TheFruitGardener’sBible

TheFruitGardener’sBibleACompleteGuidetoGrowingFruitsandNutsintheHomeGarden

LewisHillandLeonardPerry

ThemissionofStoreyPublishingistoserveourcustomersbypublishingpracticalinformationthatencouragespersonalindependencein

harmonywiththeenvironment.

EditedbyElizabethP.StellandCarleenMadiganArtdirectionandbookdesignbyDanO.WilliamsandCarolynEckertTextproductionbyLiseannKarandiseckyandJenniferJepsonSmithFrontcoverphotography:fromtopleft:gooseberries©JoshuaMcCullough;strawberries©bravo1954/iStockphoto.com;grapes©MarkBolton/GAPPhotosLtd.;blueberries©EwaBrozek/iStockphoto.com;cherrytrio©RedHelga/iStockphoto.com;pear©craftvision/iStockphoto.com;blackberries©JonathanBuckley;currants©ValentynVolkov/iStockphoto.com;apricots©house_red/iStockphoto.com;cherries©JohnGlover/GAPPhotosLtd.;almonds©AlexandrTovstenko/iStockphoto.com;plums©JonathanBuckley;raspberries©Floortje/iStockphoto.com;peaches©KutayTanir/iStockphoto.com;loganberries©ZaraNapier/GAPPhotosLtd.;walnuts©KevinDyer/iStockphoto.com;apples©JerryPaviaBackcoverandspinephotography:pruning©FriedrichStrauss/GAPPhotosLtd.;blueberries©TimGainey/GAPPhotosLtd.;pear©Nickos/iStockphoto.com;raspberries©EwaBrozek/iStockphoto.comInteriorphotographycreditsappearonpages310and311IllustrationsbyBeverlyDuncan

IndexedbyChristineR.Lindemer,BostonRoadCommunications©2011byNancyHill

PortionsofthistextwereoriginallypublishedunderthetitleFruits&BerriesfortheHomeGarden,1992.EditorialrevisionbyLeonardPerryAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedwithoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher,exceptbyareviewerwhomayquotebriefpassagesorreproduceillustrationsinareviewwithappropriatecredits;normayanypartofthisbookbereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans—electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orother—withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher.

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PrintedintheUnitedStatesbyR.R.Donnelley10987654321LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataHill,Lewis,1924–Thefruitgardener’sbible/LewisHillandLeonardPerry.

p.cm.Includesindex.Previouseds.publishedas:Fruitsandberriesforthehomegarden.ISBN978-1-60342-567-4(pbk.:alk.paper)ISBN978-1-60342-984-9(hardcover:alk.paper)1.Fruit-culture.I.Perry,LeonardP.II.Title.III.Title:Fruitsandberriesforthehomegarden.SB355.H6552012634—dc23

2011024870

Contents

AcknowledgmentsPrefacetotheNewEdition

PartOneGettingStartedwithFruitsandNuts

CHAPTER1FruitsandNutsintheHomeGardenIncludingFruitsinYourYardLearningtoGrowGoodFruit

CHAPTER2WhattoGrowandWhereChoosingHardyFruitsHowMuchRoomDoYouNeed?SelectingPlants

CHAPTER3SeasonalCareofFruitsandNutsWinterCareSpringCareSummerCare

HarvestTimeWhattoDowithAllYourFruit

PartTwoTheSmallFruits:Berries,Bushes,andBrambles

CHAPTER4StrawberriesJune-BearingorDay-Neutral?TwoWaystoGrowPreparingtheSoilPlantingandCareHarvestingStrawberries

CHAPTER5RaspberriesandBlackberriesGettingtoKnowtheBramblesPlantandSiteSelectionPlantingandCareHarvestingBrambleFruits

CHAPTER6BlueberriesDifferentTypesforDifferentRegionsMeetingSoilRequirementsPlantingandCare

HarvestingBlueberries

CHAPTER7Ribes,Elderberries,andOtherBushFruitsGettingtoKnowtheBushFruitsPlantingandCareHarvestingBushFruitsUnusualBushFruits

CHAPTER8GrapesforEveryRegionGettingtoKnowGrapesChoicesforColdandHotClimatesGrapesNeedSupportPlantingandCareHarvestingGrapesUnusualVineFruits

PartThreeTreeFruits&Nuts

CHAPTER9ApplesandCrabApplesApplesforEveryClimateStandard,Semidwarf,orDwarf?PlantingandCareHarvestingandStoringApplesChoosingAppleCultivarsCrabApplesforEating

CHAPTER10Pears

TwoDistinctTypesofPearsPlantingandCareHarvestingPearsUnusualTreeFruit:Quince

CHAPTER11Peaches,Nectarines,andApricotsChoosyaboutClimateSelectingPlantsPlantingandCareHarvestingChoosingCultivars

CHAPTER12PlumsforEveryRegionLotsofColors,Shapes,andUsesClimateConsiderationsPollinationMattersPlantingandCareHarvestingPlumsPluotsandPlumcotsWildPlums

CHAPTER13Cherries,SweetandSourSweet,Sour,andBushCherriesPickyaboutPollination

PlantingandCareHarvestingCherriesGalleryofUnusualTreeFruits

CHAPTER14NutsGettingtoKnowtheNutsPlantingandCareHarvestingNuts

PartFourGrowingHealthyFruits,Nuts,andBerries

CHAPTER15ImprovingYourSoilWhatIsSoil?PreparingSoilforFruitingPlantsMulchesAreLabor-SaversMakeYourOwnCompost

CHAPTER16GettingPlantsofftoaGoodStartCareStartsbeforePlantingPlantingWellPaysOffPamperafterPlantingDon’tHarvestTooSoon

CHAPTER17Pruning:NotJustforTreesWhyPrune?WhentoPrunePruningBushFruitsandGrapes

MatchPruningStyletoYourTreeMakingtheCutsEspaliers:PruningasArtRevivingOldTrees

CHAPTER18Diseases,Insects,andOtherFruitProblemsNonchemicalControlsDeterminingWhat’sWrongPhysiologicalProblemsofFruitPlantsDiseasesInsectsSpraying:How,What,andWhen

CHAPTER19WildlifeFriendsandFoesPreventingMouseDamageRabbits,Porcupines,Raccoons,andSquirrelsDealingwithDeerOutwittingBirdsAvoidingOtherHazards

GlossaryUSDAPlantHardinessZoneMapResourcesInteriorPhotographyCreditsIndex

Acknowledgments

UNTILONEISINVOLVEDwithwriting,orinthiscaseextensivelyrevising,abookofthismagnitude,onecannotimaginethenumberofpeoplewhohelptomakeitareality,togrowmerewordsintoabeautifulandusefulgardeningreference.IammostthankfultoCarleenMadiganforinvitingmetoundertakethisproject,andthenforprovidingextratimetomakesomeneededchanges.Inaddition,I’mgratefultothereviewers,theartist,thephotographers,andthemanyotherproductionpersonnelI’venothadthepleasuretomeet.ThanksespeciallytoLizStellforherpatienceasweworkedonallthedetailstoreorganizethematerialandcreateabookevenmorereader-friendly.TomakethisbookapplicablebeyondwhereIgarden,inNew

England,I’mindebtedtothemanynurseries,specialistgrowers,andcooperativeextensionprofessionalscoasttocoastandnorthtosouthwhosharedusefulinformationoncultivarsandpracticesfortheirparticularregions.Ihopethisbookhassucceededintappinginto,andaccumulatinginoneplace,thiswealthofknowledge.Evenwithsomuchnewinformationaddedtothisbook,Lewis’svoice

stillringsthroughoutit.I’mgratefulforthechancetohaveknownLewisandNancyHillsowell,andtohaveenjoyedgoodvisitsandlearnedmuchfromthemovertheyears.Finally,thankstomyfamilyforgivingmeupforsomanyweeksbehindthecomputer.

—LeonardPerry

Ittookmeabouttwentyyearstolearnhowtogrowgoodfruit.Ihopethisbookwillhelpyouaccomplish

itinlesstime—awholelotless.—LewisHill

PrefacetotheNewEdition

EVERYTIMETHEREISARECESSION,thereisarenewedinterestinfoodgardening.Whatmaystartoutasanactivitytosavesomemoneyonthefoodbilloftenturnsintomuchmore.ThereasonsforgrowingyourownfruitsandberriesthatLewismentionedinhisoriginalfirsteditionofthisbook—FruitsandBerriesfortheHomeGardener—arestillapplicable.Thesafetyofwhatweeat,knowingwhatchemicalshavebeenapplied(ifany),andtheincreasedflavorandnutritionoffreshfruitsfromthegardenarestillgoodreasonswhypeopleturntogrowingtheirownfruit.Whatwasn’tsuchanissueinthepreviouseditionsofthisbookisaconcernaboutglobalwarmingandour“carbonfootprint”—howmuchfuelisspenttransportingthosefruitsfromalloverthecountryandfromaroundtheglobe.Sincethen,ourlivesseemtohavebecomeevenbusier,morehectic,

oftenchaotic.Growingyourownfruitcanprovideawelcomerefuge,asenseoforderandcontrol,anopportunityforafamilyactivity,andtheexercisemanyofuslackbecauseofdeskjobsandtimespentinvehicles.Becausemanypeoplehavelesstimetogarden,theyoftenneedto

quicklylocatetheinformationtheyneed.Thelayoutofthisbookhasbeenrevisedwiththisinmind.Moreinformationhasbeenaddedforbeginners,toencouragemorepeopletoenjoythebenefitsofgrowingtheirownfood.Thiseditionalsoaddressessomeofthechangesingardening

practices.Therehavebeenadvancesinsustainablepractices,notablybiologicalpestanddiseasecontrols.Deerhavebecomeamajorprobleminmanypartsofthecountry.Incorporatingfruitsandnutsintoornamentallandscapes,forboththeiraestheticsandfoodfunctions(forpeopleandwildlife),isgainingininterest.Therearemanynewvarieties,andsomegardenersarebecominginterestedinnewfruitcrops.Eachofthesetopicsisthoroughlycoveredinthisnewedition.Untilhispassing,Lewiswasadearfriendforalmostthreedecades.I

knewandworkedwithhim,alongwithhiswifeNancy,professionallythroughtheUniversityofVermontExtension.Iamexcitedtohavethis

opportunitytoupdatehiswonderfulandusefulreference.LewiswasatrueVermonterwhohadapractical,engaging,andhumorousstyleofwriting,asifyouweretalkingwithhiminperson.Hewrotebasedonalifetimeofexperienceinhorticulture.Ihaveattemptedtomaintainhisstyle,andhopemyownmanyyearsofsimilarexperiences,bothintheSouthandintheNorth,continuetoprovidewhatyou,thegardener,willfindreallyuseful.Forthoseofyouwhoalreadygrowfruitsandnuts,Ihopeyoufind

muchnew,andeasilyaccessible,informationinthisrevisededition.Forthoseofyouwhoarejustbeginning,orthinkingaboutdoingso,Ihopeyou’llquicklylearnwhatyouneedforsuccess.Thisbookwillhelpyoudealwiththechallengesthatnaturethrowsatus,turningthemintosuccesses,opportunitiesforlearning,orperhapsnewpracticesandcrops.Evenifyoubegingrowingfruitsandnutsforapurelyfunctionalreason—tosavemoneyortoensurefoodsafety—Ihopeyou’llsoondiscovertheotherbenefitsandpleasuresoffruitgrowingandharvest,justasLewisdidandIstilldo.

—LeonardPerry

PARTONEGettingStartedwithFruitsandNuts

Withalittleplanningandpropersiteselection,youcanhaveayardthatproducesfruitsandnutsinsteadofjustflowers.

ONEOFTHEBESTTHINGSABOUTWALKINGthemiletoourcountryschoolwhenIwassixwascuttingthroughouroldandratherdecrepitorchardandpickingpocketsfullofapplestoeatontheway.Theearly‘YellowTransparents’and‘Tetoskys’werereadyonthefirstdayofschool,andevenachildcouldeatalotofthemwithoutfeelingstuffed.Latercamethe“heavier”apples—thezippy-flavored‘Duchesses’,the‘Astrachans’withtheirwaxyredskins,golden‘Peach’appleswithrosyblooms,andthe‘Wealthys’,whichripenedaweekorsolater.The‘Bethels’,‘PoundSweets’,and‘Tolmans’ripenedevenlater,andwestoredthoseinthecellarforwintereating.

Lotsofotherapplesgrewintheorchard,too.Wedidn’tevenknowtheirnames,sowecalledthembytheirflavororappearance:thepear,thepumpkin,thebanana,thesugar.Allthekidsintheneighborhoodknewwherethebestapplesineachorchardgrew,andwhentheywereattheirbest.Liketheraccoonsthatstolethematnight,wecouldgounerringlytothechoicesttrees.Onereasonforthesuccessofthoseearlyorchardswasthekindof

caretheold-timersgavetheirfruitsandberries.Acenturyago,theorchardwasasimportanttopeopleastheirgrain,animals,woodlot,orvegetablegarden.Theyneverneglectedtheannualfertilizing,pruning,andinsectcontrol,eventhoughthelattermightconsistonlyofflingingwoodashesthroughthetreesnowandthen,orperhapsanoccasionalsprayofsoapsudsandwater.Theyfencedoutthefarmanimalsexceptinlatefall,whenpigsorcattlewereletinforashorttimetoeatanyunusedfruitinwhichinsectsanddiseasecouldspendthewinter.AsIgrewolder,IrememberedhowmuchbetterIhadlikedthe

homegrownfruitsandwasalreadysentimentalaboutthestatelyoldorchardandtheheapsofapplesthatfellonthegroundthereeachfall.

SoIdecidedtoplantsomeappletrees.Icouldn’tfindanyoftheoldfavorites,soIhadtoordernewkindsfromtantalizingcatalogssentbyfarawaynurseries.Theirassortmentinthe1940swassmall,consistingmostlyofthesamevarietiesasthosethatweredisplayedinourlocalstoreseachfall:‘RedDelicious’and‘YellowDelicious’,‘RomeBeauty’,‘Jonathan’,‘Winesap’,and‘GrimesGolden’.Ilearnedalotthehardway,includingtheknowledgethatwhenIboughtfruittreesitwaswisetostudythecatalogscarefully,becauseatreesuitableforOregonmightnotbehappyinNewEngland.Growingappleswasmystepping-stonetotryingotherfruits,anda

fewyearslaterwewereharvestingplums,pears,grapes,cherries,andalargeassortmentofberries,justasourancestorshaddone.Wenolongerneededtodependonthesmallselectioninthesupermarket,becausethedozensofdifferentkindsoffruitsgrowinginourbackyardgaveusanexcitingvarietyofgoodeating.UnlikeGrandpaandGrandma,wehadtheadvantageofahomefreezer,whichletusenjoyourproduceallyear.Itseemedgoodnottohavetowasharaftofspraysandwaxesoffourfruitandberriesbeforeweatethem,ortoworryaboutwhetherourapplepiecontainedmorepreservativesthanvitamins.Infact,justabouteverythingconnectedwithfruitgrowingwasa

pleasure,especiallytheharvest.WhenIpickedthefirstredstrawberryoftheseason,orthefirstjuicyriperaspberry,orthefirstcrisptangyapple,anybattleswithinsectsorweedswerequicklyforgotten.Instead,myboyhoodmemoriesofthemajesticoldorchardreturned,andIwasfilledwithhopefulanticipationofallthefabulousharvestsahead.

Often,fruitingplantscanbeincorporatedintoornamentalsettings.Thisnormallyshrubbygooseberrybushhasbeentrainedtoasingletrunkand

surroundedwithnasturtiums.

CHAPTER1

FruitsandNutsintheHomeGarden

Ourorchardandourberrypatcharen’tlarge,buteachyearweputhundredsofpackagesoffruitintothefreezer,inadditiontoallthefruitswestoreinourrootcellarorpreserveinotherways.Allsummerandfallweeatpiesandshortcakes,drinklotsofjuice,andgiveawayquantitiesoffruit.Iwon’tevenmentiontheamountweeatrightoffthetreesandbusheswhilewe’repicking.Naturally,itwouldcostatidysumtobuyallthisfoodinthelocalmarket,anditwouldn’ttastenearlyasfreshashomegrown.Insmalltownslikeours,wecan’talwaysgetthesefruits,andwhenwecanthey’reusuallyshippedinfromplacesorcountrieswe’llnevervisit.Ifindthatgrowingourownfruitmeanswetendtoeatmore,whichisgoodforourhealth.Increasingprices,concernsaboutfoodsafety,ourneedtoeatmorefruitsandvegetablesdailyforourhealth,andthinkingaboutallthefuelburnedtoshipfruitthousandsofmiles—thesereasonsmakeusappreciateourorchardandberrypatchevenmore.Fruitingplantsarenotabiginitialinvestmentinlightofallthe

futuredividendsyoureapfromthem.Afruittreecancostaslittleasabusheloffruit,andforthecostofaquartofstrawberriesyoumightbuyenoughplantsfor4quarts.Whybuyfruitdrinks,fruitpies,andfruiticecreamwhenyoucanmakeyourown?Byraisingtheirownfruitsandberries,familiescansavealotontheirfoodbills.Justtwomaturesemidwarfappletrees,forinstance,canyield6bushelseach,whichtranslatestoabout480pounds.Ifyouhaveonlyasmalllot,youcanstillgrowfruit.Manydwarf

treesgrowtofullsizewithinan8-footcircle.Strawberriesthrivein

crocks,hangingbaskets,pyramids,andbarrels.Ashortrowofraspberrieswillproducequartsoffruiteveryyear.Somefruitscanevenbegrowninlargepatiocontainers.Ifyoudon’thavemuchtime,startsmall.Onceplanted,blueberries

providethemostreturnfortheleasteffort.Thetruthis,ifyouchoosetherightkindsoffruitsandgivethemasuitableplacetoliveandalittleattention,fruittreesandespeciallyberriesrequirenomore—andoftenless—carethanmanyotherplants.

IncludingFruitsinYourYard

Onenicewaytoenjoyfruit,especiallyonasmalllot,istolandscapewithfruittreesandbushesinsteadofornamentaltreesandshrubs.Ifyou’replantingaroundyourhomeforthefirsttimeorreplacingexistinglandscaping,whynotuseblueberries,currants,andgooseberriesasfunctionalsubstitutesforsomeoftheornamentalfoundationplantsandhedgesaroundyourhouse?Manyfruitingplantshaveattractiveshapes,leaves,andfallcolor,andofcourseprovidefoodforwildlife.Fruittreescanreplacefloweringtreesandshrubs,andnuttreesaregoodsubstitutesforshadetrees.Althoughourplantingsbearlittleresemblancetothoseinformalbotanicgardens,wefindpleasureandsatisfactioningrowingplantsthatarebeautifulinallseasonsandalsoproduceaproductthatcanbeputintoatastypieorpouredintoapitcher.Incorporatingperennialedibleplantsintoalandscapeisanimportant

aspectofwhatisknownaspermaculture.Thissystemofplanningthelandscapeisgraduallygainingrecognitionamonggardenerswhowanttobeecologicalandsustainableintheirplantingsandpractices.Inpermaculture,landscapesareseenasbothaestheticandfunctional,providingfoodforbothhumansandwildlife.Youdon’thavetowaitlong.Dwarffruittreesbegintobearwithin

twoorthreeyears,someberriesproducebigcropswithinthreeyears,andyoucanpickeverbearingstrawberrieseventhefirstyear.Ifyousellyourproperty,anorchardandaberrypatchmayevenaddtoitsvalue.Hereareeightwaystofitfruitsintoyourlandscape.Somefruitsfit

morethanoneofthesefunctions:

Screensandhedges.Hedgesareplantedtodefineaspace,ortoprovidean“outdoorwall.”Theycanbeformal(clippedtoastrictshape)orinformal(utilizingthenaturalshapeofplants).Hedges,suchasadenseplantingofblueberriesoralessdensebutthornyrowofbrambles,alsoprovideaphysicalbarrier.Brambles,blueberries,andcurrantsmakegoodhedges.Justmakesurethatifyouuseaspreadingfruit,youcancontainthehedgeeasilythroughpruning,cultivation,ormowing.Screensaremoreoftenplantedasavisualornoisebarrier,and

they’recommonlyusedtoprovideprivacy.Ifplantedasawindbarrier,ascreeniscalledawindbreak.Asavisualbarrier,ascreencanbedenser,asinawidebedofshrubscloselyspaced,ormoreopenandmerelysuggestingavisualbarrier.Tall-growingelderberriescanserveasascreenandprovidegoodfalleatingandaninvitationtobirds.They’reagoodchoiceforsoilsthataretoomoistforotherfruits,andtheywillevengrowonthenorthsideofabuilding.Otherscreeningplantsarechoke-berries,espalieredfruittrees,andgrapesontrellises.

Shadetrees.Mostfruittreesarejustaslovelyasfloweringornamentaltrees.Notonlydotheybloom,buttheircropalsogivestheeffectofasecondflowering.Wehavea‘Dolgo’crabappleinthefrontyardthatthrillsuswithitsprofusionofwhiteblossomseachspringandiscoveredwithgorgeous,brightredappleseveryfall—plentyforus,ourfriends,thefreezer,andevenaflockofmigratingCanadianrobinsthatincludeusontheirroutesoutheachfall.

Whysettleforanordinaryfence?Anespalieredappleorpearwillservesomeofthesamepurposeswhileproducingfruitandaddingaestheticvalue.

Makesurewhenchoosingashadetreetoconsideritsmatureheightandspread.Thinkaboutwhereitwillgo.Willitprovidetheshadeyouwantforyourhomeorpatioinsummerorwillitcastunwantedshadeonyourvegetablegarden?Willitbeinthewayoffutureutilityrepairsoroverheadutilitylinesasitgrows?Nuttreessuchasblackwalnut,butternut,pecan,andhickoryare

primechoicesforlargeshadetrees—thoseover60feethigh.Formedium-sizetrees,between30and60feethigh,considerstandardapples,redmulberry,Americanpersimmon,Chinesechestnut,andwalnut.Mostotherfruittreesareinthesmallsizecategory—under30feethighatmaturity—andincludecrabapples,pears,peachesandnectarines,plums,cherries,andsemidwarfapples.

Foundationplantings.Whenincludingfruitsinafoundationplanting,keepthemawayfromthebuilding.Ifthey’retooclose,moisturewillbetrappedbehindthem,whichcanrotsidingandweakenbricks.Aroofoverhangmaypreventrain-waterfromreachingplantroots.Mature

heightisanotherimportantconsideration;youdon’twantplantsthatwillgrowtoblockwindowsanddoors.Althoughmosttreesaretoolargetoplantnearafoundation,dwarf

applesaregoodforflankinganentranceandatthecornerofabuilding.LargeshrubssuchasserviceberriesandNankingcherryworkwellonhomecorners.Whensitinglargertreessuchaspearsandplums,placethemoutfromacorneratleasthalfthewidthoftheirmaturecanopy.Gooseberriesandcurrantsworkwellalongthefoundation.Withtheirredfallleaves,blueberries(especiallythehalf-highvarieties)areagoodsubstituteforburningbush(Euonymusalata).Clovecurrant,whichsportsyellowflowers,isagoodsubstituteforforsythia.Putthesun-lovingblueberriesontheeastandsouthsides;thecurrantsandgooseberrieswillgrowbestonthewestandnorth.

Bedsandborders.Islandbedswithinlawnsandborders(thebedsalongtheedgeofawallorpropertyline)areusuallyplantedtoshrubsandperennialsoracombination.Fortheseareas,considersomeofthefoundationplantssuchassaskatoons,redorclovecurrants,blueberries,andgooseberries.Becarefulofraspberriesandelderberries;thesespreadandwilltakeoveranentirebed.Savetheseshrubsforaberrypatch.

Grapevinestrainedtocoverapergolabenefitfromthesturdysupportofthetimbers,whileofferingshadetoasittingareabelow.

Placelargershrubstowardthebackofaborder,orinthecenterofanislandbed.Masslingonberries,cranberries,orlowbushblueberriesinthefront.Strawberries,particularlythealpines,whichclumpratherthanspread,arealsogoodforthefront.Interspersesmalltreesorplantthemtowardthebackofaborder.Justmakesureyouleavespacebetweenotherplantings,orapath,toaccessyourfruitsforpicking.

Arbors,pergolas,andtrellises.Thesetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably,althoughanarborissimplerandlessextensivethanapergola.Anarborisusuallyconstructedofwood.Pergolasarecommonoverseatingareassuchaspatios.Arbors,pergolas,andtrellisesareexcellentsupportsforviningfruits,suchasgrapes,kiwifruit,andinwarmerclimates,muscadinegrapes.Foradecentfruitcrop,you’llneedtoprunethevinesannually.Beawarethatpruningismoredifficulton

anarbororapergola;unlikeonatrellis,mostofthegrowthonthesestructuresisoverhead.

Espaliers.Rememberthecautionnottoplanttreestooclosetoabuilding?Youcandisregardthatadviceifyougrowanespalier.Thisformnotonlygrowswellinclosequarters,butitalsoprovidesadecorativewaytogrowfruits.Thoughlabor-intensive,whenwellcaredforanespalierproducesanabundanceoffruit.Createasmall-scaleorchardwithseveralkindsoffruitsgrowinginclosequarters,ortrainoneupawalltocreatealandscapefeature.Formoreonthisspecializedtechnique,seepage253.

Groundcovers.Somelow-growingfruitsareperfectforsteepterrainortoreplacealawnarea.Theyneedamostlysunnysitetobevigorousandbearfruit.Also,makesurethesiteisfairlyweed-freebeforeyouplant.Mostaredeciduous(lingonberries,however,areevergreen).Mostaretrailing.Thealpinestrawberryisanexception,anditlookswonderfulasamassedplanting.(Ordinarystrawberriesdon’tgrowdenselyandthereforedon’tcompetewellwithweeds.)Trailingbramblesthatareusuallytrainedonatrelliscanbeallowedtoramblealongthegroundtocreateamoundedeffect;keepinmindthattheywillbearlessfruitthiswaythantheywouldifgrownonatrellis.

Containers.Smallerfruitscanworkwellincontainers.Planthalf-highblueberriesordwarffruittreesinlargepotsorraisedplanters.Youcanevengrowgrapesinapotifyoutrainthevineontosomeformoftrellisorattractivestructuresuchasanobelisk.Containergrapeswillmakesmallerplantsthanthosefield-plantedandtrainedonatrellis,butcontainersmayenableyoutogrowgrapesinplacesthatotherwisewouldnotbepossible.Sincecontainersareaboveground,theydryoutquicklyanddon’t

benefitfromthemoderatingeffectsofdeepsoil.Plantsincontainersarealsolesshardy.Incold-winterareas,movecontainerplantsinintoanunheatedspacesuchasagarage—butnotonesubjecttofreezingtemperatures—forthewinter.Anotherimportantpartofcontainerplantingsisthesoil.The

physicalpropertiesofagrowingmediuminacontaineraredifferent

fromthoseinagroundbed;regulargardensoilisnotagoodchoiceforcontainers.Instead,mixgardensoilwithatleasthalforganicmattersuchaspeatmossorcompost,orpurchaseanalreadypreparedpottingmix.

LearningtoGrowGoodFruit

EVERYONEWANTSPLANTSthatproducewell,butasurprisingnumberofpeopleseemtoforgetthatplantsarelivingandgrowingorganismsthatneedcare.Especiallyinrecenttimes,withsomuchattentionpaidinthepressto“decorating”outdoors—asifplantswerelivingroomfurnituretobepurchased,placed,thenforgotten—thislittlefactisoftenoverlooked.Manytimesalongcountryroadsyou’veprobablyseenabandonedfarmswheretherearedozensofsturdyoldappletreesgrowingmilesfromcivilization.Theyobviouslygetnocarewhatsoever,yettheyappeartobegrowingwellandproducingfruit.Still,it’sverylikelythatsometime,longago,someonehelpedthosetreesgetofftoagoodstart.You’llwanttodothesameforyourfledglingfruittrees.It’seasy.Allyouhavetodoisthinkfromatree’spointofview.Beforeyoumakeapurchase,thinkaboutwhereinyouryardthe

plantwillgrowbest.Then,whenyournewtreeorshrubarrives,treatitlikethelivinginfantitis.Noresponsiblepersonwouldbuyapuppyanddumpitinthebackyardtofendforitself;yetgardenersoftenbuyahelplesslittletree,plantitfartooquicklyandcarelessly,andpromptlyloseinterestinitorfiguretheirworkisdone.Unlikethepup,atreecan’tgohuntingforfoodandwater,orevenhowltoremindyouit’sbeingneglected.Plantitcarefully,checkuponitfrequently,and—mostimportant—makesurethatitsrootsneverlackmoisture.

StrawberriesFitintoAnyLandscape

Strawberryplantsmakeacharmingedgingforaflowerbedandareusefulinotherornamentalways.I’veseentheminhangingbaskets,growbags,windowboxes,jarsandpots,barrelswithlargeholes

drilledinthem,andpyramids.Theycanevenbeusedinplantingsonawall,knownasagreenorlivingwall.Theeverbearingcultivarsaremostcommonlyusedforediblelandscaping,becauseunlikeJunebearerstheybegintoproducefruitthefirstyear.Alpinestrawberriesdon’tneedalargecontainer;theygrowwellinsmallerpots,includingtheclassicstrawberrypot.

Planteverbearingstrawberriesinbarrels,windowboxes,hangingbaskets,orflowerborderstomakeuseoflimitedspace.

WhataFruitPlantNeedstoThrive

Yourtreeorshrubhasthesamebasicrequirementsasanyotherlivingthing:

Aplacetolive.Theeartharoundthetreeorshrubwillbeitspermanenthome,sobesurethesoilistoitsliking.Canthesoilaccommodatethehugerootsystemofamaturetreeand,withalittlehelpfromyou,properlynourishit?Isthesoilwelldrained,nottoodry,butalsonottoowet?Fruittreesdeterioratequicklyifwaterevercoverstheirrootsformorethanafewdaysatatime.Evenifyou’vechosentherightvarietyforyourclimate,treescanbefussyaboutwherethey’replanted.

Thisgnarledoldgrapevineismorelikelytosurviveneglectthananewlyplantedyoungvinewould.

Waterandnutrients.Afruitplantortreeneedswaterandnourishment,andbothshouldbereadilyavailable,especiallyinearly

summerwhenaplantmakesmostofitsgrowth.Therootstakeinnitrogen,phosphorus,potassium,andothermineralsfromthesoil,butbecausesoilsareseldomwellsuppliedwithallthesenutrients,you’llprobablyneedtoprovideadditionalamounts.Enrichingthesoilwillhelptheroots;thenthetreeorbushwillgrowbetterandproducemorefruit.Seechapter15tolearnhowtobothimprovethesoilandaddpropernutrients.

Sunlight.Mostplantsneedlight,andmostfruitsneedagreatdealofitthroughoutmuchoralloftheday—atleast8hoursadayisusuallyrecommended.Sunlightisnecessaryforphotosynthesis,whichistheprocessbywhichplantsconvertenergyfromthesunintothecarbohydratesnecessaryforplantgrowth.Ifabuildingorlargetreesblockoutsunlight,yourtreesandbusheswon’tthrive.

Roomtogrow.Notreeorbushshouldbecrowded.Besurenottoplanttooclosetoothertrees,aroad,apath,abuilding,or—ifthetreewillgettall—underoverheadwires.Alsomakesuretherearenoyoungshadetreesnearbythatwillgrowtoblocktheneededlight.Bearinmindthatit’snotjustthetopsoftreesthatpresentaproblem;therootsoflargetreeswillstealvaluablenutrientsandmoisturefromyourplants.Atreeproducesasmuchgrowthundergroundasthereisabove,andinareaswherethesoilisnotdeep,therootsofalargeshadetreeoftenreachout60feetormoreineverydirection.

Therightclimate.Eachspring,postofficesanddeliverytrucksinthenorthernstatesarefilledwithpeach,fig,andapricottreesthathavenomorechanceofsurvivalthanawalruscaravancrossingtheSahara.Youcantryvariousschemestoprotectyourtreesfromfrost,butthebestwaytooutwittheweatheristochoosecultivarsthataresuitedtoyourclimate.Gardenersinawarmclimatecan’tgrowjustanyfruit,either.Inordertoproducefruit,mosttemperate-zonetreesneedaperiodofcooltemperaturessotheycangetagoodrest.Thisrequiredchillingperiodisoftenlong,asmuchasafewhundredhourseachyear.(SeeChoosingHardyFruits,page27.)

Fruitingplantsneedregularwatering,especiallyrightafterbeingplanted.

Protection.Animals,insects,machinery(especiallylawnmowersandweedtrimmers),children,andweatheralltaketheirtollontreesandshrubseachyear,especiallynewlyplantedones.Althoughagrowntreecanstandalittleneglect,youmustgiveayoungtreeorfruitplantcarefulprotection.Keepaneyeonyouryoungacquisitionandbereadytospringtoitsrescuewheneverdangerthreatens.Youmayneedtoprotectthetrunkofayoungtreefromwintermousefeeding.Inmanyareas,youwillneedsomeformofrepellentorfencingtosaveyourplantsfromdeerbrowsing.

SexandtheSingleTree

Despitethechildhoodlecturesaboutthebirdsandthebees,pollinationisstillamysterytomanypeople.Theydon’trealizetheyneedtwoofmostfruittreestogetfruit,orthey’reunsureaboutwhetherthey’llgetthebestpollinationwithtwotreesofthesamecultivarortwodifferentkinds.Othersthinkpollinationcouldchangethevarietyoffruit,orthatplantingseveralkindsofberriesneareachothercouldeventuallyresult

inagrandmixup.Peoplehaveaskedmewhetheraplumcanpollinateacherry,ifappleswillmatewithstonefruitsorpears,andifallthethousandsofapplecultivarsarecompatible.Onenewgardenerthoughttheyear-oldplantsinhisraspberrypatchmightbemaleandtheyoungnewplantsfemale.Likeallotherplants,afruitplant’sbiologicaldutyistoreproduce

itself.Itdoesthisbybloomingandbearingfruitthatcontainsseeds.Asintheanimalworld,bothgendersareinvolved.Themaleandfemalepartsofblossomsmustjointogetherforoff-spring—fruitandseed—tooccur.

Nomate?Nofruit.Almostallfruittreesandsomebushfruitsdobetterwithamate.Havingatleasttwotreesplantedneareachother(eveninaneighboringyard),isthemostreliablewaytogetconsistentlyheavycrops.Thecatchisthatthetreeshavetobetwodifferentcultivarsofthesamefruit;twoalikewon’tcross-pollinate.Havingtwoidenticalapplesisnodifferentfromhavingonlyonetree.Youneedtoplanttwoseparatekinds—perhapsa‘Honeycrisp’anda‘Freedom’.Likewise,ifyouwanttogrowplums,planttwodifferentplumcultivars.Onlythencanyoubesureoftruecross-pollination.Cross-pollinationisimportantforfruitqualityaswell.Lopsided

applesandsmallorlopsidedraspberriesandstrawberriesaretheresultofpoorpollination.Althoughafewfruittreesare“self-fertile”or“self-fruitful,”whichmeansthatasingletreecanbearfruitbyitself,mostare“self-infertile”or“self-unfruitful.”Theyneedcross-pollination,whichrequiresapartnernearby.Eventhoughinsomecasestwotreesorbushesarenotneededforpollination,itbearsrepeatingthattheyproducefarbetterifseveralareplantedtogether.Treeslistedasself-fertileoftenproducebetteryieldswithcross-pollinationfromanothercultivar.You’llfindpollinationrequirementsforeachtypeoffruitintheboxatthebeginningofeachfruitchapter.

It’simportanttoplantfruittreesingroupsforcross-pollination.Thisstandofappletreesalsoprovidesashadyareaforoutdoordining.

Inordertocross-pollinate,thetreesmustbeinthesamefamilygroup.Applescan’tpollinatepears;pearscan’tpollinateplums.Youthereforeneedatleasttwoofeachtypeoffruittreeyouplant.Ifyouwanttogrowpears,planttwopeartrees.Ifyouwanttogrowplums,youneedtwoplumtrees.Becausecrabapplesandapplesarerelated,theycanbeusedtopollinateeachother,soyoucanplantoneappleandonecrabapple.Makesurethecultivarsyouselectbloomatthesametime.For

example,thereareearly-,mid-,andlate-seasonapples;togetfruit,youneedtwotreesthatbloominthesameseason.Formoreinformationonthepollinationrequirementsofspecificfruits,nuts,andberries,seetheappropriatechapters.

TheProcessofPollination

Thisishowpollinationhappens.Thepollen(malecells)fromtheflowerononeplantmustbemovedtothefemaleportionofthesameflower(ifitisaself-pollinatingcultivar)ortoafloweronanotherplantforcultivarsthatrequirecross-pollination(cross-fertilization).Howdoesallthispollengetaround?Thoughforesttrees(pines,maples,oaks)are

pollinatedbythewind,fruittreesandbushesarepollinatedbyinsects—primarilybees.Thebeeisaninnocentpartytothesegoings-on;sheaccidentallyfertilizesflowersasshegoesaboutherbusinessofgatheringnectartotaketothehive.Onagoodday,onebusybeemayvisit5,000blooms!Theflowersofmostfruitplantsareperfect,whichmeansthateach

containsbothmaleandfemaleorgans.Themaleportionistheclusteroflittleuprightprojectionsinthecenter,thestamens(seeillustration,right).Thesearecoveredwithpollen—thebrown,red,yellow,ororangepowderyougetalloveryournosewhenyousniffaflowerupclose.Thefemalepartoftheblossom,thepistil,isthelong,slendergreentubethatisslightlytallerthanthestamensandinthemidstofthem.Formostfruittreesandmanyberriestobearfruit,pollenfromthestamensofPlantAmustbemovedtothepistilofPlantB.Thepollenthengerminates—justasaseeddoes—growingapollentubedowntounitewith(fertilize)thefemalecellintheovary.Thisisthebeginningofafruit,whichistheenlargedandripenedovary.Fruitswithasingleseedorpitneedonlyonegrainofpollen.Apples,

whichhavetenseeds,needtengrains.Anapplehasfivecompartments(carpels)inthecenter,eachwithtwoseedsinmostvarieties.Ifthepistilofanapplereceivesonlyoneortwopollengrains,thedevelopingfruitwillfalloffsoonafteritforms.Ifittakesinonlyfiveorsixgrains,anapplemaystilldevelop,butitwillbelopsided.Similarly,ifyourraspberriesorstrawberriesaresmallandlopsided,theyprobablyweren’tpollinatedsufficiently.Onblueberries,poorpollinationmeansfewerberries.

THEPARTSOFAFLOWER

Don’tworryaboutwhetherthequalityofyourfruitwillbeaffectedbythepollenofyourtree’spartner,orthatpollenfromasourwildtreemightproducesourapples.Thematingtree’spolleninfluencesonlythegenesintheseedandthereforeonlyaplantgrownfromthatseed.Thefruitismerelythehostfortheseeds;itwillstaythesamewhetherbeesbringpollenfromasourcrabappleorahigh-qualitygraftedtree.Anytreesgrownfromtheseeds,however,willvarywidely,eachproducingfruitquitedifferentfromitsparentsandfromeachother.

NoMoreJohnnyAppleseed

It’sfuntothinkofgrowinganappletreefromtheseedofsomethingyoueat,but,alas,youwon’tgetgoodfruitthatway—andyoucertainlywon’tgetthesameappleyoustartedwith.Unlikeshadeandforesttrees,fruittreecultivarswillnot,ifpropagatedfromseed,beliketheirparents.Evenseedsfromthebestapples,plums,peaches,andpearsarelikelytogrowintotreesthatproducepoorfruit.ThefruitfromJohnnyAppleseed’sfamoustreesweren’tgoodformuchexcepthardcider.

Yournewlittle‘Liberty’appletreeismostlikelytwotreesjoinedtogetherbyasurgicaloperationcalledagraft.Thepartthatwillgrowandproducefruitwasstartedfromashortpieceofbranchcalledascion(pronouncedSYE-on),whichwastakenfromalarge‘Liberty’appletree(orwhatevercultivaryoubought).Thesciondeterminestheshapeofthetree,andwhatthesize,color,andqualityofthefruitwillbe.Ifthisscionisjustabud,asisoftenthecase,theprocessiscalledbudding.Therootstock,orrootedportionofyourtree(alsocalledunder-stock),camefromadifferentplant.Althoughonceitwouldhavebeengrownfromaseed,now,morelikely,itwasclonedfromacutting.Therootstockgreatlyinfluencesthesizeofthetree,itsvigor,itshardiness,anditsabilitytogrowinvarioustypesofsoil;itmayalsoprovidesomediseaseresistance.Graftingiscommonwithfruittrees,evenwithsomewoodyornamentalplants.Youcaneasilylocatethegraftonayoungfruittree.Itwillbea

good-sizedbumporslightbendinthestem,eitheratgroundlevelorafewinchesaboveit.Asthetreegrows,thebumpgraduallydisappears,butthedifferentkindsofbarkareoftennoticeableyearslater.Whatyouneedtoknowaboutgraftedtreesisthateverything

growingbelowthegraftwillproducepoor-qualityfruitifallowedtogrowshoots(suckers).Thatmeansyoushouldcutoffanysproutsfromthatpartofthetreeimmediately.Ifmiceorrabbitsshouldchewthebarkandkillthetreeabovethegraft,anygrowthcomingfrombelowthegraftwillbetherootstockandnotthecultivaryouboughtandwant.Unlessyouregraftoneofthesesproutswithascionfromagoodvariety,it’sbettertodiguptherootsandreplacewithanewtree.Yournewgraftedfruittreeistheresultofcenturiesofimprovement

overthefruitsthattheearlyGreekscultivated,eventhoseyourgreatgrandparentsgrew.Newerselectionshavebetteryieldsandshorterandmorecompacthabits.Manyhavegoodresistancetodiseases.Yournewlittle‘Liberty’appletreeisnowreadytoenrichyourlifewithitsbeautyandbounty,askingonlyforalittlecareandattentioninreturn.

Ongraftedfruitandnuttrees,besuretopruneoffsuckersthatgrowfromtherootstock;they’llproducepoor-qualityfruit.

HelpingtheBees

It’salwaysadelighttowalkthroughtheorchardwhenit’sinbloomandhearaloudbuzzingcomingfromeachtree.Morebeesmeansbetterpollination,whichmeansmoreandlargerfruit,soanythingthataidsbeesalsoimprovesfruitproduction.Thisisjustasimportantforblueberriesandstrawberriesasitisfortreefruits.Gardenerswholivewherelate-springfrostsareaproblemespeciallyappreciateastrong

colonyofbeesintheneighborhood.Iftheflowersarepollinatedsoonaftertheybloom,theycanresistalightfrostbetterthanbloomsjustopening.Helpingthebeesbeginsatplanting.Asarule,thebusylittlebees

shouldnotbeforcedtoflymorethan500feettobringaboutthematingoftwoblossoms,althoughtheycan,anddo,travelmuchfartherifneedbe.Closerspacingisbetter,sincebeesdon’tflyasfarifit’swindyoriftheweatheriscoldorwet.Ideally,youshouldplantsemidwarfappleswithinatleast50feetofeachother;dwarfapples,within20feet.Therecommendedspacinggivenforspecificfruitswillresultinthebestpollination.Ahedgerow,ordenseplantingofnativespecies,growingnearyour

fruitsprovideshabitatforwildbees.Itmayprovideawindbreaktoo,anadvantagebecausebeesarelessactiveonwindydaysandinwindysites.Bumblebeesareespeciallygoodpollinatorsforblueberries,raspberries,andcurrants.Bumblebeesworkbetterthanhoneybeeswhenit’scold,cloudy,andwindy.Ifyougrowlotsoffruit,considerkeepingbees,especiallyifyou

aren’tgettinggoodpollination.(SeeResources,page307.)Ahiveofbeesisgoodfruitinsurance,becausewildbeesmaybeinshortsupplyinearlyspring.Alongwithbetterfruitset,you’llalsogethoney!Ifyoukeepbees,don’tplacethehivesrightunderthetrees;ifyouneedtospray,you’llendangerthebees.Neversprayduringbloom;inadditiontokillingbees,manypesticideswilldamagethepollengrowthintheflowers.Youcanstillgetfruitwhenonlyonekindoffruittreeisblooming

andthereappearstobenosuitablepartnerblossominganywhereintheneighborhood.Here’showwedoit:Whenonlyoneofourpeartreesisinbloom,wedriveacrosstowntoanabandonedfarmwhereabig,ancientpeartreealwaysblossomsatthesametimeasours.Wecutoffafewbranches,bringthemhome,andputtheminabucketofwaterunderourtree.Thebeestakeoverfromthere.

Keepingbees(opposite)isanexcellentwaytoensurethatyourfruitingplantsareproperlypollinated.Mostcommercialorchardownershirebeekeeperstotruckinhivesofbees(left)whilethetreesareinbloom.Thebeesflyfromflowertoflower,coveredinpollen(right),asfarasamilefromthehive.

