CT guidance
Percutaneous biopsy with
skinny needle and
localization of lesion by
USG
High diagnostic yield;
laparotomy avoided;
requires special
technical skills
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
MR of the pancreas: duct abnormalities
Source: Images MD
Computed
tomography can also
direct a needle
aspiration to obtain a
tissue diagnosis from
a pancreatic mass
Source: Images MD
Tests of exocrine pancreatic function 1
Test Principle Comment
Direct stimulation of the pancreas with analysis of duodenal contents
1. Secretin-
pancreozymin
(CCK) test
Secretin leads to
increased output of
pancreatic juice and
HCO3-; CCK leads to
increased output of
pancreatic enzymes;
pancreatic secretory
response is related to
the functional mass of
pancreatic tissue
Sensitive enough to detect
occult disease; involves
duodenal intubation and
fluoroscopy; poorly defined
normal enzyme response;
overlap in chronic pancreatitis;
large secretory reserve capacity
of the pancreas, currently done
at only few medical centers
2. Endoscopic
secretin-CCK
test
Replaces need for
tube replacement
duodenum
Sensitive enough to detect
occult disease; avoids intubation
and fluoroscopy; requires
seadation
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Tests of exocrine pancreatic function 2
Test Principle Comment
Measurement of intraluminal digestion products
1. Microscopic
examination of
stool for
undigested meat
fibers and fat
Lack of proteolytic and
lipolytic enzymes causes
decreased ingestion of
meat fibers and
triglycerides
Simple, reliable; not
sensitive enough to detect
milder causes of
pancreatic insufficiency
2. Quantitative
stool fat
determination
Lack of lipolytic enzymes
brings about impaired fat
digestion
Reliable, reference
standard for defining
severity of malabsorption;
does not distinguish
between maldigestion and
malabsorption
3. Fecal nitrogen Lack of proteolytic
enzymes leads to
impaired protein digestion;
resulting in an increase in
stool nitrogen
Does not distinguish
between maldigestion and
malabsorption; low
sensitivity
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015
Steatorrhea and diabetes associated with chronic
pancreatitis
Source: Images MD
Stimulated pancreatic lipase output and fecal fat
excretion and stimulated pancreatic trypsin output
and fecal nitrogen excretion
Source: Images MD
Tests of exocrine pancreatic function 3
Test Principle Comment
Measurement pancreatic enzymes in feces
1. Elastase Pancreatic secretion
of proteolytic enzymes
Good sensitivity if stools
not liquid
2. Chymotrypsin Pancreatic secretion
of proteolytic enzymes
Unable to detect chronic
pancreatitis in the absence
of steatorrhea
Source: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 19th Ed. McGraw-Hill 2015