Pickingfruitisanactivitythewholefamilycanenjoy.Ifyouhavechildren,considerincludingtheminthediscussionwhenyou’redecidingwhichfruitsto

plant.

CHAPTER2

WhattoGrowandWhere

Thewordorchardmaystirupvisionsofacresofwell-spacedtrees,oratleastadozenbigoldgnarledspecimensaroundGrandpa’shouseinthecountry,butamodernorchardcanconsistofthreeorfourdwarffruittrees,afewgrapevines,andasmallberrypatch—allonahalf-acrelot.Intensivegardeninghasalwaysbeennecessaryintiny,backyardcitylots,andit’snowcommoninsuburbanandevenruralareas.Thesizeofthelotisn’ttheonlyreasonpeopleplantonaminiaturescale.Youmayprefertolimitthesizeofyourplantingsbecauseyouhaveonlyasmallfamilyorbecauseyoulackthetimetogarden.Whateverthespaceofyourgardeningarea,you’llfindthatalthough

neighborsorthelocalzoningboardmightraisearuckusifyouweretokeepafewpigsorevenchickens,nooneislikelytofindanordinanceprohibitingafewtrees.Infact,plantingatreealmostanywhereisencouraged.Beforeyoubuyplants,considerwhatyouwanttogrow.Figureout

whichfruitsyouliketoeat.Whatdoyoubuymostoftenatthestoreorfarmer’smarket?Thinkaboutwhetheryouhavethetimeandenergytoputupsomeoftheharvest.Whenyouhaveyouranswers,it’stimetoidentifywhichvarietieswillgrowbestinyourclimate.Allthesefactorswillhelpyoudeterminewhich,androughlyhowmany,treesandberriestoplant.Resistthetemptationtocrowdintoomanyifyourspaceislimited.Evenifyouhavealargelot,don’tletenthusiasmgetthebestof

you.Inthequietofwinter,toomanyofussuccumbtocoloredcatalogpicturesandtantalizingdescriptionsoffruitsandberries.Soonwe’vemadeoutquiteanorder,andonlywhenthetreesarriveinthespringorwecomehomefromthenurserydowerealizethatweoverestimatednotonlythespaceavailable,butalsoourtime,energy,andneeds.It’simpossibletosuggesttheprecisenumberofplantsthatwouldbe

rightforeveryfamily,aseachhasdifferentneedsandtastes.Itmakesadifference,too,whetheryouwanttoconsumeallthefruitfreshorpreserveenoughtoenjoythroughwinter.Beforeyouchoosetheexactlocationofyourberrypatchororchard,

investigateanythingthatgoesontherethatmightaffectyourplantings,noworinthefuture.Willyourneighbor’srowoflittletrees,orevenyourownplantings,growtopowerfulheightsandshadeyourfruitplants?Doheavyrainsormeltingsnowsformpoolsofwaterthatcoulddrownthem?Willroadsaltdrainontothem?Isthespotaneighborhoodtrailformotorcycles,snow-mobiles,orhikers?Willyouorsomeoneelseeventuallyhavetodigtorepairacable,awaterpipe,orasewerline?Willanorchardblockoffanareawhereyoumayneedservicevehiclestodrivethroughsomeday?Ifyouhaveonlyasmalllot,youdon’thavemuchchoiceabout

wheretoputthings.Withintheboundariesyoudohave,though,trytofindaplacewhereyourfruitplantswillhavefullsun,gooddeepsoil,andplentyofroomtogrow.It’sgoodinsurancetoplantfruitnearyourhome,whereyoucan

keepawatchfuleyeonanytroublesbeforetheygetserious.Fruittreesplantedclosetoabusysidewalkmaybetemptingtopassersby,andyou’lllikelyhavecompetitionforyourbountyfromalltheneighborhoodkids.Toreducetemptation,plantberriesandfruittreesinaslightlylessconvenientplace.

Plantingonaslopeassuresgoodsoildrainageandreducesdamagefromalatefrost.East-ornorth-facingslopesarebestforreducingfrostrisk.

ChoosingHardyFruits

Whenbuyingfruitplants,selectvarietiesthatareacclimatedandcanstandtheweatherexpectedforyourregion.Ifyouhaveextraroom,though,it’salwaysfuntoexperimentwithafewthatareintendedforadifferentzone.Formostofyourplanting,you’llwanttostacktheoddsinyourfavorwiththoseprovenforyourregion.Therecanbeagreatdifferenceinhardinessamongcultivars,sopayattentiontothehardinesslevelindicatedforeach.Justbecauseaparticularfruittypeislistedforacertainhardinessrangedoesn’tmeanallcultivarswillliveinallthezoneslisted.(SeetheUSDAPlantHardinessZoneMaponpage306.)Tobesuccessfulinyouryard,afruittreeorberrybushmustmeet

severalrequirements.Incolderclimates,itmustbeabletomakeitsgrowthduringthefirsthalfofthegrowingseason,thenstopandhardenupbeforethefirstfrost.Don’tassumethataplant’shardinessisdeterminedonlybythecoldtemperatureitcantolerate.Actually,ashortgrowingseasonmaylimityourchoiceoffruitsmorethanthelowesttemperatureswill.Certainpeaches,plums,andnutsareoftenadvertisedasbeinghardyto–20°F.Whatisleftunsaidisthatthetrees

needalonggrowingseasontoproperlyhardenthewoodsothatitcanwithstandthoselowtemperatures.Sometreefruits—aswellasmanygrapes,nuts,blackberries,andblueberries—thatweredevelopedinwarmzonesarestillgrowingwhenthefirstfallfrostshitpartsofZones3,4,and5.Becausetheirnewwoodisstillgreenandsoft,themoisture-filledcellsfreezeandthenrupture.Plantsnativetoaregionhavebecomeadjustedtolocalconditions,

andtheshorteningdaystriggermechanismstostopgrowingandhardentheirwoodbeforefrost.Plantsimportedfromamilderregionareoftenunabletodothis;theynotonlycontinuetogrowlateintothefall,butalsomaystarttogrowduringthefirstwarmweekinearlyspring.Yourplantshouldbeabletoripenitsfruitbeforethefirstkillingfrostofautumn.Manylate-ripeningapples,suchas‘GrannySmith’,can’tdothisandthereforeareunsuitableforcold-climategardens.Plantsfromonezonecanacclimatetoanotherzoneifthey’reabletosurvivelongenough.Thosevastlyunsuitedforanotherclimate,however,havelittlechanceofadaptation.NectarinesmayneveradjusttoNorthDakota,andthe‘McIntosh’applewillprobablynevergrowwellinLouisiana.Duringthewinter,theentiretreeorvine—fruitbuds,branches,

trunk,androots—shouldbeabletowithstandthemostlikelycoldesttemperatures.Itshouldalsostaydormantallwinter,andnotbegintogrowduringamidwinterthaw.Plantsthatbloomtooearlyinthespringwon’tproducefruitiftheflowersarekilledbyalatefrost.Ifyougardeninacoldclimate,lookforselectionslistedasbloominglate.Inadditiontotheotherfactorsthatdeterminehardiness,different

partsofatreemayhavedifferenttolerancestocold.Oftentherootsandtopsofsomeplantsareperfectlyhardybuttheirblossombudsaretender.Peach,plum,andpeartreestendtobloomearly,whichmakesthemaspecialtargetofJackFrost,butevenlater-bloomingfruits,suchasapplesandgrapes,canbehitinareasthatarepronetolate-springfrosts—orinanunusualyear.Ifyouhaveafruittreethatalwaysleafsoutandgrowsbutneverseemstobearfruit,thismaybethecause.

TIPSFORPLANNINGYOURFRUITPLANTINGS

•Determinehowmuchspaceyouhave;makesureyourspacewon’tconflictwithotheractivities.

•Decidewhatfruitsyoulikeandwouldliketogrow.

•Makesureyoursitehastherightsoil,sun,andclimateforthesefruits.

•Readuponyourfruits,tomakesureyouhavethetimetogivethemthecaretheyneed.

•Makeaplantoscale—figurehowmanyofeachfruitfortheyieldyouwant,andwheretheywillgo—thenusetheplantofityourideastoyouractualspace.

Gardenersincoldclimatesneedtoselectplantsthatwillbecoldhardy,andgrowersinwarmclimatesmustbecarefultoselectvarietiesofplants(likethesealmonds)thatwillproducefruitwitharelativelyshortwinterdormancy.Theseareoftenreferredtoas“low-chill”varieties.

Althoughknowingyourhardinesszonehelpsagreatdealwhenchoosingplants,everygardenersoonfindsoutthatwithineachzonetherearemanymicroclimates,smallareasthatareazoneortwowarmerorcolderthanthesurroundingarea.Unevenelevations,airdrainagepatterns,fog,frostpockets,prevailingaircurrents,proximitytobodiesofwaterorbuildings,andmanyotherconditionscausethesevariations.Soafruittreethatmaybedamagedinalowspotonyourpropertywherefrostsettlesmaybefinehigheruporonaslope.Gardenersinmild-winterareassuchastheDeepSouthandsouthern

Californiamustbecarefultochoosetherightplantsfortheirclimatetoo.Plantsgrownintemperatezonesneedacertainperiodofchillingduringtheirdormantperiod,andcan’tgrowinthetropics.Thelengthofwinterchillneededvariesfromalongperiodforgooseberriestoafarshorteroneforpecans.Theremaybequitearangeofchillingneedsamongcultivars,especiallyforapples(seepage142,Low-ChillApples).Althoughtherequirementsforaspecificfruittreemightseemto

limityourchancesforgrowingitsuccessfully,eachregionhasanumberofcultivarsofafruitthatwillthrivethere,andyouhaveonlytodiscoverwhichdobestinyourarea.Askyourlocalgardencenterifitsplantsweregrownlocallyorareadaptedtolocalconditions.Nurseriesandmail-orderfirmsthatfocusonaspecificfruitorregionprovideamuchwiderselectionthanwhatyoucanusuallyfindlocally.Seethechaptersdescribingeachfruitforhelpinmakingyourchoices.

HowMuchRoomDoYouNeed?

PLANTHESPACINGofyourfruitcropssothatnoplantwilltouchanyotherwhenallarefullygrown.Besure,too,thattheywon’teventuallyrubagainstabuildingoroverhangastreet,sidewalk,orpropertyline.Allowenoughroombetweenthebushesandtreessothatsunlightwillreachtheentireleafsurfaceofeveryplant.Keepinmindthatsomefruittreesaresusceptibletodiseaseand

insects,andwillneedsprayingfromtimetotime.Don’tplantthesenearapool,birdbath,dogrun,clothesline,watersupply,orthevegetablegardenorberrypatch.Considerallthepossibilities,eventhoughmostwillnevercometopass,soyoucanavoidtroubleinthefuture.Afterall,

alargetreeisdifficulttomoveandadisappointmenttolose.Unlessyouincorporatefruitingplantsintoyourhomelandscape,

you’llfindthatplantinginrowssimplifiescultivationandharvest.Forexample,plantstrawberriesinhillsorrows(seepages51-52).Ifspaceislimited,choosesmallercultivarsandtreeswithmore-uprightshapes,orconsidergrowingyourfruitplantsincontainers.Ifyouplantfruittrees,forthefirstfewyearsyoucanusethespacebetweenthemforgrowingstrawberriesorvegetablesuntilthetreesbegintobearandshadethegroundunderneath.

StartingSmall:TheEfficientFruitGarden

Havingatinyyardisn’ttheonlyreasonpeopleplantsmallergardens.Limitingthesizeofyourplantingsmakessensewhenyouhaveasmallfamilyorhavelimitedtimetospendgardening.Itmakesevenmoresenseifyou’reabeginner.Infact,it’sbettertowaittomakeanylargeplantingsoffruitsuntilyou’vetriedgrowingjustafewforseveralyearsinyourarea.Thisadvicecomesfromexperience—I’velearnedit’sbettertomakemistakesonasmallscale!

KEYTOPLANTS1.blueberries2.apple

3.blackberries4.strawberries

Ifyou’replantingfruitforthefirsttime,remember:it’sbettertostartwithjustafewplants!Youcanalwaysaddmore,ifyoufindthemaintenancescheduletobemanageableandtheamountoffruittobeinsufficient.

Whetheryou’reabeginnerorabusygardener,berriesareanidealchoice:

•Theyrequirelittlespace•Theyneedlesscarethanfruittrees•Theinitialcostissmall•Theybearquickly•Theysupplyabundantyields,andformanyyears

Strawberries,currants,gooseberries,andelderberriesarealleasytogrow,attractfewpests,andrequirenospecializedpruning.Gooseberriesandredandwhitecurrantsarewellbehaved;they’llstay4to5feethighandwideformanyyears.Theytakeuplittlespace,andyouneedonlyonebushtogetsomefruit.Elderberriestakeminimaleffort,buttheytakeupmoreroom,andtheyaren’talwaysthefirstfruitspeoplewanttoeat.Blueberriesneedminimalpruning.Fallraspberriesaresimpletoprune;summer-bearingraspberriestakeonlyalittlemoretimeandskill.Maybeit’stimethatlimitsyou.Ifyou’rebusy,considerplantingtwo

dwarffruittrees,acoupleofraspberrybushes,andafewblueberries.(Youneedmorethanoneforcross-pollination;seepage19)You’llgetalotoffruitforasmallamountoflabor.Iftimeisshortand/oryouwanttominimizeeffort,it’simportanttochoosedisease-resistantcultivars.

ThinkingBig:TheHomeFruitGarden

Ifyouplantyourvegetablegardenwiththeseedlingstooclosetogetherorinthewrongspot,orifyouchoosethewrongvarieties,you’llloseonlyoneseason.Butifyoumakesimilarmistakeswithfruittrees,itmay

beafewyearsbeforeyoufindoutthere’saproblemandlongerbeforeyoucangetnewtreesintofullproduction.That’swhyplanningissoimportantforfruitgrowing.Plantfruitsonpaperfirst,thenputthetreesintheground.

KEYTOPLANTS1.pear2.cherry3.peach4.nectarine5.plum6.grapes7.lateapple8.blueberries9.blackberries10.earlyapple11.strawberries12.elderberries13.redraspberries14.yellowraspberries

Withawell-laidplanandagoodsenseoftheamountofmaintenanceandharvesttoexpect,there’snoreasonnottosetasidespaceforalargefruitgarden.

RipeningTimes

Generally,cherriesarethefirstofthestonefruitstoripen(firstthesweet,thenthesour),followedbyapricotsandplums,thenpeaches.Followingaregeneralguidelines.Ripeningtimesvarywithclimateandculture:laterintherangeforcolderareas;earlierintherangeforwarmerregions.Ripeningtimesfordifferentcultivarsvarywithintherangeforeachfruit.

CHERRIES:lateMay–lateJulyAPRICOTS:lateMay–earlyJulyPLUMS:lateJune–mid-SeptemberPEACHES:lateMay–mid-SeptemberNECTARINES:lateJune–earlySeptember

PEARS:lateJuly–lateOctoberAPPLES:earlyJuly–lateNovember

Aplanwillhelpyouputeverythinginthemostfavorablelocation,especiallyifyouspreadyourplantingoverseveralyears.Keepyourplanup-to-date,becauselabelsinvariablygetlost,andwheneveratreebeginstobearyou’llwanttoknowwhatitis.Also,ifatreedoespoorlyordies,you’llwanttoreplaceitwithabettervariety.Tryusingapieceofgraphpapertodrawyourplan.Ifyouseteach

squaretoequal1foot,andatreeatmaturityisdescribedasbeing10feetacross,drawacircle10squaresindiameter.Aneasywaytotryoutdifferentideasistocutoutshapesforeachmaturetree,bedsize,orrowlengthyouneed.Rearrangethemonthegraphpaperuntilyougetwhatyouwant.Makesuretoleaveplentyofspaceforrows.Thinkaboutwherethesunwillcomefrom,soyoudon’tendupplacingtalltreesonthesouthsideofaberrypatch,whichwouldcausetoomuchshade.

Aplanwillhelpyouputeverythinginthemostfavorablelocation

SelectingPlants

THECURRENTASSORTMENToffruittreesandberryplantsofferedbynurseriesandgardencentersismuchlargerandbettersuitedtothehomegardener’sneedsthanthechoicesofahalfcenturyago.Evenso,manychainstoresandseasonalgardenshopshavelittleknowledgeoflocalconditions,andtheirsuppliersareaslikelytoshipthesameassortmentoffruittreesandplantstonorthernMaineastheydotosouthernKentucky.Trytobuyyourplantsatanearbynurseryorafull-servicegarden

centerwithtrainedprofessionalsandplantsastheirmainfocus.Wherethisisn’tpossible,ortheselectionislimited,lookforwell-establishednurseriesormail-orderhousesthatareinyourregionorcanrecommendplantsforyourclimate(seeResources,page307).

Whenshoppingforfruittrees,youmaywonderwhatsizeandagetoselect.Bare-roottreescomeinallsizes,fromafewinchestalltomorethan10feet.Theymaybefrom1to4yearsold,andarepricedaccordingly.Bare-roottreesthatare1or2yearsold,lightlybranched,and4to6feettalltendtobethebestchoiceforplanting.Theybecomeestablishedsooner,growfaster,andusuallybearearlierthanalargetree,whichneedstimetogetitsbigrootsystemreestablished.Ontheotherhand,smalltreescanbedifficulttoprotectfromlawnmowersandotherhazards.Youmayalsoneedtodevotemorecaretotrainthem,becausesomewilltryhardtogrowintopoorshapesforfruit-bearing.Ifyoubuyatreewithitsrootsintactandwrappedinburlapor

plastic(thisiscalled“balled-and-burlapped”),almostanysizeispracticalaslongasyoucanlift,transport,andhandleit.Whenyouplantit,thereisnosetback,becauseeveryrootisintact,andtheplantwillgetofftoafaststart.Justbesureit’sinfresh,healthyconditionandnotdriedout.Whenyoubuyatreethat’sballed-and-burlappedorinapot,ithelps

tobuyfromalocalnurseryorgardencenter.Manypottedplantssoldthroughmassmarketsarereallybare-rootplantsthatwereonlyrecentlypottedupforsale.If,whenyoutakeitoutofthepot,allthesoilfallsoff,leavingafewmajorroots,youjustboughtabare-rootplant—sotreatitasone.

SpaceRequirementsandAverageYields

Thefollowingareonlyapproximate.Somevarietieswillbelargerorsmallerandyieldmoreorless.Yieldsforthesamevarietywillvaryindifferentregionsanddifferentgrowingconditions;treesalsomaygrowdifferentlyinvaryingsoilsandclimates.

“Balled-and-burlapped”isacommonwayforfruittreestobesold.Allwrappingsmustberemovedpriortoplanting.

ChoosingCultivars

Ifyou’regrowingtreesforthefirsttime,choosecultivarsthatareeasytogrow.AlthoughitmaybetemptingtoplantFrenchwinegrapes,sweetcherries,Japaneseplums,andEnglishwalnuts,itmakesmoresensetostartwithkindsthatneedlesspainstakingcare.Startwithsomedisease-resistantapples,forexample,ortrystrawberries,blueberries,orpears.Don’tplantnamedselectionsjustbecausethey’refamiliar,astheymaynotbeadaptedtoyourregionormayrequiremoresprayingorpruningthanyoucaretodo.‘Delicious’apples,forinstance,arecommoninthegrocerystore,buttheyrequiremuchspraying.Bypassanotherfavorite,thelate-ripening‘GrannySmith’,unlessyoulivewherethere’sanextra-longgrowingseason.Ofcourse,ifyou’vebeengardeningforyears,goaheadandtryplums,peaches,grapes,andanythingelsethatwillgrowwellwhereyoulive.Afteryou’vedecidedwhichfruitstogrow,pickoutthecultivarsthat

arebestsuitedtoyourgeographicalregion.Manyofthebestapple,peach,andplumcultivarsripentheirfruitsoveralongseason,agoodchoiceforhomegardenerswhodon’twantalltheirharvestatonetime.Thechaptersonthevariousfruitsandberrieswillhelp,andyoumayalsowanttoconsultyourfavoritegardenstore,thelocalCooperativeExtensionService,stateuniversityprofessionals,orstaffatpublicgardensinyourregion.Theyknownotonlywhichtreesarebestforyourclimate,butalsowhatinsectsanddiseasesyou’relikelytoencounter.MasterGardenernetworks,whichexistinmanypartsoftheUnited

StatesandCanada,aretheretoanswerquestions.Ifyouseekoutinformationononeofthemanyonlinesites,keepinmindthatthesegardenersareusuallywritingfrompersonalexperience.Iftheirconditionsandclimatearedifferentfromyours,theiranswersmayleadyouinthewrongdirection.

RegionalRecommendations

Thefollowingfruitsaregoodchoicesforbeginnersinthesegeneralgeographicregions.CheckwithlocalorspecialtynurseriesoryourlocalCooperativeExtensionService,asnotallselectionsofaparticularfruitmaygrowwellevenwithinaregion.Strawberries,grapes,apples,pears,andplumswillthriveinallregionsifyouchooseanappropriatetypeorcultivar.

Northeast:blackcurrants,blueberries(highbush,lowbush,half-high),cherries(inwarmerareas),raspberries

Midwest:blackcurrants,blackwalnuts,blueberries(highbush,lowbush,half-high),butternuts,cherries,peaches(inwarmerareas),raspberries

South:blackraspberries(incoolerareas),blackwalnuts,blueberries(rabbiteye),butternuts,Englishwalnuts,peaches,pecans,redcurrants(incoolerareas)

Westernmountains:blackcurrants,blackwalnuts,butternuts,cherries

Northwest(includingnorthernCalifornia):blueberries(highbush),blackwalnuts,butternuts,cherries,currants,Englishwalnuts,peaches,raspberries

Southwest(includingsouthernCalifornia):Englishwalnuts,peaches,pecans,redcurrants,almonds

Sixtotwelveormoredwarftreeswillgrowinthespaceittakestogrowonestandard(full-size)fruittree.

Standard,Dwarf,orSemidwarf?

Whenshoppingforfruittrees,youhaveachoiceoftreesgraftedondwarf,semidwarf,orstandardrootstocks.Thesizeofthematuretreeisdeterminedbyitsrootstock,inadditionofcoursetopruningpractices.(Seepage21.)Thismeansthatevenwithineachcategory,sizesoftreeswillvary.Astandardtree—thatis,onegrowingonitsownrootsorgrafted

ontoarootstockthatresultsinatreeofnormalor“standard”size—mayreach30feettallforapples,10to15feetforpeaches,andinbetweenforothertreefruits.Standardtreesarehardierthandwarfversionsandthusbetterforthecoldestclimates.Becausethey’retallerandlargeroverall,they’realsomoreofachallengetomaintainandharvest.Theyusuallydon’tbearfruitearlyintheirearlylife,either,unlikedwarfvarieties,buttheylivelonger.Manyprovideniceshadeaslandscapetrees,however.Manydwarfcultivarsofapples,cherries,pears,plums,andpeaches

arenowavailable.Dwarfsgenerallygrow6to8feettall(slightlytallerforapples)andspreadaboutthesameamount.Almostalldwarfshave

thenicehabitofgrowingquiterapidlywhenthey’reyoungandthenslowingdown,whichmeansnotonlythatpruningiseasieronthesetreesbutalsothatlessofitisrequired.Dwarfsusuallybearatanearlieragethanstandards,buttheirfruitisthesamesize.Ofcourse,adwarftreeproducesconsiderablylessfruitthanafull-sizetreedoes,butbecausesomanymoretreescangrowinthesamespace,thetotalyieldperacrecomparesfavorably.Unfortunately,somedwarfsarenotashardyasstandardtrees.Check

thehardinessbeforeordering,especiallyifyouliveinacoldclimate.Somedwarftreesareratherbrittleandtendtobreakinhighwinds.Also,becausethey’reshallowrooted,thewindmaytipthemoverunlessthey’refirmlystaked.Deep,heavysnowcancauseproblemswhenitsettlesinspring,possiblytearingofftheburiedlowerbranchesanddevastatingmuchoftherestofthetree.Insomeareas,dwarfsappeartobemoresusceptibletodiseaseandinsectdamagethantreesgrownonnativerootstocks.Despitethesedrawbacks,dwarffruittreesmaybetheperfectchoiceifyouhavetherightconditionsforgrowingthemandrealizetheirneedsanddrawbacks.Fortunately,semidwarftreesdon’thavethesamedrawbacks,yet

theyoffermostofthesameadvantages.Semidwarfcultivarsreach8to15feetinheightandareaboutaswide.

UsefulTerms

Herearesometermsyou’llcomeacrosswhenshoppingforfruittreesandplants:

CULTIVAR.Thisisshortfor“cultivatedvariety.”Thisisthecorrectdesignationforalmostallnamedselectionsoffruits,althoughyou’llseetheterm“variety”usedinterchangeablyinvariousreferencesandcatalogs.Theybothrefertothesameplants,sodon’tletthisconfuseyou.Avariety,bydefinition,isaplantthatcomesaboutfromnaturalselectionandoccursinthewild.Acultivarisahorticulturalvarietythatcameaboutthroughsomeprocessofbreedingorselection;it

doesn’toccurnaturallyinthewild.

PATENTEDPLANT.Sometimesincatalogsyou’llfindafruittreelistedwithaU.S.patentnumber,suchasPP16,859fortheBrunswickstrawberry.Mostnewgardenersaresurprisedtofindthattreescanbepatented,butovertheyearsthousandsofplantshavebeendevelopedthatwereunusualenoughtoberegisteredandgivenanumber.Apatentdoesnotmeanthataplantissuperiortoanyothernamedcultivar,merelythatit’suniqueandthatonlythepersonorfirmholdingthepatent,orthoselicensedbytheholder,canpropagateitcommercially.

CHILLINGHOURS.You’llrunacrossthistermoftenwithtreefruits.Itmeansthenumberofhoursbelow45°Faparticularplantneedsduringwinterinordertoflowerandfruit.It’snotreallyanissueforcold-climategardeners,butit’simportantforthoseinmildclimatessuchasFloridaandsouthernCalifornia.Chillinghoursarecumulativeduringtheseason.Ifthetemperaturesgoabove60°Ftheeffectisreversed,soforeachhourabove60°Fsubtractanhour.Forexample,ifdayonehas10hoursbelow45°F,that’s10chillinghours.Supposedaytwohas15;thetotalisnow25.Ifdaythreehas5hoursabove60°F,yousubtractthisfromthetotal,whichleaves20cumulativechillinghours.Mostcherriesandapplesneedatleast600chillinghours,whichis

whythey’regrownincoolerclimates.Buteachcultivarhasaparticularchillingrequirement,andlow-chillapplesareavailableforwarmerclimates.

5-IN-1TREE.Colornurserycatalogssometimesdisplayaphotoofagorgeous“orchard-in-one-tree,”whichmeansthatseveralcultivarshavebeengraftedonasingletree.Abeginningorchardistshouldavoidthese3-in-1or5-in-1,multiple-graftedfruittrees.Thedifferentcultivarsseldomgrowatthesamerateandaredifficulttoprune.Andifyou’renotcarefulasyouprune,youcouldcutoffanentirecultivar.Ontheotherhand,ifyouwantsomethingreallyunusual,orifyouhaveonlyasmallspace,andifyou’rewillingtogiveitthespecialcareitneeds,themultiple-grafttreecouldbeidealforyourbackyard.

COLUMNARTREE.Manynurseriessellsmall“beanpole”trees.Theseareaformofespalier(seepage253),smalltreestrainedtoasingletrunkwithnosidebranches.Apairofcolumnartreestakesupverylittleroom,whichmakesitpossibletogrowfruittreesinaverysmallspace.

Properpruningoffruitingplantswillhelpmaximizeharvestandminimizeproblemswithpestsanddisease.

CHAPTER3

SeasonalCareofFruitsandNuts

Gettingthefeelofanorchardisbestaccomplishedbyactuallybeingtheretoobservewhattakesplacefromweektoweek.Whenyougetintuneandbegintofeeltheextraordinarycycleofafruittree,whatyoumighthaveconsideredadifficultchoreandperformednervouslywillbecomeadelightfulexperience,andyourtreeswillthrive.“Thefootstepsoftheownerareagarden’sbestfertilizer,”accordingtoanoldproverb.Thesameappliestoone’sorchard,vines,andberrybushes.“Toeverythingthereisaseason.”Thisisespeciallytrueforfruit

growers.Althoughtheharvestsofautumnmaybewhattree-fruitgrowingisallabout,Ienjoytherestoftheyearintheorchard,too.Watchingthetreesgraduallycometolifeinspringtimeisexciting.Firstcomestheswellingofthebudsasthesapbeginstomove,andnotlongafter,theleavesappear.Stillabitlatercometheflowerbuds,andfinallytheflowers.

WinterCare

THEFRUITGARDENINGSEASONstartsinwinter.Evenifthegardenisasleepundersnow,youneedtogetbusyifyouwanttoorderplantsbymail.Catalogsstartarrivingbeforethenewyear,andmanynurseriessellonline.Latewinteristhetimetoshapenewtreesandtoremovewinter

damagefromestablishedtreesandshrubs.Incoldclimates,most

gardenerspruneonwarmdaysinearlyspringwhileit’sstillcoldbutthetemperatureisabovefreezing.Thisisbeforeanygrowthbeginsorbudsbegintoswell.Inwarmerclimates,youcansafelypruneallwinter,aslongasthetreesorbushesaredormant.You’llfindmoreinformationaboutpruninginchapter17.

SpringCare

ASTROLLTHROUGHanorchardinbloomisoneofthemostdelightfulofexperiences.Therich,sweetfragranceoftheblossomsisaperfumenochemistcouldpossiblycapture.Thetreesdelighttheeyes,whetheryou’relookingatsmallnewtreesbravelybloomingforthefirsttimeoragnarled,ancientspecimennowwellintoitssecondcentury.Birdsalsoseemtoenjoythebeauty,andtheirsongsandchirpsblendcheerfullywiththehummingofthousandsofbees.Nomatterhowmuchthereistodoonaspringday,afruitgrowershouldneverbecometoobusytopauseforafewminutesandenjoyspringtime.Thisisthetimewehopeforaweekofwarm,sunnyweather,sono

frostwillharmthetenderbloomsandthebeeswillhaveachancetogatherthenectarandspreadthepollen.Rainy,colddaysorfrostynightswhentreesarefloweringmeansapoorcrop,andsometimesnone.Soonthepetalswillfallandnewfruitswillbegintoform.It’sabusytime.Thebirdshavealreadystartedtheirnests,andinsect

eggslaidlastfallwillsoonbegintohatch.Everycreatureisatworkandso,too,mustbetheorchardist.Itisthetimetochecktheorchardfrequentlytoseethatinsects,diseases,animals,andanyotherdangersarenotthreateningit.Insectstendtoincreaserapidlywhentheweatheriswarm,anddiseasesaboundincool,humidconditions.Somesprings,unfortunately,provideanabundanceofboth!Scavenginganimalsswiftlypassthewordtotheirfriendstojointhemtodineonyoursucculentyoungtwigsandformingfruits.Ifyouspray,makesuretonotsprayduringbloomsoyoudon’tkilloffthepollinatorsyourflowersneedtosetfruit.Treesneedagoodsupplyofnutrientsandmoisture,becausethey

shouldbegrowingtheirfastestatthistime.Wherethegrowingseasonisshort,treeshavetogrowrapidlyduringthelongdaysofspringand

earlysummertomakethesamegrowththeywouldduringalongerperiodfarthersouth.Makesurethatplentyoffertilizerandmoistureisavailable,andthat

yourtreesgetthefirstchanceatthatnourishment.Nonewlittletreeisgoingtobeabletocompetewithhealthy,green-bloodedweeds.Theonlywaytodealwithweedsandtallgrassistobefirmanddemandthattheyleave.Digthemout,keepthemmowed,spraythemwithanherbicide,orsmotherthemwithaheavymulch.

Toprotectpollinators,avoidsprayingforpestsordiseaseswhilefruittreesareinbloom.

Earlyspringisthetimetoencouragebirdsandbeneficialinsectsinyourfruitgrove.Birdhouses,hedges,windbreaks,andafewevergreensofferallsortsofprotectivenestingplacesforthesehelpfulcreatures,andtheywillrewardyoubyfeedingtheirnewbroodsonthethousandsof

hungrylarvaebusilyhatchingeverywhere,andeagerlywaitingtofeastonyourleavesandyoungfruits.Althoughnaturalpredatorsareyourbestallyinthebattleagainstbugs,someothercontrolsareusuallynecessaryaswell(seechapter18).Rememberthatthemoreblemishesyoucantolerate,thelessinterventionyou’llneed.

ChecklistofActivitiesforFruitsandNuts

WINTEROrdernewplantsPerformdormantpruningoftrees,shrubs,andvines(afterthecoldestweather,butbeforebudsopen)Tightenwiresupportsforgrapesandbrambles,ifnecessarySPRINGRemovefrostprotectionfromstrawberriesassoonasthetopfewinchesofgroundhavethawedPlantnewtreesandbushes,alsostrawberriesOnraspberriesandotherbrambles,cutoutweakcanes,thinremainingcanes,andcuttogroundlevelallcanesthatborefruitthepreviousyear(ifnotdoneinfall)ProtectnewshootsfrombrowsingbydeerRemoveplasticwintertreeguardsfromyoungtreesSpraywithdormantoilbeforetreefruitsbloomandleafoutCheckatleastweeklyforpestsanddiseases;useappropriateremediesSpreadcompostandfertilizeWeedRenewmulchSUMMERPruneoffsuckersandwatersprouts

Hand-thinfruits,asneededWaternewplantingsthoroughlyeachweek;waterestablishedplantswhendryKeepweedsremoved,grassmowedCheckforpestsanddiseasesanduseappropriateremediesEndspraysamonthbeforeharvest,oraccordingtodirectionsonspraylabelsInstallbirdnettingorscaredevicesjustbeforefruitsstarttocolorHarvestberriesattherighttimeforeachcultivarFALLHarvestattherighttimeforeachcultivarandforyourintendeduseOnraspberriesandotherbrambles,cuttogroundlevelallcanesthatborefruit;alsocutoutweakcanes,thinremainingcanesCleanupfruitdropsandfallenleavesKeepgrassmowedtodiscouragesmallmammalsReplacewintertreeguardsforsunprotectiononyoungtreesAddwinterprotectionagainstbrowsingdeerInstallrowcoversorstrawoverstrawberriesasfrostprotectionwhengroundstartstofreeze

SummerCare

CONTINUEYOURPESTPATROLthroughthesummer.Earlysummerbringspruningneedstoo.Removeallthesuckers,theshootsthatspringfromtheroots.Thesesuckersarepartsoftherootstock,andbecausetheysaptheenergyofthetree,theyshouldberemovedassoonastheysprout.Alsoremovebranchesarisingfromthelowerpartofthetrunkandfromjustbelowpruningcuts.Thesewatersproutsaddtoomuchfoliageandtakeawayenergythetreeneedsforfruiting.Earlysummeristhetimetothindevelopingfruits(seepage257).By

removingatleasthalfofthedevelopingfruits,you’llendupwithfewerbutlargerapples,peaches,orpears—thesamesizeharvestbutinmuchmoreusableform.

Throughthesummer,keepweeding.Takecarenottocultivatetoonearplants,anddon’tgotoodeeplyaroundshallow-rootedonessuchasblueberries.Duringdryspellsandindryclimates,keepplantswatered,especiallynewones.Amplewateriscrucialwhilefruitsareforming.Seeindividualfruitchaptersforadditionalsummertasks,suchasrenovatingstrawberrybedsafterJuneharvest,tippingbackbranchesoftallbrambles,andspreadingyoungbranchesofuprightfruittreestomakethemmorehorizontal.Towardtheendofsummer,fruitsincreaseinsizerapidly.Insectsand

diseasesmaystillbeaproblem,especiallyinyearsthatareunusuallywetordry,sokeepawatchfuleyeoutforthem.Checkplantsatleastweeklyfornewpestsanddiseases,anddealpromptlywiththosethatcanbecomeseriousproblems.Checktreesthatarebearingtobesurethecropisnotoverloading

thebranches.Inagoodyear,alargetreemayproducealmostatonoffruit,andevenlighterloadsputastrainonweakbranches.Placewideboardsorplanksoftheproperlengthuprightundersaggingbranchestopropthemupuntilthefruitisharvested.Resistanytemptationtouseafast-actingfertilizertoincreasethe

sizeofthefruit.Feedingaplantinlatesummerwillstimulatethetreetogrowwhenitshouldbegettingreadyforitslongwinternap.

Thinningoutindividualfruitsisanimportanttaskforearlysummer.Theremainingfruitswillgrowlargerandwillbelesspronetodisease.

HarvestTime

PICKINGANDUSINGyourfruitatitspeakiswhathomefruitgrowingisallabout.Notonlydoeshomegrownfruittastebetterandneedlesssweetening,butalsoitcontainsmorevitamins.Commercialgrowersthataren’tlocalmustharvestfruitsbeforethey’reripe,whilethey’restillfirmenoughtoship.Large-scalecommercialgrowershavenochoicebuttopickallthefruitatonce;it’sinefficientinabigoperationtoselectonlythefruitsthatarereallyreadyforpicking.Howcanyoutellwhenafruitisripe?Untilyou’vehadsome

experience,itisn’talwayseasy.Squeezingandpokingarenaturalimpulses,buttheyleavebruisesandaren’talwaysreliable.Mostvarietiesoftreefruitsfallsoonafterripening,soassoonasthefruitwillseparatefromthebranchwithaneasytwistit’sready.Mostfruits

changecolorastheyripen.Plums,blueberries,andgrapesbecomecoveredwithapowderywhite“bloom.”Cherries,apples,peaches,andpearseachdevelopacharacteristiccolorandblush,soyoushouldbeawareofwhatthatcolorisforeachvariety.Someofthebest-flavoredapplesareyellow,green,orrussetbrown,notred.Ifyou’reindoubtabouttheripenessofanappleorpear,pickasamplefruitandcutopen.Iftheseedsaredarkbrown,thefruitisripeandreadytopick.Onlypears,afewvarietiesofpeaches,andlateapplesthatfinish

ripeninginstorageshouldbepickedbeforethey’retreeripened.Ifyouleavepearsonthetreeuntilthey’resoftenoughtoeat,they’llquicklyrot.Instead,pickthemjustbeforethey’reripeandstoretheminacoolplace.They’llbeperfectforeatingwithinafewdaysorweeks,dependingonthevariety.Thetastetestisthemostreliablewhenitcomestojudgingberries,

butthereareotherclues.Strawberriesbecomeredalloverandbegintosoften.Theyandraspberriesstayattheirprimeforonlyashorttimeandthendeterioraterapidly,sotrytopickthemeverydayduringtheirseason.Araspberryslipsoffitscorefreelywhenit’sripe.Blackberries,currants,andgooseberriesarereadyforpickingwhentheyhavedevelopedtheirfullcolor.Samplesometoseeiftheypassthetastetest.Blueberriestake7to10daysaftertheyturnfullybluetobetrulyripe.Withmanyvarietiesofblueberries,thestemschangefromgreentoareddishcolorwhenripe.Grapesareagoodexampleofwhenyoucan’trelyjustoncolor,astheychangecolorandappearripebeforethey’resweet.Don’tpickgrapesuntilthey’recompletelyripe—whenflavorissweetandclustersseparateeasilyfromvines—astheywillnotcontinuetoripenafterpicking.

Coloroffruitisn’talwaysthebestwaytodeterminewhentopick,asvarietieshavedifferentcolors.You’lllearnthisquicklywithexperience.

TIPSFORPROPERPICKING

•Harvestattheproperstageofripeness(seebox,opposite;pickslightlyunripeforcanningandbaking,orforstoringsomelateapplecultivars)

•Pickwhenfruitsaredry

•Leavestemsonthefruit

•Chillfruitsassoonaspossibleafterpicking

•Waittowashfruitsuntiljustpriortouseorprocessing

•Forfruitslikestrawberriesandraspberriesthatdon’tstorewell,pickoften,andpickonlywhatyoucaneatsoonorprocessforlong-termstorage

•Pickraspberriesandotherbramblesintosmall,shallowcontainersastheycrusheasily

•Handlegently—avoidbruising,dentingwithfingernails,especiallywithpeaches,whicharesofterthanmostotherfruits

Usecautiononladders,withheavyloadsoffruit,andwhenpickinginhotweather.

Fruitgrowerswarntheirpickerstotreatallfruitsasiftheywereeggs.Pickeachonebyhand;nevercluborshakeitfromthetreeorbush.Fortreefruits,bendeachfruitupwardandtwistitgently;ifit’sripe,thestemwillseparateeasilyfromthetreeandstayonthefruit.Neverpulloutthestem,asthatwillleaveaholewhererotwillquicklydevelop.Becareful,too,nottodamagenextyear’scropbybreakingbranchesorfruitspursasyoupick.You’llfindmoreonharvestandstorageineachfruitchapter.

StoringFreshFruit

Bruisedfruitstartstorotquickly,androtwillspreadrapidlytoallthefruitittouches.Theoldproverbthatonerottenapplecanspoilawholebarrelisalltootrue.Useallwindfallsandanydamagedfruitimmediately.

Manytreefruitskeepwellformonthsincontrolledstorage.Somefruitswillkeepwellforashorttimeinacool,unheatedroom.Someofourfriendsuseasmallairconditionerintheirbasement,whichhasaconcretefloor.Asparerefrigeratoringoodrunningconditionmakesagoodstorageunit,too.Homegrowerscankeepapplesandpearsinasimplerootcellar.

Althoughhomerootcellarscan’tduplicatethescientificallycontrolledconditionsthatlargegrowersmaintain,theymakeitpossibletoeatgoodfruitthroughmuchofthewinter.Wehaveasmallonepartitionedoffinacornerofourbasement.Itisinsulated,andithasanoutsidewindowforventilationwhennecessaryandadirtfloortoincreasehumidity.‘Cortland’appleswillkeepthereuntilApril,ifwedon’teatthemallfirst.Wecan’talwaysmaintaintheidealclimateof34°Fand85percenthumidity,butourfruitsstayremarkablyfirm.Cellarsofhomeswithforcedairorwhole-househeatstaytoowarmforlong-termfruitstorage;even50°to55°Fistoowarm.Youneedtostoreapplesseparatelyfromotherfruitsandvegetables,

orasfarawayaspossible.Tryalsotokeepfruitsapartfromvegetables.Applesgiveoffethylenegas,whichcancauseotherfruitstoripenmorequickly,potatoestosprout,andcarrotstoturnbitter.Potatoescangiveapplesamustyflavor.Strongodorsfromcabbagesandturnipsandonionscanbeabsorbedbyapplesandpears.

IsItRipe?

Unlikemostfruits,pearsshouldbepickedbeforethey’refullyripeandkeptinacool,darkplace.Wrappingpearsinventedplasticbagswillkeepthemfromshriveling.

Ingeneral,fruitsareripewhentheydevelopgoodcolorandflavor.Ripefruitshouldpulleasilyfromtheplantwithanupwardtwistingmotion.Somecultivarsripentheirfruitoveralongperiod,solookfortheripeonesandleavetheresttofinishripening.

Apples:seedsaredarkbrown;tasteripe

Cherries:goodcolorandflavor;usesoonafterpicking

Peaches:pickwhenalmostripeandcolorisgoodbutbeforefruitsaresoft;shouldseparateeasilyfromtwigs;won’tripenafterpickingbutwillsoften,sopickwhenyoucanpressandmakealittledent;softerthanmostotherfruits,sohandlegently

Pears:pickbeforefullyripe,whenstillfirmandseedsaredarkbrown

Othertreefruits:goodcolorandflavor

Blueberries:goodcolorforaweekwithwhitepowderybloom;softened;sweetflavor;stemsoftenturncolor;ringsaroundstemsshowberriesarereadytodetach

Raspberries:coloredwell;softened;goodflavor;slipeasilyoffcore;usesoonafterpicking

Strawberries:redallover;softened;goodflavor;usesoonafterpicking

Otherberries:goodcolor;softened

Grapes:brownseeds;sweetflavor;clustersseparateeasilyfromvines

WhattoDowithAllYourFruit

MYFAVORITEWAYtoeatmostfruitisfreshoffthetree,withnomiddleman—directfromtreetome.ButIalsoloveapplesauce,strawberryshortcakewithwhippedcream,raspberryicecream,blueberrypie,applepandowdy,peachsherbet,acherrytart.Onceyourkitchenshelfisladenwithbeautifulfruits,you’llfindanynumberofwonderfulthingstodowiththem.Muchofoursurplusfruitgoesintopreservesforthepantry.Therearemanygoodbooksonprocessingandstoringfruits,andlots

ofrecipesareavailableontheInternet.Hardware,farm,andgardenstorescansupplymanyoftheitemsyou’llneedforharvestingandpreserving.SeeResources,page307forothersourcesforharvestingsupplies,homecidermills,andorchardequipment.

Freezing

Wefreezemostberryandtreefruitsrawinplasticbagsorsealedcontainers,andtheycomeoutofthefreezertastingalmostlikefresh.Wefreezetheberriesonarimmedbakingsheetbeforeplacingtheminplasticbags,sotheywillseparateeasily.Wethenpartiallythawthemtoenjoystrawberriesblendedintomilkshakes,blueberriesbakedintomuffins,andraspberriesinpiesandcobblers.Allmaketastyand

nutritioustoppingsforcereal.Just-thawed,spiced,wholecrabapplesontheirstemshavebecomeourtraditionalgarnishforThanksgivingturkey.Berriesmakeexcellentjams,jellies,conserves,marmalades,and“butters”thatbrightenupthebreakfasttableduringthedarkdaysofwinter.They’realsowelcomehomemadegifts.

Freezesmallberriesandslicesoflargerfruitsbyspreadingthemoutinasinglelayeronatrayandplacingthetrayinthefreezer.Whenfruitsarefrozen,transferthemtoazip-lockbagandreturnthemtothefreezer.

ASimpleWaytoFreezeFruit

Theseinstructionsareforpeaches,buttheyapplytoothertreefruitsaswell.Forbestfruitqualityuseplasticbagsorcontainersdesignedespeciallyforfreezing.Orfreezefruitintherightshapetopopintoapiecrust:Mixfruitsliceswithsugarandspicesforyourfavoritepeachpierecipebeforebagging,thenlaytheplasticfreezerbaginapieplateuntilthecontentsarefrozen.

Sugarhelpsmaintaintexture,butyoucanomititifyou’llbecookingthefruitlater,asforjam.Inadditiontosweeteningandimprovingtextureofthethawedfruit,sugarhelpspreventfreezerburn,drying

out,andbrowning—benefitsanartificialsweetenerwon’tprovide.Ifyoudon’twanttousesugar,tryapple,peach,orwhitegrapejuice;theseallworkwell.Ifusingavacuumsealeryoucanskipthejuiceorsugarsyrup,justtreatfruitswithafruitpreservativetopreventbrowning.Freezeindividualberriesorslicesfirstbeforebaggingandvacuumsealing.

1.Peeltwopoundsofpeaches,cutinhalf,removethepits,andslice.(Youcanfreezehalveswithoutslicing,butslicestakeuplessspace.)Youshouldhave4cupsofslicedpeaches.

2.Topreventbrowning,prepareafruitpreservative—eitherascorbicacidasthelabeldirects(usuallybydissolvingasmallamountinalittlewater),orhalfasqueezedlemon.

3.Forevery4cupsofslicedpeaches,alsoadd2/3cupsugar;mixingently.

4.Fillfreezerbagsorcontainers.Laythebagsflatandsqueezetheairout,thensealtofreeze.

Glazed,dehydratedapplechipsareanexcellentwaytopreservetheharvestfromabountifulappletree.

CanningandDrying

Ifyoudon’thavealotoffreezerspace,fruitsareeasytocanusingthewater-bathmethod.Apples,peaches,pears,cherries,andplumsworkwellascannedfruits;Ithinkpearstastebettercannedthanfrozen.Dryingisanexcellent,old-fashionedwaytopreservefruits.Electric

orsolar-poweredfooddryersworkbest,thoughanordinaryormicrowaveovenwilldothejob.Apricots,apples,andpeachescutintothinslicesdrywell;blueberries,elderberries,andblackcurrantsshouldbedriedwhole.Whenstoredinglassjars,driedfruitswillkeepformonthsonthepantryshelf.

Juicing

Ifyouhavemoreapplesthanyouknowwhattodowith,cideristhe

answer.Applecider-makingwithouroldSears&Roebuckpressisafallceremonywewouldn’twanttomiss.Amodernelectricjuicerisaneasyoptionforsmallerquantities.Mostyearswefreezelargequantitiesandputasideagallonortwototurnintovinegar.Severalyearsagowebegantoquestionwhyweweredrinkingso

muchtropicalfruitjuicewhenourownNewEnglandfruitsweresogoodandhealthful.We’vesinceremediedthatsituationbyfreezinglotsofapplejuiceandcider,aswellasberryjuicessuchasstrawberryandblackcurrant.Elderberry,crabapple,andraspberryjuicesaresomeofourfavorites.Weeitheruseajuicesteamextractororcookthefruitbrieflyandstrainitthroughajellybagorwirestrainerbeforecanningorfreezing.Inwinterweenjoythethawedjuicesstraightorsweetenedwithorangejuiceorcider.Forasparklingpunch,wecombinethejuiceswithgingeraleorclubsoda.Ifwe’retoobusyduringtheharvestseason,wefreezetherawfruitandmakejuicelater.

Makingfruitsattractiveandaccessibleisakeywayforbothyouandyourchildrentoincorporatemoreofthesehealthfulfoodsintoyourdiet.Growingandpreservingyourownisagreatwaytoincreasetheappealoffruit.Freshberries,fruitpieces,anddriedfruitslicesmakegreatsnacks.Keepsomehandyatwork,andpacksomeinchildren’slunchboxesandwhenyoutravel.Trysomewithpuddingoryogurtasadip,orwithtoppings.Spreadpeanutbutteronappleslices.Makeafruitsmoothie.Whenyoumakejuice,freezesomeintojuicebars.Whenbakingcakes,replacesomeoftheoilwithapplesauce.Inasalad,mixfruitsthatquicklyturnbrown,suchasapplesandpears,witheitherlemonjuiceoracidicfruitsuchasorangeandpineapple.

PARTTWOTheSmallFruits:Berries,Bushes,andBrambles

Smallfruitsareoftenthebestplantstostartwith,ifyou’venevergrownfruitbefore.Theytakeuplessspace,oftencostlesstopurchase,andproducerelativelysoonafterplanting.

WECOULDN’TBUYALLTHEDIFFERENTBERRIESweharvesteachyear,evenifwewantedto.Wherewouldwefindyellowandpurpleraspberries,blackcurrants,elderberries,jostaberries,andredgooseberries?Strawberriesimportedfromfarawaycan’tmatchtheflavorofapintjustpicked.Thesmallfruitscostusverylittlemoneyandtakefarlessworkthanourvegetablegarden.Wefeelthattheirundeniablysuperiorflavors,andtheconvenienceofhavingtheminourownbackyard,morethanoffsettheeffortittakestogrowthem.

Ifyoumustmakeachoicebetweengrowingtreefruitsandsmallfruits,thelatterofferseveraladvantages.Theytakeuplittlespaceandtheinitialcostissmall.Theybearsoonafterplanting,andmostgoonproducingabundantlyfordecades.Manybookssaythataraspberrypatchcanproduceberriesfortenyears,butwe’restillpickingbushelsoffruiteachyearfromapatchsetthirtyyearsago,andthere’snosignofitsretirement.Someofourcurrant,gooseberry,andelderberryplantsareevenolder.It’sthecareyougivethemthatmakesthedifferenceinbothproductivityandlongevity.It’simportanttobuyplantsthataresuitedtoyourclimate.Berries

developedespeciallyforoneregionoftendon’tgrowwellinanother,evenifclimaticdifferencesseemslight.Luckily,experimentersineverysectionofthetemperateUnitedStatesandCanadahavebeenintroducingcultivarsformanyyears.WhetheryouliveontheNorthCarolinaseacoastoronaprairieinManitoba,therearenowplantssuitableforyoutogrow.Experimentingisfun,buttocountonacrop,plantthecultivarsyou’resurewillproduceinyourcorneroftheworld.Plantsareavailableatmostnurseriesandgardencenters.It’snota

goodideatoacceptgiftplantsfromagenerousneighbor,eventhoughstrawberries,blackberries,andraspberriescreatenewplantsatafastrate.Thetroubleisthatgiftplantsmightbringalongavarietyof

diseasesandinsectsthatwillgiveyouapeckoftroubleeverafter.Nurseriestakegreatcaretogrowdisease-freeplants.Makelifeeasierforyourselfbystartingwithabug-free,disease-freeberrypatch.Thebestlocationiswhereyoucanmowaroundthebedtokeepthe

plants’spreadundercontrol.Raspberries,blackberries,andelderberriessuckerbadly,sodon’tplantthemnearavegetablegarden,strawberrypatch,orflowerbed.Plantthemagooddistancefromshadetrees,whoserootswillrobyourberriesofwaterandnutrients.Alsokeepthemawayfromfruittrees,whichmayneedsprayingduringthesummer—justwhenyourberriesareripening.Whenyouplantsmallfruits,becarefulnottocrowdthem;setplantsattherecommendedspacingforgoodaircirculationandthemostabundantyields.Uncrowdedplantsmakepruningandpickingeasier,too.Thenumberofplantsyougrowdependsonhowmanypeoplewillbe

eatingthemandtheirpreferences,whetheryouintendtopreservethefruit,andhowmuchroomisavailableforgrowing.Ifyouhavetimeandspace,manyberriesareagoodcashcrop,soplantextraforabitofextraincome.Yieldswillvarywithdifferentcultivars,alsowithdifferentgrowingconditions.Thechartonpage32givesyouageneralideaofwhattoexpect.

Fewpleasurescomparetothetasteofaperfectlyripestrawberry,pickedonasunnymorninginlatespring.

CHAPTER4

Strawberries

DuringaSundayserviceinourlittlechurchwhenIwasachild,avisitingministerremarkedthathewasthoroughlysickofhearingaboutHeaven’spearlygatesandgoldenstreets.HevisualizedHeaven,hesaid,asalandwhere,amongotherpleasanthappenings,juicy,redstrawberriesripenedeternally.Probablylotsofotherpeoplewouldagree;it’shardtofindanyonewhodoesn’tlikestrawberries.Likemanyothergardeners,wehaveoftenriseninthedeadofalate-

springnight,lookedatthethermometerwithhalf-openedeyes,andsuddenlycomewideawakeinshock.Soonwe’regrabbingblankets,quilts,tablecloths,boxes,andanythingelsewecanfindtocoverupthetenderblossomsthathavefoolishlyopenedjustbeforethetemperatureplunged.Arestrawberriesworthfightingthefrost,thebugs,thediseases,the

weeds,andthequackgrass?Everystrawberryloverwillanswerabooming“Yes!”Therewardcomesonabrightsummermorningwhenyougazeatthereddeningrowinhungryanticipationandthenpickthefirstbig,lusciousripeberryoftheseason.

June-BearingorDay-Neutral?

THESTRAWBERRYWECULTIVATEtoday(Fragaria×ananassa)isoneofthefewfruitsthatoriginatedintheUnitedStates.Theselarge,beautifulberriesweredevelopedthroughoutthelastcoupleofcenturiesinNorthAmericaandEuropefromthesamesmall-fruitedwildstrawberriesthattheearlyexplorersfoundgrowingintheNewWorld.Becauseofthepopularityofstrawberries,agreatmanycultivars

havebeendeveloped.TherearekindsthatgrowwellalloverthecontinentalUnitedStates,aswellasinpartsofAlaska,Canada,andeventhewarmestsectionsofFlorida.Becausethereissuchawiderangeofcultivars,becarefultochoosetheonesthatarebestadaptedtoyourregion.MostcultivarsbearinJuneandsoarecalledJunebearers.These

fruitfromflowerbudsthatwereformedthepreviousfallasdaysgotshorter.Thosereferredtoaseverbearingconsistofacoupleofdifferenttypesofplants.Theoldereverbearingcultivarsreallyfruitonlytwice,onceinJuneandthenalessercroplateintheseason.FruitsoftheeverbearingtypestendtobesmallerthantheJunebearers,butoverallyieldsareaboutthesameovertheseasonastheybearmoreoften.Mostretailersnolongerselltheseoldereverbearingcultivars.Thenewereverbearingcultivarsarecalledday-neutral,asthey

bloomandfruitregardlessofthelengthoftheday.Manyoftheday-neutralshavetwoorthreecyclesoffruitingeachseason.TheyfruitearlierintheseasonthanJunebearers(aslongastheblossomsdon’tfreeze),andwithprotectiontheycanfruitintoOctoberandevenNovember.Theymaypauseintheheatofhotsummersandinhotclimates.FruitsaresmallerthanthoseofJunebearersandeverbearers.Ifyouwantstrawberriesoveralongseason,thesearethevarietiestoseekout.Ifyouwanttofinishpickingstrawberriesbeforeyouswitchtopickingbushfruits,though,optforJune-bearingcultivars.

Ifyouwanttoharveststrawberriesoveralongseason,chooseaday-neutralvariety.

StrawberryFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:3–9,varieswithcultivar

Height:6–10inches

Spacing:15inchesinrows3feetapartformattedrows;forhills12inchesinrows12inchesapartwithpathsbetweeneverythirdrow

Pollination:self-fertile

Pruning:Thefirstyear,pickoffallbloomsonJunebearers;onlythefirstclusteronday-neutralcultivars

Specialrequirements:Replantrowsaftertheyfruit(thesecondyear),orreplanthillsafter4–6years;replantinanewlocation

Yearstobearing:2

Yieldperplant:½–2quartsperplant;varieswithcultivar,ageofplanting

TwoWaystoGrow

BEFOREYOUPREPAREBEDSorpurchaseplants,youneedtodecidehowyou’regoingtogrowyourberries.Thisisreallyadecisionabouthowyou’regoingtomanagetheabundantrunnersthateachstrawberryplantproduces.Runnersaretinyplantsonverylongstemsthatwillrootwheretheytouchthegroundandthengrowintonewstrawberryplants.Althoughweusuallyassociatethenameofthisfruitfromthestrawusedformulch,anotherexplanationcomesfromtheverb“tostrew,”referringtotheplant’shabitofstrewingrunnersabout.Thematted-rowsystemiscommonlyusedforJunebearers.Ifyou

keepthebedswellweeded,renovateeachyear,andplantsarehealthy

andvigorous,mattedrowswillproducewellfor3to5yearsforJune-bearingcultivars.Orplantsmaybetreatedasbiennials;thismeanseachspringyousetoutnewplantsthatwillbeharvestedthesummerofthefollowingyearandthenplowedunder.Everbearersandday-neutralcultivarsshouldbereplacedeverythirdyearinmattedrowssincebedrenovationisn’trecommendedforthese.Thehillsystemtakesmoreplantsinitiallyandrequiresmore

attentionthanthemattedrow.Itsavestheworkofrenovation,though(orthecostofannualreplanting,ifJunebearersaretreatedasbiennials).Itisidealforhomegardenerswithlittlegrowingspace.Anyonewholikestoraiseplantsorganicallywithadeepmulchshouldtrythismethod.Thehillsystemismorecommonlyusedforday-neutral(everbearing)cultivars.Thoughstrawberriesareperennial,theydon’tlastforever.Evenwith

propercareofhillsorrenovatingrowsyearly,youmayget4to5yearsofgoodcropsfromhillculture,or3to5yearsofgoodcropsfrommatted-rowculture,beforeit’stimetostartnewabedelsewhere.Ifyoustartanewbedayearbeforetheoldonehasrunitscourse,you’llcontinuetogetfruitwhilethenewbedgetsestablished.Itmaybetemptingtosavemoneybydiggingextrastrawberryplantsfromyouroldpatchforreplanting,buttoavoidproblemswithvirusesandotherdiseasesbuynewones.

Matted-RowSystem

Thematted-rowsystemistheusualmethod,butittakesupalotofspace.Settheplantsinarow,15to18inchesapart.Ifyouplantmorethanonerow,keeptherowsatleast3feetapart—evenwiderifyouplantouseapowertillerforcultivation.Astheplantssendoutrunners,steertheseoffshootssotheyfillintheemptyspacestomakearow“matted”withstrawberryplants(seeillustration).Keeptherownowiderthan18inches;12inchesisbetter.Shortlyafterharvest,renovaterowsofJunebearersiftheplantsare

stillhealthyandvigorous,upto5yearsold.Ifthey’reolderthanthat,replantinanewlocation.Growacovercropsuchaswinterrye,oats,wheat,orcloverintheoldrowsfor2or3yearsbeforereplantingstrawberriesthere.Whenyouturnitunder,thecovercropaddsorganic

mattertothesoil.Croprotationhelpspreventdiseasessuchasverticilliumandredstelefrombecomingestablished.

Inthematted-rowsystem,runnersareallowedtotakerootandfillintheemptyspacearoundthemotherplant.

HillSystem

The“hill”inthissystemreferstothemoundedappearanceofthelargeplants,andnottoplantingstrawberriesonamoundofsoil.Inthissystem,plantsareset12to15inchesapartinabedconsistingofthreerows,whicharealsospaced12to15inchesapart(seeillustration).Thebedcanextendforaslongasyoulike,butleaveopeningsevery20feetsoyoucancrossoverbetweentherows.Ifyousetmorethanonebed,leave2or3feetofwalkingspacebetweenthebeds.

Mulchingisessentialtocontrolweeds.It’sdifficulttocultivateplantsgrowninthissystem,becauseastheymaturetheywillgrowveryclosetoeachother.Somegrowerssettheplantsinslitscutinheavyblackplastic,whichtheythencoverwithhay,woodshavings,oranothermaterialtoprotecttheplasticfromdeterioratinginthesun.Mulchingalsokeepssoilscooler,whichisespeciallyimportantformanyday-neutralcultivars,asthey’resensitivetowarmsoils.

Inthehillsystem,allrunnersarecutoff,sotheplantputsallofitsenergyintoproducingfruit.Becauseofthis,theplantsthataregrowninthehillsystemoftenproducelargerfruitsthanplantsgrowninthematted-rowsystem.

Inthehillsystemyoumustcutoffallrunnersbeforetheplantletsroot(unlikethematted-rowsysteminwhichyouletrunnerstogrowtofilltherow.)Inotherwords,treatthestrawberryplantsliketheperennialstheyare.Asnoneoftheplant’senergygoesintoproducingrunnersandmakingnewplants,boththeplantanditsberriescangetquitelarge.Thepartoftheplantthatproducestheleavesandflowersiscalledthecrown.Inthehillsystem,plantswillproducemorecrownsfromtheoriginal;thesearereferredtoasbranchcrowns.Thesearereferredtoasbranchcrowns.Injust2years,aplantcanproducemanycrowns,andtoomanybranchcrownsovertimewilleventuallyreduceberrysize.Ifgettingthelargestberriesisyourgoal,youmayneedtoreplanthillsystemsmoreoften,every2or3years.

PreparingtheSoil

CHOOSEYOURSITEWITHCARE.Theidealspotgetsatleast8hoursofsunadayandisonaslightriseforbetterdrainageandreducedriskfromalatefrost.Avoidthebottomofaslope;coldairwillsettlethereonquietnights.Lowspotsarealsofrostpockets—areasthatfreezebeforetherestoftheyard—andagoodsitemaysaveyoufromrunningoutwithblanketsasthetemperaturedrops.Lowspotsalsoarepronetodrainageproblems.Ifthesoilisheavyordrainspoorly,plantinraisedbedstominimizediseaseproblems.Yourstrawberryplantswillbegrowinginthesamespotforatleast

twoyears,soit’simportanttopreparethesoilthoroughly.Itshouldbeslightlyacid(pHbetween5.5and6.5isideal)andrichinhumus(compost,well-rottedmanure,orpeat)soitwillholdmoistureevenduringthedriestspells.Aboveall,itmustbewelldrainedtominimizediseaseproblems.Soilsthatgrowgoodvegetablesalsogrowgoodstrawberries.Forthe

bestcrops,plantthemonlandthathasbeencultivatedwithothercropsforatleastayeartogetridofthegrass,weeds,andgrubs.Whitegrubsliveingrass-coveredsoils,andbecauseoneoftheirfavoritefoodsisstrawberryroots,they’reoneofthestrawberry’sworstenemies.Well-preparedsoilhelpseliminatethem.Don’tplantinaspotwhereyou’vegrownpotatoes,tomatoes,

eggplant,melons,raspberries,blackberries,orotherstrawberriesinthelast2or3years.Verticilliumwiltoftenlurksinsuchsoilsandcaninfectanewcropofstrawberryplantsmonthslater.Neverplantstrawberriesinsoilinfestedwithnematodes.(SeeBirds,Insects,andDiseasesonpage57.)Preparetheplantingareawell.Forthebestcropsinanewbed,

controlweedsforatleastayearbeforeplantingstrawberries.Orstartplantsinpotsandwaittosetthemintothegrounduntilyou’veclearedoutthefirstflushofweeds.Yourstrawberryplantswon’thavemuchofachanceifyousetthemintogroundwithalargereservoirofweedseeds.Incorporatelotsofhumustoimprovethesoil’smoisture-holdingability.(Seepage216.)Alsoenrichthesoilwithabalanced,all-purpose,low-analysisfertilizerworkedintothetop6inches.Followtheamountsrecommendedonthelabel,asapplicationratesfordifferentfertilizersvarygreatly.

PlantingandCare

SPRINGISUSUALLYREGARDEDasthebesttimetoplantstrawberries.ExceptionsaresouthernCaliforniaandsimilarlymildclimates:therefallisbestformanycultivars.IntheSouth,plantinghillsinthefallmayhelpyoutogrowstrawberrieswherediseasesareaproblem;harvestthefollowingspringbeforediseasestakehold,thendigupandstartnewplantselsewhere.Askthenurserywhereyoubuyyourplants,oryourlocalCooperativeExtensionService,theirrecommendationforplantinginyourarea.Whichevergrowingsystemyouchoose,besuretosetyourstrawberryplantsatthecorrectdepth.Waterafterplantingandthroughoutthegrowingseason.Water

beforetheplantsgettoothirsty;forthebestberries,makesureplantsgetatleastaninchofwateraweekfromyouifnotfromrain.You’llneedtoprovideevenmoreinsandysoils.Strawberryrootsareshallow,sodon’tletthesoildryout.Aftergrowthstarts,themostcrucialtimestokeepJunebearerswateredarelatesummer(whenplantsareformingnextyear’sbuds),beforeandduringharvest,andafterrenovation.Amulchhelpssoilretainwater.Soakerhosesplacedalongrows,

underneathmulch,areanefficientandeasymeanstowater.Theykeep

waterofftheleaves,anddryleavesarelesssusceptibletodiseases.

NotTooDeep,NotTooShallow

Plantstrawberriesattheproperdepth,whichmeansthecrownshouldbeatgroundlevel.Ifthecrownisburiedinsoil,theplantwillsmother;ifitextendstoohighabovethesoil,itwilldryout.Ineithercase,yourplantswilldie.Ifyoucultivateorhoethebed,neverletsoilpileuparoundthecrowns,asyouwouldwithcornandbeans.

12TIPSFORGROWINGSTRAWBERRIES

1.Chooseasitewithwell-drainedsoilandabundantsun.Don’tplantinlowareas,whichmightbefrostpockets.

2.Determinewhichplantingsystemyouwilluse(matted-roworhill)soyouknowhowmanyplantstobuy.

3.Selectcultivarsappropriateforyourareaandneeds.Buyonlywhatyouwillhavetimetokeepweeded.

4.Prepareweed-freesoil;enrichwithabalancedfertilizer.

5.Plantinearlyspringinmostareas,fallinmildareassuchasCaliforniaandtheSouthifsoildiseasesareaproblem.Setplantsattherightdepth,withthecrownatthesoilsurface.

6.Removethefirstblossomstoencourageagoodcrop.DothistheentirefirstyearonJunebearers;onday-neutralspickoffonlythefirstblooms(firstclusterofflowers).

7.Inmatted-rowbeds,sweeprunnersintorows;inhills,removeallrunners.

8.Keepbedswatered(atleastaninchofwateraweekifnotsuppliedbyrain)andweeded.

9.Inlatefall,coverwithstraworasimilarorganicmaterial.

10.Inearlyspring,uncoverplantsandusethestrawformulch.

11.Fertilizeeverbearerswhenleavesappearandagainafterfruiting;waittofeedJunebearersuntilafterrenovation.

12.RenovateJunebearersafterfruiting;replacetheplantsthataren’tvigorous.

Thefirstyear,ifleavesbegintolosetheirdarkgreencolorseveralweeksafterplanting,thismayindicatelownitrogen.Wateringwithfishemulsionisaneasywaytogivenewplantsanitrogenboost.(Followlabeldirections.)Thebestplantgrowthwilloccurifyoufertilizeonceamonthuntilmid-September.Intheyearsafterplanting,don’tfertilizeJunebearersearlyinthe

season,asthiswillleadtoexcessiverunners,disease,andsoftfruitthatdoesn’tkeepwell.Fertilizethesecultivarsafterbedrenovation.Day-neutralcultivarsneedfertilizerwhengrowthstartsinthespring,againafterthefirstflushoffruit,andoncemoreafterthesecondflushoffruit.

RemoveFirstFlowers

Thefirstyear,don’tletanyfruitdeveloponyourJune-bearingstrawberryplants.Pickingofftheblossomsistimeconsumingbutessential.Growingandripeningevenasingleberrywillweakenanewyoungplantsomuchthatthefollowingyear’sproductionwillbedrasticallyreduced.Pickoffallthebloomsassoonastheyform;itwilltakeseveralpickings.Everbearingandday-neutralstrawberriesareanexceptiontothis

rule.Pickofftheirfirstflowerclusterthefirstyear,butfromthenonallowthemtoflowerandbearnaturally.Aftermidsummer,plantsshouldbewellenoughestablishedtosupportthelate-summercrop.

DuringthefirstspringafterplantingJune-bearingstrawberries,pickoffanyflowersthatdevelop,toensureagoodcropthefollowingyear.

RenovatingStrawberryRows

1.AfterharvestingJunebearers,usehedgeclipperstoremoveleavesthataremorethanabove2inchesabovethecrown.(Amowersethighenoughtomissthecrownsmaywork.)Makesurenottoinjurethecrowns.

2.Withahoe,cultivatebetweenrowstoremoveplantsthathaveencroached,oruseatillertoturnthemunder.Narrowtherowsto

10to12incheswide.Thegoalistoleavefiveorsixplantspersquarefootofrow,withplantsabout6inchesapart.

3.Detachandreplantrootedrunners(daughterplants)tofillinthebarespots,andtoreplaceany3-to4-year-oldmotherplants.

4.Applyanall-purposefertilizer,followingdirectionsonthelabel;avoidgettingitontheleaves.Wateritinsoonafterapplication.

5.Keepplantswellwateredforatleast6weeksafterrenovatingabed.Thiswillencouragelarge,healthyplantsbythetimebudsstartforminginSeptember.

Rootedrunnerscanbeclippedoffandplanteduptofillinbarespotsortoreplaceoldplantswhoseproductionhasdeclined.

ControlWeeds

Weedcontrolisessentialforstrawberries.Grassandweedsshadeleavesandcompetewithshallow-rootedberryplantsfornutrientsandmoisture.Weedorcultivatefrequentlythefirstyear.Useathickmulchbetweenrowsinsubsequentyears;youcanusethesamestrawyoucoveredplantswithforoverwintering.Makesureyoubuystrawratherthanhay,whichisfullofweedy

seeds.Ifyouuseagrainstrawsuchaswheat,soakitinwaterfirsttogerminateanyseeds.Insubsequentyearsasthestrawberriesgrowtogether,theirmattedgrowthhabitwillhelpkeepdownmanyweeds,butyou’llstillneedtopulloutsomeastheysneakthrough.

ProvideWinterandFrostProtection

Eventhoughstrawberryplantsvaryconsiderablyinhardiness,inalmosteveryspotnorthoftheMason-Dixonline—andinsomeoftheSouth—youmustprotectthemoverthewinterinordertogetgoodyields.Thefruitbuds,ratherthantheplantsthemselves,aremostvulnerabletofreezedamage,whichcanoccurevenbeforethebudsbegintoshowinspring.Cultivarssuchas‘Cavendish’listedforcolderregionsaregenerallyhardyinZones3to7;thosesuchas‘Chandler’,forwarmerclimates,areforZones5to8.Cultivarslistedforwarmandcoldclimatessuchas‘ACWendy’shouldproducewellinZones3to8.Strawwasoncecheap,fairlyweed-free,andplentiful,sogardeners

buriedtheirplantsbeneaththicklayersofitbeforewinter.Whentheyuncoveredtheminthespring,theleftoverstrawprovidedaperfectmulchthatconservedmoistureandkepttheripeningberriesfreefromdirt.Straw(nothay!)isstillanexcellentwintercover,ifit’savailablelocally.Youcanoftenfinditatfarmsupplyorfeedstores,andeveninsomecompletegardenstores.Onestrawbalewillcoverabout100squarefeetofbedorrows.Shreddedleaves,salthay,andpineneedlesareallgoodwinter

coverstoo.Oruseaheavierweightofrowcover—athickfeltfabricthroughwhichraincanpassandplantscanbreathe.Becausewehaveplentyofevergreenboughs,weusethemascoverings.Coverstrawberryplantsinthefallaboutthetimehardfrostsstartto

freezetheground(lateNovembertomid-Decemberinmostareas).Coveringstrawberriesearlier,beforeplantsarefullydormant,leadstoreducedyields.Uncoverinspringwhenthegroundhasthawedafewinchesdeep

andnotemperaturesbelow20°Fareforecastintheforeseeablefuture.(Thetimewillvaryfromyeartoyear;startcheckinginearlyMarch.)Strawberryyieldsareincreasedbyaccesstolightandincreasingdaylengthinverylatewinterandearlyspring.Yieldsarereducedmorebyleavingthemulchontoolongandhavingplantsstarttogrowunderitthanbytakingthemulchofftooearly.Iftherearetenderwhiteshootsshowing,themulchhasbeentakenoffwaytoolateandyieldswillbedrasticallyreducedbecausetheplantswillhaveusedupmuchoftheirstoredreservestoproducethisgrowth.Strawberryblossomsaresensitivetospringfrosts,whichturnthe

centersblackandruinafruitcrop.Someyearsyou’llprobablyneedtocoverplantswhenlate-springfrostsoccuratbloomingtime.Userowcovers,oldblankets,sheets,orsimplythestrawyouremovedfromplantsfromwinterandplacedinthepaths.Withrowcovers,makesuretogettheheaviestweightpossible,whichmayprovide5degreesoftemperatureprotection(twicetheprotectionoflightweightrowcovers).Twolayerswillprovideslightlymoreprotection.Ifyou’resureafrostiscoming,covertheplantsinlateafternoonwhilethesoilisstillwarm.Somegardenersturnlawnsprinklersontheirbeds,similartomethodscommercialgrowersuseforfrostprotection.Whatevermethodyouuse,listentoweatherforecastsatblooming

timeandwatchthethermometerclosely,especiallyonclearnights.Thetemperaturecanbeabalmy60°Fatduskandplungetowellbelow30°Fby2a.m.Keepinmindthatthetemperaturenearthegroundmaybeafewdegreescolderthanatyourthermometermountedbyawindow.Noonewantstoworkallyearandthenlosethecropinonenight.Forextrainsuranceinvestinafrostalarm,availablenowonmanywirelesshome-temperaturemonitors.

Toprotectflowerbudsfornextyear’scrop,coverstrawberryplantswhenthegroundstartstofreeze.

StrawberriesofftheGround

Oneoftheclassicmethodsofgrowingstrawberriesisinastrawberrypot,ataller-than-wideclayorplasticcontainerwithplantingholesinthesides.Whenyousetoneorafewplantsinthetop,theirrunnersrootintothesidepocketsofsoil.Avariationisthepyramid,ashortstackofever-smallerraisedbeds.Aneweroptionisatall,thinbagfilledwithsoilthatyouhang.Youcanincorporatestrawberriesintohangingbaskets,orina“greenwall,”whichisastructuresimilartoatraywithmeshtoholdthesoilyouplantandthensetupright.Forhanging,day-neutraloreverbearingcultivarsarebest;removeanyrunnersastheyform.Suchcontainersallowyoutogrowstrawberriesonthepatioorina

smallyardifyoudon’thaveroom(ortime)forastrawberrybed.Fill

containerswithasoillessmedium,andaddaslow-releasefertilizer.Youcanalsoaddawater-absorbinggeltohelpretainwater.Incoldclimates,containersneedtobeprotectedfromfreezing,asinanunheatedgarage,overwinter.

Birds,Insects,andDiseases

Ifyoufindthebirdsareupearlierthanyouareandbeatingyoutotheripeberries,placebirdnettingoverrows.Manygardenstoresandonlinecatalogssellthis.Drapeitoverwirehoopsorsomesortofframetokeepbirdsfromreachingthroughtogetattheberries.Anchoritwithtentstakes,or6-to8-inchwoodenstakesinthegroundangledoutward.Thereareotherbirdrepellentssuchasnoise-makersandeyeballoons,withvaryingeffectiveness.

Diseases.Ifyoubuyvirus-freeplantsanddon’tplantthemwhereyourecentlyraisedsusceptiblecrops(tomatoes,eggplants,potatoes,melons,raspberries,blackberries,orotherstrawberries),you’llhavesomeinsuranceagainstverticilliumwilt,redstele,andotherdiseasescarriedinthesoil.Agoodwaytominimizeleafdiseasesistousesoakerhosesordripirrigationnearplantsunderneathmulchtokeepwaterfromgettingontheleaves.Keepingstrawberryflowersfromgettingwetduringbloom,andthenkeepingthestrawberriespicked,willhelpkeepgraymolddisease(botrytis)fromgrowingonfruit.Inadditiontothecommongraymold(page270)andverticilliumwilt(page272),otherdiseasestowatchforonstrawberriesareleafscorch,leafspot,andredstele.Leafscorchbeginsasreddishpurplepinpointsonleaves,orblotchy

areas.Thesemaycauseleavestoturnbrownandcurlattheedges—ascorchedappearance.Flowersmaybedamaged,resultinginnofruit,orfruitmayhavedeadstems.Removeanddestroy(burnorbag)anydeadplantparts.Tominimizetheneedforfungicides,chooseresistantcultivars,allowplentyofaircirculation,anddon’tover-fertilize,inadditiontodestroyingafflictedplantparts.Leafspotisawidespreaddiseasethatcausesreddishtopurplespots

ofvaryingshapesandsizesonleavesandfruit.Ifsevere,leavesmayfalloff.Controlsarethesameasforleafscorch(seeabove).Redsteleisarootrotfoundparticularlyoncool,wetsoils.Itismost

activeinearlyspringandlatefallandcausesrootstorotfromthetipsandturnreddishontheinsides.Asthisdiseaseismostcommonlyintroducedonnewplants,makesureyoubuydisease-freestock,andplantongoodsoils.Ifsoilsarepoorlydrained,incorporateplentyoforganicmatterpriortoplantingtoformraisedbeds,andmakesureyoudon’toverwater.

Insects.Asforinsects,you’relikelytoencounteratleastafew,amongthemJapanesebeetles,aphids,thrips,mites,sapbeetles,leafhoppers,andleafrollers.(Seechapter18forcontrollingthesepests.)Fortunately,veryfewofthesepestsarelikelytobecomeaprobleminabackyardgarden;they’remorelikelytotargetlargeplantingsgrownonthesamelandforyears.

Somestrawberrygrowersplantamarigoldbetweeneveryplanttohelprepelsoilnematodes.Althoughit’sunclearwhetherthisreallyworks,marigoldsattractbeneficialinsectssuchaslace-wings,ladybeetles,andparasiticwasps.(Formoreinformationonpreventingnematodes,turntopage274.)Inadditiontothegeneralpestsmentionedabove,othersarealso

fondofstrawberryplants.Toleratesmallpopulations,andrememberthatevenorganicspraysaretoxictobeesandotherpollinators.Makesureanyproductyouuseislistedassafeforstrawberries,andfollowlabeldirectionscarefully.Whitegrubsareroot-eatingpeststhatcandevastateanewplanting

inshortorder.TheydevelopintothosebigMaybeetlesthathangonthewindowsandbuzzaroundlightsduringearlysummernights.Becausetheylivemostlyinsod,thebestpreventionistoplantyourberriesongroundthatwascultivatedthepreviousyear.Tarnishedplantbugsarebrowninsectsabout¼inchlong,withblack

andyellowmarkings(seepage281).Watchforthesepeskypestsasplantsbegintobloom,asthat’swhentheysearchoutoneoftheirfavoritefoods—strawberryblossoms.Feedingbytarnishedplantbugscausesfruittobemisshapen;sometimeshardgreen“buttons”developinsteadoffruit.Thoughyoucantolerateafewoftheseinsects,forsevereinfestationsconsidersprayingjustasbudclustersstarttodevelop.(Don’tsprayafterthebloomsopenoryou’llkillpollinatingbees.)Tarnishedplantbugstendtobemoreofaproblemonlater-bloomingvarieties.Ifyoudon’twanttospray,plantonlyearly-bloomingvarieties,keepthebedfreeofweeds,andbepreparedtodomorefrostprotection.

Toprotectripeningstrawberriesfromvoraciousbirds,installasupport(likethesePVChoops)overthestrawberrybedandcoveritwithnetting.

Toavoiddiseaseslikestrawberryleafspot,purchaseresistantcultivarsandgrowplantswhereothersusceptiblecropshavenotbeenplantedrecently.

Damagelikethisisasuresignthatslugsarepresent.Totrapthem,tryplacingadeepsaucerofbeerinthebed;slugswillbedrawntotheyeastinthebeerandwilldrown.

Weevilsareoneofthemostseriousproblems,especiallystrawberrybudweevils.Theylaytheireggsinabudcluster,partlyseveringitfromtheplant.Insecticidescancontrolthem,butyoumustbecarefultouseonethatyoucanwashofflaterandstopsprayingoncebloomsopentoprotectpollinators.Pyrethrumandrotenone,bothorganicinsecticides,washoffthefruiteasily.Spittlebugsareappropriatelynamed,surroundingthemselveswitha

foamywhite“spittle.”Theseinsectsarecommononstrawberriesearlyintheseasonandfeedonyoungplants.Althoughtheyweakenplants,theyseldomcauseseriousdamageunlessthey’representinabundance.They’remoreaconcerntogardenersthantotheplants,andbothyouandtheplantsshouldbeabletotoleratethem.Slugsandsnailsareslimypestseasilyrecognizedbymostpeople.

Theyespeciallyliketoeatripeornearlyripestrawberries.They’renotaprobleminallyearsinallplaces,butwatchforthemindampseasonsandclimates.Notmuchisworsethanpickingaripestrawberry,onlytofindaslugonit,particularlyasyou’reabouttoeatthefruit!Keepingfruitoffthegroundonstrawmakesitlessaccessibletoslugsandsnails.Youcanalsoplacerollsofnewspaperorboardsinthegardenforslugs

tocrawlinorunderbyday,thusconcentratingthemforeasyremoval.Oneofthemostpopularcontrolsisasaucerofbeer.Copperstripsaresoldasslugguards,asslugsandsnailswon’tcrawlacrosscopper.Youcanusediatomaceousearthasabarrier,butyouneedtoreplaceitafteraheavyrain.Coffeegroundsarealsoadeterrent.Aweakammoniaspraykillsslugsoncontact,aswillasprinkleoftablesalt.

Placerollsofnewspaperorboardsinthegardenforslugstocrawlinorunderbyday,thusconcentratingthemforeasyremoval.

HarvestingStrawberries

FORTHEBESTFLAVORandhighestvitamincontent,pickstrawberriesonthedaytheyripen,whichusuallymeansdailypickingduringthepeakoftheseasonifit’swarm.ThisisJuneinmanyareas,butcanbeasearlyasAprilinwarmerclimates.Checkplantsatleasteverycoupleofdaysduringtheharvestseason.Overripefruitspoilsquicklyandcanleadtodiseaseandinsectproblems,sopickallripeandoverripefruitoften.Intheearlymorning,whiletheairisstillcoolandjustafterthedewhasevaporated,isthebesttimetopick.Puttheberriesinacoolplaceimmediatelyafterpickingthemsothey’llstayfreshabitlonger.Thecrisperdrawerofarefrigeratorworksbest,buteventhereit’shardtokeepstrawberriesmorethanafewdays.Don’twashthemuntiljustbeforeusing;wetberriesspoilveryquickly.Yieldsvarywithcultivar,season,andageoftheplanting.Figureon1

to2poundsofstrawberriesperplant,perhapsaquart.(Aquartofmoundedstrawberriesusuallyweighsabout1½pounds.)A50-footrowyieldsatleast20quarts.Rawberries,eitherwholeormashedwithsugar,freezeverywell.

Removethestems(caps)andwashinastrainerunderrunningwater.Youmayprefertoslicelargeberries,orfreezethemcrushed.Freezingwithsugar,evenjustalittlesprinkledonberries,helpsretaintextureandpreventbitternessuponthawing.Foraquartofberries,mixwithupto¾cupofsugar;ifyouuseanartificialsweetener,follow

recommendationsfortheequivalentamount.Tofreezeinsyrup,dissolve4cupsofsugarin4cupsoflukewarmwater.Chillthissyrup,thenpouroverberriesbeforefreezing.Whenusingfrozenwholeberries,servebeforefullythawedsotheywon’tbemerelyamush.

StrawberriesAllSeason

PopularJune-bearingstrawberriesEARLY:‘Earliglow’,‘Surecrop’MIDSEASON:‘Allstar’,‘Honeoye’LATE-SEASON:‘Lateglow’,‘Sparkle’

Popularday-neutral(everbearing)strawberries‘Albion’,‘Quinault’,‘Tribute’,‘Tristar’

Asprinklingofsugarwillhelpdrawoutthejuicesinstrawberries.

Ifyoudon’thavealotoffreezerspace,thereareothermeansofpreserving.Dryingandmakingfruitleathersaretwooptions.Agreatmanyofourberriesareturnedintojam.

StrawberryCultivars

NEWANDIMPROVEDstrawberrycultivarsareintroducedeveryyear(asmanyassomevegetables).Somanycultivarsmakeithardtochoose.ContactyourlocalCooperativeExtensionServiceorregionalwebsites(seeResources,page307)forthelatestandbestvarietiesforwhereyoulive.Youcanusuallyrelyonlocalfull-servicegardencenterstosellsomecultivarsappropriateforyourarea.Itismostimportanttobuythosethatarerightforyourclimateandresistanttolocaldiseases.Ifyouwantafewberriesatatimeoveralongseason,growday-

neutralcultivars.Ifyouprefertoharvestmorestrawberriesatonetime,perhapspreservingorfreezingwhatyoudon’teat,focusontheJunebearers.Forpreservesandjams,lookforcultivarswithfirmerfruit.MostJune-bearingcultivarsaresuitedtobotheatingfreshandfreezing;mosteverbearingarebestforeatingfresh.Byplantingearly,midseason,andlatecultivarsofJunebearerswith

someeverbearersyoucanenjoyfreshstrawberriesformuchofthesummer.Don’thavethatmuchroom?Plantonebundle(usually10or25plants)ofaJune-bearingcultivarandoneofaday-neutral.Remembertopickoffjustthefirstflowerclustersthatappearonyourday-neutralplants,asyouwantthemtoproduceabiggerlatecropaftertheJunebearershavefinished.(OntheJune-bearingplants,youneedtopickoffalltheflowersforthefirstyear.)

AlpineStrawberries

Ifyouwantstrawberriesbutdon’twanttospendsomuchtimerenovatingbedsorremovingrunners,considergrowingalpines.AlsoknownbytheirFrenchnamefraisesdebois,theyareadifferentspecies

(Fragariavesca)fromthecommonstrawberry.Theberriesaresmall,likewildstrawberries,withwonderfulflavor,andplantsmaylastforseveralyearswithoutneedingrenovatingorreplanting.AlpinestrawberriesgrowinmostpartsofZones3to10.They’reattractivemassedasagroundcover,foredgingflowerbeds,inediblelandscapes,andeveninhangingbaskets.Unlikethemorefamiliarstrawberry,thesestayinclumpsand

don’tspreadwithrunners.Theygrowbestwithatleast6hoursofsun.Thewhite,fragrantflowersbloomthroughouttheseason,producingberriesrightalong.Becausethey’resoftwhenripeandratherperishable,theydon’tstorewell,soeatthemsoonafterpicking.Ordinarystrawberrycultivarsdon’tcometruefromseedandso

mustbestartedfromcuttingsordivisions.Alpinestrawberries,however,havebeengrownfromseedformanyyears;seedsandplantsarereadilyavailableonlineandfromcatalogs.(Ifyoustartthemfromseeds,bewarnedthattheygerminateslowly—oftentaking3to6weeks—sobepatient.)‘Alexandria’,‘Mignonette’,and‘Sweetheart’aregoodcultivars.

‘YellowAlpine’and‘YellowWonder’producewhite-to-yellowfruits;thesearelessattractivetobirds,soyoumaygetmoreoftheberriesforyourself!

Alpinestrawberriesaremuchsmallerthanmostcultivatedvarieties,butmanypeoplethinktheirflavorisalsomoreconcentrated.

Blackberriestastebestwhenthey’repickeddeadripe,butwon’tstoreformorethanadayortwo.

CHAPTER5

RaspberriesandBlackberries

Ifwehadroomforonlyonekindoffruit,wewouldchoosetheredraspberry.Nearlyeverybodyweknowlovesthem,andthey’reoneoftheeasiestfruitstogrow.Theplantsusuallyproduceabigcropbythethirdyearafterplanting,andbigannualcropsafterthatarealmostguaranteed.Weexpecteachfootofrowtoproduceatleastapintofberriesduringtheseason,andtheyseldomfailtoliveuptoourexpectations.A10-footrow,withfiveinitialplants,providesseveralpeopleenoughberriestoeatfresh,andenoughleftovertofreezeorturnintojam.Raspberrieshavelotsofothergoodqualitiestorecommendthemasa

homefruit.Theyblossomlate,sospringfrostsneverruinthecrop.Thediseasesthattroublethemareeasytocontrolifyoubuyvirus-freeplantsandoptforresistantcultivars.Theyneedlittlecare.Andmaybebestofall,they’reeasytopickwithoutmuchbending.Inmyopinion,theraspberryisanear-perfectfruit.Theotherbramblesarejustaseasytogrow.Blackberriescanbe

distinguishedfromblackraspberriesbecausetheyretaintheircentralcorewhenyoupickthem.Blackandredraspberriesleavethecorebehind,resultinginahollowcenter,orafruitshapedlikeathimble.Themaintricktogrowinganyofthebramblesisfaithfullyremovingthecanesoncethey’vefinishedbearing.Neglectedbramblesquicklybecomeanimpenetrablethicketofdeadbranches.

GettingtoKnowtheBrambles

RASPBERRIES,BLACKBERRIES,andotherbramblesareallmembersofthelargerosefamily.TheancientGreeksandRomansmentionedraspberries,whichwerefirstcultivatedinNorthAmericainthemid-1700s.BlackraspberriesandblackberriesarebothnativetoNorthAmerica.Thoughtheyhavebeencultivatedhereonlysincethemid-1800s,Europeansimportedwildblackberriesandbegancultivatingtheminthe1600s.Thepurpleraspberry—ahybridoftheredandtheblack—cameaboutshortlyafterblackraspberriesenteredcultivation.Redraspberries(Rubusidaeus)arebyfarthemostfamiliar.Thereds

comeinbothone-crop(summer-bearing)andtwo-crop(fall-bearing)varieties.Theone-croptypebearsfruitthatmaturesinmidsummeroncanesthathavegrownthepreviousseason.Afterbearing,thecanesdie.Two-cropraspberriesareoftencalledeverbearers,whichtheyreallyaren’t.Instead,theybearonceduringthesummeroncanesgrownthepreviousyearandproduceanadditionalcropinthefalloncanesgrownthecurrentyear.ManyredraspberrycultivarsarehardyfarintoCanada.Othershave

beendevelopedforZones5through8.Mostfall-bearingredraspberriesarewinter-hardy,butinZones3and4manyfailtoripentheirsecondcropbeforetheearlyfrosts.Yellowraspberries,whicharecloselyrelatedtotheredsandblacks,

varyincolorfromyellowtopalepink.Thesearesofragilethatthey’reseldomseeninstores.They’reidealforhomegardens,however,andmanyfruitloversregardtheripegoldenoryellowraspberryasthefinesttastingfruitintheworld.Ahandfultossedtogetherwithafewredandblackraspberriesmakesanelegantdessert.Mostarefallbearing,withhardinesssimilartothereds.Thedownsideisthatthey’remoresusceptibletoviruses.Becarefultobuyonlycertifiedvirus-freeplants;youwanttoavoidunknowinglyintroducingvirusestoyourotherraspberries.Blackraspberries(Rubusoccidentalis),or“blackcaps,”aswildones

arecalledinsomeareas,haveanunusualflavorthatmanypeoplelikeverymuch,aslightlymuskyaromaandtaste.Unlikeredraspberries,theyproducefewsuckers.Instead,theystartnewplantswhentheirlongcanesbendoverandthetipstouchthesoilandroot.Theirfruitstendtohavemoreseedsthanthereds,andtheplantsarelesshardy.

Redraspberries(left)arefamiliartomostfruitlovers.Theless-commongoldenraspberry‘FallGold’(right)offersawelcomeautumnharvestafterthemainraspberryseasonisover.

BrambleFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:Dependsoncultivar;raspberriesZones3–8;

blackberriesZones5–9

Height:4–6feet(pruned)

Spacing:Uprightcultivars2feetapartwithinrows,trailingcultivars4–6feetapartwithinrows;spacerowsatleast6feetapart(10feetapartforblackberries)

Pollination:Raspberriesareself-fruitful;someblackberriesneedcross-pollination

Pruning:Removespentcanesinthesecondandsubsequentyears(afterfruiting),weakcanes,andanycanescloserthan6inchesapart

Specialrequirement:Annualpruning

Yearstobearing:2

Yieldperplant:1–4quarts

Purpleraspberriesarecloselyrelatedtotheblacks,andhaveasimilarflavor.Ofalltheraspberries,thepurplesareusuallymosttolerantofdrought.They’reamongthemostvigorous,andthemostresistantgenerallytopestsanddiseases,butthey’reusuallylesshardythanthereds.SomecultivarssuchasSodushavealess-suckeringgrowthhabit.Otherpurpleraspberries,suchas‘Brandywine’and‘Royalty’,behavemoreliketheredsandsendupsuckersinthesameway.Blackberriescomeintwotypes,uprightandtrailing,andbothare

availableasthornlesscultivarsandwiththorns.Thereareafewdifferentspecies.Theoriginalwildtypeswerethethornyuprightblackberries,whichhavethebestflavor,buttheirviciousthornsmakeharvestingachallenge,sotheyaren’tgrownmuch.

Blackraspberries(left),alsoknownas“blackcaps,”haveanunusual,slightlymuskytaste.Purpleraspberries(right)arerelatedtothem,andaregenerallythoughttobethemostdroughttolerantofalltheraspberries.

Lesser-KnownBrambles

Raspberriesandblackberrieshavesomelesscommonrelatives.Allarebasicallycultivarsofblackberry,andthedifferencesincolorandflavorarenotgreat,withoutgettingintohighlysubjectivetastedescriptions.Asmentionedabove,dewberryisthenameappliedtoagroupofseveraltrailing(oftensweeter)blackberryspeciesthatgenerallygrowasevergreenshrubsinZones5to9.Thesouthernspeciesisoftenfoundgrowingalongroadsidesandrailwaytracks.‘Austin’and‘Lucretia’arewidelyavailableimprovedselections.Severalhybridsofredandblackraspberriesaregrownmainlyin

thePacificNorthwestandCalifornia,astheyaren’tveryhardy.Theyhavetrailinghabits,andtheirberriesclingtothecentralcore(receptacle),similartothehabitofblackberries.Theyoungberryistrailing,withpurplishblackfruitthatripensearlierthanblackberries.Theloganberry,hybridizedintheearly1880s,isaparentofseveralmodernhybrids.Crossingtheloganberrywitharaspberryledtothetayberry(namedaftertheTayRiverinScotland),withredfruitsthatarelargerandsweeterthanthoseoftheloganberry.Tummelberriesproducedeepred,conicalfruitsthatretaintheircorewhenpicked.Similartothetayberryisthethornywyeberry,whichlooksandtasteslikearedraspberrywithsomeboysenberryflavor,withhigheryieldsthanmanyraspberries.Darkboysenberries,popularinsyrupsandjams,camefromathree-waycrossamongtheloganberry,araspberry,andablackberry.

Thetayberryisacrossbetweentheloganberryandtheraspberry,andisnamedaftertheTayRiverinScotland.

Marionberryisactuallyjustthe‘Marion’cultivarofthethornyblackberry,ahybridoftwootherblackberries.Similarly,olallieberryisthecultivar‘Olallie’.Threeuncommonbutrelatedspeciesarethewineberry(R.phoenicolasius),thethimbleberry(R.parviflorus),andthesalmonberry(R.spectabilis).

Thetrailingtypesaresometimescalleddewberries,buttheseareconsideredtobeaseparategroupoftrailingspeciesofblackberries.Thetrailingtypesgrowcanesfromacentralcrown;theuprightonesformcanesfrombothacrownandroots,similartohowraspberriesgrow.Mostblackberrycultivarshavehardyroots.Theircanesarenotas

hardyasthoseofraspberries,however,andincoldclimatesareapttodietothegroundoverthewinter.MostuprightonesarehardyinZones

6to8,somegrowingtoZone9,andsomearehardyjusttoZone5(‘Darrow’maygrowintoZone4).Lesshardyarethethornlessuprightcultivars.Theleastcoldhardyarethethornlesstrailingblackberries,developedinthe1960sbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture.Theberriesaretartbuttheplantsarevigorouswheretheycanbegrown.MostaresuitableonlyinZone7andwarmerclimates,althoughsomewillgrowintoZone5.ForthisreasontheyaregrownmainlyinsouthernstatesandthePacificNorthwest.Leastcommonarethethornytrailingtypes,bothwithlesscoldhardinessandaneedformorechillingthanmanysoutherngardenscanprovide.Forthisreason,you’llseethesemainlyinthePacificNorthwest,wheretheymaybecalledwesterntrailingblackberries.

PlantandSiteSelection

STARTWITHcertifieddisease-freeplants,asbramblesaresusceptibletoseveralvirusesthatimpairyieldandaredifficulttoeradicate.Avoidthetemptationtoacceptnewplantsfromfriends(yougettheirproblemsalongwiththeirplants),ortodigwildraspberries.Wildraspberriesmaytastegood,butnamedcultivarshavebeenbredfortraitssuchaslargerfruit,easierpicking,nothorns,andhigheryields.

CaringforBare-RootPlants

Mail-orderplantsareusuallyshippedbare-root,andthere’sagoodpossibilitythey’llbedrywhentheyarrive.Unwrapthemassoonaspossibleandsoaktheirrootsforseveralhoursinatubofwater,outofthesun,beforeplanting.Ifyoucan’tplantrightaway,“heelthemin,”outofdirectsun,bycoveringtherootswithmoistsawdust,moistburlap,orwetnewspapers.Orlaytherootsinashallowtrench,topsangledout,covertherootswithsoil,andwaterwell.Don’tletthesensitiverootsdryoutwhileplanting.Keep

blackberryrootsinthedark(undercover),orbetteryetplantona

cloudyday.Therootsaresensitivetolightanddon’tgrowwelliftheywereexposedtothesun.

Heelinbare-rootcanesthatcan’tbeplantedrightaway.

Separateblackandpurpleraspberriesfromredandyellowraspberriesbyatleast100feet,becausetheyoftenhaveavirusthatcanspreadtotheredandyellowcultivars,evenwhenthehostplantsappearhealthy.Uprightblackberriesneedisolationfromanyotherplantings,becausetheirlongrootssendupsuckersmanyfeetfromtheparentplants.Becauseredraspberriesandblackberriessuckersoprolifically,locate

theplantingwhereyoucancontrolthe“volunteers”thatspringfromthevigorousroots.Mowingistheeasiestway,soplantinnarrowrowswithgrassoneitherside(andbetweenrows).Ifyoupurchaseyourplantsfromalocalnurseryorgardencenter,

they’llbeeitherbare-rootorgrowinginpots.Thepottedones,althoughmoreexpensive,willgetofftoafasterstartbecauseoftheirestablishedrootsystem.Theseareworththeextramoney,unlessyou’replantingalargenumberofthem.Toplantotherthaninspring,thesewillbeyouronlychoice.Makesureifsettingoutmatureplantsinsummerthattheydon’tdryout.

PlantingandCare

PREPARETHEGROUNDTHOROUGHLY,asdescribedinchapter15.Incorporate

organicmatterandabalanced,completefertilizer,followingapplicationratesonthelabel.Bramblespreferaslightlyacidicsoil(pH5.5to6.5).FollowthespacingrecommendationsintheFastFactsboxonpage

65butnotethattrailingcultivarsneedmoreroom.Seteachplanttothesamedepthasitgreworiginallyinthegroundorpot.Acommonmistakeistoplanttoodeeply—makesurethegreenorwhitebudsnearthebasecanseethelightofday.Soakthesoilheavilywithwatertowhichyouhaveaddedaweak(nomorethanquarterstrength)solutionofliquidfertilizer.Continuetowaterthenewlysetplantsthoroughlyevery2or3days

for3weeks(unlessitrainsheavily).Waterischeapinsuranceforagoodfruitcrop.Soakerhosesplacedalongrows,underneathmulch,areanefficientandeasymeanstogetwatertotheroots.Becausethismethodbypassesleaves,stems,andberries,ithelpstopreventdiseases.Ifyoudon’tusesoakerhoses,directwateringtothebaseofplants.Aboutamonthafterplanting,feedwithabalancedfertilizer,followinglabeldirections.

Whenplantingbrambles,uprightcultivarsshouldbespaced2feetapartinrows.Don’tplantthemtoodeeply;makesurethegreenorwhitebudsnearthebaseareabovethesoilline.

Whenyoupurchasewell-rootedpottedplants,nopruningisnecessaryatplantingtime.Ifwhenyouremovetheplantfromitscontainerthesoilfallsoff,it’sobviousthatitwasonlyrecentlypotted;treatasyouwouldabare-rootplant.Withbare-rootplants,setthemin,

thencutbackthecanesto4to6inchesabovetheground(unlesstheywereprunedbackbythenursery).Ifyoudon’tcutthemback,thetopswillstarttogrowandtherewillnotbeenoughcorrespondingrootgrowthtosupportthem.Theresultisweakplantsthatarelikelytogiveupentirelyortakeyearstorecover.Plantsthathavebeencutbackwillnotproduceanyberriesthefirstyear,buttheideaistodevelopalotofcanesthatwillproduceheavilyinthefuture.Insubsequentyears,onceplantsareestablished,theygrowbestwith

annualfeedingandasteadysupplyofwater.Sprinklefertilizeratrecommendedratesalongrowsinthespring,keepingawayfromthebaseofplants.Ifyoursoilisespeciallyfertile,youmayonlyneedtoaddnitrogen.Fishemulsionisaneasywaytosupplynitrogentoestablishedplants;followlabeldirections.Reapplyathalf-strengthinmidsummerforfall-bearers.Ampleamountsofwaterimprovethequalityoftheberries.Aimfor1

to2inchesofwaterperweekforbestyields.Moremaybeneededonsandysoilsorwhenfruitsareforming.

MulchforWeedControl

Grassandweedsaresomeoftheworstenemiesofbrambles,especiallyduringthefirstyearwhilethey’regettingestablished.Theycompetewiththeplantsfornutrients,limittheirgrowth,reduceproduction,andgivetheberrypatchamessy,unkemptappearance.Rototillingorhoeingcaneasilydamagebrambleroots,soheavymulchingisabetterwaytocontrolgrassandnourishyourplantsatthesametime.Theexceptionisonheavyorclaysoils,wherecontinuedheavymulchinginsubsequentyearsprovidesgoodconditionsforroot-rotdiseases.Ifyouhaveheavyorclaysoils,plantinraisedbedsthatare6to8incheshigherthanthesurroundinggroundandbuildupthebedswithlotsoforganicmattersuchascompost.Athicklayerofshreddedbark,shreddedleaves,woodshavings,or

strawisanexcellentmulchforbrambles.Sawdustpackstootightlyunlesscompostedfirst,anditstealsnitrogenfromthesoil,butyoucancompensatewithasecondapplicationoffertilizer.Severalinchesofmulch(4to6inchesofstraw)willprovideenoughshadetosuffocatesproutingweedandgrassseeds,yetthenewberrycaneswillpush

throughiteasily.Somegardenerslayblackplastic,cardboard,newspapers,orweed-

controlfabricbetweentherowsandcoveritwithwoodchips.Thispreventsthegrowthofsuckerplantsandweeds.

ProvideSupport

Forbetteryieldsandeasierpicking,providesomemeansofsupporttokeepraspberriesandupright-growingblackberriesfromfallingover.Someberrygrowerstiethecanestostakesorpostsplacedevery3feetalongtherow.Othersputupafenceconsistingofstrandsofsmoothwireoneachsideoftherow.Two-cropcultivarswon’tneedstakingifyougrowforonlyonefallcrop:Moworcutcanestothegroundeachfallorspringtoproduceshortnewcanesandasinglelatecropofberries.Shortervarietieswilldofinewithoutsupport.Thesturdy‘Boyne’

raspberryislesslikelytoneedstakingthantaller-growingcultivarssuchas‘Royalty’and‘Latham’.Trailingtypesofblackberriesmustbetiedtoawirefenceorsome

othersupportduringthefruitingseason.Stringasinglewirebetweentwoposts.Usefabricstrips,thickcord,orwideplastictiestotiecanestothewire.(Don’tusestring,asitwillcutintothecanes.)

Blackraspberrycultivarsthatgrowfromacentralcrown(ratherthanfromsuckeringcanes)areoftengrowntiedtoacentralstake.

Tallercultivarsareeasiertopickandcareforwhensupportedbyatrellis.

EssentialPruning

Ifyouneglecttocutouttheoldcanesinyourbramblepatcheachyear,theplantingwilldeterioraterapidly.Bothraspberriesandblackberrieshaverootsthatareperennial,buttheircanesarebiennial.Inotherwords,therootsliveformanyyears,buteachcanesproutsandgrowstoitsfullheightinoneyear(thencalledaprimocane),bearsfruitthefollowingyear(thencalledafloricane),thendiesimmediately.Thefall-bearing,ortwo-crop,raspberrycultivarsbearmosttheirfruitinfallonprimocanes.Neglectedraspberriesandblackberriesbecomeajungleofdeadcanesafterafewyears,andbothfruitsizeandquantitywillsuffer.Tokeepyourpatchproductive,cuteachdeadcanetogroundlevelin

thefallafterithasfinishedbearing.You’llrecognizethedeadonesbytheirpallidcolorandbrittleappearance.Hand-heldclippersareidealforthisjob,andyou’llprobablywanttowearthickglovestohandlethethornycanes.Roseglovesworkwellasthey’rethickersothornscan’tpenetrate,andtheyhavelonggauntletstoprotectyourlowerarmswhenreachingamongthethornycanes.Becauseinsectsanddiseaseswinteroverintheoldcanes,don’tputtheminthecompostpile.Instead,removethemtothelocallandfillorburnthemassoonaspossible.Withpurpleandblackraspberriesanduprightblackberries,you’ll

alsoneedtoprunebackor“tip”newfirst-yearcanesinsummer.Thiswillpromoteshorterandstrongercanesandmorelateralbranches,

whichwillproducefruitthesecondyear.Whencanesreach3to4feethigh,removethetop3to6inches.Ifyou’resupportingthemonatrellisorastake,youcanwaituntiltheyreachabout5feettotipback.Inearlyspring(whenyou’repruningtoremovedead,broken,orexcessbranches),alsotipbackthesidebranchestoabout6incheslongonpurpleandblackraspberries,12inchesforuprightblackberries.

Purpleandblackraspberries—aswellasuprightblackberries—producelongsideshoots.Prunethembacktoabout6inches(slightlylongerforblackberries)inearlyspring.

Cutdeadcanestothegroundaftertheplanthasfinishedfruiting.

TIPSFORGROWINGREDRASPBERRIESANDOTHERBRAMBLES

•Chooseasitewithwell-drainedsoilandabundantsun.Don’tplantredandyellowraspberrieswithin100feetofwildberriesorblackandpurpleraspberries.

•Buycultivarsthatgrowwellinyourregion.

•Prepareweed-freesoilandplantinearlyspring.Spaceraspberryandblackberryplants2feetapartwithinrows(trailingcultivars4to6feetapartwithinrows);spacerowsatleast6feetapart(10feetapartforblackberries).Forbare-rootplantsonly,cutbackto4to6inchesabovetheground.

•Waterwellafterplanting;forthefirstyear,provideatleastaninchofwaterweeklyifnotsuppliedbyrain.

•Installstakesforindividualplants,orstakeswithparallelwiresfor

rows,tosupportberry-ladenbranches.

•Mulchwithathicklayerofwoodshavingsorshreddedbarktocontrolweeds;supplementannually.(Mulchheavilyonlythefirstyearwhereroot-rotdiseasesareaproblem.)

•Keeprowsto2feetwidebymowingorcuttingoffsproutsthatpopupoutsidetherows.

•Eachspring,feedwithabalancedfertilizer;followratesonlabel.

•Keepaneyeoutforanywiltedtipsanddiseasedleavesorbranches;pruneoutimmediatelyanddestroy.

•Inthefallinsecondandsubsequentyears,cutspentfruitingcanesdowntotheground.Inspring,removeweak(small-diameter)canes,winter-damagedwood,andvigorouscanescloserthan6inchesapart.

•Ifyouwanttogrowonefallcropfromtwo-cropcultivars,cutallcanestothegroundeachspring.(Don’tdothisforone-cropcultivars.)

•Forthebestberrycrops,keepplantswell-wateredduringthegrowingseason—especiallyduringthe3to4weekspriortoharvestwhenfruitsareforming.

Trailingblackberriesareprunedinaslightlydifferentway.Unliketheuprightones,whichproducecanesfromboththecrownandtheroots,thetrailingtypesproducecanesonlyfromthecrown.Thefirstyear,justleaveprimocanesontheground,trailingalongtherow.Thiswaytheycanbeprotectedoverwinterwithstraw.Don’ttiptheseback.Thenthesecondseason,inspringpullthecanes(nowfloricanes)upontoatrellis.Removethelower2to3feetoflateralshoots,thentipbacktheremaininglateralstostubs2to4incheslong.Thesearewhatwillproducethefruit.Pruneoffthefloricanesafterfruitinginfall,orthefollowingspringpriortotrainingupthepreviousseason’scanes.Asyourberrypatchages,morepruningwillbenecessarybecausethe

suckeringplantsproducetoomanynewcaneseachyear.Cutoffalltheweaknewcanesandthinoutanyremainingcanesthatareclosertogetherthan6inches(12inchesforblackberries).Otherwise,theberrieswillbesmallandtherewillbefewerofthem.Dothiseitherwhenyouremovethespentcanesinfall,orinearlyspringbeforegrowthresumes.Withproperpruningyourplantswillbelesspronetodisease,andmaylast10yearsormore.Keeptherowsofredandyellowraspberriesanduprightblackberries

nomorethan2feetinwidth,andthoseofblackandpurpleraspberriesandtrailingblackberriesnomorethan1½feetwide.Thismakesharvestingandpruningeasierandalsoallowsbetteraircirculation,whichreducesthechancesofdiseases.

Trailingblackberriesneedmoreintensivepruningthanotherbrambles.Thefirstyear(left),leavetrailingcanesinrowsontheground.Thesecondyear(right),removeallsideshootsonthelowest2to3feetofeachcane;pruneremaining(upper)sideshootsbacktoonly2to4inches.

HowtoPruneBrambles

Bramblesneedpruningeveryyear.Neglectedraspberriesandblackberriesbecomeajungleofdeadcanesafterafewyears,andbothfruitsizeandquantitywillsuffer.•Forbare-rootplants,cutbackto4–6inchesafterplanting.•Foreverbearing(two-crop)cultivars,cutbackallcanesinspringifyouwantonlyonefallcropanddon’twanttostake.•Insummer,cut6inchesfromtipsofcanesonpurpleandblackraspberriesandonuprightblackberries,whentheyreach3–4feet;thefollowingspring,cutbacksidebranchesto6inches.•Cutbackspentfruitingcanesofone-cropcultivarsinfall.•Inthethirdandsubsequentyears,removeweakanddiseased

canes,andthinremainingcanesto6inchesapart(12inchesforblackberries).Mowortrimshootsthatpopupoutsidearoughly2-foot-widebed.

Diseases

Startingwithdisease-freeplantsisimportanttomaintainhealthybrambles.Choosingasitewithgoodaircirculationandthinningcanesto6inchesapartwillpreventmanydiseases.Beforeassumingsomethingisadisease,checkthephysiological

problemsonpage266.Ifforsomereasonyourraspberriescrumblewhenpicked,thiscouldbefrompoorpollinationofflowers(asfromcool,rainyweatherorinsufficientbeeactivity—eventhoughplantsareself-fruitfultheyneedsomehelpfrombees),coolsummers,oravirus.Ifyouhavethisproblemover2or3years,itisprobablyavirus.Onbrambles,marbledgreenorgreenishyellowmottledleavesonnewcanesisanothersymptomofavirusdisease.Bramblesaresusceptibletosomeofthesamediseasesasotherfruits,

particularlygraymold,root(crown)gall,andviruses(seechapter18).Verticilliumwilt(page272)isoneofthemosttroublesomediseasesinsomeareas;itisusuallymoreseriouswithblackandpurplethanredraspberriesandblackberries.Inaddition,beonthelookoutforthefollowing:

Anthracnoseisablightthatshowsuponthecanebarkasgrayblotcheswithpurpleedges,andasscabsonthefruit.Blackraspberriesaremostsusceptible.Ifyouencounterthisdisease,berigorousaboutthinningplantsandsterilizepruningtoolsbetweencuts(seeDisinfectingPruningTools,page273).Afungicideshouldcontrolseverecases;followlabeldirections.Lookforresistantcultivarsofredraspberriessuchas‘Chilcotin’and‘Heritage’.Caneblightisafungusandcausesdarkenedareasatthebaseof

canes,eventuallygirdlingandkillingthem.Pruneoutinfectedcanesduringdryweather,thendestroythem.Doubleblossomrosettecausescompressedandabnormalblooms

whichthendon’tbearfruit.Watchforthisdiseaseifyougardenin

southernareaswherethisdiseasemainlyoccurs.Ifyouseeanysigns,cutoutanddestroyallfloweringcanes.Thecultivar‘Humble’isresistant.Rustsarefungaldiseasesthatoftenappearasrustycoloredortan

spots.Severalrusts,mainlyorangerust,affectmostbramblesexceptforredandpurpleraspberries.Inspring,leavesmaypale,deformed,andstunted.Insummer,lookforbrightorangesporesontheundersidesofleavesandonthecanes.Cutoffanddestroyanyinfestedleavesorbranches,orremovetheentireplant,asrustsarenoteasytotreat(especiallytheonethatattacksblackraspberries).Manywildblackberrieshavethedisease,soremoveanywildbrambleswithin500feet.(Somerecommend1,000feet.)Spurblightcanbeaproblemduringarainyspring.Whentheberry

patchsendsoutbeautifulleavesthatthensuddenlyturnyellowandthecanesdie,thecauseislikelyspurblight.Lookforsmalldarkspotsonthelowerpartsofcanesaroundtheleafnodesofredraspberries,andleaveswithbrownV-shapedareaswithyellowborders.Becausethediseaseaffectsonlytheoldcanes,newoneswillreplacethemoverthesummer,butyourcropforthatyearwillbelost.Ifthisisarecurringproblem,spraywithacopper-orsulfur-basedfungicideinthespringjustastheleavesappear,andlateraccordingtolabelrecommendations.Afewcultivarsmayhavesomeresistance,suchas‘Brandywine’(purple)and‘Latham’(red,one-crop).

Insects

Althoughmanytypesofinsectsbotherbrambles,surprisinglyfeweverbecomeseriousinahomeplanting.Keepingbedsfreeofweedshelps.Ifinsectpopulationsdobuildup,removethemulchandburnit;thismaycontroltheproblem.Thecaneborerisoneofthemostcommonpests,andrareisthe

bramblegrowerwhodoesn’tencounteritsoonerorlater.Ifthetopofanewcanessuddenlywiltsandfallsover,thiscrittermaybeatwork.Inspectionwillrevealtwocirclesnearthetopofthecane.Ifyouopenthecaneatthispoint,youmayfindalarvasittingthereasthoughithadeveryintentionofmakingthisplantitssummerhome.Ifyouleaveitthereundisturbed,itwillboredownthecane,killit,andcontinueontoinfectothercanes,withincreasingdamagetoyourpatchinfutureyears.

Happily,itiseasytocontroltheborerwithoutsprays.Assoonasawiltedendappears,simplycutitoffbelowthebottomringandburnit.Ontheotherhand,ifcaneswiltaftertheyhavefruitmaturingon

them,thisislikelyasignofpreviousdamagebytheraspberrycrownborer.Removeanddestroyinfectedplants.Japanesebeetles,aphids,leafhoppers,andspidermitescanbepesky.

Oneparticularaphid,theraspberryaphid,cantransmittheraspberrymosaicvirusamongplants.Sawflies,sapbeetles,strawberrybudweevils(seepage59),andtarnishedplantbugsmayattackbramblesincertainareasofthecountry.Luckily,theyseldomshowmuchinterestinsmallberrypatches.Seechapter18formoreonmanagingthesepests.

Caneborer

HarvestingBrambleFruits

RASPBERRIESHAVEalongripeningseason,beginningafewweeksbeforeblackberries,soyou’llenjoyfreshpickingeverydayforseveralweeks.Toextendtheseasonevenmore,plantearly,mid-season,andfall-bearingraspberrycultivars,aswellasthevariouscolors.Blackraspberriesarethefirsttoripen,followedbytheredandyellow,thenthepurple,andthenblackberries.Theblackandpurpleoftenripenovera2-weekperiod;theredandyellowover4to6weeks.Inmostareas,raspberryharvestisinJulyandAugust.Inwarmerclimates,blackberryharvestoftenstartsasearlyasinMayinsouthernstates.Inthenorthwesternstates,pickingmaystartinJuly,andnotuntilfallinthe

Midwest.Froma50-footrowofmatureplants,expect30quartsofraspberriesand50orsoquartsofblackberries(dependingoncultivar,culture,andclimate).Asinglematurebrambleplantgenerallyyields1–2quarts,butsomeblackberriesmayyieldupto20quarts.Pickinthemorning,whiletheberriesarestillcoolbutafteranydew

hasevaporated.Useonlysmall,shallowcontainersforpickingraspberries,becausetoomanypiledatopeachotherwillcrushthoseonthebottom.Weuseapailwehangonourbeltssowehavebothhandsfree.Avoidhandlingtheberriesanymorethannecessary,andmovefreshlypickedberriesoutofthesunandintotherefrigeratorassoonaspossible.Whenblackberriesfirstturnblack,theymaystillberathertart.

Leavethemonthebushforafewmoredaysuntiltheyalmostfalloffwhenyoutouchthem,atwhichtimeyou’llfindthemmuchsweeter.

Raspberrypavlova

BrambleCultivars

Tohelpyouselectcultivars,considertaste,planthardiness,timeof

ripening,whetheryoucandealwiththorns,andfinaluseoftheberries(fresh,frozen,orjams,forexample).Theflavorofsomeraspberrycultivarsmayvarywithsoiltypeandseason,perhapsmilderonsandysoilsorinwetseasons.Thefollowingareonlyafewofthemanycultivarsyou’llencounter.Unlessnoted,allthesehavethorns.Consultthetextforeachfruittypetodeterminesuitabilityinyourregion.

Ablueberryplantthat’sgivenasunnyspotwithacidsoilandlotsoforganicmatterwillproducedeliciousberrieseverysummerfordecades.

CHAPTER6

Blueberries

Maybetheexpressionshouldbechangedto“asAmericanasblueberrypie,”becauseblueberries(Vacciniumspecies)areaNorthAmericanfruitandapplesareanimport.Thispopularfruitgrowsonanornamentalbush,afavoriteofthosecreatingediblelandscapes.Inearlysummerbushesarecoveredwithwhiteorpink-tingedflowers,followedbytheattractiveberriesinvariousshadesofblue.Infallthefoliageoftenturnsbrilliantdarkredtored-orange.Gardenersjustabouteverywherecangrowblueberries(exceptinthe

tropicaltipofFlorida).Givenwell-drained,acidicsoilrichinorganicmatterandsomepruning,blueberryplantsshouldproducewellforseveraldecades.Youmaygetafewberriesthefirstyearifyoustartwith2-or3-year-oldplants,buttheseslowgrowerstake4to8yearstoreachfullproduction.Alittlepruningeachyearwillrewardyouwithbiggerberriesandbiggeryields.Busheswillbearifyouskippruning,buttheberrieswillbesmaller,yieldswillshrinkovertime,anddiseaseswillreduceproductionandfruitquality.

DifferentTypesforDifferentRegions

SEVERALSPECIESOFwildblueberriesgrowinvarioussectionsoftheUnitedStatesandCanadaandhavebeenharvestedandprocessedcommercially.

Sincethe1950s,hundredsoflarge-fruitedcultivarshavebeendeveloped.FivetypesofblueberriesarethemostcommonlygrowninNorthAmericangardens.Hardiestarethelowbushblueberries(Vacciniumangustifolium),which

growonlyafootorsotall.Wildlowbushblueberriesaregrowncommerciallyinsomenorthernstates,particularlyMaine.They’regrownmoreincoldclimatesnotonlybecausetheytoleratelowertemperatures,butalsobecausetheirshortstatureholdsupbetterundersnowthanhighbushcultivars.Also,itdoesn’ttakemuchsnowtocoverthem,andsnowprovidesinsulation.Gardenerswhogrowlowbushblueberriesintheirbackyardcanexpectaboutapintofberriesforeachfootofrow.Thoughtheyieldsarelowerthanforhighbushblueberries,they’reparticularlyattractiveforlandscaping.Afewlowbushcultivarshavebeendevelopedfortheirberries,anda

fewselectedfortheirornamentalqualitiesasaspreadinggroundcover,butoftenthey’rejustfoundasaspecies.‘Brunswick’and‘RubyCarpet’haveespeciallygoodredfallfoliage.Thepopularvariety‘TopHat’hasgoodfallcolorandaglobe-shapedhabit,andproduceslargeberries.AllthesearehardyinZones3to7.Thenorthernhighbush(Vacciniumcorymbosum)isthemostpopular

inmanyareas,forbothhomegardenersandcommercialgrowers.Bushesgrowfrom6to15feettallandproducelargeberries.Yieldsvarywidelyamongcultivars,butgardenerscanexpectfrom5to15poundsperbush,or4to8quarts.Althoughlesshardythanthelowbush,somecultivarsdowellinZone3whenplantedinaspotshelteredfromthewind.Theyusuallythrivewherethegrowingseasonisatleast160days.Manycultivarsrequireachillingperiodofatleast600hoursbelow45°F,makingthemunsuitableforhotandmildclimates.(Seepage87formoreaboutchillinghours.)Crossinghighbushandlowbushblueberrieshasproducedmidsized

cultivars,whichareoftencalledhalf-highhybrids.Growing3to4feettall,they’rebetterprotectedbysnowthanaretallerbushes,sotheyshouldsurvivebetterincolderclimatesthanmanyhighbushcultivars.Yieldsonthehalf-highhybridsareslightlylowerthanonthehighbush.Therabbiteyeblueberry(Vacciniumashei)can’tsurvivelowwinter

temperatures,butproducesgoodcropsinthesouthernUnitedStates.

Thoughsometimeslistedassouthernhighbush,thistermreallyreferstothenextgroup.Rabbiteyecultivarshavealowchillingperiod(100to200hoursbelow45°F),butthisisenoughtomakethemunsuitablefortropicalclimates.Generallythoselistedforwarmerzones,orasveryearly,havethelowestchillingrequirement.Rabbiteyestoleratedriersoilsthanthehighbushcultivars,butinhotclimatesmostneedsometypeofirrigation.Yieldsof20poundsoffruitperbusharenotunusual,witharangeof8to25pounds.

Lowbushblueberries(left)growclosetothegroundandproducesmall,flavorfulberriesthatareusuallyharvestedwithaspecialrake.Highbushblueberries(right)cangrowtobe15feettallandproducemuchlargerberriesthatarepickedindividuallybyhand.

BlueberryFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:Rabbiteye,Zones6–10;lowbush,Zones3–7;northernhighbush,Zones4–7;southernhighbush,Zones6–10(rangesmayvarywithcultivar)

Height:Under1foot(lowbush)upto15feet(highbushandrabbiteye;canbeprunedto6feetforeasierpicking)

Spacing:Highbushandrabbiteye,5–6feetapartinrows7–9feetapart;half-highhybrids,4–5feetapartinrows6–8feetapart;lowbush1footapartinrows3ormorefeetapart

Pollination:Someareself-fertile,butplantatleasttwocultivarsforbestyields

Pruning:Whenplantsare5feettall,removeoldwood,thincrowdedbranches,cutbacktopsthataretoohigh

Specialrequirements:Well-drainedandacidicsoils(pH4.5to5.5),highorganicmatter;don’tletplantsdryout

Yearstobearing:4–8forfullproduction(someberriesinsecondyear)

Yieldperplant:2–15pounds(varieswithtype),or3–8quarts

SouthernhighbushcultivarsarethebestblueberriesforthewarmWest,DeepSouth,somesouth-centralstates,Texas,andFlorida.Manyhaveaverylowchillrequirement,butthiscanvaryfrom100hourstomorethan600.Despitetheirlowchillneeds,theydon’tgrowwellintheSouthwest,whichforthemostparthasalkalinesoil(waterforirrigationisoftentooalkalineaswell).They’rearelativelynewgroup,created

fromcrossesofnorthernhighbushcultivarswithsouthernspecies.Oftenyou’llfindthemlistedwiththerabbiteyes,buttherearesignificantdifferences.They’retypicallysmallerandslowergrowing,andtheirleavesarethickandcrinkledcomparedwiththoseoftherabbiteyes.Manyflowerquiteearly,ofteninmidwinter,andthusaresusceptibletofreezes.Theyarealsomoresusceptiblethantherabbiteyestosoildiseasesandlesstolerantofdrysoils.Yieldsaresimilartothoseoftheotherhighbushcultivars,rangingfrom8to15poundsperplant,occasionallyeven20pounds.Nativehuckleberries(Gaylussaciaspp.)aresimilarinfruitandculture

totheircloserelativetheblueberry.HardythroughoutawiderangeofZones3to8,theirberriestendtobedarker,onplantsonly1½to3feettallandwide,andplantssportgorgeousredleavesinfall.AnumberofspeciesgrowinthePacificNorthwest,suchastheredhuckleberry(Vacciniumparvifolium),theevergreenhuckleberry(V.ovatum),andthethinleafhuckleberry(V.membranaceum).Thelatter,thestatefruitofIdaho,bearslarge,flavorfulfruitsandisbestsuitedtohigherelevations.Huckleberriesareoftenfoundgrowinginsomeshade.They’llbemoreopeninhabitunderthiscondition,andfruitingwillbelessthanifgrowninfullsun.

MeetingSoilRequirements

BLUEBERRIESAREextremelyparticularaboutsoilacidity,liketheirrelativestheazaleas,mountainlaurel,andheathers.Youmustmeettheirsoilrequirementsinordertogetgoodcrops.TheydobestwithasoilpHof4.5to5.5,whichistoo“sour”formostothergardenplants.Ifyouplantogrowblueberries,firsttestthepHofyoursoil.SoilpHhigherthanthismaycauseyellowingofleaves.Eitherbuyaninexpensivetestingkit,orsendasampletoasoillaboratory(seeSourcesandResources).AprofessionalsoiltestfromyourlocalCooperativeExtensionServicewillfactorintheseveralvariablesthataffectsoilpH,andwillprovidespecificrecommendationsforhowtochangeit.Ifyoursoiltestsfrom5.5to6.0,youcanprobablygrowblueberries

ifyoumixinlotsofsphagnumpeatmoss,whichisveryacidic,tothesoilbeforeplanting.Youmayalsoincorporatecottonseedmeal,

compostedpineneedlesoroakleaves,orcompostmadefrompine,oak,orhemlockbarktohelpacidifythesoil.Afterplanting,mulchwithpineneedles,oakleaves,orshavingsfromoak,pine,orhemlocktohelpmaintainacidity.Ammoniumsulfate,aformofnitrogenfertilizer,acidifiesthesoil,asdootherammoniumfertilizers.Beaware,though,thatanotherfertilizerformerlyprescribedforloweringacidity,aluminumsulfate,isnowknowntobetoxictosoilorganismsandnoticeablychangestheflavoroftheblueberries.OrganicmethodsforloweringsoilpHaresafer—andtheiracidifyingeffectslastmuchlonger.IfyoursoiltestindicatesapHhigherthan6.2,you’llhavetowork

hardtogrowblueberries.It’slikelythatthesubsoilcontainslime,whichwilldissolveintothetopsoilwitheachrain.Thetasksofloweringtheacidityandmaintainingitmaynotbenotworththetroubleandexpense.Onedayagardeningfriendwholivesinalimestoneregionshowedusherbeautiful,giant-sizedbushes,heavilyladenwithblueberries.“Doyoulikethem?”sheasked.“Iestimatethattheberriesonthosebusheshavecostaboutadollareach.”Don’tdespairofenjoyingfresh-pickedblueberries,though;seeGrowingBlueberriesinContainers,page82.Ifyoumustloweryoursoil’spHmorethanhalfapoint,dothisover

atleast2yearstoavoiddisruptingsoilorganismsandnutrientbalance.Usepowderedsulfurorthelessdustybutmoreexpensivesulfurpellets.Eithershouldbespreadonsoilatleast2yearsinadvanceofplanting.Theamountofsulfurrequireddependsonsoiltype,asheaviersoilsbufferchangesinacidityoralkalinity.TolowerthepHhalfapoint,forsandysoilsuse½poundofsulfur

foreach100squarefeet;forloamysoils,1pound;andforclaysoils,2pounds.TestsoilpHthefollowingyearandifit’s6.0orless,youmayplantnow.Ifit’sstillnotacidicenough,incorporatemoresulfurandwaitanotheryear.

Tohelpacidifythesoil,addcottonseedmealwhenplantingblueberrybushes.Top-dresswithcottonseedmealeveryyearthereafter,tomaintainthelevelofacidity.

BlueberriesataGlance

Usethistableasageneralguide.Somecultivarsmaygrowinotherregions,andbothheightsandyieldsvarywithclimate,culture,andcultivar.

TIPSFORGROWINGBLUEBERRIES

1.Chooseasitewithwell-drainedsoilandfullsun.Rabbiteyeandlowbushwilltoleratesomeafternoonshadeinhotterportionsoftheirrange.

2.TestsoilpH;amendasneededtobringitbelow6.0(4.5–5.5is

ideal).Thismaytakeayearortwotoaccomplishbeforeyoucanplant.

3.Incorporateplentyoforganicmatter(peatmoss,compost)beforeplanting.

4.Choosecultivarsadaptedforyourarea;buyatleasttwotoensuregoodpollinationandlargeberries.

5.Followspacingrecommendationsforeachtypeandcultivar(5–7feetapartforlargercultivars).

6.Applyathickmulch,ideallypineneedles(foracidity).Weedbyhandtoavoiddisturbingshallowroots.

7.Wateroftensosurfacerootsdon’tdryout.

8.Protectfrombirdsbeforeberriesbegintoturnblue.

9.Pruneannuallyinlatewinterforthebiggestberriesandbestyields.

10.Feedwithabalancedfertilizer(suchas5-3-4)justbeforebudsstarttoopen.Inwarmclimates,youmayfertilizeagainjustafterharvest.

Twootheraspectsofsoilareimportantbutoftenoverlooked.Goodsoildrainageisessential,especiallynearthesurface.Blueberrieshavemanyshallowsurfaceroots,whichinpoorlydrainedsoilsarestarvedforoxygen.Andabundantorganicmatterisnecessaryforgooddrainageandtomakealoose,crumblysoilforthesesurfaceroots.Beforeplanting,spreadcopiousamountsofpeatmossorcompostontopofthesoilandthenworkitin.Themulchesmentionedabovewillhelpmaintainabundantorganicmatter.

PlantingandCare

CHOOSEASITEthatgetssunmostoftheday.(Onlyafewvarietiestolerate

shade.Oneoftheseis‘Well’sDelight’,acreepinglowbushgoodinZones6to8.)Don’tplantinalowarea,orplantinraisedbedsoronmoundstoprovidebetterdrainage.Afteryou’vemadesurethatthesoilisacidicenough,spreadacoupleofinchesofcompost,sphagnumpeatmoss,orotherorganicmatterovertheentireplantingarea.Mixeverythinginthoroughlywithaspade,gardenfork,ortiller.Identifywhichtypeofblueberryisbestforyourclimate.Plantat

leasttwocultivarstoensurecross-pollination.It’sbesttoplantthree,forimprovedpollinationandsothatifonedoesn’tmakeit,twowillstillbeleft.Choosecultivarsfromthesamegroup(suchasrabbiteyeorhighbush)thatbloomaboutthesametime.Blueberryblossomsarenotespeciallyfragrantandthereforenotasattractivetobeesasaremostotherflowers,somixupyourplantingsandkeepthedifferentcultivarsclosetoeachother(within20feet).Ifyouset20‘Jersey’plantsinoneblockand20‘Earliblue’inanothersomedistanceaway,thesamebeemaynotfindbothkinds.Youcanplantpottedblueberrybushesalmostanytimethatthe

groundisn’tfrozen,butplantbare-rootvarietiesonlyinthespringintheNorthandinspringorfallintheSouth.Sethighbushandrabbiteyeblueberries5to6feetapartinrows,spacingtherows7to9feetapart.Sethalf-highhybrids4to5feetapartinrows6to8feetapart.Setlowbushplants1footapartinrowsatleast3feetapart.Unlikeothertypes,lowbushblueberriesspreadbyundergroundrhizomes,andwillquicklymakealow,thickhedgeorfillinawholebedasagroundcover.

GrowingBlueberriesinContainers

Wheresoilsaretooalkalineforblueberries,growtheminlargecontainerssuchasahalfwhiskybarrelfilledwithapeat-based,soillessmix.Containersarealsoperfectforthosewithlittlespaceortimetogarden,orwithpoorlydrainedorclaysoils.Becausemanycultivarsgetquitelarge,choosehalf-highorlowbushtypes,suchas‘TopHat’lowbushincolderclimatesandSunshineBlue(apopularlow-chillcultivar)intheSouth,California,andthePacificNorthwest.

Plantsgrowingincontainersaremuchlesshardy;rootswillbeexposedtoairtemperaturesandwilldiewhenthethermometergoesmuchbelowfreezing.Exceptinmildclimates,usesmallercontainersthatcanbemovedtoaprotectedsiteduringwinter,suchasanunheatedshedorgarage.(Arollingplatformwithcastersworkswell.)Lookforalightweightplasticcontainer18to24incheswideandatleast12to16inchesdeep.Whenpotting,leaveacoupleofinchesonthetopforanorganicmulchtohelpkeeprootsmoist.

Keepplantsinacoolspot;theidealisjustabovefreezing.Toowarm,andplantswillbegintogrow.Rememberblueberrybushes’shallowrootsaresusceptibletodrought,sowaterwellbeforemoving,andwaterperiodically(whenthesoilisverydry)duringwinter.

Ifcontainersaren’toverlylargeandyouhavethegardenspace,considerburyingthemintheground.Digsomeholesandplantthecontainers,bushesandall.Leavethemthereoverthewinteroryear-round.Toremovethemeachspring,usethepot-in-potmethod.Buryanemptypotthesamesizeasorabitlargerthantheoneabushisin,thensinktheplantedpotintotheoneintheground.Thiswayyoudon’thavetodiganewholeeachyear.Eventhoughthey’reintheground,plantsinapotwillstilldryoutmoreoften,socheckoftenandkeepthemwatered.

Waterthesmallbushesimmediatelyafterplanting,andcontinuetowatereveryotherday.Onceplantsareestablished,amonthto6weeksafterplanting,lightlyfertilizewithaproductformulatedespeciallyforacid-lovingplants,followinglabeldirections.Oneoptionistosprinkle1tablespoon(½ounce)ofammoniumsulfate(notaluminumsulfate)aroundeachbush,staying6inchesawayfromstems.Rabbiteyesarequitesensitivetofertilizer,soforthem,useaverylighthandorevenwaittofertilizeuntilthesecondgrowingseason.Addathickmulchtoprotectsensitiveroots,conservemoisture,and

reduceweedgrowth.Evenwithamulch,shallow-rootedblueberrybushesareapttodryoutduringaprolongeddryspell,soyoumayhavetowateroftenduringtheirfirstgrowingseason.Hoeingandcultivating

candamagetheshallowroots,sopulloutbyhandanyweedsthatpenetratethemulch.

AnnualUpkeep

Insubsequentyears,fertilizeplantstwiceinspring:firstwhenleavesstarttoemergeandagainonceplantsstopblooming.Inwarmclimateswherethegrowingseasonislong(Zones8and9),blueberriesbenefitfromathirdfeedinginsummer.Soplantscanhardenproperlyforwinter,don’tfertilizeafterJulyinZones6andcolderorafterAugustinwarmerclimates.Usefertilizerformulatedforacid-lovingplants(suchasforhollies

andazaleas),orabalancedblendsuchas5-3-4;followapplicationratesonthelabel.Oruseacupofcottonseedmealorsoybeanmealperbush(usegreateramountsastheplantsgrow).Scatteraroundeachplant,thenaddmoremulch.Orpullbackthemulchandspreadaninchofcompostovertheentiregrowingarea.Ifyouuseasyntheticfertilizer,checktheingredientlistfornitrates(oneformofnitrogen)andchloridecompounds.Thesechemicalsmayinjureblueberryplants,soselectadifferentfertilizer.Blueberriesaresensitivetotoomuchfertilizerofanykind,sodon’toverfertilize.

Pruning

Forthefirstfiveorsoyears,blueberriesneedlittlepruning.Eachspring,removebrokenbranchesandanythatarecrossingandrubbingonothers.Removeweakandwaywardbranchestoencourageasturdyuprightshapeasplantsmature.Thisisaboutallthatlowbushblueberrieseverneed,excepttothinoutsomeofthethickestgrowthperiodically.Highbushandrabbiteyeblueberriesneedannualpruningoncethey

reach5or6feetinheightinordertoproducelargecropsofbigberries.InZones3and4,wherehighbushblueberriesgrowmoreslowly,youmaybeabletowaituntilplantsare12yearsold.Amilddayinlatewinterorearlyspringisagoodtimetogetouttherewithyourclippers.Differentcultivarsgrowindifferentways,sotrytopruneaccordingtotheneedsofeach.Cutbackthetopsofanyplantsthataregrowingtootall.Eachyear,cutacoupleoftheoldestbranches(thoseatleast5years

oldormorethan1inchthick)completelytotheground.Thinoutbranchesthatarecrowdingeachotherbycuttingbacktoamainbranch.Wherethetwiggyendbranchesappeartoothick,thinthem.Thiswillopenupthebushandletinsunshine,sotheberrieswillripenbetter,andyoucanharvestthemmoreeasily.

Blueberrieshavemanyshallowsurfaceroots,whichinpoorlydrainedsoilarestarvedforoxygen.

Annualpruning,onceplantsreach4to5feettall,willgiveyoubiggerblueberriesandbetteryields.

Birds,Insects,andDiseases

Oneofthenicestfeaturesofblueberriesisthesmallnumberofinsectsanddiseasesthatbotherthem.Largecommercialplantingscanbevulnerable,buthomegardenersmayneverencounteranyseriousdiseasesorharmfulinsects.Youcanavoidmostproblemsbychoosingasitewithwell-drainedsoilandgoodaircirculation,andbuypurchasingcertifieddisease-freeplants.Seechapter18formoreonmanagingpestproblems.

Insects.Theplumcurculiomayshowuponearlycultivars,leavingthesamecrescent-shapedscarsasonotherfruits(seepage279).Theblueberrymaggotandthecranberryandcherryfruitwormsarethemostcommontroublesomeinsects.Ifyouseeasmallholeinaberry,openitandcheckthefruitfirstbeforeyoubiteintoit.Thesmallwhitemaggotseatandliveintheberries.Thepresenceofeitherfruitwormissignaledbythewebbingtheycreate(morecommonwiththecranberry),andberriesturningblueprematurely.Ifyoufindanyofthese,cleanupalltheoldfruiteachyearbeforewintertodiscouragethesepests.Foranunusuallyseriousinfestation,removeandburnallmulchbeforewinter.Ifthepestsreturnandyoudon’thavethepatiencetosortthroughandremovethebadberries,checkwithyourlocalgardenstoreorCooperativeExtensionServiceforthelatestandsafestremedies.

Diseases.Threediseasestowatchforonblueberriesaremummyberry,stemcanker,andbotrytistipblight.Mummyberrycausesfruitstoturnpink,shrivel,andfalloffpriortoripening.(Shriveledberriesonthegroundaretermed“mummies.”)Topreventmummyberry,keeptheberriespickedanddestroythosethatfall,sothediseasecan’tover-winterontheground.Wherethisdiseaseisarecurringproblem,payspecialattentionwhenitsprimeconditionsoccur,whenleavesstaywetfor6to12hoursandtemperaturesareabove60°F.Intheseconditionsyoumayneedtoapplyanappropriatefungicideafterbudsform.Avoidsprayingonceplantsstarttobloom.

Yellowingleaves(below)mayindicateapHproblemoranitrogendeficiency.Bycomparison,healthyleaves(above)willbeadeep,glossygreen.

Ifyouhaveaproblemwithbirdseatingtoomanyofyourblueberries,youmightconsiderbuildingacagearoundthemandcoveringitwithbirdnetting.

Stemcankermaycausecracksinthecanesandthendeath,particularlyonnorthernhighbushcultivars.Manyofthetoprabbiteyesandsomenewercultivarsareresistant,solookfortheseifyou’restartingapatch.Botrytistipblightkillsnewgrowth.Whenthisdiseaseoccurs,prune

toimproveaircirculation.Manynewercultivarshaveresistancetosomeofthemajordiseases,

solookfortheseselections.Checkwithyourgardenstoretoseewhatspecificfungicidesareavailablefortreatmentifyourplantsbecomeinfected.Virusdiseasessuchasstuntreallyhavenocontrols,andinvariably

resultinthegradualdeteriorationoftheplant.Removeanddestroyinfectedplantssotheydon’tinfectothers.Controlaphidsandleafhoppers(seepages376and378),astheseinsectscanspreadvirusesfrom

infectedplantstohealthyones.

Otherproblems.Ifareasbetweentheleafveinsturnyellow,checkthesoil’spH;thisisusuallyanutritionproblem,notadisease.IfthesoilhasapHabove5.5,soilalkalinitymaybecausingirondeficiency.Applyanironchelateproduct,followinglabeldirections;sprayleavesforashort-termboost.Topreventarecurrence,amendsoils(seeMeetingSoilRequirements,79)anduseanacidifyingmulchsuchaspineneedles.Stuntedgrowth,yelloworreddishleaves,orreddotsonleavesmay

indicatethatnitrogenislacking.Ifyouseethis,applyliquidfishemulsionfertilizeratrecommendedrates.

Animalpests.Thoughanimalsseldombotherblueberries,birdsareunusuallyfondofthem.Youmaybeabletoscareawaysomebirdsbyinstallingballoonswith“eyes”orMylarribbonssoldforthispurpose.Puttheseinplacebeforeanyberriesripen.Ifyoudon’tgrowenoughblueberriestosharewithavianvisitors,coverthebusheswithbirdnetting.Tightisthekey,asbirdswilltrytofindtheirwayinsideandthengettrapped.Tomakepickingeasier,drapenettingoveraframemadeofwoodorPVCpipe,creatingacageinsidewhichyoucanstand.Modernbirdnettingisablackplasticmaterial,visuallyunobtrusiveinthelandscape.Youcouldalsowrapplantswithrowcover,awhite,lightweightmaterialsoldtocreateshadeorforfrostprotection.

HarvestingBlueberries

INCOOLERCLIMATES,blueberryseasonusuallystartsinJulyandrunsthroughAugust.InmilderclimatessuchasmuchoftheMidwestandtheNorthwest,theseasonrunsfromJulyintoSeptember.Inthewarmestareas,itrunsfromMayorJune(AprilinFloridaforsouthernhighbushcultivars)throughJuly.Mostcultivarsripenovera3-to4-weekperiod;withsome,thepickingperiodisupto6weeks;withothers,there’saconcentrated2-weekripeningperiod.Southernhighbushcultivarsgenerallyripenoveralongtime(4to6weeks)exceptfor‘Star’,whichripensover3weeks.Unlikestrawberriesandraspberries,blueberriesripenoveralong

seasonandholdwellonthebush,sothere’snoneedtopickthemdaily.Pickedberrieswillkeepforseveraldaysifyoukeepthemcoolanddry.Forthebestflavor,don’tpickblueberriesuntiltheyhavedevelopeda

richbloomandcomeoffeasilyinyourhand.Tasteafewtodetermineexactlywheneachvarietyisatitspeak.Thefruitsofdifferentcultivarsturnvariousshadesofbluewhencompletelyripe,socolorisnotagoodmeasureofripeness.Unripeberriesstillhaveabitofpinkwherethestemjoins,thoughyoumaynotbeabletoseethiswhenyou’repicking.Cooksneverrunoutofwaystousefreshblueberries.They’reatreat

onmorningcerealandinmuffins,andinpies,puddings,andotherdesserts.Theymakewonderfuljamsandconserves.They’reeasytofreezeforwinterfeasts—justwash,drain,andpourintoplasticfreezerbags.Figureonaboutaquartofberriestomakeapintcanned(thiswillvarywithsizeofberries).Dryinginaslowoven(140°F)orfooddehydratorisanothergoodwaytopreserveblueberries.

BlueberryCultivars

Forthelongestharvestfromthefewestbushes,choosepairsofcultivarswithvariousripeningtimes(forexample,twodifferentearlycultivars,twomidseason,andtwodifferentlateones).Thesearejustafewofthemorepopularcultivars;checkwithalocalnurseryoryourCooperativeExtensionServiceforotherssuitedtoyourarea.Forthewarmestclimates,suchasFloridaandsouthernCalifornia,selectcultivarsthat

requirethefewestchillinghours.

Whynottrygrowingsomethingalittlemoreunusual?Thistastywhitecurrantiscold-hardyandeasytogrow.

CHAPTER7

Ribes,Elderberries,andOtherBushFruits

Formanyyears,wehadalargegooseberrybushinourfrontyardthat“belonged”totheboysinmy4-Hclub,whofrequentlyvisitedus.Itwasmutuallyagreedthattheycouldeatfreelyfromitiftheyignoredthoseinthebackgarden.Thebushproducedsolavishlyyearafteryearthatitalwayssuppliedmorethantheirneeds,eventhoughitwasnotunusualtofindseveralboyssittingarounditeatingwithbothhands.Likethebrambles,thebushfruitscomeinmanycolors,makingthem

ornamentalaswellasedible.Therearered,white,andblackcurrants;green,amber,pink,andredgooseberries;andwine-darkjostasandelderberries.Theybegintobearatanearlyage,yieldbigcropseachyear,andaddexcitingvarietytoanyhomegrower’sfruitcollection.InEurope,currantsandgooseberrieshavelongbeenconsideredgourmetfoods.ManyofourbestcultivarshavebeendevelopedthereandinCanada.Evenifyoudon’thaveroomforafullpatch,youcanincorporatethesebushfruitsintohomelandscapesasornamentals.Amongthehardiestoffruits,theseberriesareaboonforgardenersin

coldregions.TheygrowbestintheNortheast,Midwest,andPacificNorthwest,andincoolerpartsofnorthernCalifornia.Gardenersinwarmclimatesshouldconsolethemselveswithotherfruits.

GettingtoKnowtheBushFruits

GOOSEBERRIESANDredandwhitecurrantsarewellbehaved;theywillstay

4to5feettallandwideformanyyears.Theytakeuprelativelylittlespace,andyouneedonlyonebushtogetsomefruit.Blackcurrantsandjostaberriesarelikelytospread,butusuallynotenoughtobetroublesome.Althoughcurrantsandgooseberriesareoftenfoundgrowingandbearingonabandonedfarmswherethey’rechokedwithgrassandreceivenocare,theyproducemuchbetterwhentheygetalittleattention.Theelderberryisextremelyhardy,tolerateswarmerclimatesthan

currantsandgooseberries,growsinalmostanysoilthatissomewhatmoist,andrequiresalmostnocare.Ithasattractiveflowers,berries,andyellowtored-orangeleavesinfall.Sowhat’swrongwithit?Notmuch,thoughit’sperhapsabittooeasytogrow,soitspreadsrapidly,bothbyseedandbyrootsuckers.Fortunately,wehaveplentyofroom,andbykeepingthegrassmowedallaroundthebushes,wekeepthemundercontrol.

TheRibes:Currants,Gooseberries,andJostaberries

CurrantsandgooseberriesbelongtothegenusRibes.Thegenusnameisoftenusedasacommonnameforthisgroupofdiversefruits.Redcurrants(Ribesrubrum)arejustthat,althoughalsotheycomeinwhiteandpink.Fruitsaresmall,aboutthesizeofasmallblueberry,andripeninmid-tolatesummer,asdoothercurrants.Dependingoncultivar,berriescanbesweetorsour;thepinkarethesweetest.Usethesourcultivarsincooking,jams,andjuices;thesweetercultivarsaredeliciousfresh.Blackcurrants(R.nigrum)haveamuskyflavorandfragranceandareusedmoreforcookingratherthaneatingfresh.BlackcurrantjuiceispopularinEurope,partlybecausetheberriesprovideuptofivetimestheamountofvitaminCfoundinoranges.

Pickgooseberriesripeforjamsandjellies.Unripe,bakethemintoatartpie.

CurrantsareagoodsourceofvitaminC,andtheymaketastyjuicesandjellies.

ThejostaberryisacrossbetweentheEuropeanblackcurrantandaNorthAmericandessert-typegooseberry.

Clovecurrant,alsocalledBuffalocurrant(R.aureumvar.villosum,sometimesseenasR.odoratum),makesaniceornamentalshrub.Inspring,clustersofyellow,trumpet-shapedflowersexudeaspicyfragranceofcloveandvanilla.TheseshrubsarenativetothemiddlesectionofNorthAmerica.Largerthantheircurrantcousinsat5to6feettallandwide,theyproduceblackfruitsoveralongperiod,frommid-tolatesummer.

TIPSFORGROWINGBUSHFRUITS

•Verifythatit’slegaltogrowcurrants,gooseberries,andjostaberriesinyourarea.Selectdisease-resistantcultivars.

•Chooseasunnysitewithwell-drainedsoilforallexceptelderberries,whichprefermoistsoil.(Inwarmerareas,plantstoleratemoreshade.)

•Setcurrantsandgooseberries3–5feetapartinwell-weededsoil;jostaberriesandelderberries,6–8feetapart.

•Applyathickmulchforweedcontrol;keepweeded,butdon’tdisturbshallowrootsonceestablished.

•Waterdeeplythefirstmonth,oruntilestablished.

•Feedplantswithcomposteachyear,andreplenishmulch.

•After4or5years,pruneinspringtothinoutoldbranches.

Currant,Gooseberry,Jostaberry,andElderberryFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:AllexceptelderberriesZones3–7,butbestinZones5andcolder;notfortheSouthorSouthwest;elderberriesZones3–9

Height:Currantsandgooseberries,4–5feet;jostaberries,5–6feet;elderberries6–12feet

Spacing:Currantsandgooseberries,3–5feetapart;jostaberriesandelderberries,6–8feetapart

Pollination:Redandwhitecurrantsandgooseberriesareself-fertile;manyblackcurrantsandjostaberriesneedanothercultivarforcross-pollination;elderberriesproducebetterwithcross-pollination

Pruning:After4or5years,pruneinearlyspringtothinoutoldbranches

Specialrequirements:Makesurecurrantsarelegaltogrowinyourarea;selectvarietiesthatareresistanttoblisterrust

Yearstobearing:2;fullproductionin3or4years

Yieldperplant:Currants,3–10pounds;gooseberries,5–10pounds;jostaberriesandelderberries,8–12pounds

ContrabandCurrants

Justasblueberrygrowingisrestrictedbyitsfussinessaboutacidsoilandpeachgrowingbyitsinsistenceonamildclimateandlightsoil,thegooseberryanditscousinshaveamajorobstacletobeingwidelygrown.MembersoftheRibesclanaredeniedadmittancetosomeareasbecausetheycan’talwaysgetalongwiththeirneighbors.Theyare,unfortunately,oneoftheTyphoidMarysoftheplantworld.Theplantscanbeanalternatehosttoblisterrust,adiseasethatinfectsandkillsnativewhitepine(Pinusstrobus).

BlisterrustseldomnoticeablyaffectstheRibesplantsthemselves,butitssporestraveltonearbywhitepines.Firstafewlimbsonthepinedie;ultimately,thewholetreesuccumbs.Curiously,thediseasedoesnotspreadfromonepinetreetoanother:itneedsaninterveninghostplant.ThemainculpritsaretheEuropeanblackcurrant(nownaturalizedinmanypartsofNorthAmerica)andthenativewildgooseberry,whichisequallywidespread.Manyofthenewercultivarsofredandblackcurrants,jostaberry,andgooseberryareresistanttoblisterrustandthuscausenoproblem.

CanadahasnolawsprohibitingtheplantingofRibes,butlawsinsomestatesstillbanthesaleoftheseplants.OtherstatesrequirethatallRibesbeplantedatleast900feetfromanywhitepine(andotherfive-needledpines,suchastheSwisspine),andevenfartherfromanurseryraisingwhitepineseedlings.YourCooperativeExtensionServicecantellyouwhetheranyrestrictionsapplyinyourarea.

Therearetwospecies,theAmericangooseberry(Ribeshirtellum)andtheEuropean(R.uva-crispa).CultivarsoftheEuropeanspeciesaremorecommonbecausetheybearlargerberries(to2inchesacross)withbetterflavor.Americancultivarstendtobemoreresistanttopowderymildewandalsomoreproductive.Somecultivarsarehybrids.Thejostaorjostaberry(pronouncedYOS-ta-berry),Ribes×

culverwellii,sometimeslistedasR.nidigrolaria,wasdevelopedinGermanyin1922yetnotintroducedtoNorthAmericauntil1977.It’sacomplexhybridinvolvingacrossbetweentheEuropeanblackcurrantandaNorthAmericandessert-typegooseberry,deliveringthebesttraitsofbothandusuallyjustfoundasthespecies.Bushesarethornless,quitehardy,andresistanttobothblisterrustandmildew.They’resuchvigorousgrowersthattheyneedheavierpruningandmorespacethangooseberriesorcurrants;spaceplants8feetapart.Beforethey’refullyripe,jostaberriesoftentastemorelike

gooseberries;theytastemorelikeblackcurrantswhenripe.Eventhoughtheflavordoesn’tappealtoeveryone,theiradvocatesdeclarethatjostaberrypreservesaresuperiortothosemadeofotherRibes.Likecurrants,theberriesarerichinvitaminC,andtheirsizeisbetweenacurrantandgooseberry.

Clovecurrantproducesspicy-scentedflowersfollowedbysmall,

ediblefruits.

Low-maintenance,ornamental,andhighinantioxidants,elderberriesareagoodchoiceforediblelandscaping.

Elderberrybloomsarenotonlyornamentalbutalsoedible.Frytheminbatterforaspecialtreat.

Elderberries

Undemandingelderberriesrequirejustabouttheleastamountofworkofanyofthecultivatedfruitsandwillmakeitontheirownwithverylittleattention.Themainspecies,Sambucusnigra,isacomplexofseveralsubspeciessuchasS.nigrasubsp.canadensis(sometimeslistedjustasS.canadensis).Inadditiontobeingextremelyhardy,elderberriesletusmakeuseoflandthat,evenifit’snotswampy,istoowetforotherfruits.Infact,thesebushesdon’tdowellonverywelldrainedordrysoils.Ourtworowsof6-to7-foot-tallbushesareeachabout20feetlongand3feetwide,andproducegallonsofhighlyflavoredfruitfromlatesummerintoearlyfall.Theflowers,whichlooklikelargewhiteumbrellas,arequiteshowy

inearlysummer.Theflavorofelderberriesissomewhatlikethatofblackberriesbutricherandsomewhattart.Thefruitisfuntopickbecausethebushesarethornlessandthere’snobendingover.Fruitsof

hybridsaremuchlargerthanthewildberries,usuallyaboutthesizeofchoke-cherries.Elderberriesarehighinantioxidantsthathelpstrengthentheimmunesystem.It’slikelythattheladiesofbygonedayswhohadtheirglassofelderberrywineeachafternoon“formedicinalreasons”knewexactlywhattheyweredoing.Theberriesmakeanicejuiceandaredeliciousinpiesandjams.Strainoutthemanyseedsthroughseverallayersofcheeseclothorafruitstrainer.Ourbiggestproblemwithelderberriesisthatbirdslovethemas

muchaswedo.Everyyeartheytrytograballthefruit,usuallybypickingitadayortwobeforeit’sready.Tomakemattersworse,theheavybirdsoccasionallybreakoffwholeclustersbyperchingonthem.Becausethetallbushesareimpossibletocover,weusuallyresorttobeatingthebirdsattheirowngame:wetoopickadayortwobeforethey’rereallyripe,thenweletthemfinishtoperfectioninawarmroom.Fortunately,inourcoolclimatesomeofthenewhybridsripensolatethatmanyberry-eatingbirdshavealreadygottensickofwildelderberriesandheadedsouthbeforethecropfromthecultivarsturnscolor.

PlantingandCare

WHENYOU’REJUSTSTARTINGoutwithbushfruits,it’sbesttobuydisease-freeplantsfromanursery.Ifyoudecidetobegaplantortwofromaneighborwhohasexactlywhatyouwant,severasmalloffshootfromalargebushinearlyspringwithaquickthrustofasharpspade.Besurethefledglingplanthasgoodroots,leavethesoilarounditintact,plantitinyourowngardenassoonaspossible,andwaterwell.Youcanenlargeyourownplantingswithsuchoffshootsaswell.Setoutpottedplantsanytimethegroundisn’tfrozen.Becauseevery

rootisintact,thesegetofftothefasteststart.Plantbare-rootstockinearlyspring(beforegrowthstarts)forbestresults.Thecultureofallthebushfruitsismuchthesame.Althoughthey’ll

growandproduceinlightshade(membersoftheRibesclanwereatonetimeplantedinorchardsamongthefruittrees),theyhavefewerdiseaseswhengrowninplentyofsunwithgoodaircirculation.Gooseberriestoleratemoreheatthancurrants,andelderberriestoleratemoreheat

thaneither.Givemostbushfruitswell-drainedloamysoilwithapHof5.5to7.0.Anexceptionistheelderberry,whichprefersamoist(butnotcontinuallywet)location.Allthriveinsoilrichinorganicmatter.Plantsbenefitfromannualgenerousadditionsofcomposttoppedwithmulch.Redandwhitecurrantsandgooseberriesareself-fertile,soonebush

usuallyproducesabundantlywithnopartner.Manyblackcurrantsandjostaberries,ontheotherhand,willneedapartnernearbytoproducefruit.Makesurebothpartnersbloomatthesametime,anddon’texpectaredorwhitecurranttopollinateablack.You’llgetlargerharvestsfromyourelderberriesifyouplanttwodifferenthybrids.Youdon’tneedsoilthatisascarefullypreparedasthatrequiredfor

strawberriesorbrambles.Startwithsoilasweed-freeaspossible.Simplydigalargehole,mixanequalamountofwell-rottedmanureorcompostwiththesoilyouremove,andfilltheholewithwater.Setintheplantsatthesamedepththeygreworiginallyinthepot,orifbare-root,thesamedepthbeforetheyweredug,andrefillwiththeamendedsoil.Prunetopsofbare-rootplantsbackto6to10inches,leavingatleasttwobuds.Mulchingbushfruitsprovidesmanybenefits.Itkeepsgrassand

weedsfromchokingthem,helpsmaintainabundantorganicmatterinsoil,andprotectsshallowsurfaceroots.Applyathicklayeroforganicmulcharoundeachbushatplantingtimeandaddtoiteachyear.Pullanyweedsthatsneakthroughbyhandsoasnottodamagethesurfacerootsonestablishedplants.Waterheavilytwoorthreetimesaweekforthefirstfewweeks.Feed

withaliquidfishemulsion,orwithacompletebalancedfertilizerathalftherecommendedrate,amonthafterplanting.Eachspring,insubsequentyears,putashovelfulortwoofcompost

orcompostedmanureunderthemulch.Ifplantslookhealthy,vigorous,anddarkgreen,thereisnoneedforfertilizer.Ifplantslookabitanemic(lightyellowleaves),feedthemwithfishemulsionoracomplete,balancedfertilizer(followapplicationratesonthelabel).Avoidfertilizerscontainingchlorides(suchaspotassiumchloride,alsocalledmuriateofpotash),ascurrantsandgooseberriesaresensitivetothiselement.Don’toverfertilizewithnitrogen,anddon’tfertilizeoncefruitsbegintoform.

Pruning

YoungRibesplantsrequirelittleornopruning.Evenaftertheybegintobearheavily,theonlypruningtheyneedistheremovalofbrokenbranchesandsomeoftheolderwood.Blackcurrantsproducebestonwoodthatis1or2yearsold;onredandwhitecurrants,2-and3-year-oldshootsproducethemostfruit.Cuttheolder,lessproductivebranchestotheground.Youcanusuallytelltheageofshootsbytheircolor:1-year-oldstemsaretan,2-year-oldsaregray,andcanes3ormoreyearsoldaredarkgraytoblackish.Gooseberriesbearon2-to4-year-oldstems,sowaitayearlongerto

prunethese.Prunelarge-fruitedgooseberrycultivarsmoreheavilythanthesmaller-fruitingonessotheberrieswillgrowtotheirultimatesize.Besuretouseheavygloveswhenyoutacklethethornygooseberries.Thevigorousjostaberriesneedevenheavierpruning.Ifmildewhasbeenaproblem,thinoutmoreofthebranchessosunandaircanbetterdryouttheinterioroftheplant.

Gooseberriesandcurrantsdon’tneedmuchpruning.Eachyear,cutafewoftheoldestbranchesbacktotheground.

Ideally,elderberriesshouldhavesixtoeightmatureuprightstems.Onestablishedplants,inearlyspring,beforegrowthstarts,pruneawayolderbranchesandsomesideshoots.Wecutoutallwinter-killedbranchesandareneveralarmediftherearealotofthem,asthefruitisproducedonthenewsuckergrowtheachyear,aswellason2-year-oldstemsthathaveseveralsidebranches.Ifanyofthesefruitbusheshasbecomeovergrown,pruneoutallold

andweakshootsrighttogroundlevel.Oryoucansacrificeayear’sharvestandcutbackthewholeplanttotheground.

InsectsandDiseases

Ourelderberryplantshaveneverbeenbotheredbyinsectsordisease,butyoumayencountereither.Ifyouspotalotofaphids,dislodgethemwithastreamofwaterfromthehose,thoughthey’llprobablydisperseontheirownbeforelong.Theeldershootborermakesitselfknownbybitsofsawdustatthebaseofcaneswheretheyenter.Pruneoutanddestroyinfestedanddeadcanes.ThegooseberrysawflycaterpillarmayattackanyoftheRibesinearly

summer,andisthemostseriouspest,particularlyofgooseberries.Thecaterpillarschewleavesinspringandagaininlatesummer,althoughspringdamageisusuallymoresevere.Iftherearen’ttoomany,checkthembyhandpickingorbyusingrotenonespray(don’tusenearawaterway;rotenoneistoxictofish).Tomatoringspotvirusandseveralleafdiseasesmaybefoundon

elderberries,buttheseseldomcauseenoughdamagetowarrantcontrols.Ifaplantbecomesstressed,fungalcankersmayringthestemsandkillit.Again,pruneoutinfectedanddeadcanesanddestroythem.AcommondiseasetowatchforwithRibesispowderymildew,which

appearsasawhitepowderygrowththatcoverstwigs,leaves,andfruit,inseverecasesmakingtheminedible.Anthracnose,alesscommondiseaseonRibes,showsupasleafdiscolorations,incontrasttoleafspotsfromotherdiseases.Formoreoncontrollingthesediseasesandotherpestsanddiseases,seechapter18.

Gooseberrysawflycaterpillar

HarvestingBushFruits

WEDON’TPICKCURRANTSandgooseberrieswhentheyfirstturncolor,becausebothimproveinflavorwhentheystayonthebushawhileuntilfullyripe.Watchthemclosely,though,becausebirdslikethem,too.Unlikemostotherberries(includingelderberries),whichlastforonlyafewdays,thesestorewellintherefrigeratorupto2weeks.

Withallcurrants,fruitsareproducedonflexiblestemscalledstrigs.Lookforcultivarswithfruitsproducedinlargeclusters;theymakeforeasiestpicking.

Thered,white,andpinkcurrantsripenfairlyuniformly,sowaituntilabout3weeksaftertheybegintocolortoharvest.Pickawholestrig(stem),beingcarefulnottodamagethefruitspurs.Orusethetinesofaforktostripcurrantsfromthestem.Blackcurrantsdon’tripenuniformlyalongasinglestrig,sopickberriesindividuallyasthey’reready.Avoidpickingwetcurrants,orspreadthemonatoweltodrybeforestoring,asthefruitsmoldeasily.Expecttoharvest3to10poundsofcurrantsperbush.Thornycultivarsofgooseberriescanbeabittrickytopick.Try

wearingaleathergloveononehandtoholdupthebrancheswhileyoupickwiththeotherhand.Long-sleeved“rosegloves”aregreatforthispurpose;mostgarden-supplystoresandcatalogssellthem.Gooseberriesresemblesmallkiwifruitsintextureandflavor.

Differentcultivarsvarywidelyinsize,color,andsweetness.Whenfullyripe,theberriesaresoft,andmanyaredeliciousrightoffthebush.Somepeopleprefertopickwhenslightlyunderripefortartsauceandpies.Gooseberrieswillcontinuetoripenoffthebushifyoupickthembeforethey’refullyflavored.Expect5to10poundspermaturebush.Theredcurrantisabittart,andthusisbestwhencooked,although

asaboyIlikedtoeatthemfreshoffthebush.Redcurrantsarehighinpectin(untiltheybecomeoverripe),whichmakesthemidealforjellymaking.Useamixtureofripeandhalf-riperedcurrantsforjellyrecipeswithnoaddedpectin;ripeonesaregoodforjam.Useslightlyoverripeonesinjuiceandwine.Thesameistrueforblackcurrants;thedead-ripeonesarebestforjuice.Redcurrantjellyhaslongbeenagourmettreataccompanyingmeat

dishesaswellasdesserts.Blackcurrantjellyandjamarejustastasty.I’llneverforgetourfirstjarofConfituredeCassis,whichwepickeduponatriptoMontreal—adelightthatmademewanttostartgrowingthemrightaway.Somepeoplemakeblackcurrantsintojuiceandwineordrythem.(Note:Thesmall,darkdriedfruitssoldas“currants”orzantecurrantsareactuallyraisins,thedriedformofasmall,sweetblackgrape.)

Oneeffectivewaytostripcurrantsfromtheirstrigsistousethetinesofafork.

Gooseberriesalsoaredeliciousinjam,jelly,andsomethingreallyspecial—gooseberryfool(atraditionalEnglishdessertofgooseberriescookedwithsugarandthenmixedwithwhippedcream).Traditionally,thecook“topsandtails”theberriesbeforeusingthem,butformostrecipesthispainstakingjobisunnecessary.Becauseelderberriesarereadytoharvestinearlyfall,whenwe’reup

toournecksprocessingtheapples,cider,plums,andvegetables,wepickthemandfreezethemimmediatelywithoutprocessing.Laterintheseasonorinwinter,whentimeisn’tquitesoprecious,wecookthemintosyrupsthatwefreezefordeliciousdrinksormakethemintojellies,pies,andjuice.ThevitaminC–loadedjuice(highestcontentofanyfruitexceptcurrants)mixedwithorangejuice,cider,orgingeraleisourwinterhealthtonictowardoffcoldsandflu.Makesuretopickonlyripeberries,asunripeonesaremildlytoxic(donoteatleaves,stems,andespeciallyroots,astheyaretoxic).

BushFruitCultivars

Thereislittledifferenceinhardinessamongthefollowingcultivars.AllexceptelderberriesgrowinZones3to7butarebestinZones5andcolder.(ThesefruitsarenotgoodchoicesfortheSouthorSouthwest.)ElderberrycultivarsgrowinZones3to9.

UnusualBushFruits

Checktheseoutifyou’relookingtoexpandyourfruitcollection,ortogetsomefruitsnototherwiseavailablelocally.Manymakeniceadditionstoornamentallandscapesorawildlifegarden.

Chokeberries(Aroniaspp.),includetheblackchokeberry(A.melanocarpa)andtheredchokeberry(A.arbutifolia).Purple-fruitedchokeberry(A.×prunifolia)isacrossbetweenthetwo.Allareattractiveadditionstothelandscape,sportingattractivewhiteflowersinlatespringandredfallfoliage.NativetoeasternNorthAmerica,theygrowinZones4(possibly3)to9.Researchshowsthesefruitstobeamongthetopnaturalsourcesofantioxidantsandotherhealthfulcompounds.

Generallyreaching5to6feettall,thesesuckeringshrubscangrowto10feet.Chokeberriesareadaptabletomostconditions,fromwettodrysoilsandparttofullsun.Theyneedlittlecareotherthanpruningoutsomeoftheolderbranches.Fruitsforminlatesummertofallandlastontheplantsuntilwinter.

They’reeasytopickbutsoastringentthatthey’resaidtocausechoking(hencethename).Sugartonesdownthetartness,andbecauseoftheirhighlevelofpectin,theymakegoodjambythemselvesoraddedtolow-pectinfruits.Thecultivar‘Nero’hasespeciallygoodyieldsoflargerfruitshighinvitaminCandwithbetterflavor.‘Viking’issimilar,butmorevigorouswithbrightredfallleaves.

Lingonberry(Vacciniumvitis-idaea)isalow-growingornamentalplantcloselyrelatedtothecranberry,exceptthatit’seasiertogrowandhasslightlysmallerberrieswithabetter,lesstartflavor.Theberrieswillkeepforweeksintherefrigerator.PlantsarehardyinZones3to7andattractiveyear-roundwithsmall,glossyevergreenleaves.Theygrowafoottallandslowlyspreadtotwofeetwide;massed,theymakeagoodgroundcover.Smallwhiteorpinkbell-shapedflowersyieldberriesinlatesummertofall.Inmildclimateswithalongerseason,theremaybeasecond,smallerharvest.You’llneedtwoormoreplantstogetfruit;withacoupleofdifferentcultivarsorclones,expectapoundoffruitpermatureplant.Thoughlesstart,lingonberriescanreplacecranberriesinsauces.

They’regoodinbeverages,mixedwithotherfruits,onicecreamandpancakes,withyogurt,andeveninwineandliqueurs.They’rerichinvitaminCand,similartoblueberries,havemanyhealthfulproperties.Lingonberriesproducebestinsunbutwilltoleratelightshade.They

don’tlikehotsummers.Withshallowroots,theyneedsufficientwaterbutwell-drained,acidicsoils,andtobekeptweeded.Growasyouwouldblueberries(seepage81).Amongthefewcultivarsare‘Balsgard’withflavorful,largefruit;‘Koralle’,bearingmedium-sizeberriesinmidseasononupright,compactplants;thetaller‘RedPearl’(to16inches),whichspreadsmorerapidlythanmost,withmanylargefruits;uprightandcompact‘Sanna’withmedium-sizedarkredberries;‘Splendor’,whichbeginsbearingatanearlyageandhassomewhatfrost-

tolerantbuds;and‘Sussi’,boastingabundantandlargerberriesonplantsonly4to8incheshigh.

Chokeberriesarebothornamentalanddelicious;they’rehighinvitaminCandtastesomewhatlikepomegranate.

Aclosecranberryrelative,lingonberryproducescolorful,tartfruitsonlow-growingplants.

Pineappleguava(Accasellowiana,formerlyFeijoasellowiana)isasubtropicalevergreenshrubthatcangrowto15feethighandwide.ItgrowsinZones8to10.Inearlysummer,plantsbearattractive,1-inchwhiteflowerswithredstamens.Thepetals,whichareedible,imparttheirsweetflavorwhenyouaddthemtoasalad.Roundedtoegg-shapedfruitsare1to3incheslongandhaveadistinctivescent.Waxyblue-greenskincoversagreenishwhite,juicypulpthattasteslikeaminty

pineappleandisusedfreshorindrinks.Thislow-maintenanceshrubisoftengrownasanornamental.Plantatleasttwobushestoensurecross-pollinationandgoodyields.

Thesaskatoon(Amelanchieralnifolia)isoneofthefewfruitsthatnotonlysurvivethesub-zerotemperaturesoftheprairieprovincesandNorthernstates,butalsoproducetremendouscrops.Withbeautifulearly-springbloomsandattractivefallcolor,saskatoonmakesaprettyornamental.Severalrelatedspeciesareknownasserviceberries,Juneberries,shad,andshadblow.Becausebirdslovetheripeningfruits,somegrowersplantahedgerowofwildsaskatoonsnearby,hopingbirdswillgettheirfillontheseandleavethecultivatedfruitsalone.Althoughcommonlycalledaberry,itsfruitisactuallyasmallpome,

likeanappleorapear.Mostwildbushesproduce¼-inchto3/8-inchfruits;thoseonimprovedcultivarsaremuchlargerandsweeter.Theyresembleblueberriesinappearanceandflavorandcanbeusedthesameway.Thebushesgrowfrom8to12feettall,andcultivarscanproduce6quartsoffruitperbush.Ittakes3to4yearsforplantstostartproducingfruitand7or8forbigyields.Saskatoonsareonlypartlyself-fertile,soformore-abundantharvests,plantmorethanonekindorevensomewildplantsorrelatedserviceberries.Thebushesarequitehardy(Zones2to7),butalate-springfrostmay

damagethecrop.Toavoidfrostdamage,chooseaspotwhereairdrainageisgood.Growasyouwouldelderberries,onlyplantinwell-drainedsoilamendedwithplentyoforganicmatter.Also,don’tpruneofftoomuchyounggrowth.Unlikeelderberries,saskatoonsproducefruitonwoodthatgrewduringthepreviousseason.Cultivarsincludethelarge-fruited‘Honeywood’,whichbloomslate

andthusmayavoidspringfreezes,and‘Martin’,withgood-sizefruitsanduniformripening.‘Northline’ishardytoZone2andbearslargeandflavorfulfruitsatayoungageonplantsonlyto6feettall.‘Regent’producesgoodfruitoncompactplants4to6feettallandwide.‘Smoky’isperhapsthemostcommoncommercialcultivar,withlarge,mildlysweetfruits.‘Thiessen’isveryhardy(toZone2)andbearslarge,flavorfulfruitsonplantsto15feettall.It’searly-bloomingandsomaybeinjuredbyspringfreezes.

Inwarmclimates,pineappleguavaisoftengrownasalandscapeplant.Italsoproducesfruitswithajuicypulpthattasteslikemintypineapple.

Saskatoonisatrueall-seasonplant:itproducesbeautifulwhitebloomsinearlyspring,tastyfruitinsummer,andattractiveorangeandyellowfoliageinfall.

Discoveringtheflavorandvarietyofthemanykindsofgrapesisonegoodreasontogrowthemyourself.

CHAPTER8

GrapesforEveryRegion

AccordingtoAesop’sancientfable,afoxoncefoundabeautifulbunchofgrapesgrowingonavinejustoutofhisreach.Heleapedatitacoupleoftimesandthenbackedupandtookseveralrunningjumps,alltonoavail.Hejustcouldn’treachthegrapes.Finally,hetrottedoff,muttering,“They’reprobablytoosourtoeatanyway.”Aesopnotonlygaveustheexpression“sourgrapes,”buthemayhavehelpednamethewildNorthAmericanfoxgrapeaswell.WhentheearlysettlerscametoAmerica,theybroughtwiththem

Europeanvines(Vitisvinifera).MostoftheirplantingsfailedbecausetheOldWorldgrapescouldnotadapttotheclimate,diseases,orinsectsofeasternNorthAmerica.Nativegrapes,however,werethriving,includingthosetheVikingsfoundwhentheynamedthecountryVinland.Amongthemwerethefoxgrape(Vitislabrusca),whichmaygetits“foxy”nameforitspungentaromaratherthanfromAesop’stale.Muscadinegrapes(V.rotundifolia)grewfromMarylandtoFloridaandwestasfarasKansas.

GettingtoKnowGrapes

‘CONCORD’ISATABLEGRAPEdevelopedinConcord,Massachusetts,inthemid-1800s.EphraimBull,agoldbeaterbytrade,abandonedhisoccupationtoexperimentwithgrapes.Heissaidtohavegrownmorethan22,000seedlingsbeforehedevelopedthevinethatusheredintheAmericangrapeindustry.Acenturyandahalflater,the‘Concord’and

itshybridsarestilltheleadinggrapesgrowninthenortheasternUnitedStatesandsouthernCanada.Thesevigorous,hardyvinesadapteasilytomanydifferentsoilsandproduceanabundanceofgood-qualityfruitforeating,juice,andwine.TheFrench-Americanhybridsgrowninmanyareasareanother

interestingstoryinbreeding.Inthenineteenthcentury,AmericangrapeplantswereexportedtoFranceinanattempttobreedresistancetopowderymildew.Alsoexported,unknowingly,wastheroot-feedinggrapephylloxera.TheAmericangrapes,whichhaddevelopedwiththisinsect,wereresistant.TheresultinFrance,however,wasthefairlyrapiddestruction—overjustafewyears—oftheFrenchgrapeandwineindustry.ThisledtobreedingAmericanandFrenchgrapesforflavorfulhybridswithresistancetobothgrapephylloxeraandpowderymildew.Crossesmadewithvariousnativegrapesandotherhybridshaveprovideduswithhundredsofred,white,andbluecultivars,manysuitableforhomeculture.Grapesaredeliciouseatenfreshfromthevineormadeintohealth-

promotingjuice,jelly,orwine.Theseedlesskindsarealsogoodinpies.Grapeleaves,pickedinearlysummer,areoftenusedinMediterraneancooking,asinstuffedgrapeleaves.Youcanmakewreathsfromthedormantvinesyoupruneoff.Oneoftheadvantagesofgrowingyourowngrapesisthatyouavoidthechemicalspraysthatcommercialgrowersarelikelytoapply.Thesecrettogrowinggoodgrapesispruning.Becausegrapesgrow

sovigorously,alotofwoodmustbecutawayeachyear—oftenasmuchas90percent—onceplantsreachmaturity.Unprunedgrapevinesbecomesoovergrownanddensethatthesuncan’treachintotheareaswherethefruitsshouldform,andthelackofaircirculationgivesdiseasesagreenlight.Also,thegreaterthedistancefromthemainstemthatthegrapesareproduced,thesmallerthecropislikelytobe.Becausevinestendtoproducemorefruitthantheplantscansupport,thinningoutsomefruitclustersisrequired.Abonusisthatthisthinningimprovesyields,too.Mostgrapesareself-fruitful,soyoucanplantjustone.Thereare

exceptions,andanurserywillusuallyindicatewhenapollinatorisnecessaryforaparticularcultivar.Somemuscadines,forexample,are

femaleandwillneedaself-fertilecultivarnearby.

GrapeFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:European,6–9;French-American,5–9;native,4–9;muscadine,8–10

Height:Dependsonthesupportstructure

Spacing:8feet;muscadines,16feet

Pollination:Mostgrapesareself-fruitful,socross-pollinationseldomnecessary

Pruning:French-Americanandnativetypes,canepruning;Europeanandmuscadinetypes,spurpruning;remove70percentormoreoftopgrowtheachyear

Specialrequirements:Rigorousannualpruning;thinningfruitclusters

Yearstobearing:3–4(removeanyflowersthefirst2years,soplantswilldevelopstrongroots)

Yieldpervine:5–15pounds;muscadines,30–60pounds

‘Concord’grapesarethevarietyyou’llfindinmostkindsofgrapejuice.They’reverycoldhardyandcommonlygrownintheNortheast.

‘Niagara’isawhitetablegrapethatisalsoprocessedintojuiceandwine,particularlyinareaswhereotherwhitegrapesaren’thardy.

‘GoldenMuscat’isagoldentablegrapewithacitrusyflavor.It’sbestgrowninhot,dryclimates.

‘Merlot’isaverycommonredwinegrapethatismostoftengrownontheWestCoast.

ChoicesforColdandHotClimates

CLIMATEISAlimitingfactoringrowinggrapes.TheminimumtemperatureformostEuropeancultivarsisabout–10°F;it’s–15°FforthehardierFrench-AmericanhybridsandmostAmericancultivars.ThehardiestAmericancultivarsshouldsurvivetemperaturesbelow–15°F.ThiseffectivelyrulesoutZones3and4andpartsofZone5asprimegrape-growingcountry.Thelengthofthegrowingseasonisalsoafactor.Grapesareoneof

thelastfruitplantstostartgrowthinthespring,andtheyblossommuchlaterthananyofthetreefruits.Mostgrapesrequireatleast150continuousfrost-freedays:

•‘Concord’grapesandnorthernnatives,alongwiththeircultivars,needtheshortestseason,150daysorfewer.•Early-maturingEuropeancultivarswillproduceinareaswithatleast160frost-freedays.

•EuropeanandFrench-Americanhybridsneedagrowingseasonof170to180days.•Late-ripeningEuropeancultivarsneed200days•Muscadinesneed200frost-freedays.

Muscadinesarewarm-climategrapesthatproducelarge,flavorfulfruitwithathickskin.

IfyougardeninZones6to8,you’llhavelittletroublegrowingmostgrapesofferedbynurseries.IntheDeepSouthandotherregionsinZones8to10,considergrowingmuscadines,whichtolerateheat.Muscadineswon’tsurvivebelow0°F,sothey’renotanoptionformuchofthecountry.Inshort-seasonareas,suchastheDakotas,Minnesota,northernNewEngland,andCanada,lookforthosecultivarsthatrequirefewerthan120warmdaystoripentheirfruit.SomeofthehardyMinnesotacultivarswithstandtemperaturescolder

than–15°F.InZones3and4,youmaybeabletogrowthesehardiercultivarsbyplantingtheminheatpockets.Aheatpocketisasitewhereabuilding,awall,orahillformsacove,oracornerfacessoutheast.Thislocationprotectsagainstthecoolingnorthwindandtrapsthewarm

sunshineinspringandfall.South-facingslopeswarmupfasterthannorth-facingones,andlight,sandysoilswarmupfasterthanclay.InnorthernVermont,wheretheclimateisoftencomparedwiththat

oftheArctic,weknowofasteepsoutherlyslopethatdropssharplytoasmalllake.It’sprotectedbywoodsandhillsandgetsallthemorningandmid-afternoonsun.Here,yearafteryear,thelate-ripening‘Concord’hasfoundaperfecthome.It’sprotectedfromthewind,tiltstowardthesun,andiswarmedbythegentleaircurrentsarisingfromthelakeoncoolfallnights.Climateisn’ttheonlyfactorindeterminingwhichtype(s)ofgrapeto

grow.Lookfordisease-resistantcultivars,especiallyifyouliveinahumidareapronetograpediseases.Somecultivarsarelistedasresistanttoskincracking.“Cracking”or“splitting”referstosoftfruitskinssplitting,whichenablesdiseaseorganismstoenterandfruittospoil;thishappensmoreoftenafteraheavyrain.Alsotakenoteofwhatpartoftheseasonaparticulargraperipensin.Thoseripeninglatearelesspronetobeingeatenbybirds.Considergrowthhabitandvigor,too.Somegrapesaremultipurpose;othersaremorespecialized.Choose

yourcultivarsaccordingtowhetheryouwantthemfortableuse,juiceandjelly,orwinemaking.Somegoodforfresheatingalsomakegoodjuice,andjuiceiswhatyouneedformakingjellyandwine.Muscadinecultivarsaresweeterthanthespecies,andalthoughgoodfresh,they’rebestinjamsandforasweetdessertwine.Afewcultivarsoftenusedforwinearequitetastyeatenfresh,butdon’tassumethisasageneralrule.Beboldandexperimentwithdifferentapplications,butchoosecultivarssuitedtoyourintendeduse.Whynotstartoutwithoneortwooftheoldreliable‘Concords’if

yourseasonislongenough,oneofthenewerMinnesotacultivarsifyoulivewhereit’scold,oroneofthemuscadinesifyouliveintheSouth?Addothersonebyone,asyourskillimproves.Whoknows,youmayonedaybecomeknownastheBacchusofyourblock.

GrapesNeedSupport

GRAPESAREVINES,andtheyneedsomethingtoclimbon.Asupportsystem

ofoneortwowiresinstalledbetweenpostsmakesiteasytopruneandtrainvines.Becausetheygetheavywhenladenwithfruit,makesurethepostsaresturdyandwellanchored.Figureouthowmuchspaceyouneedbeforeyouorderplantsor

installposts.Postsshouldbe7to9feetlong,asyouneedafinishedheightofatleast5feet,andyoumustsinkthem2to3feetintotheground.Ifyouhavemorethanonerow,keeptherowsatleast8feetapart.You’llneedtoinstallapostmidwaybetweeneachplantandoneoneachendoftherow.Spacevinesabout8feetapart;spacevigorousAmericancultivarsslightlymore,thelessrobustEuropeancultivarsslightlyless.Becausemuscadinesaremorevigorous,figureonposts16to20feetapartandonlyoneplantbetweenposts.Stringstrandsofsmooth9-to11-gaugewirebetweentheposts.To

keepthewiresfromsaggingundertheweightoffruit-ladenvines,installbracingwiresattachedtoeachendpost,orextendthewiresandburythemaroundananchor(calledadeadman)intheground.Fortheanchor,useatreeanchorthatlandscapersuse,ascrewanchor,oranobjectsuchasacinderblockburied2to3feettowhichthewireisattached.Finally,installaturnbuckleorothermeansoftighteningonthewirebetweentheendpostandwhereitenterstheground,aswellasoneontheothersideoftheendposttotightenthewiresthevinesaregrowingon.Installthefirsttrelliswire2to3feetabovethegroundandthesecond2to3feethigher.

TIPSFORGROWINGGRAPES

•Chooseasitewithwell-drainedsoilandgoodairdrainage.Incolderclimates,lookforawarmpocket;avoidalowareathatissubjecttoearlyfrosts.

•Selectoneormoredisease-resistantcultivarsadaptedforyourarea.

•Installsupports.Plantvines8feetapart(16feetformuscadines),inrows8to9feetapart.Mulchtocontrolweeds.

•Plantinspring.Ifvineswerenotprunedbeforepurchase,cutbacktotwoorfourplumpbudsafterplanting.

•Waterfrequentlythefirstyear.Insubsequentyears,wateronlyifthere’sadrought,andfertilizelightlyinearlyspring.

•Weedasneeded,beingcarefulnottodisturbroots.

•Pruneasdescribedonpage110.

•Watchforpestsanddiseases.Usebirdnetting,ifnecessary,asgrapesripen.

•Harvestwhengrapesaresweetandfullyripe,notwhentheychangecolor,whichisusuallytooearly.

FiveTrainingOptions

1.Theeasiestwayforbeginnerstomanageabackyardvineyardisonatwo-wirefenceusingamethodcalledthefour-caneKniffiensystem.Afteracoupleofyearsoftraining,youendupwithamaintrunksupportingfourshoots,or“canes,”twooneachwiretrainedtogrowinoppositedirectionsawayfromthetrunk.ThissystemisparticularlysuitedforAmericancultivars,whoseshootstendtogrowdownward,andthoseofmoderatetolowvigor.2.Thesinglehigh-wiresystemisgenerallyusedformuscadines,ifthey’renotgrownonatrellis.Withthissystem,allbuttwocanesareremoved.Theseremainingcanesaretrainedtogrowalongasinglewirelocated4to6feetofftheground,onecaneineachdirectionfromthetrunk.Ifthesecanesareallowedtohang,theyformacurtaineffect,hencethealternatename,curtainsystem.Whentrainedinanarchingmannerfromthetopofthetrunk,forminganumbrellashape,thisiscalledtheumbrellasystem.Thesingle-wiresystem,oftencalledhigh-wirecordon,isbestsuitedforvigorouscultivars,astheuppercaneswouldshadeanyloweronesiftheyweretrainedinthetwo-tierKniffenmethod.AcrossofthesefirsttwoistheumbrellaKniffensystemof

training.It’ssimilartothehigh-wirecordoninthatvinesaretrained

onlyfromapointontotwohighwires.Insteadofbeingtrainedalongtheseupperwires,though,they’reallowedtohangdowntoformanarchingorumbrella(intwodimensions)shape.Theseshootsarethentiedtothelowerwires.ThismethodisoftenusedforvigorousAmericangrapes.

3.FortheEuropeancultivarsandmostFrench-Americanhybrids,asinglelow-wiresystem(oftencalledalow-wirecordon)iseffectivebecauseshootsofthesegrapestendtogrowupward.Similartothehigh-wire,traintwocanesalongthewiresbutuseonlythelowerwires,onecaneineachdirection.Theupperwirewillholdshootsthatgrowoffthecanes.Youmayneedacoupleofstringsorwiresinbetweentohelpsupporttheshootsastheygrowupward,orstringsbetweenthewirestowhichyoutiethecanes.

High-wirecordon

Vinesaren’tprunedquiteasseverelyinthissystem.Thesecondwinter,leave8to10budsoneachcane(asopposedtothefourorfiveinstep3ofthefour-caneKniffensystem;seepage110).Thethirdandsubsequentwinters,cutbackfuturefruitingcanesto15to20buds,moreforvigorous,matureplants.Eithersingle-wiresystemisworthconsideringifyouliveinacold

climate,asitmakesiteasiertoprovidewinterprotection.Removeeachvineinlatefallandlayitontheground,thencoveritwithstraworsoilforwinterprotection.(Soilisbestifyouhavemiceandvoles,whichmayliveinstrawandeatbarkfromthevines.)Removethecoveringassoonasthefrostleavesthegroundbeforebudsswell,andreattachtowires.

4.Asimpleoptionforsmallgardensisumbrellaorheadtrainingofgrapevines.Thissystemrequiresonlyonestakeandtakesuplessspace,butyieldsarelower.Ifyoudon’tneedmanygrapes,thiscouldbethesystemforyou.It’sthebestforgrowinggrapesinalargecontainer,too.Oncethevinesmature,thetrunkisself-supportingandnostakeisneeded.

Umbrellatraining

5.Anotheroptionisgrowinggrapesonasturdytrellisorpergola.If

youarethinkingofgrowinggrapesinamoreornamentalmanner,keepinmindthatvinesonlatticework,arbors,andtrellisesareparticularlydifficulttoprune.Ifyourgoalisshaderatherthanahugecropofgrapes,youdon’thavetopruneashard,butyoustillmustprunethevinestokeepthemhealthyandundercontrol.

Low-wirecordon

PlantingandCare

CHOOSEASITEwithgoodaircirculation.Incoolerclimates,asouthern-facingslopemaygiveyouaslightlylongergrowingseason.Ifyoudon’thavesuchaspot,trycreatingaheattrap.Fiber-glassfences,plastictents,andotherartificialstructurescanbeusedtointensifyandholdheatforsun-worshipinggrapes.Italsohelpstomulchvineswithclearplasticorcrushedrock,bothofwhichattractandholdheatbetterthandoorganicmulches.Avoidalowspot;itmaybeafrostpocket.Orientrowsnorthtosouthifpossible,sovinesgetmaximumlight.Theidealsoilforgrapesisslightlysandy,soitwillwarmupfastand

staywarm.Grapestoleratemanysoils,though,aslongasthey’rewelldrained,includingonesthatarequiterocky.ThesoilpHshouldbebetween5.5and6.5.Americangrapesgrowbestinmoreacidicsoils(pH

5.0to6.0),andEuropeangrapesgrowbestwithapHclosertoneutral(6.0to7.0).Soilsshouldnotbeexcessivelyfertile,orvineswillgrowtoofastandwon’tbearwell.Grapevineshavedeeprootsandcangosearchingfortheirnourishmentbetterthancanmostothersmallfruits.Preparethesiteasdescribedonpage221.Beforeyouplant,make

surethesiteisfreeofperennialweeds.Workinsomecompost;abundantorganicmatterisespeciallybeneficialinheavyclaysoils.Youdon’tneedtoincorporatefertilizerbeforeplanting.Avoidfeedingplantswithanythingotherthancompostforthefirst2years:Toomuchfertilizerincreasesthechanceofwinterinjury.Onceplantsstartbearing,overfertilizingmaydelaythecoloringandripeningofthefruit.

GrowingGrapesinContainers

Grapesareadaptabletogrowingincontainers,greatforasmallgarden,abalcony,orapatio.Theytendtoputononlyasmuchtopgrowthasrootgrowth,soiftherootsareconfined,thetopswillgrowinproportion.A5-gallonpailorpot,withgooddrainageholes,workswellandiseasiertomoveaboutthanalargerpot.Largeclaypotsandwoodencontainers(nottreatedwithtoxicchemicals)aremoreattractivethanplastic.Unlikemanyotherplants,grapesdobetterinasandyloamthaninasoillesspottingmix.Ifyoudon’thavesuchasoil,mix(byvolume)7partspottingsoil,3partspeatmoss,and2partssand.Unlessyourpotisnexttoatrellis,anchorastakeorframewithinthepot.Whenplantinginawoodentub,simplytiethestaketoU-shapednailsonthesides.Otherwise,drillholesintherimofaplasticcontainertoaffixsupportwires.Traintoanumbrellaform,asshownonpage107.Choosecultivarswithfruitclustersclosetothetrunkratherthan

towardtheendsofcanes.Try‘Canadice’or‘Interlaken’seedlesscultivars,ortheseeded‘Seyval’and‘SwensonRed’.Waterregularly,butreducewateringinlatesummer.Fertilize

weeklythefirstyear,andmonthlyinsubsequentyears,withalow-concentrationproduct(oranordinaryfertilizerathalfthe

recommendedrate),butstopinmidsummertostartplantsontheprocessofhardeningoffforthewinter.Don’toverfertilize,oryoumaygetallleavesandnofruit.Aswithtrellisgrapes,trainintoatrunkwithseveralshootsor

canes.Allowfourshootstodevelopthesecondyear,thenprunethesebackinlatewintertospurs,eachwithtwoorthreebuds.Insubsequentyears,removeallfruitingwoodsimilarly,leavingafewbudstodevelopfruitingshootsthecomingyear.Inthesecondyear,removeflowerclusters,thenallowonlyoneper

shoottodevelopinthethirdyear.Subsequently,whenplantsaremoreestablished,keep10to15clusterspervineina5-gallonpot(15orsoforlargerpots,nomorethan10forlessvigorousplants).Wheretemperaturesdropbelowfreezing,movegrapesgrowingin

potstoanonfreezinglocation(asanunheatedgarageorshed,forexample)forwinterprotection.Keepsoiljustbarelymoistwhileplantsaredormant.Eachspringbeforegrowthbegins,sliptheplantoutofthepotto

checktheroots.Ifrootscrowdthepot,pruneoffsomeandloosentheothers.Gentlyknockoffsomeoftheoldsoilandrepotinfreshsoil.

InmostofNorthAmerica,springplantingisbestbecausegrapesneedanabundanceofheatandsunlighttogetestablishedbeforewinter.ThismaybeearlyFebruarytomid-MarchinwarmclimatesandApriltomid-Mayincoolerareas.Buyplantslocallywheneverpossible,assomestateshaverestrictions

onshippinggrapesandyou’llgetcultivarsbestsuitedtoyourarea.Makesurethey’recertifieddisease-andpest-free.Lookforthehighestgradeof1-year-oldvines.Two-year-oldplantsmayhavebeengrownfromweak,leftoverplantsfromthepreviousyear.Installsupportsbeforeplanting,asdescribedonpage105.Setmost

vinesabout8feetapart,vigorousAmericancultivarsslightlyfartherapart,andmuscadines16to20feetapart.Youcanaddastringbetweenthelowerandtopwiresofthetrellistohelpsupportthevinesthefirstyear.Astake,tiedtothewires,worksalso.Makesuretendrilsattachtothesupportandnottothevineitself;otherwise,theymayendup

stranglingtheyoungvine.Grapesboughtincontainershaveprobablyalreadybeenpruned,or

areestablished,sotheydon’tneedpruning.Whenyoubuyvinesbare-root,however,youmayneedtocutthembackto5or6incheslongandleavejusttwoorthreefatbuds.Thispruningwillencouragetherootstostartgrowingrapidlyandhelpthemtokeepupwiththetopgrowth.Waterwelltosettlethesoilaroundtheroots.Waterthevines

frequentlythefirstyear.Useanorganicmulchsuchasstrawthefirstyeartohelpretainsoilmoistureanddecreasetheneedtoweed.Ifyoucultivatearoundplantstocontrolweeds,keepitshallow(1to3inchesdeep)toavoidinjuringroots.Allowvinestogrowfreelywithoutfurtherpruningthefirstyear.Insubsequentyears,plantswon’tneedwateringunlessyougardenin

anareawithlittlerainfall.Thevigorouslygrowingmuscadineswillneedsomewateringregardlessoftheclimate.Avoidwettingleaveswhilethefruitsareforming,asthispromotesfruitrotdiseases.Grapesdon’tneedmuchfertility.Spreadcompostaroundplants

yearly.Ifyoursoilsarereasonablyfertile,youmaynotneedtoaddfertilizer.Orapplyabalancedorganicfertilizeraccordingtodirections.(Ifthelabeldoesn’tgiveamountsforgrapes,usehalftheamountrecommendedforotherfruitsandornamentals.)Bettertofertilizetoolittlethantoomuch,asexcessfertilityreducesyields(andinmuscadines,itcausesfruitdrop).Incoolclimates,cultivationisbetterthanmulchforweedcontrol

afterthefirstyear.Grapesneedwarmsoilstogrowwellandtofruitabundantly,andmulcheskeepsoilscooler.Inwarmbutdryclimates,though,mulchingmayreducetheneedforsupplementalwatering.Grapesmustestablishagoodrootsystemtosupporttheplantsfor

thelonghaul(maybe50years!),soduringthefirstcoupleofyears,don’tletthemputenergyintofruits.Removeanyflowersthefirsttwoyears,thefirstthreeyearsifplantsaren’tvigorous.Thispruningwillpayoffinthelongterm.Ifgrapecultureatfirstglancelooksabitinvolved,don’tworry.Once

youlearnandmasterthebasics,itwillbecomesecondnature.

Ifyouryardhasasouth-facingstonewall,considergrowinggrapesalongit,totakeadvantageofthewarmmicroclimatethewallcreates.

THEKNIFFENSYSTEM

Spring,yearone

Summer,yeartwo

EssentialPruning

Pruningisanimportantpartofgrapeculture,andonethatmustnotbeneglected.Don’tbeafraidofdoingitwrong.Plantswillgrowbackifyoudon’tgetitquiteright.And,infact,thereisn’tanyexactwaytoprune,asthemethodvarieswiththeshootsandgrowthoneachplant.Withgrapes,it’sbettertoerronthesideofpruningmorethantoolittle.Justkeepinmindthefollowingsimpleprinciplesandbasics,andtheprocesswon’tbeoverwhelming.You’llseethisassoonasyoubeginpruning.

•Grapesproducemoretopgrowththanrootscansupport.•Grapesbearfruiton1-year-oldwood;thegoalistoremoveolderwoodandkeepnewgrowthcoming.•Forthebestfruit,remove70to90percentofthewoodproducedthepreviousyear—moreinwarmclimates,whereplantsaremorevigorous.•Grapesvaryinvigorwiththeseason,climate,andcultivar;prunebackvigorousgrowthmorethanyouwouldonweakerplants.

Thetimeforpruningislatewinterorveryearlyinspring,whentheplantsaredormantandbeforethebudsstarttoswell.ThisisJanuary

throughMarchinmanyareas.Laterisbetterformuscadines,which,ifprunedinearlyspring,mayoozesap,or“bleed.”Ifthishappens,don’tdespair:itdoesn’thurttheplants.Inadditiontocuttingbackthevines,anddifficultasthismayseem,

you’llneedtopruneawayorthinoutfruitclustersduringtheseason.Grapesmayproducemorefruitthantheplantscanhandle,decreasingvigorandevenstuntingyoungplants.Thisthinningismoreimportantoncultivarsthatbearlargefruitclusters.

PruningGrapeVines:Four-CaneKniffenSystem

TheKniffensystem(canepruning)istheeasiestwaytogrowgrapes.Thismethodisgoodformosttypes,especiallyAmericancultivarssuchas‘Concord’andFrench-Americanhybrids.Inmostclimates,onetrunkisthegoal.Incolderareaswheretrunks

maysufferwinterinjury,keeptwotrunks,thesecondasabackupduringthefirstyear.Atthebeginningofthesecondyear,ifbotharealive,removethelessvigoroustrunk.Ifatrunksuffersaninjuryinasubsequentyear,trainasuckershootduringthefollowingseasonasanewtrunk.

1.Afterplanting,ifvinesarenotalreadypruned,cutthembackto5or6incheslong,leavingtwotofourbuds.Allowshootstogrowfromthese.Removeanyflowerbudsthatform.Looselytieshootstothehorizontalsupportwires,orsupportthemwiththinstakes,tomakesuretheygrowvertically.

2.Inlatewinterthefirstyearafterplanting,removeallbutonemainuprightshoot(twoincoldclimates),whichwillbecomethetrunk.Removeallsideshoots.Duringthesecondgrowingseason,traintwomainsideshoots(canes)fromthetrunk(s)inoppositedirectionsalongeachwire.Pinchorpruneoffanyothershootsandanyflowerbudsthatform.Securevineslooselyuntilthecurlingtendrilsgraspthewires.Plastic-coatedties(ascomewithtrashbags)workwell;tightstringcanconstrictstemsastheygrow.

Summer,yearthree

Winter,yearthree

3.Thesecondwinter,prunebackeachcanealongthewire,leavingfourorfivebuds.Thesewillproducethefruit-bearingshootsinthethirdseason.

4.Duringthethirdseason,trainshoots(fromthefourorfivebudsyouleftonthepreviousyear’scanes)alongwires.Fruitwilldeveloponthisseason’snewgrowth.Oncefruitsbeginforming(whengrapesarenomorethan1/8inchindiameter),thinclusterstoleaveonlyoneortwobunchesofgrapespernewshoot.

5.Inthethirdwinter,removethepreviousyear’sfruitingcanes,cuttingbackthehorizontalstemsalongwires.Leavefourofthesecanes(cordons)closetothetrunkforeachwire.Cutbacktwocanesfrom

eachwiretotwobuds.Thesearethe“renewalspurs”thatwillformthefruitingcanesfortheyearafterthecomingone.Tietheremainingtwocanestothewires,asbefore,withoneineachdirection,againleavingfourorfivebudspercane.Thesebudswilldevelopintotheshootsthatwillproducethefruitforthiscomingseason.Thesefourshortenedcanesarecalledarms.Dothistrainingduringmildweather,ascoldcanesbreakeasily.

6.Insubsequentyears,repeatsteps4and5.Removetheoldarminlatewinterwiththefruitingcanesfromthepastseason.Selectcanesfornewarmsgrowingfromlastyear’srenewalspur.Atthispointtheplantsarelarger,sotheycansupportmorefruit.Duringwintercanepruning,youcannowleave10to15budsoneachfruitingcane(thehighernumberforvigorousplants),oratotalof40to60perplant.

Maturevine

SPURPRUNINGFORMUSCADINES

Beforepruning

Muscadinetypesgrowbestwithasystemcalledspurpruning.Thisiseffectiveforsomewinegrapestoo,althoughmanyarecane-pruned.Followthesamestepsaswithcanepruningforthefirst2years(see110).Thencontinuewiththesesteps:

1.Inlatewinterorearlyspringofthethirdyear,don’ttouchthehorizontalstems(cordons)alongwires;cutbackonlythepreviousseason’sfruitingcanesthatarosefromthese,leavingtwoorthreebudsperprunedcane(spur).Thesebudswillgiverisetotheshootsthatwillproducefruitthenextyear.

2.Pruneoutexcessspurssowhat’sleftare6inchesapartalongthecordon.Theresultshouldbefourtosixbudsperfootofcordon.

3.Oncefruitsbeginforming(whengrapesarelessthan1/8inchindiameter),thinclusterstoleaveonlyoneortwobunchesofgrapesperfruitingshoot.

4.Formatureplants,insubsequentyears,repeatthesethreesteps.Leavenomorethan50budspervine(20to30forwinegrapes).

Afterpruning

Diseases

Vinesinanisolatedhomegardenusuallyescapemostofthediseasesthatlargegrowersmustcopewith.Soonerorlater,though,oneoftheproblemsdescribedbelowwillshowup.Mostcanbecontrolledwithgoodsanitationandrigorouspruningforgoodaircirculation.Inspectyourvinesregularly,asallproblemsareeasiertomanagewhenthey’recaughtearly.Ifyouspotjustafewinfectedleaves,removeanddestroythem.Problemsvarydependingonwhereyoulive;lookfordisease-resistantcultivarsifyougardeninanareapronetoplantdiseases.SteerclearoftheEuropeancultivarsthatgetmanyoftheAmericandiseasesifyouliveinawarmandhumidclimateanddon’twanttofacesuchproblemsandtheircontrols.‘Concord’isfairlydiseaseresistant,asare‘Frontenac’,‘Mars’,and‘Seyval’.Ifyouexperiencerecurringproblemsdespitegoodsanitationanddecidetospray,checktomakesuretheproductissafeforuseongrapesandfollowlabeldirectionscarefully.Neverspraygrapeswhenthey’reinbloomasyouriskkillingpollinators.Somegrapesaresensitivetosprays;don’tusesprayscontainingcopperorsulfuron‘Concord’grapes.Fruitdroponmuscadinegrapesisusuallynotadiseaseproblem;

inadequatepollination,toomuchortoolittlewater,andtoomuchfertilizerallcanleadtothis.Similarly,whatappearstobeadisease—stuntedanddeformedgrowth—maybeareactiontoherbicidesifthese

areusednearby,ortoaweed-and-feedlawnproductsuchasisusedonthegrassbetweenrows.Grapesareparticularlysensitivetoherbicides,soit’sbestnottouseoneinthevicinityofgrapevines.Grapesgetsomeofthesamediseasesasotherfruits,suchascrown

gall,powderymildew,andviruses(seechapter18).Inaddition,beonthewatchforthefollowing.Blackrotisafungaldisease,particularlycommonineasternand

midwesternstates.Itcoverstheleaveswithbrownspotsandblackpimples,andturnsthefruitblack,rotten,andshriveled.Itcanoccuranytimeduringtheseasonunderwarmandwetconditions.Goodsanitationbycleaningupoldfruitandleaveswillhelpgreatlybypreventingitssporesfromoverwintering.Deadarmisafungusthat,ifleftunchecked,graduallykillsaplant.

Canesandarmsdieback,henceitsothername,dieback.

Phomopsisonagrapevine

Blackrot

Phomopsiscaneandleafspotissimilarbutlessdamaging.ItappearsmoreofteninthehumidEastandSouth.Themosteffectivecontrolistocutoffandburntheinfectedparts,makingsuretosterilizepruningtoolsbetweencuts.(SeeDisinfectingPruningTools,page273.)DownymildewisanespeciallyseriousdiseaseinthehumidEast.It

coversleaves,newshoots,andfruitwithagraydown,andeventuallyrotsthefruit.Europeancultivarsarehighlysusceptible.Bordeauxmixtureorpowderedsulfurissometimesusedwheremildewproblemsaresevere,butamodernfungicidemayworkbetter.Fruitrotsarecausedbygraymold(botrytis)andseveralother

diseasesthatflourishwhenconditionsaremoderatelywarmandwet,especiallyoncultivarswithdensefruitclusters.Earlyintheseason,budsandyoungfruitturnbrown.Duringtheseason,youmayseelarge,reddishbrowndeadareasonleafedges.Fruitsturncolorandrot.Toalleviatetheproblem,removeinfectedleavesandprunetoimproveaircirculation.

Grapefleabeetle

InsectandAnimalPests

InspiteofAesop,I’veneverheardofafoxactuallyeatinggrapes,butthesucculentfruitsarefavoredbyraccoons,skunks,andopossums.Thebestcontrolforthesecrittersisalowelectricfence,6inchesfromtheground.Inregionswherebirdsstealthefruits,purchasesomebirdnetting.Orgrow‘Concord’grapes,whichbirdsusuallydon’tbother.Otherbirdrepellents(forexample,aluminumpieplatesblowinginthewind)areonlymarginallyeffective;placingpaperbagsovereachclusterworksonlyforpeoplewiththetimeandpatienceforsuchthings.Fortunately,fewinsectpestsbotherhomeplantingsofgrapes.Inspect

yourvinesfrequentlyandpracticegoodsanitationtokeepinsectproblemstoaminimum.Keepthegrapespicked,andremoveallpruningstopreventtheoverwinteringofinsectlarvae.(Forgeneralcontrolstrategies,suchastraps,seechapter18.)Evenmorethandiseases,theinsectsyou’relikelytoencounter

dependonyourarea.InadditiontoJapanesebeetlesandaphids,whicharefamiliarpestsofotherfruitsandevenornamentals,youmaymeetupwithleafhoppers,leafrollers,mites,andnematodes;seechapter18forcontrollingthesepests.Herearesomeothercommoninsectpeststowatchforongrapes:Thecanegirdlerisashinyblackweevilthatlaysitseggsinshoots,

girdlingthem(cuttingoffthewaterandnutrientflowinside)aroundthispoint.Theresultyouseeisshoottipswiltinganddyingback,thenbreakingoff.Thisisn’tseriousunlessfruitsarebeingproducedfromtheseshoottips.Thegrapefleabeetleisasmall,steel-blueinsect(oftencalleda

steelybeetle)thatemergesfromleaflitterinspringtofeedonbudsandyoungshoots.Later,itwillattackavineanditsleaves.Keepthegroundbeneathplantsclean,areasbetweenrowstilled,andadjacentwoodlotsandwasteareascleared.Knockingadultbeetlesintoajarofsoapywatermaybedifficult,astheyoftenjumpwhendisturbed.Theclimbingcutwormcausessimilardamage,butlaterinbud

development,andproducesmore-raggedholes.Thelarvaearegrayorbrown,abitoveraninchlong,butyouaren’tlikelytoseetheseastheyhideinthegroundduringtheday,climbingthestemstofeedatnight.Keepthegroundnearbyclearofplantdebris,weeds,andsodifthisinsectshowsup.Thegrapeberrymothistheprimarysourceofwormygrapes,and

perhapsthemainpestinmanyareas.Tiny,pale,maggotlikelarvaefeedonflowersandtenderyounggrowthinspring,thenenteryoungfruitinordertoeatthepulp.Lookforthewebbingtheyoftenencasethemselvesin,orreddishspotsonberries.Youcancontrolsmallinfestationsbypickingoffinfectedfruit.Othercontrolsareremovingleaflitterunderplantsinfallandusinganinsecticidesprayearlyintheseason.

Inspectyourvinesfrequentlyandpracticegoodsanitationtokeepinsectproblemstoaminimum.

Rosechafer

Grapeberrymothlarva

Skunk

Raccoon

Thegraperootborerweakens,andmaykill,avinebytunnelingandfeedinginthelargerrootsandbaseoftheplant.Ifavineappearsstressedandwiltseasily,checktherootsforthewhitelarvae.Keepwildgrapesawayfromdesiredplants,rakeupfallenleavesanddebrisunderplants,anduseaplasticmulchshouldthispestappear.Phylloxeraaresmallsuckinginsectssimilartoaphids(technically

lice)thatfeedonanddamageroots.TheyattackEuropeangrapesandareamajorpestontheWestCoastandinheavysoils.Susceptiblegrapesaregraftedontoresistantrootstocks,asthisistheonlycontrolotherthanensuringthatplantsarephylloxera-freeattheoutset.(Thesepestscanliveonresistantplants,eveniftheydon’tcausedamagetothem.)Rosechaferseatblossoms,buds,andnewlyformedfruitsearlyin

theseason.Thestraw-coloredbeetles,abouthalfaninchlong,alsoskeletonizeleavesinJuneandJuly.Usuallythey’remosttroublesomeonvinesgrownonsandysoil.Iftherearejustafew,knockthemoffintoajarofsoapywater.Checkfrequently,asmoreareapttoflyin.Yellowjacketsarefamiliartogardenersandnongardenersalike.

They’reattractedinlatesummerandfalltothesweetsugarsofoverripefruit.Theycandamageripefruitsbeforeyougetthempickedorinjurethepicker!Keepingfruitpicked,andfallengrapesrakedup,willhelpkeepawaytheseinsects.

HarvestingGrapes

WITHPROPERTRAININGandpruning,amaturegrapevinewillproduce5to15poundsofgrapes(30to60bunches)eachyear,dependingonthecultivar.Amaturemuscadineyields30to60poundsoffruitayear.Althoughyoucanstartgettingfruitthethirdyear,trynottoletplantsbearheavilyuntilvinesareatleast4yearsold.Youmayseegrapes,otherthanmuscadines,groupedtogetherundertheterm“bunchgrapes.”Theyformtheirfruitinbunchesratherthanthelooseclustersofafewmuscadinefruitsthatripenatdifferenttimes.Asmuscadinestendtodropwhenthey’reripe,aneasywaytoharvestistospreadatarpunderthevinesandshakethem,whichcausestheripegrapestofall.

Muscadinesripeninlatesummerthroughearlyfall.OthergrapesripenasearlyasJulyandAugustinsoutheasternstates.HarvesttimeintheNorthwestismid-Septembertomid-October;it’sSeptemberintheNortheast.

Ripegrapesshouldbesnippedfromthevineinwholeclusters,leavingthestemhandleintact.It’sbesttoharvestonadryday,sothatthegrapeskeeplonger.

Don’trelyonskincolortodeterminewhethergrapesarereadytopick.Grapesoftenchangecolorbeforethey’refullyripe.Ripegrapeshavebrownseedsandtastesweet(ifthey’retablegrapes),andtheclustersseparateeasilyfromthevines.Birdsstartingtoeatyourfruitmaybeanindicationofripeness!Winegrapesarereadywhentheirsugarcontentisaround22

percent.Thisiseasytomeasurewithaninexpensivehygrometer,availableathomewinemaking–supplystores.Hygrometersmeasuresugarcontentusingwhat’scalledtheBrixscale.At22percentBrix,

grapesyieldawinewith10to12percentalcohol.Don’tpickyourgrapesearly;unlikemanyotherfruits,theywon’tgo

ontoripenoffthevine.Ifaveragetemperaturesdropbelow50°F,fruitswon’tcontinuetoripen,norwilltheyiffrosthaskilledtheleaves.Ifyouintendtousethefruitforjelly,though,youcanharvestthemwhilethey’reslightly“green.”Pickgrapesonadryday,aswetgrapesdon’tkeepwell.Pickwhole

clusters,leavingthestem“handle”intact.Trynottobruiseorruboffthewhitishbloom;they’lllastlonger.Grapeskeepinarefrigeratorforseveralweeksifthey’redryandthetemperatureisjustabovefreezing.Mostgrapesareusuallyeatenwhole,butmuscadinesaregenerally

eatenbysqueezingandsuckingoutthepulp.Discardtheskins.Suchgrapesareoftencalledslipskins.Youcandryseedlessgrapestomakeyourownraisins.Washand

removestemsanddamagedfruit.Dipwholegrapesinboilingwaterfor30secondstocracktheskins.Ifyou’vecutlargeonesinhalf,diptheminascorbicacidfor10minutestokillanysurfacemicrobes.Drainwellaftereithertreatment,thendryusinglowheat(140°F)orinanelectricdehydratoruntilthey’releathery,withnomoistureinside.Inawarmandaridclimate,youcandrytheminthesunlightonscreens.Justcoverthescreenswithcheeseclothtokeepoffdustandbirds.Figureon2quartsofgrapestomakefourhalf-pintjarsofjelly,a

bushelofgrapestomake16quartsofjuice.Tomakewine,you’llneedabouteightbunchesforeachbottle.Avinethatyields40bunchesshouldproduceenoughtomakefivebottlesofwine.

TableandWineGrapeCultivars

Thefollowingareonlyafewofthemanygoodgrapesforeatingorusingfresh,oftencalledtablegrapes,andthoseusedprimarilyforwines.Table-grapecultivarshaveseedsunlessnotedotherwise.“FH”areFrench-Americanhybrids;“E”areEuropeancultivars,whichcanbemoredifficulttogrowandlesshardy.Forcolor,thoselistedasblackareoftenmorepurplishorblue-black;thoselistedaswhiteareoftenyellow-

green.Theseasonisbasedrelativetothatofthe‘Concord’,amidseasongrape.Cultivarsarenotedasbestforcertainregions(C=coldestclimates,suchasnorthernNewEnglandandtheUpperMidwest;W=warmestclimates,suchastheLowerMidwest,theUpperSouth,andthesouth-centralandmid-Atlanticstates;WC=WestCoast;NW=PacificNorthwest).

Muscadine(Scuppernong)Cultivars

Mostmuscadinecultivarsareself-fertile.Thosemarked(F)arefemale;thesecultivarsrequireaself-fertilecultivarwithmaleflowersforcross-pollination.(Thesemaybelistedincatalogsas“male.”)Thosewithpinkorredtobronzeskinsareoftencalledscuppernongs.Followingaresomeofthemorepopularandbettercultivars.

UnusualVineFruits

Hardykiwi.Whenmostpeoplethinkofkiwifruit,they’rethinking

aboutthebrownfuzzyfruitthesizeofaneggsoldinstores.Thisisthecommonorfuzzykiwi(Actinidadeliciosa),sometimesknownastheChinesegooseberry.Itneedstobepeeled,revealingasoftgreenpulpwithsmalledibleseeds.LesswellknownistheChineseorgoldenkiwi(A.chinensis).FruitsoftheChinesekiwiarelessfuzzy(moreliketheskinofapeach)andmorerounded,withgreenorgoldflesh.Bothspeciesaretenderandcan’tbegrowninareascolderthanZone8.Butdon’tdespairifyouwanttogrowkiwisandliveinacolder

climate.Thehardykiwi(A.arguta)andthearcticorRussiankiwi(A.kolomikta)bothgrowinZones5to8,evencolderforsomeselections.Plantsneedatleast150frost-freedaystobearfruit,andsomechilling,althoughthey’readaptabletolow-chillareas.Incold-climateregions,springfrostscanniptheearlyflowers,andeventhepollenmaybedamagedbycold,whichwillcauseunevenfruiting.

Hardykiwiisavigorous,cold-hardyvinethatproducesabountyofsmallfruitsthataresmallerthan,butsimilarto,theirtropicalcousins.

Thehardykiwiisusuallygrownforitsfruits.Thelessvigorousarcticisoftengrownasanornamental,foritsvariegatedleaves;thesestartoutpurplish,thenturngreenwithsomewhiteandpink.Boththesekiwisbearsmallerfruitsthandotheirmoretropicalkin,withasweeterflavor.(Botanically,they’reberries.)Theyproducefruitsthesizeoflargegrapes,greenishwithperhapsreddishtints,withsmoothskinthatdoesn’tneedpeeling.Thefruitsaresweeterthanthoseofthecommonkiwi(sugarcontentof15to30percent,dependingonthecultivar).Kiwisarevigorousvines,oftengrowing20feetinaseason,sothey

needsturdysupports.Youcangrowthemonatrellissystemsimilartotheoneusedforgrapes.Themoreusualmethod,however,istogrowthemonT-shapedsupports,6to8feethigh,withwiresstrungbetweenthem.Thelookisofaverysturdyclothesline.Vinesclimbbytwiningratherthanwithtendrils,sotheyneedsomehelpinattachingtoatrellis.Theymakeeffectivevisualscreenstoo,orgrowonapergolatoshadethepatio.Thevinesareornamental,sportinglarge,heart-shapedleavesthat

tendtohidetheslightlyfragrantbutratherinconspicuousgreenishspringflowers.Maleandfemaleflowersgrowonseparateplants;thus,you’llneedamaleplantsothefemaleswillbear.Plantatleastonemaleforeverysixtoninefemalevines,andofcourseincloseproximity.Somecultivarsmaybeself-fruitful,but,aswithmanyothersuchfruits,eventheseproducehigheryieldswithcross-pollination.Fruitingusuallybeginswhenplantsareatleast5yearsold.Then,kiwifruitripeninearlyfall.Kiwivinesareeasytogrow.Theyproducebestinfullsun,although

they’lltoleratesomeshade.Givethemsomewhatacidic(pH5.0–6.5)andwell-drainedsoilandplentyofwaterduringtheseason.Plantabout10feetapartinsoilenrichedwithcompost,or,inawarmclimate,growinlargecontainers.Don’tfertilizethefirstyear.Waituntilthesecondyear,thenfertilizelightly,andincreasetheamountalittleeachyearafter.Composthelps,asdoesstrawmulch;justkeepthemulchaway

fromthestemstopreventrot.

Maypopisahardierversionofthetropicalpassionflower.Itproducesstunning,unusualflowersfollowedbydeliciousfruitsthattastesomethinglikeguava.

Becausekiwivinesarequitevigorous,you’llneedtopruneheavily,almostasmuchasforgrapes.Allowthemtoputonasmuchgrowthaspossiblethefirstseason.Flowersformonthepreviousyear’sgrowth,sowhenyoudostartpruning,don’tremovetheseshoots.Prunewhendormant.Shootsmorethan3yearsoldseldomproduceflowers,soremovethese.Duringthegrowingseason,cutbackasdesired,orsojustafewleavesareleftbeyondthelastflower.Insummer,cutoffvigorousuprightshoots(watersprouts)aswell.Problemsarerare.Crownandrootrots,graymold,andpowdery

mildewarediseasesthatmayattackthehardykiwi.Well-drainedsoilandgoodaircirculationwillaidindiseaseprevention.Plantsmaybetroubledbyscales,nematodes,spidermites,leafrollers,thrips,andJapanesebeetles.Likecatnip,kiwisseemtoattractcats,whichuprootandshredplants.Achicken-wirecylinderaroundstemswillkeepawaytheneighborhoodfelines.Expectmaturehardykiwistoyield50to100poundsoffruitper

(female)vine,dependingontheseasonandcultivar.Aswithsomeapples,kiwismaybearheaviercropsonalternateyears,withlittleorno

fruitinbetween.Pickfruitsbeforethey’refullyripe,whilethey’restilltart,andthey’llcontinuetoripen.Tospeeduptheripeningprocess,puttheminaplasticbagtogetherwithanappleorabanana(bothgiveoffethylenegas,whichpromotesripeningoffruits).They’llkeepseveralweeksintherefrigerator.

Maypop.Foravinewithstunningflowersanddeliciousediblefruits,growthehardiestofthepassionflowers,themaypop(Passifloraincarnata).Thistemperateversionofthetropicalpassionflowerisnativetothesouthernstates,butalsogrowswellintheMidwest,West,andMid-Atlanticregions(Zones6to9).Theattractive,climbingvinegrows8to12feetlongandproduces

glossy,deeplycutleavesthatare6incheswideandlong.Itservesasagoodornamentalplantforfencesandtrellises.Becauseofitssprawlinghabit,it’sbestplantedininformalandnaturalgardens.Maypopisalsofairlylowmaintenance;pruneasneededtodirectgrowth.Inregionswherethetopgrowthdiesinwinter,cutthevinebacktothegroundinspringInsummer,unusualrounded,purplishwhiteflowersgivewaytoegg-

shapedfruitthatstartsoffgreenishandturnslightorangewhenripe.Truetoitsname,thefruitgoes“pop”whenbroken.Eatthejellylikepulparoundtheseeds,asyouwouldapomegranate.Theflavorresemblesthatofguava.Thevinesdoneedcross-pollination,soyoumustgrowatleasttwoinordertogetfruit.

PARTTHREETreeFruitsandNuts

Onceyou’vegrownafewsmallfruits,tryyourhandattreefruits(likeapricot,above)andnuts(likehazelnut,infloweratright).Theyrequiremoreofaninvestmentoftimeandmoney,butwillproducealargeharvest,yearafteryear.

THEFIRSTIMAGETHATCOMESTOMINDWHENmanyheartheword“trees”isahugespecimeninalawnorparkorforest.Thisappliestomanynuttrees,whichmayrequireaconsiderablearea,buttherearesome—suchasalmonds,filberts,andhazelnuts—thataresuitedforsmallproperties.Mostfruittreesyounowfindforsaleareofsmallerstature,eitherassemidwarfsordwarfs(seepage34),andevensomeneweruprightcolumnarselections.Fruittrees,particularlyapplesandpears,lendthemselvestogrowingverticallyintwo-dimensionalespalierpatterns(seepage253)wherespaceislimited,ortocreateamorevisuallyinterestinggardenorlandscape.Toensuresuccesswithtreefruitsandnuts,you’llneedtogivethema

bitmoreforethoughtbeforebuying,andgroundpreparationbeforeplanting,thanyoumightwiththesmallfruits.Onereasonisthatjustafewfruittreescanproducemanybushelsoffruit,soyoudon’twanttoendupwithlotsmorethanyoucaneatorputawayforwinter.Ifyoudoendupwithanexcess,localfoodpantriesareusuallyhappytohelpyouputittogooduse.

Fruitandnuttreeswillbeinoneplaceformanyyears,sogoodgroundpreparationandproperplantingareessential.Smallfruitsareinthegroundfeweryearsthantreefruitsgenerally,orareeasiertomoveifmisplaced.Treefruitsandnutsusuallygrowmuchtallerthanthesmallfruits,andthisneedstobeallowedforwhenyou’replanning,bothtoavoidobstructingviewsandutilities,andtoavoidcastingshadewhereit’snotwanted—onyoursun-lovingperennials,forexample.It’salsoimportanttopayattentiontotherightchoicesoftreefruits

foryourparticularregionandclimate.Factorssuchasthelengthofthegrowingseason,theamountofcoldneededtoflowerandfruit,andtimingoffloweringarecrucialtosuccesswithmanytreefruitcultivars,

withspecificdetailsfollowingintheindividualchapters.

Growingyourownapplesenablesyoutotryawidevarietyofshapes,colors,andtastes.

CHAPTER9

ApplesandCrabApples

WhenthewickedoldwitchselectedanappletotemptthebeautifulSnowWhite,sheknewexactlywhatshewasdoing.SodidtheserpentwhenhemadehisproposalintheGardenofEden.Wegrowmanydifferentkindsoffruits,andIlovethemall,buteverytimeanurserycatalogarrives,Iautomaticallyturntotheapplesectionfirst,tobetemptedbythebestnewselections.Despitetheexpression“asAmericanasapplepie,”theapple(genus

Malus)cametothiscountryfromelsewhere.Asearlyas8000bce,nomadsmovedapplesthroughouttheFertileCrescentoftheMideast.Homer,inhisOdyssey(800bce),makesmentionofapples.InChina,around5000bce,adiplomatwasrecordedashavinggivenuphisjobinordertoconcentrateongraftingfruittrees,includingapples.

ApplesforEveryClimate

ONEGOODREASONfortheapple’spopularityamonghomefruitgardenersisitsabilitytoadapttodifferentsoilsandclimates.Onecultivaroranotherwillgrowinall50states,andhomegardenerseverywherehaveagoodselectionfromwhichtochoose.Manypopularcultivarswillgrowinmanyregions.Gardenerswherewintersaremild,suchassouthernCaliforniaandFlorida,shouldseekoutapplesthatrequireverylittlecoldduringwinter(seepage142).Mostapplesneedmorethan600hoursbelow45°F;somerequiremorethan1,000.Low-chillcultivarsneedlessthan500hours.

Applesareamongthehardiestoftreefruits,andmanycultivarswillgrowwherepeaches,apricots,andpearshaven’tachanceofsurvival.Thereareapplesthatwillthriveinthenorthern,windsweptprairiesofSaskatchewanandAlberta.Duringthebigfreezeinthewinterof1917,whentemperaturesstayedbelow–40°Ffordays,manytenderapplevarietiesinthenorthernUnitedStatesandCanadawereknockedout,includingthethen-popular‘Jonathan’.ThiseventpavedthewayforincreasedplantingofthehardyCanadian‘McIntosh’andothermembersofitshugefamily.

‘Cox’sOrangePippin’

‘Jonagold’

‘EgremontRusset’

‘GrannySmith’

AppleFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:3–9(varieswithcultivar)

Height:Standard,20–30feet;semidwarf,12–15feet;dwarf,7–10feet

Spacing:Standard,25–35feet;semidwarf,15–20feet;dwarf,7–10feet

Pollination:Needcross-pollination;plantatleasttwocultivarsforgoodyield

Pruning:Centralleader(modifiedcentralleaderformaturetrees);latewinter

Specialrequirement:Thinfruitstoimprovequalityofharvest

Yearstobearing:Standard,5–8;semidwarf,3–5;dwarf,2–4

Yieldpertree(bushels):Standard,8–18;semidwarf,4–10;dwarf,1–6

PollinationMatters

Youmustplantatleasttwocultivarsneareachotherforcross-pollinationbybees.Eventhefewcultivarslistedasself-fertile(suchas‘Liberty’,‘Empire’,and‘GoldenDelicious’)willproducemorewithcross-pollination.“Near”meanswithin75feetforstandards,45feetforsemidwarf,and20feetfordwarfcultivars.Inalargeplanting,itmeanseverythirdtreeinamixedroworeveryfifthrowofsingle-cultivarrows.Ifyouhavelotsofornamentals,evenweedssuchasdandelions,infloweratthesametime,youmayfindthebeesareluredawaybytheseandwon’tpollinateyourappletreesaswellastheymight.Youneedtomakeiteasyforbeestofindthedifferentappletrees.Justhaveonetree?Thenplaceafewbranchesyougetfromafriend’s

applesoracrabappleinbloomintoabucketofwaterhungwithinthetree.Wherespaceistoolimitedfortwotrees,seekoutatreewithatleasttwocultivarsgraftedontoit;thatwillsolvetheproblem.Often,acrabapplefloweringnearbyatthesametimewillsuffice.Be

aware,though,thatcrabapplesaresusceptibletothesamediseasesasareappletrees.Forthatreason,ifyoudon’tneedthemforpollinationit’sagoodideatositeyourappletreesatleast100yardsawayfromornamentalcrabapplesunlessyouknowthey’rediseaseresistant.‘Winesap’,‘Mutsu’,‘Jonagold’,andsomeotherapplesareinfertile,

whichisusuallymentionedintheirdescriptions.Thismeansthey

producenopollen,orsterilepollen,tocross-pollinateanotherapplecultivar.Youneedanotherapplecultivartopollinatea‘Baldwin’,butitcan’treciprocate,soifyouhavea‘Baldwin’oranotherinfertilecultivar,you’llactuallyneedthreetrees:the‘Baldwin’,asecondcultivartopollinateit,andathirdcultivartopollinatethesecond.

TIPSFORCHOOSINGAPPLES

Forthebestcropsforyourconditions,considerthefollowing.

•Treesize:dwarf,7–10feettall;semidwarf,12–15feet;standard,morethan15feet.Yieldsproportionaltotreesize

•Suitabilitytoclimate(coldorwarmwinters),problemsoils

•Resistancetopestsanddiseases

•Floweringtime:buyatleasttwocultivars,floweringnearthesametime,forcross-pollination

•Fruitqualities:color,flavor,andtexture(crisporsoft),bestuses

•Yield:desiredripeningtimes,whetherbiennialorannualbearing

Astherearesomanyapplesvarieties,there’squitearangeofbloomtimes.Makesurecultivarsblossomatthesametime.Asarule,applesaredividedintoearly,mid-,andlateseason.Applesusuallybloomoverabout10days,sothere’ssomeoverlap:anearlyapplegenerallywillpollinateamidseasononeandmidseasoncultivarscanpollinatemostearly-andlate-seasonones.Ifallthisinformationaboutpollinationsoundscomplicated,justlook

incatalogsfortablesthatshowwhatcultivarswillcross-pollinateeachother.Floweringtimemaybelistedaspollinationgroup;ifyoudon’tseethisinformationincultivardescriptions,askatyourlocalnurseryorCooperativeExtensionServicewhetherthetreesyouwanttobuywill

cross-pollinate.

Emergingbud

Appleblossom,readytoopen

Developingfruit

Ripefruit

Standard,Semidwarf,orDwarf?

ASYOUSTUDYvariousfruitcatalogs,youmaybesurprisedthatsometimesthesameapplecultivarisavailableasafull-sizestandard,amedium-sizetree(semidwarf),andasmall(dwarf)tree.Thisisdueinlargeparttotherootstock—thetrunkandrootsontowhichtheapplecultivarisgrafted.Treesizevariesalsowithvigorofthecultivargraftedontotherootstock,soilfertility,treeage,climate,andofcoursepruning

practices.A“standard”treetowhichdwarfandsemidwarfarecomparedmaybe40feethighinonearea,30feetinanother,and15feetintheFarNorthbecauseofthesefactors.Ifyouhavespaceenoughforlargetrees,don’tmindworkingona

ladder,andwantahuge,old-fashioned,spreadingtreeforkidstoclimb,byallmeansgrowstandard(full-sized)apples.Ifyoudon’twantthemtootall,doaswedo:prunetokeepthemlow.Althoughfull-sizetreesrequiremorepruningthantheirdwarfandsemidwarfrelativesdo,andmakeitmoredifficulttomanagepests,asaruletheysufferfromfewerdiseases,livelonger,bearmorefruit,andinthecoldestclimatesaremorehardy.Mostpeopleoptfordwarforsemidwarfapples,astheydon’thavetheroomfortwofull-sizedtreesanddon’twanttowait5to8yearsforfruit.Dwarfapplesshouldbear2to4yearsafterplanting;semidwarfsusuallybeginin3to5years.

UnderstandingRootstocks

Thereisreallynootherplantcropforwhichsomuchattentionispaidtotheroots!Almostanyappletreeyoubuyisgraftedontoarootstock.Themainreasonforthisistocontrolultimatetreesize(notfruitsize).Aparticularrootstockmayalsobeusedtomakeatreehardierormoretolerantofaparticularsoiltype,toconfersomepestordiseaseresistance,tocontrolsuckering,ortoprovidestrongrootsforbetteranchorageinwindyareas.Youdon’thavetoworryabouttherootstock—whatyoudoneedto

knowishowtallthetreeyou’rebuyingwillget,soyou’llknowhowmuchspaceitrequiresandhowmuchpruning.Learningabouttherootstockontowhichyourappleisgrafted,however,givesyouhelpfulinformation,suchaswhetheryou’llneedtostaketheyoungplant.Manyofthedwarfingrootstockshaveapoorrootsystemthatwon’tanchoratreewell,sotreesmaytoppleorleanifnotstaked.Ifarootstockissaidtosucker—producingvigorousshootsfromthebase—justplantitdeeper.Asyougetmoreinvolvedinapplegrowing,youcancustom-orderrootstockcombinationsfromspecialtynurseriesorevencreateyourowntreebygrafting.Youmayseetheterm“interstem,”whichreferstograftingthemain

cultivarontoastemsection,whichinturnisgraftedontotherootstock,

makingtwograftunions.Thepurposeistoimparttraitsofboth,suchasvigorandsoiladaptabilityfromarootstockandhardinessfromtheinterstem.Beforeclonedrootstockscameintoprominenceinthemiddleofthe

20thcentury,applecultivarsweregenerallygraftedontoseedlings.Thisisstillthenorminmanylesser-developedpartsoftheworld.SeedlingswerebroughttoNorthAmericabytheearlysettlers,andwereusedthroughthe1800s,evenafterdwarfingrootstockshadbeguntobeimported.Seedsweremostoftencollectedfromjuiceandprocessingoperations.Althoughtheymayresultinafairlyuniformstandoftrees,thosetreeswon’tbearasearlyorbeasproductivecomparedtoapplesgraftedontorootstocks.Afewnamedseedlingsarestillusedforgrafting,suchasAntanovka,usedinEuropeforcoldhardinessandtherecentNovolefromNewYork,whichshowssomeresistancetovoledamageandcertaindiseases.

Scionsofappletreecultivarsaregraftedontorootstocksthatareselectedforparticularqualities—mostoftensize,diseaseresistance,andhardiness.

PopularAppleRootstocks

SomecommonandpopularrootstocksareBud.9,M.7,M.9,M.26,andMM.111.Thedescriptionsbelowaregeneralizations;heightsinparticularwillvary.

Semidwarf(betweendwarfandstandardinsize,about15feettall)M.26:SlightlylargergrowingthanM.9butsmallerthanM.7;earlybearing;hardy;needsstaking;doesn’tgrowinwet/heavysoils;susceptibletofireblightandcrownrot;maynotbecompatiblewithsomecultivars;producesburrknotsM.7:Widelyusedsemidwarfstock;anchorsthetreewell;resistscrownrotandfireblight;leadstoproductivetrees;hardy;toleratesheavysoils;isearlybearing;tendstosuckerMM.111:Vigorous;oneoflargestofthesemidwarfsandmoreupright;drought-resistantandtolerateswetsoils,goodanchoring;resistsfireblight;producesburrknots

Dwarf(idealforhomegardens,50percentsmallerthanstandard,about10feettall)Budagovsky9(Bud.9orB.9):Productiveandveryearlytobear;needssupport;hardy;susceptibletodrought;suckers;resistanttopowderymildew,crownrot,andapplescab(butnottofireblight);popularwithbothgrowersandhomegardenersM.9:Productiveandearlytobear;needssupport;growswellinwell-drainedsoilsbuttoleratesheavysoils;suckers;resistanttocrownrotbutsusceptibletofireblightandaphids

Rootstocksareoftenincludedincatalogdescriptions.They’reidentifiedbyaname,oftenshortenedtoasingleletter,thatgivestheirorigin.Thismaybefollowedbyanidentifyingnumber.ThecommonMalling(pronouncedMAUL-ing)rootstocks,forexample,areindicatedbyM(sometimeslistedasEM),namedfortheEastMallingResearchStationinEngland.CrossesbetweentheseMallingcultivarsand‘NorthernSpy’weregiventheprefixMMafterajointeffortbetweenthe

JohnInnesHorticultureInstituteatMertonandEastMalling.EMLAsignifiesEastMalling/LongAshtonrootstocks.SeveralhavebeenreleasedfromtheGeneva,NewYork,agriculturalexperimentstation,whichyoumayseelistedeitherwiththeprefixGormorerecentlyCG(aneffortbetweentheU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureandCornellUniversity),suchasG.11andG.16.Ifyouwanttotryyourhandatgrafting,you’llneedtolearnmore

aboutrootstocksinordertoensurecompatibility.Forexample,togrowacultivarthatisn’tparticularvigorous,youshouldselectavigorousrootstock.Otherwise,you’llgetlittlegrowthorfruit.Ifyoupurchasetreesatanursery,youdon’tneedtoworryaboutrootstockcompatibility.

PlantingandCare

IFYOU’RECAREFULtofollowthegeneraldirectionsforplantingandgrowingfruittreesinchapter16,youshouldbepickingappleswithinafewyears.Aswithmostotherfruittrees,appleslikefullsunanddeep,well-drainedsoil.Don’tplantinalowarea;itmaycollectwaterandbepronetospringfrosts,whichwouldinjureflowerbuds.Ifyoursoilislessthandesirable,seekoutrootstocksforyourconditions;M.7andM.9,forexample,tolerateheavysoils.Setatreeinitsholesothegraftunionsits2to4inchesabovethe

soil(thehigherabovethesoil,themoredwarfinginfluencefromtherootstock).Ifthetreehasaninterstem(adoublegraft),setthetreesothatthelowergraft(whereinterstemjoinstherootstock)sits2to4inchesabovethesoil.Ifyouknowyourappletree’srootstockispronetosucker(suchasBud.9),plantthetreelower—withthegraftunionatsoillevel—toreducethistendency.

TIPSFORGROWINGAPPLES

•Selectasitewithwell-drainedsoilandgoodaircirculation.

•Choosecultivarsappropriateforyoursite(seepage140)

•Keepupwithpruninginthefirstfewyears,butmakeonlythecutsnecessarytodevelopacentralleaderandmain(scaffold)branches.

•Oncetreesbegintobear,pruneinlatewintertomaintainapyramidorconeshape,orforamoretoppedmodifiedleader,removeupperbranchesasneeded.

•Watchforpestsanddiseasesandtakeappropriatecontrolmeasures;adormantoilspraybeforebloomwillpreventmanyproblems.

•Practicegoodsanitationtominimizepest/diseaseproblems:keepthegroundclearoffallenleavesandfruit,andkeepthegrassmowed.

Stakingduringthefirst4or5yearswillhelptreesgetestablishedbetterandmorequickly.It’sanessentialprocedureforapplesgraftedontodwarfingrootstocksthatdon’tprovideadequateanchorage,suchasM.9andBud.9.

PruningApples

Applesaretheclassicsubjectforthecentralandmodifiedleadersystems(seechapter17).Pruningisslightlydifferentforspurandnon-spurapples.Spursareshort,stubbywrinkledstemsonabranch.Allapplestreeshavethem;sometypesproducemore,andmorecloselyspaced,spurs.Thesearereferredtoasspur-typeapples.Althoughspurscanlivemanyyears,theyonlydevelopflowerbudsthesecondyearandfruitbeginninginthethirdyear.Someapplesareidentifiedbythe“spur”viatheirname(‘Crimson

SpurRedDelicious’).Spurtypesproducemorefruitpersamelengthofbranchasanon-spurtypedoes.Botanicallyspeaking,they’restrains,generallymutationsofnormallygrowingcultivars.Aspur-typetreeisgenerallythree-quartersthesizeofthenon-spur

versionofthesamecultivar,soit’sagoodchoiceforasmallproperty.Italsoproducesfewerlimbs;thesebranchesareoftenstrongerandmoreverticalthanonanon-spurtype,sothetreetakesuplessspace.Abig

plusisthatwithfewerbranches,thesetreesrequirelesspruning,whichmakesthempopularwithhomegardenersaswellascommercialgrowers.

Spur-typeapplesmakefewerlimbsandthusrequirelesspruningthanaregulartreedoes;headbacksomebranchestoencouragemorespurstoform.

Non-spurappletreesproducetheirfruitsonspurstoo,justspacedapartalongthebranches;prunethesenormally.

PRUNINGTIPS

YoungAppleTrees

•Traintoacentralleader(seepage246).

•Removeuprightbranchesthatcompetewiththecentralleader.

•Intheearlyyears,identifythemainscaffoldbranches;removetheothers.

•Ifmostbranchesgrowupright,spreadsometomakehorizontalscaffolds(seepage246).

•Removediseased,damaged,dead,andrubbingbranches.

MatureAppleTrees•Switchtomodifiedcentralleaderpruningifyouwanttokeeptreeslower;notneededfordwarftrees(seepage246).

•Removemorefromtheupperportionthanfromthelower,toletinmorelight.

•Pruneofflimbsthatformnarrowanglestothetrunk.

•Ifatreeistootall,removewholeuprightlimbsfromthetop,flushwiththebarkoflowerhorizontallimbs.Note:Usethis“benchcut”sparingly.

•Eachyear,thinfruitsearlyintheseason(seepage257).

•Thinoutthelongestbranches;don’theadthemback.

•Prunespurtypeslessthanyouwouldotherapples;headbacksomebranchestopromotemorespurs.

•Removediseased,damaged,dead,andrubbingbranches.

Wheneveratreeproducestoomanyofthesespurs,snipoffsometoreducetheamountoffruitthinningyou’llneedtodolater.Toincreasethenumberofspursonabranch,shorten(headback)thebranch.Afteryouhavegrownthesetreesforafewyears,you’llbeabletojudgetherightamounttoleave,accordingtoeachtree’sstrengthandfruitproduction.

Afewapplecultivars(usuallyolderones,suchas‘GoldenRusset’)aretip-bearers,meaningtheyproducefruitatthetipsofshootsmorethan4incheslong.Forthetip-bearers,leavetheshootswithoutpruningiflastyear’sgrowthisunder9incheslong.Iflonger,prunebacktofourorfivehealthybuds.Thesewillgrowintoshootsthatwillfruitthefollowingyear.Someapplessuchas‘NorthernSpy’arepartialtip-bearers.Thatis,

theyproducefruitbothattipsandonspurs.Prunetheseasyouwouldaspur-typeapple.Tohelpayoungtreeputitsenergyintoforminggoodbranchesand

growth,removeallfruitthefirstcoupleofyears.Thethirdyear,removeallfruitfromonlythecentralleader.Thefourthyear,removesomeofthefruitsfromthewholetree,aprocesscalledthinning.Onceatreebeginsbearing,helpnaturethindevelopingapplesto

ensuregoodfruitsizeandquality.ThinaftertheJunedrop(seepage257)orwhenthey’rethesizeofadime;leaveonefruitperclusterand5to6inchesbetweenfruit.Thisisdifficultformanygrowerstodo,butitwillmakeadramaticimprovementinthesizeandqualityoftheharvest.Inaddition,you’llbeencouragingthetreetoproduceagoodcropeachyear,ratherthanthebiennialbearingmostapplesdoiflefttotheirowndevices.

PruningMatureAppleTrees

Removelimbsatnarrowanglestothetrunk.

Removebrokenorrubbingbranches.

Thinoutthelongestbranchesratherthanheadingback.

InsectsandDiseases

Appletrees,likeanyotherlivingthing,suffertheirshareoflife’sills.Asyoureadthelistofpotentialproblems,don’tbeoverwhelmed.Practicinggoodsanitationandchoosingdisease-resistantcultivarswillminimizeproblems.Keepaconstantwatchonyourorchard,andusecontrolmeasuresquicklybeforeaminoroutbreakofinsectsoradiseasethreatenstobecomeepidemic.Ifyougrowornamentalcrabapples,plantyourappletreesatleast100yardsfromthem,ifpossible,asthey’repronetosomeofthesamediseases.Themaininsectsappletreesaremostlikelytoencounterareapple

maggots,codlingmoths,and—intheEast—plumcurculios.Youmayalsoseeaphids,spidermites,sawflies,andSanJosescale.Descriptionsandcontrolsforallexceptapplemaggotsarediscussedinchapter18(beginningonpage261).Applemaggots,alsoknownasrailroadworms,areinmyopinion

amongthemeanestvillainsinthefruitworld,andmanyabeautifulcropofappleshasbeenwreckedbythesepersistentpests.Theycanreduceagood-lookingappletoapulpybrownmess.Aninsectcloselyresembling

asmallishhouse-flypiercestheskinofthegrowingfruitandlaysitseggsinthefruitflesh.Thenthelarvaehatch,ofteninlargenumbers,and“railroad”throughthefruit.Larvaeliveinapplesthatareleftonthegroundduringthefall,thenburrowundergroundforthewinter,readytoemergeasfliesthefollowingsummer.Sometimesyoucanseeswarmsofthesefliesbuzzingunderfruittreesinlatesummerinunsprayedorchards.Cleaningupalltheoldfruitandusingmaggottrapsprovidethebest

control.Thetrapsareredapple-shapedspheres,coatedwithastickysubstance,thatattractandcapturetheegg-layingfemales.Ifyouhaveonlyafewsmalltrees,bagindividualfruitsafterthinningtokeeptheinsectsfromreachingthem.Simplyplaceaplasticsandwichbagovereachfruit,securewithatwisttieorstaples,andpokeaholetoletwaterdrainout.Onlargertrees,bagtheapplesyoucanreachandleavetheupperonesfortheinsects.Iftheapplemaggotbecomesaseriousproblem,once-a-weeksprayingduringtheearlyandmiddlepartofthesummer(afterpetalfall)maybenecessary.Kaolinclayproductscanbesprayedonweekly,beginninginmidsummer,tohelpkeepawaytheseandotherapplepests.Ifpossible,controlthesepestsonotherhostswithinahalfmile,suchasotherfruittrees,crabapples,andornamentalhawthorns.

ASampleOrganicSprayScheduleforApples

Useasprayonlyifit’sessential,andalwaysfollowlabeldirectionseveniftheydifferfromtheguidelinesbelow.(Theexceptionisdormantoil,whichisappliedbeforepestsanddiseasesappear.)Thisscheduleisdesignedtocontrolthemaindiseases(applescabandpowderymildew,fortreesthataren’tresistant)andinsectpests(applemaggotsandcodlingmoth).Seechapter18fordescriptionsofthedevelopmentalstagesalongwithadditionalcontrolstrategies.

Thefourmaindiseasestowatchforonyourappletreesareapplescab,cedarapplerust,powderymildew,andfireblight.Fortunately,therearecultivarsresistanttosomeorallofthese.Descriptionsoftenmentionarangeofsusceptibility;cultivarsthataren’tcompletelyresistantmaytolerateadisease,sogenerallyyouwon’thavetospraythesetrees.Unsprayedtreesmaybesusceptibletoblackrotandsomeoftheotherfungaldiseasesdescribedinchapter18.Applescab,themostcommonappledisease,isafungusthatattacks

bothleavesandfruit.Itcausesolive-coloredandvelvetysplotchesonleaves,oftenmakingthemwarpedandcurly.Infectedfruitsarecoveredwithdark,hard,unsightlyblotchesandcracks.Fruitsthatbecomediseasedearlyintheseasonmayfallbeforematuring,andthosecontaminatedlaterareoftenunfittoeat.Scabusuallydoesn’tpresentaproblemiftheyearisdry,butinrainysummersyoumayneedtosprayfromsilver-tipstage(seepage282)untilafewweeksbeforeharvesttogethealthyfruit.Dormantoilsprayshelptopreventinfestationsofapplescab,butfungicidesarelikelytobetheonlywaytocontrolitthroughouttheseason.Becausescaboverwintersinapplesandinleavesontheground,carefulorchardsanitationhelpspreventthedisease.

Applemaggot

Bitterpit

Applescab

Cedarapplerust

Cedarapplerustistheworstofseveralruststhatinfectappletrees.Itattacksbothleavesandfruit,causingverynoticeableyellow-orangeraisedspotsontheundersidesofleaves,thenonfruit.Leaveswilldropifseverelyinfected.Tocompleteitslifecycle,thediseasemusthaveajuniperoraneasternredcedarnearby,soeliminatingthatplantcontrolsitcompletely.Ifthisisimpossible,youcancontrolitwithoneofthe

fungicidesrecommendedforthatpurpose.Silvertipthroughpetalfallarethebeststagesforcontrolwithfungicides.Bitterpitmaylooklikeadisease,butit’sactuallyaphysiological

problem.Itbeginsassmall,water-soakedspotsonfruits,eventuallyturningbrown,depressed,andspongybelowafteramonthortwoinstorage.Thisiscausedbyclimateandculturalpracticesthatleadtoacalciumimbalanceinfruit.Mostsusceptibleareyoungtreesjuststartingtobear,immaturefruit,andfruitonupright,leafybranchesratherthanonhorizontalwoodnearerthemainlimbs.Culturalpracticeswillhelp:don’tover-thinfruit,maintainadequatesoilmoisturebymulchingtreesandwateringwhenrainfallisscant,andrefrainfromover-pruningandoverfertilizing(bothcauseexcessiveshootgrowth).

Becausescaboverwintersinapplesandinleavesontheground,carefulorchardsanitationhelpspreventthedisease.

HarvestingandStoringApples

ASYOUMUSTWAITafewyearsforyourtreestoproduce,keepgoodrecordsofyourplantings.We’veheardofgardenerswholosttheirwholecropofluscious

yellowapplesbecausetheywerepatientlywaitingforthemtoturnred.Otherfriendspickedtheir‘Delicious’applestooearlybecausetheydidn’trealizethat“winter”(late-ripening)applesmuststayonthetreesforafewweeksaftertheybegintoshowcolorinordertodeveloptheirflavor.Afewlightfrostsdon’thurtthesehard-fleshedapplesabit.Thisraisesanimportantquestion.Whenisanappleripeenoughfor

picking?Ifitseparateseasilyfromthetree,itshouldbeready.Ifyou’repickingapplesthatareslightlyunripe,graspanappleinyourpalm,thenliftsidewaysandupward,twistingabitwhiledoingso.Becarefulnottobreakoffanyspursthatwillproducenextyear’sfruit.Asapplesripen,theyoftenchangecoloroutsideandthefleshbecomeslessgreenandmorewhiteoryellow.Ifyou’reuncertain,cutopenanapple.Iftheseedsarestillwhite,it’snotripe,sowaituntiltheseedsturnbrown.Thebest

indicatoriswhenanappletastescrispandjuicyandsweet.Youcanuseapplesforcookingbeforethey’refullyripe.Sometimes

youjustcan’twaitforthatfirstpieordishofapplesauce—andraccoons,birds,anddeerdon’twaiteither.Infact,ifyouplantostorethem,dopickapplesbeforethey’refullyripe.Somecultivarsripentheirfruitsmoreorlessallatonce;otherscall

forseveralpickings.Amongthosethathaveashortharvestseasonare‘Baldwin’,‘Cortland’,‘McIntosh’,and‘NorthernSpy’.Thosethatripenoveralongerseasonareespeciallygoodhomevarieties,asyouwon’thavetouseallthefruitatonce.Amongtheseare‘Gravenstein’,‘Jonathan’,‘Wealthy’,and‘Winesap’.Inmostareas,earlyapplesripenbeginninginAugust;lateapples,in

October.Inwarmerclimates,earlycultivarsmayripenasearlyasJuneorJulyandthelateonesinNovember.Mostapplesripenoveraperiodof10daystoweeks,butsome—‘Cortland’,‘RedDelicious’,‘NorthernSpy’,and‘GrannySmith’,forexample—ripenoverabout3weeks.Washandrefrigeratesoonafterpicking,asappleswillripenmuch

morequicklywhenthey’releftatroomtemperature.Ripeapplesshouldlast4to6weeksintherefrigerator.Early-ripeningapplesandthosedescribedas“soft”generallydon’tstoreaswellasthelater-ripeningcultivarsdo.Whiletheearly‘Lodi’maystoreforupto2weeks,somelatercultivars(‘Cortland’,‘McIntosh’,‘RedDelicious’and‘GoldenDelicious’)keepforupto4months.Afewapples—‘Winesap’,‘Rome’,and‘GrannySmith’—canlastupto5months.Forlong-termstorage,keepapplesinaspotwithhighhumidityandtemperaturesbelow40°F.

ChoosingAppleCultivars

ACENTURYAGO,ifyouwantedtobuyappletrees,you’dhavehadatremendousselectionfromwhichtochoose—some700cultivarsinallshapesandcolors.Therewereagreatmanynurseriessellingthem,andeachstockedallthelocalfavorites.Inthe1950s,whenIfirstwentscoutingfortrees,mostcatalogslistedonlyhalfadozencommercialvarieties,whichneededalotofspraying(atleastinNewEngland)andalonggrowingseason.Now,becauseofincreaseddemandandmore

breeding,theselectionisevenbetter,especiallyforsmallerhomegardens.Oneestimatehas2,500applecultivarsintheUnitedStatesalone,and7,500worldwide.

HowManyApplesCanYouUse?

Amaturedwarftreeshouldyield1to6bushelsofapples.Amaturesemidwarfwillproduce4to10bushels.Expect8to18bushelsfromamaturestandardtree.Abushelaverages40to42pounds;1poundisapproximatelytwolarge,threemedium,orfourorfivesmallapples.Tohelpfigurewhatyou’llneedtomakeaparticularrecipe,1poundofapplespeeledandcutorslicedyieldsabout3cups,sofigureon2poundsofapplesforastandard9-inchpie.Abushelofapplesshouldbeenoughfor20piesor12to18quartsofapplesauceorfrozenslices.Oncesliced,applesrapidlyturnbrown(afewcultivarsare

exceptions).Eatsliceswithinacoupleofhours,orrefrigeratetobeusedlater.Todelaythediscoloring,soakslicesinamixof1partlemonjuiceto3partswater,orapplejuicefortifiedwithvitaminC.Youcouldalsouseacommercialanti-browningproductsuchasascorbicacid.Forlongerstorage,freezeordryslices.Soakasabovetoprevent

browningpriortodryingorfreezing.Spreadslicesonabakingsheet,freeze,thenpackintofreezerbagsorcontainers.Makesureyourcontainersaredesignedforfreezing;otherplasticsmayallowmoisturetoenter.Wheneverarecipecallsforfreshapplesthatwillbecooked,youcansubstitutethefrozenones.Wethawtheminamicrowaveovenjustenoughtobeabletobreakthemapart.Youcanalsosoakslicesinasugarandwatersyrup(2–3cupsof

sugar,dependingontaste,to4cupsofwater),thenfreezebothsyrupandslices.Don’taddmoresugar,asthiswillspoiltheirnaturalflavorandcrisptexture.Withamicrowave,youcanquicklyturnappleslicesinsyrupinto

applesauce:Thaw,adjustsugartotaste,addsomecinnamon(optional),andcookonhighpoweruntiltheslicesaresoft.Some

applecultivars,suchas‘Cortland’and‘Empire’,makeachunkiersauce;‘McIntosh’anditsrelativesmakeasmoothersauce.Tomakeasmoothsauce,processinablender;forachunkysauce,useapotatomasherinstead.Usingatleastsomeredapples,skinon,producesapinksauce.Fordrying,dehydratorsworkbest,andtheslicesshouldbethin.

Useyourfavoritecultivar,ortrymixingseveralfordifferentflavors.Tousedriedslices,simmerinboilingwaterfor5minutestoreconstitute;useacupofwaterforeachcupoffruit.Oryoucansoakslicesinfruitjuices,eveninfruitliquors.

Heirlooms

Specialtynurseriesareonceagainpropagatingold-timeapples,whichareoftenreferredtoasheirlooms,heritageapples,andantiqueapples.There’snorealdefinitionofwhatconstitutesanheirloom:thenamecandesignateanoldercultivar,oronegrown50or100yearsago,oroneavailablenowbutnotgrowncommercially.Manyplacesshowcasearegion’sheirlooms.TheTowerHillbotanicgardeninMassachusetts,forexample,boastsheirloomsdatingfrombefore1900.Whateverthedefinition,heirloomsareworthsearchingoutfortheiruniqueflavorsandqualities(seetheappendixforsources).

BackyardGrowing

Experimentstationsaredevelopingcultivarsespeciallysuitedforhomeculture.Thesearebredforgoodflavorinadditiontodiseaseresistance,adaptability,andotherdesirabletraits.Catalogdescriptionsaresoglowingthatyoualmostdreadmakingachoiceforfearofmissingoutonsomethingbetter.Agoodplacetostartisyourlocalnurseries,astheyshouldknowwhatgrowsandproducesbestwhereyougarden.Acultivarmaygrowwellinanumberofregionsbutproducebetter-tastingfruitincertainclimates.‘McIntosh’,forexample,developsbestwheretherearewarmfalldaysandcoolnights,asintheupperNortheast;‘Jonathan’,ontheotherhand,developsbestwheretemperaturesarewarmafterbloom,asinthecentralstates.

Type

Typeisavaguewordthatmayrefertotreesize,suchasdwarf,oruse,suchasforcooking.Inconjunctionwithcultivars,itgenerallyreferstoasportormutationthathasbeenselectedforbetterfruitcolor,fruitshapeortexture,orothertrait—diseaseresistance,forexample—andclonallypropagated.Thewordstrainisemployedinasimilarfashion.Someappleswiththemoststrainsare‘Delicious’,‘Fuji’,and‘Gala’;somewherebetween40and100strainsof‘Delicious’alonehavebeenselected.Youmayseehybridslistedastypestoo.Forinstance,‘Macoun’isthe

resultofacrosswithMcIntoshasaparent,and‘Liberty’isfromacrosswith‘Macoun’.Bothmaybelistedas‘McIntosh’types.Whenlookingatcommoncultivarsinacatalogoratanursery,theymaydifferdependingonthetypeorstrainbeingsold.Ifyour‘McIntosh’appleisdifferentfromyourneighbor’sorfromfruityouboughtatthesupermarket,theymaybedifferentstrains.

‘Jonathan’isatartheirloomapplethatdatesto1862.

CulturalAdaptation

Whendecidingwhattogrow,lookforhardinessorsuitabilityforyourregion,resistancetodiseases,andfloweringtimes.Ifyou’rejuststartingout,askothergardenersorprofessionalswhichdiseasesareprevalentin

yourareaandwhatcultivarsareknowntogrowwellthere.Remembertoselectcultivarswithsimilarfloweringtimes,which

maybelistedasapollinationgroup.Ifyoudon’tseethisinformationincultivardescriptions,asktomakesurethetreesyoubuywillcross-pollinate.Alsonotewhetherthetreesbearannuallyoreveryotheryear(biennial-bearingoralternate-bearing),soyou’llknowwhattoexpect,althoughyoucanmodifythistendencywithcarefulpruning.Someapplesthattendtobeargoodcropsannuallyandareeasytopruneandcareforare‘Empire’,‘GoldenDelicious’,and‘Liberty’.

TasteandUse

Flavorisanimportantconsiderationinchoosingfruits.Becauseflavorisapersonalpreference,recommendingoneoveranotherissubjective.Foreatingfresh(sometimescalleddessertapples),somepeoplelikesoftfruitandothersliketheirapplesalmostashardasarock.Somelikeaslightlysweetflavor;othersclaimtoeatonlytheverysourkinds.Thentherearethosewhoholdoutforjuicyoverdry,mealyinsteadofcrisp,andhaveanopinionaboutallsortsoftextures,aromas,andotherqualitiestheyfeelmakeanappleperfect.Surveyshaveshownthatconsumersvaluebothflavorandcrispness.Ifyou’dliketosampleanapplebeforebuyingatree,manycultivarsareavailableatcountryroadsidestandsandfarmers’marketsinthefall.AlargevarietyofapplesisalsoavailablefortastingandevaluatingfromApplesource(seeResources).Trytodetermineaheadoftimehowyou’llusetheapples,assome

arebesteatenfresh,othersaregreatforbaking(seechart),stillothersarewellsuitedformakingcider.Thewordsciderandjuiceareoftenusedinterchangeably,althoughgrowersusethetermcidertorefertotheliquidfrompressedapples,nosugarorwateradded.Foratart,tangycider,consider‘Cortland’,McIntosh,and‘Idared’;crabapplesimpartmoreastringency.Forasweetcider,try‘RedDelicious’or‘GoldenDelicious’and‘Empire’.‘Jonathan’and‘Baldwin’makeamorearomaticcider.Ifyougroworhaveaccesstosomeofthesecultivars,trydifferentcombinationsforaciderwithmoredepthofflavor.Eachfall,ourhomebrewingclub(innorthernVermont)teamsup

withalocalorchardforaspecialapplepressing.Althoughtheirgoalisfermentedhardcider,Ifinditsomeofthebesttastingfreshcider

withoutthisnextstep.Someoftheclubexpertsgotwithsomeofthetopcidermakersintheregiontodeviseaformula,akeybeinglotsofcultivars.Therecipehasvariedovertheyears,butingeneralit’s2or3partseach(byvolume)of‘Liberty’,‘NorthernSpy’,‘IdaRed’,‘Cortland’,and‘McIntosh’.Manyothercultivarshavebeenused,includingcrabapplesandheirlooms,butingeneraleachyearhashadinadditionatleast1parteachof‘Tolman’,‘Greening’,‘Empire’,‘Jonagold’,and‘Russet’.

Perhapsoneoftheeasiestwaystouseupalargeappleharvestistomakecider.

Applesbakedwithraisins,walnuts,andmaplesyrupmakeforasimple,wholesomedessert.

AppleCultivars

Inthefollowingchartyou’llseeinformationaboutsomeofthemanyapplecultivarsnowavailable.Checkcatalogsandonlinesourcesformoredetailsontheseandhundredsmore.Note:Fruitcolorreferstotheskin.Hereareotherexplanationsfortheinformationinthechart.

PollinationGroup.Whichcultivarsbloomatthesametimeforcross-pollination:early(A),midseason(B),late(C).Bloomstimesusuallyoverlap,soonefromgroupAlikelywillpollinateonefromgroupBbutnotfromgroupC.Self-fruitful(SF)cultivarswillproducesomeapplesifyouplantasingletree,butwillyieldbetterwithcross-pollination.Someappleshavesterilepollen(SP);thesecan’tbeusedtopollinateanothercultivar.

Comments.Usuallyrefertouses.Mostofthesearemultipurposeapples,goodforeatingfreshorinbaking.Youmaycomeupwithotherwaystoutilizethem:forexample,somelistedforbakingmaymakebetterpiefillings;othersarebetterforapplesauce.

Regions.AllvarietiesarehardytoZone5unlessnotedotherwise.Most

appleswilldowellinmanylocations,butsomethriveinaparticularclimateoraremorepopularinaparticularregion.Whereapplesarepronetodiseases,paycloseattentiontodisease-resistantcultivars.N=NortheastandnorthernMidwest;M-A=mid-Atlantic;S=South;M=centralandLowerMidwestandPlains;NW=NorthwestandtemperatepartsoftheWest.

Low-ChillApplesforWarmClimates

TheseapplesareespeciallysuitableformanypartsofFlorida,southernCalifornia,thehillsoftheSouthwest,andsimilarclimates,althoughmanywillgrowwellelsewheretoo.Mostaregoodforbothfresheatingandbaking;‘WinterBanana’and‘YellowBellflower’arealsogoodforcider.Note:Thechillrequirement(hoursbelow45°F)isapproximate.

CrabApplesforEating

Oneortwocrabapplesareagoodadditiontoanyhomeorchard,notonlyfortheirfruitandbeauty,butbecausethey’reexcellentpollinatorsforappletrees.Forcross-pollination,mostanywilldo,aslongastheybloomatthesametimeasyourapples.Ifyouwanttousethefruit,however,you’llhavetobemoreselective.Mostediblecrabapplesareornamentalaswell.Ornamentalcrabappleshavesmallfruitwithlesspulpandtendtobemuchtarter.Thefreshfruitofmostcultivarsisabitsourformostpeople’staste,

butitmakesthemostbeautifuljelly,spicedapples,andjuice(cider).Thecultivarslistedbelowasgoodforfresheatingaretheleasttart.Crabapplesalsomakeniceapplebutter.Theprocesswasquiteafull-dayordealuntiltheadventofslowcookers.Whenchoosingcrabapples,lookfordiseaseresistance.Beingclose

relativesofapples,theygetthesamediseases.Asusceptiblecrabapplecanserveasareservoirforadiseasethatwillaffectyourappletrees.Plantappletreesatleast100yardsfromornamentalcrabapples.Ifyou

areplantingacrabapplethatwillalsoservetopollinateapples,you’llneedtoplantthemcloser,somakesuretochooseadiseaseresistantcultivar.Ourfavoritecrabappleis‘Dolgo’,whichwasimportedfromRussiain

thelate1800sandissometimesdescribedastheperfectfruittree.Notonlyisitbeautifullyshaped,vigorous,pestresistant,regularbearing,andlikelytofruitearlyinlife,butit’salsoquitehardy.Theflowersresistfrostbetterthandothoseofmostfruittrees,andthetreeisaprolificproducer.Liketheothercrabapples,‘Dolgo’isagoodpollinator,althoughitmaystartbloomingafewdaysaheadofsomeofthelargeapples.Thelargewhitebloomsofour‘Dolgo’aresoabundantthattheyhidetheleaves,makingthetreeamassofwhitebeautyinthespring.Inearlyfall,it’sredwithripeningfruit.

Hereareafewpopularcrabapplesgrownfortheirfruit.Somenot

notedasresistantmaystilltolerateaparticulardisease.

CrabAppleCultivars

Itmaybeeasiertomanageaharvestofpearsthananyotherkindoffruit;they’repickedgreen,stored,andcanberipenedasthey’reneeded.

CHAPTER10

Pears

TwodaysafterChristmasoneyear,Ifoundapartridgeinthepeartreeinourbackyard.EventhoughthreeFrenchhensandtwoturtledovesneverdidappear,itseemedlikeaspecialholidayhappening,andanotherofthemanyunexpecteddelightsofgrowingyourownfruit.Asoft,juicy,ripepearisoneofthefinestfruits.Iconsideritthe

perfectdessertfruit,andafruitsaladorbowlwithoutitismissingsomething.Notonlyisitdeliciousraw,butit’salsooneofthefewfruitsthattastenearlyasgoodcannedastheydofresh.Infact,unlikemostotherfruits,ittastesbettercannedthanfrozen.Mostpears(Pyrusspecies)growninNorthAmericaoriginatedin

southwesternEurope.TheycametoAmericawiththeearliestsettlersandweregrowninSalem,Massachusetts,asearlyas1635.Theygrowbestincoolerclimatesonheavysoils.Ifyouaren’tblessedwithwell-drainedsoilsoryougardenonclay,takeheart:Yoursoilmaystillgrowgreatpears!

Nowthatmanyfireblight–resistantcultivarsareavailable,pearsareeasiertogrowthanapples.It’seasiertoproducequalityfruitwithoutspraying.Plus,youcangetbywithlesspruning.Ontheotherhand,ifyoulikepruning,pearsareeasytotrainasespaliers.Thetreesareattractiveinthelandscape,withprettyspringblossomsandglossyleaves.Pearsarehardierthanpeachesbutsomearelesshardythanapples.

CultivarssoldinnurserycatalogsaregenerallysuitableforZones5through8,althoughafewwillgrowinZones3and4.Almostallpearsneedaperiodoflowtemperatureduringthewinter(generally500to800chillhoursbelow45°F).Onlyafewaresuitableforthenearlyfrost-freeareasofFloridaandCalifornia;Asianpearsarebetterfortheseareas.

TwoDistinctTypesofPears

EUROPEANPEARSarewhatmostpeoplethinkofwhentheythink“pear.”Thesefruitsgiveusthedescription“pear-shaped”andwhenripehaveajuicy,butterytextureandsweetflavor.Unlikeotherfruits,theseshouldbepickedbeforethey’refullyripeandmustcompletetheirripeningoffthetree.Thedeliciousandversatile‘Bartlett’isstillthemostpopularpearin

NorthAmericaaswellasinEurope,whereit’sknownastheWilliamspearaftertheEnglishnurserymanwhooriginallyintroducedit.Itaccountsfor75percentofcommercialproductionthroughouttheworld.Somecultivarstakealongtime—sometimes8years—tobeartheirfirstcrop,butotherstendtobearwhenquiteyoung.Asianpearshavebecomeincreasinglypopular.Likeotherpears,they

makeniceornamentaltreesgrowingtoabout20feettall,withlarge,shinygreenleavesthatturnanicepurplishredinfall.Asianpeartreesstartbearingafterjustacoupleofyearsandproducemorefruitthanothersdo.UnlikeEuropeanpears,pickthesewhenthey’refullyripe;they’llstorequitewell.Theirfruitisgenerallylargerandmorerounded,withcrispfleshand

asweet,juicyflavor.(Anothernameforthemis“applepears”).Japanesecultivarsmayhaveasmoothorrusseted(roughwithbrowning)skin.SomeoftheChinesetypesproducesmooth,greenishfruitswithamildflavorandmoreofapearshape;theyalsotendtohavebetterresistancetofireblight.

PearFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:(4)5–8,dependingoncultivar

Height:Standard,15–30feet;dwarf,6–8feet

Spacing:Standard,15–20feet;dwarf,8–10feet

Pollination:Needtwodifferentcultivars

Pruning:Latewinter,centralleader;mayswitchtomodifiedleaderwhen8–10feettall

Specialrequirements:Thinyoungfruits;harvestbeforefullyripe

Yearstobearing:Standard,4–6;dwarf,3–5;Asian,2–3

Yieldpertree(bushels):Standard,2–8;dwarf,1–2;Asian,5–10

DifferingTraitsofEuropeanandAsianPears

StandardorDwarf?

Whenyougoshoppingforpears,you’llfindthatthey’reavailableaseitherstandardordwarftrees.Standardsproducemuchmorefruitpertreethandwarfsdo,butdwarfsbegintobearearlier,needlessroom,andareeasiertocarefor.Usually,dwarfsaregraftedonquincerootstocks,whichresultsinamaturetree30to50percentofnormalsize.Thesedwarfsarenotashardy;incoldclimates,checkhardinessbeforeyoubuy.Standardtreesaregraftedontopearseedlings(usuallyeither‘Bartlett’orCallerypear,Pyruscalleryana).Calleryrootstocksimpartgoodresistancetofireblight.

PollinationMatters

Itissafesttoassumethatallpearsneedcross-pollinationformaximumyield.Afew,including‘Bartlett’and‘FlemishBeauty’,aresomewhatself-fertile.Thesearegoodchoicesifyouwanttoplantjustonepear.‘Magness’,ontheotherhand,hassterilepollenandcan’tpollinateotherpears.Evenpearsthatareself-pollinatingproducemorefruitwhenthey

grownearadifferentcultivar.Ingeneral,iftwodifferentcultivarsbloomatthesametime,they’llcrosseffectively.‘Bartlett’and‘Seckel’areanexceptiontothisrule;apparently,they’resociallyincompatibleandneedathirdkindtopollinatethemwhenplantedtogether.AsianpearsappeartomatebestwithotherAsiankinds,orwithanearly-bloomingstandardpear.Becausepearsbloomearly(1to3weeksbeforeapples),poor

pollinationisnotuncommon,especiallyduringcold,wetsprings.SomeyearsI’vehadtoresorttohand-pollinationinordertosaveourcrop

whenthebeesfailedtoappearduringbloomtime.Inadditiontoweatherinterference,beesmayneglectpearbloomsbecausethenectarhaslesssugarthanthatofplumsorcherries,andthisisparticularlycriticalbecausetheblossomsstayonthetreeforaveryshorttime.Orchardistswhokeepbeesoftenplaceafewpearbloomsinsideahivetoencouragethebeestovisittheirtrees.Astronghiveintheneighborhoodinspringisaninvaluableassettoanyorchardandisespeciallybeneficialforpeargrowers.

PlantingandCare

PEARTREEScantoleratemoremoistureinthesoilthaneitherappleorpeachtreescan,buttheydon’tliketheirrootsunderwaterformorethan2or3days.Theythriveincool,moist,cloudyweather,whichiswhytheydosowellinthePacificNorthwest.Theyalsoloveathickorganicmulchsuchasshreddedbark.Exceptfor‘Bartlett’and‘Seckel’,theydon’tcareforsandy,lightsoils.

Thesepearshavebeenprunedandtrainedtogrowupoveranarbor,sothatthedevelopingfruithangsdownforharvestfrombelow.

Plantpearsasforotherfruittrees(seechapter16).Careissimilar,butpearsarevigorousgrowers,sogolightlyonthefertilizer.Anexcess

ofnutrients,especiallynitrogen,promoteslushgrowththatinvitesfireblightandaphidinfestations.

Pruning

Atfirst,pearpruningissimilartoapplepruning.Intheirearlyyears,traintreestoacentralleader,thenswitchtoamodifiedleaderastheymature(seepage246).Peartreestrainedtoacentralleaderwillyieldmoreandsoonerthanonetrainedtoamodifiedcentralleader.Beingtaller,though,theywillbemoredifficulttomanage.Whentherearesufficientscaffoldbranchesandtreesareagoodheight(8to10feettall),cutbacktheleadertotheuppermostlateraltobeginthemodified-leadershape.Whenselectingscaffoldbranchesonyoungtrees,inadditiontohavingthemspacedaroundthetrunk,allowafootverticallybetweenbranchesondwarftreesand2feetbetweenthemonstandardtrees.

TIPSFORGROWINGPEARS

•Selectasitewithgoodaircirculation.Pearstolerateless-than-perfectsoildrainage.

•Choosefireblight–resistantcultivars;plantatleasttwodifferentcultivarsthatwillpollinateeachother.

•Inearlyyears,traintoacentralleader;spreaduprightbranchessothey’llgrowhorizontally.

•At8–10feettallwithgoodscaffoldbranches,headbacktheleadertobeginamodifiedleadershape;don’tover-prunematuretrees.

•Thinfruitclusterswhenfruitsare½inchwide.

•Harvestbeforefullyripe(exceptAsianpears);ripeninacoolspotatforatleast1week,asneeded.

Trainyoung,flexiblebranchestogrowatawider,strongerangletothetrunkbyattachingsmallweightsorusingwoodenspacers.Thiswillencourageverticalbranchestogrowatmoreofa60-degreeangle.

Afterthetreeshavebeguntobear,pearsneedlesspruningthanappletreesdo:removeonlyamoderateamountofbrancheseachyear.Bearingonspurs,as3-to10-year-oldapplesdo,pearsareacommonfruittreefortrainingasespaliers(seepage253).Ifyou’regrowingcultivarsthataren’tresistanttofireblight,prune

evenlesstoreducetheriskofthisdisease.Thinlimbsasneeded,butminimizeheadingback;thisresultsinaprofusionoftendergrowthmoresusceptibletofireblight.Somegrowersleavemultipleleaders,tohavereplacementsincasethecentralleadersuccumbstofireblightandmustbecutoff.Aspearstendtogrowmoreuprightthanapples,inearlyyearsyou

mayneedtointervenetoencouragesidebranchestodevelopwide,strongangles.Inlateryearstheweightofthefruitwilldothis.Tospreadbranches,hangweightsfromthem,usenotchedstickstoseparatebranchesfromthetrunk,oruseclothespinsonyoungandflexible

branchesasyoumightforcherries(seepage187).Thinningisespeciallyimportanttogetpearsofadecentsize.

Otherwise,toomanywillform,resultinginsmallfruits,excessiveweightthatmaybreakbranches,andalowyieldthefollowingyear(alternateorbiennialbearing).Ascodlingmothsprefertolayeggsinfruitsthataretouching,thistaskwillreducedamagefromthispest.Thinoutthefruitswhenthey’resmall,about½inchwide.Allowonlyonefruitinaclustertoremain,leavingonefruitevery5or6inchesalongabranch.It’sespeciallyimportanttothinAsianpears,astheirfruitsareheavy.‘Seckel’,asmall-fruitedEuropeanpear,seldomneedsthinning.

Thinyoungpearsforthelargestmaturefruit,toavoidbranchesbreaking,tolesseninsectdamage,andtopromotefruitingeveryyear.

DiseasesandInsects

Byfarthemostserioustroubleencounteredbypeartreesisfireblight.Thisstrikestheflowers,limbs,andfruits,allofwhichturnblack,asthoughtheyhadbeenburned.Ifyouplantresistantcultivars,youprobablywon’thavetoworryaboutthisdisease.Lightpruningandminimalfertilizergoalongwaytodecreasingtheriskofinfection.Bacterialblossomblastcanbeaproblemonpearsincold,wet

springsinthePacificNorthwest.Itshowsupundercold,wetconditionselsewhere,too,andcanalsoaffectapples.Blossomsturnbrown,shrivel,andclingtothetrees.Itcankillthetipsofshoots,causingsymptomssimilartofireblight,butdamagedoesnotextendasfardowntheshoot.Affectedbarkistanandpapery,unlikethedarkshootsthataretheresultoffireblight,anditdoesn’tproducetheoozingsapthatfireblightcauses.Thisdiseaseisinterestinginthatitspresencemakesflowersmoresusceptibletofreezedamage,andonceflowersarefrostdamagedthediseasecanspreadmoreeasily.Frostprotectionisabouttheonlycontrol.Othercommonpeardiseasesareanthracnose,canker,crowngall,

leafspot,powderymildew,andscab.Fordescriptionsofthesediseasesandtheirremedies,seechapter18.

Theinsectsthatattackthepeararesimilartothosethatbotherotherfruits.Codlingmothiscommon,asareSanJosescaleandspidermitesinsomeareas.Thepearslug,whichisactuallythelarvaofasawfly,mayalsopayavisittoyourpeartrees;controlasforothertypesofsawflies.Theseinsectsarealsodiscussedinchapter18.Pearpsyllaisperhapsthemostbothersomepearpest.Agangofthese

small,aphidlikeinsectscansooncoatatreeanditsfruitswiththestickyhoneydewsecretion,onwhichblacksootymoldgrows.Ifsevere,shootswiltandleavesdrop.Naturalparasitesinanunsprayedorchardmayprovidegoodcontrol.Otherwise,youmayneedtouseadormantoilspraybeforeleavesemergeinspring,orsprayaninsecticidalsoapafterbloom(followlabeldirections).

Fireblight

Pearpsylla

HarvestingPears

UNLIKEOTHERFRUITS,Europeanpearsmustbepickedearlyandneverallowedtoripenonthetree.Ifyouwaittoharvestpearsuntilthey’reperfectlyripe,theydevelophard,grittycellsinthefleshandbegintorotinside,astheyripenfromtheinsideout.Manyhomegrownpearsarelostbecausepeoplewaittoolongbeforepickingthem.Daysfrombloomtopickingvarydependingonthecultivar,ranging

from110to130for‘Clapp’sFavorite’and‘Bartlett’,120to140for‘Seckel’,and170to190for‘Kieffer’.Thosesuchas‘Bartlett’anditssportsthatarepickedinsummerinCaliforniaarecalledsummerpears;thosepickedinearlyfallforusethenintowinterarecalledwinterpears.Examplesofthelatterare‘Anjou’,‘Bosc’,‘Comice’,and‘Seckel’.Begintoharvestassoonasthefruitiswelldeveloped,separates

easilyfromthetreewithagentleupwardtwist,yetisn’tquitereadytoeat.Leavethestemonthefruit.Pickpearswithextremecare,becauseifyoudamagethedelicateskinofEuropeanpears,thefruitwillspoil

quickly.Asharpfingernailcanbedevastating.

Pearslendthemselvestoallkindsofdesserts:intartsandcrumbles,orsimplypoachedwithapinchofsaffron.Theycanalsobepreservedinbuttersandchutneysandaspearsauce.

Earlycultivarsmayneedacoupleofpickingsoveraweek;mid-andlate-seasoncultivarscanusuallybepickedallatonce.‘Colette’isunusualinthatitripensoveralongperiod,similartoAsianpears.Becauseyou’llbeharvestingAsianpearswhenthey’refullyripe,

watchforagradualcolorchange,andtasteacoupleoftimesaweek.Asianpearsdon’tripenallatonce,soyou’llneedtoharvestseveraltimesover2to3weeks.Ifyoupickbeforethey’reripe,they’lldevelopaspongytextureinstorage.Pearskeepbestinhomestorageifyouwrapeachoneintissuepaper

orasheetofnewspaperandstoretheminacoolplace(30–45°Fisideal)freeofodors(asfromonions).They’llbereadytoeatanytimefromaweektoacoupleofmonthslater,dependingonthekind.Winterpearsoftenhavebetterflavorandtexturewithlongerstorage,andwillkeepinthefridgeforatleastamonth;‘Bartlett’andothersummerpearsstorewellfor2to3weeks.

Forthebestfull,mellowflavor,allowthemtoripenatroomtemperatureforafewdaysafteryouremovethemfromcoldstorage.Ifyoupushonthestemendwithyourthumbanditmakesaslightdent,thefruitisreadytoeat.Summerpearsturnlighterastheyripen;winterpearsdon’tchangecolor.Oncefullyripe,pearslastforabout5daysinacoolspot.Fromamaturestandardtree,expectanywherefrom2to8bushelsof

fruit;fromadwarftree,1or2.Abushelofpearsyields20to25quartscannedor40to50pintsfrozen;figureonabout2½poundsofpearsforaquartcannedorfrozen.Inadditiontocanningandfreezing,thebuttery-flavoredpearcanbe

processedinmanydeliciousways.Atypicallysouthernuseispear“honey,”inwhichpearsarecombinedwithpineapplejuice,lemons,limes,ginger,orcoconutandcookeddownuntilthemixturehasthelookandfeelofhoney.Thentherearetastypearconserves,chutneys,pickles,butters,andnectars.Weliketopeelandcutfreshpearsintohalvesandtopwithvanillaicecream,chocolate,whippedcream,andafreshcherry.InEurope,largeamountsarepressedintoanalcoholiccidercalled...whatelse?Perry!ThisisbecomingmorepopularinNorthAmericanow,solookforit,orifyoulikemakingwineorapplecider,trythisinaddition.

PearCultivars

Thefollowinglistcontainssomeofthemorepopularcultivars.‘Kieffer’,‘Orient’,and‘Pineapple’arelow-chillEuropeanpearsformildclimates.‘FlemishBeauty’and‘Luscious’areamongthehardiest,forZone4andperhapsZone3.OthersaregenerallysuitableforgrowinginZones5–8.AsianpearsgenerallygrowwellinZones5to9.

UnusualTreeFruit:Quince

Althoughthequince(Cydoniaoblonga)isalesscommontreefruit,ithasadmirerswhopraiseithighly.Fromcolonialtimesthroughtheearlytwentiethcentury,homelandscapesoftenhadoneofthesenativesofPersia.Itshouldnotbeconfusedwithfloweringquince(Chaenomelesspecies),anornamentalshrubwhosesmallseedyfruitsaregoodonlyforjelly.Thewell-behavedtreesaresmall—usuallyunder15feettall—andhavearathertwistedhabitofgrowth.Theirlargewhitespringblooms,interestingform,andbrightyellowfruitsmakethemanattractiveadditiontothehomelandscape.Youcanplantjustone,asquincesareoneofthefewtreefruitsthat

aretrulyself-pollinating.Thoughtheybearmorewithapartnernearby,thetreesaresoproductivethatonetreecaneasilysupplyallthefruitthatanaveragefamilyneedsorwants.ThisfruittreeisusuallyhardyintoZone5,butneedsalonggrowingseasonforfruitstoripen;fortunately,alightfrostwon’tharmthem.Quincetreesbloomafterthe

apples,soifthey’llgrowinyourclimate,there’snotmuchdangerofspringfrostdamagetoflowers.Quincefruitresembleseitheralargepearoracrossbetweenapear

andanapple.Thefleshisquitefirm,andtheskiniscoveredwithaslightfuzz.Ithasanunusualflavorandscent,somewhatresemblingpineapplesorafloralperfume.Outdoors,theodormakesitattractivetowildlife.Theodorissopronounced,infact,thatit’sneverwisetoputitintherefrigeratororleaveitnearotherfruitsbecausethey’llsoontakeonthesamesmell.Perhapsthatiswhyit’slittlegrowncommerciallyandrarelyfoundinstoresorfruitmarkets.Growquincemuchasyouwouldpears.Unlikemostotherfruittrees,

quincecangrowandproducewellyearafteryearwithlittlepruning,althoughyoushouldremovecrossedlimbsandanydeadordiseasedwood.Thetreesthriveinsoilssimilartothoseenjoyedbypearsandarebotheredbythesamediseasesandinsects,withthesamesusceptibilitytofireblight.They’renaturallyslow-growingtrees,sodon’tbetemptedtooverfertilizethem,asthismakesthemevenmorevulnerabletofireblight.Althoughslow,theyhavealonglife,usually50yearsormore.Quincesripensolatethatmanycold-climategardenerscan’tget

themtotheediblestagebeforeakillingfrost.Thefruitsshouldstayonthetreeuntiltheyhaveturneddeepyellow,developedtheirstrongodor,andcanbesnappedoffeasily.Ripeningtakesplaceasearlyasmid-OctoberinsomeareasbutismoreoftenwellintoNovember.Handlethefruitswithgreatcare;theybruiseeasily.They’llkeepinacoolplaceforaboutamonth;atroomtemperature,onlyaboutaweek.Storetheminshallowtrays,onelayerdeepsotherewon’tbeanyweightrestingonthem.Theastringentfruitisseldomeatenraw,asfewcultivarsaresweet

enough.They’reusuallycookedintojellies,preserves,andmarmaladesoraddedtoapplesinapplesauce.Becauseoftheirhighpectincontent,they’reoftencombinedwithberriesorgrapesthatarelowinpectintomakejellieswithoutaddedcommercialpectin.Rinseoffthefuzz,peel,andscoopouttheseedsbeforecooking,asyoudowithapples.Onepound(twoorthreefruits)willyieldaboutacupofpulporabout2cupsofjuice.Thejuicetastesgoodcombinedwithapplecider.Somepeoplearedevoteesofthequincecustardpietheyrememberfromchildhood.

Othersenjoyquinceginger,quince“honey,”orquincesbakedandservedwithwhippedcream.Thefruitsalsoaredeliciouscannedorspiced.

QuinceCultivars

Nothingtastesquitelikeajuicypeachthathasbeenallowedtofullyripenonthetree.

CHAPTER11

Peaches,Nectarines,andApricots

Whatadifferenttasteatree-ripenedpeachhas,comparedtothehard,souronesfromthestore.Thatdifferenceiswhymostofuswhogrowfruitsinourhomegardenswantverymuchtoincludesomepeachtrees.They’reattractiveinlandscapesaswell,beginningwiththeirearly-springpinkflowersonthebarebranches.Theleavesarelonganddrooping,likeawidewillowleaf.Wheretheycanbegrown,dwarfcultivarsaregoodforsmallspacesandlargecontainers.Thepeachisachallengetogrow,though,anditbringsoutthe

competitivespiritingardeners,likegrowingthebiggesttomatoesorthebestroses.Justasthoseplantsareastepmoredifficulttogrowthanradishesandmarigolds,sothepeachisslightlymoredifficultthanapplesandplums,unlessyoursoilandclimatearejustright.Comparedtopearsandapples,peachesandtheirkinarenotlong-livedtrees(10to20years),soplanonhavingtoreplacetreeseventually.Plantonlythenumberofpeachtreesyoucancareforeasily.Ofalltheorchardfruits,theyareperhapsthemostdemandingintheirpruningandclimateneeds,andtheirsusceptibilitytopestproblems.Evenapartlyneglectedtreecanbeadisappointment.Peaches(Prunuspersica)andnectarines(alsoP.persica,basicallya

non-fuzzypeach),liketheircloserelativetheapricot(P.armeniaca),areamongthemost“foreign”ofthetemperate-zonefruits.TheseweregrowninChinaatleast4,000yearsago.It’samazingthattoday’scultivarsoriginallycamefromonesgrowninsouthernChinathatlongago,inanareawhoseclimateresemblesthatofthesoutheasternUnitedStates(wheremuchcommercialproductiongoesonnow).FromChina,

thesefruitsaccompaniedthesilktradewesttoPersia,wheretheywereextensivelycultivated.Peachesandapricotswereoriginallythoughttohaveoriginatedthere(persicameans“fromPersia"andarmeniacameans“fromArmenia”).Fromabout400BCE,theGreeksandRomansdistributedthemwidely,includingthroughoutEurope.TheSpaniardsplantedpeachtreesinFloridasoonaftertheirfirstsettlementthere.Bytheearly1700sapricotswerethrivinginVirginia.Onlyinrecent

years,however,hastheapricotbecomepopularasahomegrownfruit.ThenotedhorticulturistU.P.Hedrickscarcelymentionstheminhiswell-knownFruitsfortheHomeGarden(1944).Nowthattheirgrowingrangeissoenlargedwithnewercultivars,manyamateurorchardistsareenjoyingtheirowntree-ripenedapricots.Aswithanyfruitcultivatedforsomanyyearsinsomanyareas,

regionalvariationsandgroupshavearisen.ThetwomostimportantfortheapricotaretheEuropeanandCentralAsiangroups.MostapricotsgrowninNorthAmericaarefromtheEuropeangroup;thesearederivedfromtheCentralAsianones,andarelesssweetanddrierandsobetteradaptedtocommercialshipping.TheCentralAsianapricotsbloomlater,sothey’renotassubjecttospringfrostdamagetoflowers.ThepitsoftheCentralAsianarereferredtoassweetpits,astheseedscanbebrokenapartandthenutsroasted,oftenusedasanalmondsubstitute.Don’teatEuropeanapricotseeds,though,withoutconsultingamedicalprofessional(somepeoplebelieveapricotkernelshelpcurecancer,andthey’velongbeenusedinalternativemedicine),asmostcontainahighlytoxiccompound(thecyanogenicglycosideamygdalin).

Inadditiontotheirlighter-coloredflesh,whitepeachestendtohaveasweeter,morefloral,andsomewhatlesscomplextastethanyellowpeachesdo.

‘Peento’isacultivarof“flatpeach”or“donutpeach.”Thistypewasoriginallybredinthe1800sandhasonceagainbecomepopularamongconsumers.

‘RedHaven’isoneofthemostwidelyplantedpeachcultivars;itis

coldhardyandresistanttopeachleafcurl.

Peach,Nectarine,andApricotFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:peachesandnectarines,5–9(varieswithcultivar);apricots,5–8

Height:peachesandnectarines,standard,10–15feet;dwarf,5–7feet;apricots,15–20;dwarf,8–10

Spacing:standard,18–20feet;dwarf,7–8feet

Pollination:manycultivarsareself-fertile(onlyonetreeneededtoproducefruit)

Pruning:opencenter(modifiedcentralleaderforapricots);pruneinlatewinter

Specialrequirements:somewhatdemandinginclimateandsoils;maturetreesneedheavypruning

Yearstobearing:peachesandnectarines,standard,2–4;apricots,3–5;dwarf,2–3

Yieldpertree(bushels):peachesandnectarines,standard,4–6;apricots,3–5;dwarf,1–2

ChoosyaboutClimate

ALTHOUGHBREEDERShavedevelopedpeachesthatarehardierandofhigherquality,thegrowingrangeisstillmuchsmallerthanthatofpears,plums,apples,andcherries.Nectarinesmaybeevenmoresusceptibletocoldinjury.Andeveninplaceswherebranchesandleaf

budsofpeachesarewinterhardy(to–17°F),theirflowerbudsmaynotbeashardy(–13°F).Ifyouhavegreatleavesbutfewifanyflowersorfruits,thismaybewhy.Inadditiontoitsaversiontocoldtemperatures,thepeachtreeneeds

alonggrowingseasontohardenitsnewgrowthanddevelopthefruitbudsforthefollowingyear.Forthisreason,peachescansometimeswithstandlowtemperaturesforashorttimebutareunabletosurvivewherethefrost-freeseasonislessthan5months.Theflowerbudsandbloomsareverysusceptibletospringfrosts,aswell.Commercialpeachgrowersliketoplanttreesonawell-drainedslope

withsandysoiljustaboveafairlylargelakeorriver,sothewaterwillmoderatethetemperature,keepingitmoreuniform.PeachesgrowwellontheNiagarapeninsulaofOntarioandevenalongcoastalregionsofBritishColumbia,forexample.Eventhoughtheypreferawarmclimate,likealltemperate-zone

fruitspeachesneedachillingperiod—acertainamountofcoldweather—inordertosurvive.Mostrequirebetween500and900hoursbelow45°F.Thoselistedasneedingatleast750chillhoursarebestinZones5to7.GardenersinZones8and9mustbecarefultoplantonlythosevarietiesthatrequireverylittlewinterchilling;some,suchas‘RedBaron’andFlordaprince,cangetbywithabout300hours.Apricotsbloomveryearly;they’reoftenthefirsttreefruitinbloom.

Asaresult,theirflowersareoftendamagedbyspringfrosts.Thisisoftenthelimitingfactoringrowingthemincold-climateregions,morethanwinterhardiness,eventhoughtherearecultivarshardytoZone4andafewtoZone3.Trytofindasomewhatprotectedlocationforyourapricottreesif

youliveinsuchanarea.Mulchingunderthetreeshelpskeepthesoilcooler,whichinturnslightlydelaysgrowthandfloweringinthespring,ascanplantingonaneastornorth-facingslope.Wateringthesoilthedaybeforeafreezemayhelp;thewetsoilwillabsorbmoreheattoradiatebackatnight.Apricotbudsmaybedriedoutbywinterwindsordamagedby

fluctuatingtemperatureextremesinwinter.Evenafewwarmdaysduringawinterthawcancauseapricotbudstolosehardiness.Theidealclimateforapricotsismoderatewintercoldforchilling,fairlyhot

summersforfruitripening,andlowhumiditytodecreasetheincidenceofdisease.ThisistheclimateinthemountainouspartsofTurkeyandIran;athirdoftheworldproductionisfromthesetwocountries.

SelectingPlants

MOSTPEACHTREESandtheircousinsareself-fertileanddon’tneedapartnertoproducefruit;inmostcasesyoucanplantasingletree.Thereareexceptions:‘J.H.Hale’isacommonpeachthatneedsamate,andtheapricots‘Moongold’and‘Sungold’requirecross-pollination.Mostcatalogsspelloutthepollinationneedsofeachcultivar.Whenindoubt,ortoensureaheavierfruitset,it’salwaysbesttoplanttwokindsofpeachesunlessyourneighborhasapeachtreejustoverthefence.You’llendupwithabetterspringflowershow,andbychoosingappropriatecultivarsyoualsoextendtheharvestseason.

Althoughmostpeachtreesareself-fertile,they’llhaveaheavierfruitsetifthey’repollinatedbyanothercultivar,soconsiderplantingmorethanone.

Rootstocks

Becauseofthestrongdemandforsmalltrees,manynurseriessupplypeachesgraftedontodwarfingrootstockstoproducetreesthatgrowonly5to7feettalland7feetwide.Somemaybegeneticallydwarfwithnografting(seechapter1).Dwarftreesareeasytocareforandbearatanearlyage,sothey’reidealforpotcultureandforhomegardenerswithasmalllot.Aswithalldwarfs,thetreesarelessvigorousandlesshardythanstandard(full-size)treesgraftedonseedlings.Beingshallow-rooted,theymayneedstakingtopreventleaningwhenthey’reloadedwithfruit.Theircropsaresmallerthanthoseofstandardtrees,ofcourse,butyoucanfitmoretreesinthesamespace.Sometimesgrafteddwarfpeachessuckerbadly.Theymaybegindecliningevensoonerthanstandardpeachtrees,oftenafteronly7years;manyrecommendjustpruningastandardtreeheavilyifyouwantasmallertree—peacheswilltoleratethis.

Pillarpeaches.Somesupplierssellcolumnar,“pillar,”orverticalcordonpeaches,whichgrowuprightandseldommorethan5feetwide.Theseareagoodalternativetodwarfcultivarsforgardenerswithasmallyard.Popularforcommercialgrowerstosimplifyharvestandmaximizeproductioninagivenspace,theyworkequallywellaslandscapenovelties,forallées,todefinegardenspaces,andincontainers.SWEET-N-UPisamidseasonpeachthatspreadstoabout8feet;earlyripeningCRIMSONROCKETspreadstoabout6feet;andSUMMERFESTisalate-ripeningfreestonethatspreadsabout6feet.

Otherspecializedrootstocks.Peachesandnectarinesareusuallybuddedorgraftedontoseedlingpeachtreeroots,whichgrowrapidlyandvarywidelyinhabit.Peacheshavealsobeengraftedontorootstocksofthebotanicallyrelatedplums,almonds,andcherriesinanattempttogetthemtoadapttoheaviersoils.PerhapsmostwidelyusedisthepeachseedlingLovell.Itsuppliessomecoldhardiness,tolerateswetsoilsbetterthanmostrootstocks,providesgoodanchorageanddiseaseresistance,

producesfewsuckers,andisresistanttonematodesonallbutsandysoils.FLORDAGUARDisahybriddevelopedinFloridaforresistancetonematodesandwithalowchillrequirement.NemaguardandNemaredaretwootherpopularnematode-resistantrootstocks.

TIPSFORGROWINGPEACHES,NECTARINES,ANDAPRICOTS

•Chooseappropriatecultivarsforyourclimate:hardinessforcoldclimates,chillinghoursformildclimates,longfrost-freeseason.

•Plantinwell-drainedsoils,notinlowareasorfrostpockets.

•Useminimalfertilizertokeeppeachesandapricotslessvigorous(usenormalfertilizationfornectarines);pruneminimallyinearlyyearssoyoudon’tdelayfruiting.

•Pruneheavilyoncetreesbear,keepinganopencenterorvaseshape.

•Thinfruitclusters4–6weeksafterbloom,leaving5or6inchesbetweenfruits.

•Checktreesforproblemsstartinginearlyspringandcontinuingthroughoutharvest,anduseappropriateremedies.

Rootstockforapricots.Althoughapricotsgroweasilyfromseedandmanyoftheseedlingsproduceverygoodfruit,unlessyou’rewillingtowaitmanyyearsit’sbettertobuygraftedtrees.Asmallgraftedapricottreestartsproducingafewfruitsinaslittleasthreeyears;aseedlingwilltakemanyyearsandgrowquitelargebeforeitproducesasinglefruit.Apricotsareusuallygraftedontopeach,nectarine,orapricotseedlings.Sometimesplumseedlingsareusedtomakeapricotsmoresuitedforgrowingincool,northernsoils.TheManchurianhardyapricotisoftenusedasarootstock,butitgrowsbestinlightandsandysoils.Mostnurseriesofferonlystandard-sizetrees,althoughafewsell

dwarfapricotsgraftedontoPrunusbesseyi.Thisisthesamedwarfing

stockusedforplumsandpeaches,andaswiththosedwarftrees,ittendstoproducesuckergrowth.

PlantingandCare

PEACHES,NECTARINES,andapricotsaresoalikethatcultureisthesameforallofthem,fromplantingtoinsectanddiseasecontrol,aswellaspruningandharvesting.Unlessnotedotherwise,commentsmadeforpeachesapplytonectarinesaswell.Thefussypeachtreeisparticularnotonlyabouttemperaturebutalso

aboutsoils.It’sneverhappyinthecool,heavysoilsthatpearsandplumstolerate.Peacheswillgrowwellinordinarygardensoilifit’sfairlylight.Dry,sandysoilsthatwarmupthoroughlymakethebestpossiblehomeforyourpeachtrees.Apricotsaren’tasfussy.Theydon’tneedsandysoilsandwilltolerate

morealkalinesoilsthanmostotherfruits.Onceestablished,treesalsotoleratedroughtbetterthanmosttreefruits.Wateringduringextendeddryperiods,though,willimproveyields.Thebasicsofplantingandfollow-uptreecarearesimilartowhat’s

requiredforothertreefruits.Usetheguidelinesinchapter16exceptforfertilizing.Unlikesomeotherfruits,peachesandapricotstendtobeinahurrytogrowup.Infact,they’reoftenintoomuchofahurry,sofastgrowthshouldbediscouraged.Itusuallyresultsinaweaktreethatbreakseasily,getswinterinjury,ismoresusceptibletoinsects,andisshortlived.Fertilizeapeachorapricottreeonlyifitneedsit,andthenonlyearlyinthespring;followthe12–18ruledescribedonpage224.Nectarinesaren’tquiteasvigorous,sotheymayneedabitmorecompostorfertilizer.

Asmallgraftedapricottreestartsproducingafewfruitsinaslittleasthreeyears

Pruning

Becauseofitsvigorousgrowthhabit,apeachtreerequiressevere

pruningwhenmature,morethanmostotherfruits.Allthisgrowthmakesitagoodcandidateforgettinganice-lookingespaliersoonerthanwithotherfruits.Clingstonepeachtreesmayneedlesspruningthanfreestoneones.Startpruningearly,rightafterplanting,todevelopanopencentershape(seepage247).Apricotshaveashapemorelikecherriessothey’reoftenprunedtoa

modifiedleadershape.Somegrowers,though,useanopencenterforthesetoo.Prunepeach,nectarine,andapricottreesminimallyintheearly

years,asheavypruningmaydelaybearing.Pruneonlytoremovesmallbranchesblockinglightandairflowfromtheinteriorofthetreefortheopen-centersystem;unlikeheavierpruning,youcandothisuntilmidsummer.Oncetreesbegintobearfruit,prunemoreheavily.Inlatewinteror

earlyspringremoveanywinter-killedbranches.Alsoremovetoplimbsandheadbackscaffolds;suchcutswillstimulatemorenew,fruit-bearinggrowth.Unlikeappletrees,peachtreesbearon1-year-oldshootsandapricotsontheseand2-year-oldspurs(shortshootsonbranches);thiswoodmustberenewedbypruning.Don’tpruneinearlywinterorwithinaweekofexpectedextremecold,asthiscanresultinwinterinjury.Cutoffolderlimbsthataren’tsupportingnewgrowth,perhapsathirdoftheolderwoodeachyearthathasalreadybornefruit.It’salsoimportanttothinthedevelopingfruitclusters.Naturelikes

tohedgeherbetsagainstflower-budlosses,sotreesmayproduce10timesthenumberofflowersthanareneededtoproduceagoodfruitcrop.Someoftheseyoungfruitsdroporgetblownoffnaturally,butusuallynotenough,soyoumusthelpoutwithfurtherthinningbyhand.Annualpruningandjudiciousthinningnotonlyproducelargerandbetter-qualityfruit,butalsopreventlimbbreakagefromtoo-heavyloads,promotegoodcropseachyearratherthanonalternateyears,andaidinkeepingtreeshealthysotheylivelonger.Afewweeksafterbloomyou’llseesomefruitsgettinglarger,butnot

all.Thesmallonesdon’thaveapitforminginside;theywon’tmatureandwillfalloffinwhat’scalledJunedrop.Thetimetothinisabout4weeksafterbloominwarmclimates(6weeksincoolclimates),whenpeachesandnectarinesarelargerthanadime.Thisisoftenshortlyafter

Junedrop.Withpeachesandnectarines,leave5or6inchesbetweenfruitstohelpthemdeveloptotheirbestsizeandquality.Eachfruitneedstwotothreedozenleavestosupportitsgrowth.Apricotsaresmaller,sothintoleave1or2inchesbetweenthem.

Toavoiddiseasesthatmayplagueovercrowdedfruit,andtoallowindividualfruitstogrowlarge,besuretothinyoungfruits(likethesenectarines)earlyon.

DiseasesandInsects

Aswithothertreefruits,youcanminimizemostproblemsthataffectpeachtreeswithregularscoutingforpestsanddiseasesandemployingsimilarcontrols(seechapter18).Apricotstendtohavefewerproblems,sopracticinggoodsanitationmaybeallthat’sneeded.Youmayseemoreproblemswithnectarines,astheirskinsaremorevulnerabletoinsectsanddiseases.WatchoutinparticularforbrownrotonnectarinesinhumidclimatesandforplumcurculiosonallthreefruitseastoftheRockies.Thesefruitsaresusceptibletobrownrot,powderymildew,peach

scab,bacterialspot,andX-disease(seechapter18),aswellassomeof

theotherdiseasesthataffectplumsandotherstonefruits.Findoutwhetherbacterialspotisprevalentinyourarea;ifso,lookforresistantcultivarsandforgonectarines,astheycanbequiteseverelyinfected.Nematodesareaprobleminsomeareas,especiallyhotclimatesandsiteswherepeachtreeshavebeengrownpreviously.Undertheseconditions,choosepeacheswithanematode-resistantrootstock.Peachesalsohaveafewoftheirowndiseases.Theonesyou’remost

likelytoencounterarepeachleafcurlandpeachsplitpit.Peachleafcurlisafungaldiseasethatover-wintersontreetwigsand

spreadsrapidlyinthespring.Infectedleavesturnyellow,curl,crinkle,andthicken;eventuallytheyfalloff.Lookforcultivarsresistanttopeachleafcurl,suchas‘Frost’and‘Redhaven’.Standardpeachesingeneralarelesssusceptibletothisdiseasethannectarinesandgeneticallydwarftrees.Topreventpeachleafcurl,applyafungicideinthespring,beforethebudsbegintoopen.Alime-sulfursprayhaslongbeenusedtocontrolthisailment,butnewerfungicidesaremoreeffective.

Peachleafcurl

Orientalfruitmothlarvainsideapeach

Peachsplitpitisjustthat:thepitissplitwhenyoucutopenthepeach.Fruitswiththisproblemmaybemisshapen,haveashortenedstoragelife,andoftenquicklydeveloprotsthatmaythenspreadtohealthyfruits.Ifsevere,fruitsthemselvesmaysplit,makingiteasyforinsectstoenter.Thisisnotadisease;it’saphysiologicaldisorderwithnospecificcauses.Itmaybetheresultoffluctuatingmoisturelevelswhilethepitsareforming,orperhapsfreezedamageduringfloweringandearlyfruitdevelopment.Thisdisorderoftenoccurswhentheseasonisdry,thensuddenlyturnswetpriortoharvest.Mulchingtreestoconservemoistureandwateringduringdryspellscanhelppreventit.Heavywateringnearharvestandoverfertilizingencouragesplitpit,socutbackonfertilizerifthishasbeenaproblem.Somecultivars,particularlyonesripeningearly,aremoresusceptible.Mostinsectsarenotagreatthreattothesefruits.That’slucky,

becausethedelicatepeachandthethinner-skinnednectarinearelessabletoresistinsectsthanotherfruits.Sometowatchforareborers,plumcurculios,Orientalfruitmoths,SanJosescale,andtarnishedplantbugs.Descriptionsandremediesarediscussedinchapter18.

Harvesting

ASAYOUNGBOYgrowinguponaVermontfarm,theonlyapricotsIeversawweredriedandcamefromwhitepaperboxes.Theywereoneofthefewfoodsweboughtatthestoreand,likeraisins,salmon,andcornflakes,weretreatsandawelcomechangefromourhomegrowndiet.Noteveryonelikesthetasteoftheapricot,perhapsbecausemany

peoplehavenevereatenonethat’sfreshandtree-ripened.CommerciallygrownapricotsareraisedontheWestCoastandcannedordriedbeforethey’reshippedtotherestofthecountry.Ifyougrowyourownpeaches,nectarines,andapricots,youcan

especiallyrevelinyourharvestbecausebypickingthematthebestpossibletimeyou’llgetbetter-flavoredfruitthanyouwouldfromstores(unlessyou’reluckytohaveacommercialgrowernearby).Althoughpeachesareoftenpickedslightlygreenforcooking,likeplumsthey’rebestwhenfullyripe,asIfoundoutwhenIatemyfirstperfectpeach.Thesameappliestonectarinesandapricots,whosesugarlevelstopsincreasingoncepicked,eventhoughthey’llsoftenabitifpickedslightlyunripe.Whenthefruitscomeoffthelimbwithaslight,gentletwist,peaches

andnectarinesareready,andafteralittleexperienceyou’llpickeachonelikeaconnoisseur.Apricotshaveabeautifulblushwhenripebutarestillfirmtothetouch.Alwayshandlepeachesandnectarinescarefully—neveryankthemfromthetree.Becausethey’retree-ripenedtheybruiseextremelyeasily,anddamagedfruitrotsquickly.Apricotsarefirmerthanpeaches,buthandlethemwithcaretoo.Aswithothertreefruits,leavethestemsintactonthefruit.Youshouldget4to6bushelsoffruitfromastandardmaturepeach

ornectarine;amatureapricotwillyield3to5bushels.Dwarftreesusuallyyield1to2bushels.Abusheloffruitwillturninto18to24quartscannedor32to48pintsfrozen.For2pintsofslicedfrozenfruit,you’llneedslightlymorethan2poundsfresh.Storeyourpeaches,nectarines,andapricotsinacoolplace,suchasa

refrigerator,andinaplasticbagforhumidity.Peachesmaylast5or6dayscool,3or4daysatroomtemperature.Don’twashthemuntilyou’rereadytoeatorprocessthem.

Perhapsoneofthebestwaystopreserveapricotsistosimplyslicetheminhalfanddehydratethem.

Eachofushasafavoritepeachdish.Shortcake,pie,cobbler,andsaladsaboundwhenpeachesareinseason,andIdon’tknowofanyonewhowouldrefuseafreshpeachpie,sundae,milkshake,oricecream.Nobodywantstobewithoutpeachesforlong,sowepreservetheminjams,conserves,butters,chutneys,andpickles.Somepeopleevendrythem.Thoughmostcultivarscanbefrozen,theirflavorandconsistencyareusuallybetterwhencanned.Ripeapricotsaredelicioustoeatrightoffthetreeorcookedinany

numberofways—frommarmaladetomousse.They’resometimesfrozenraw,butfreezingtoughenstheskin,sopeelthemfirst.Moreoftenthey’recannedinsyrupordried.They’reoneofthebestfruitsfordryingandmakeagoodwintersnack,orusethemingranola,breads,orthepaper-thinconfectionscalledleathers.Theyalsomakeoutstandingpreserves.Oneofthebestspreadswe’veeverhadontoastishomemadeapricotjam.

ChoosingCultivars

MANYCULTIVARSaredevelopedforcommercialgrowers,thengraduallymakeittothehomemarket.Bewareoflargeretailersthatbuyplants

fromoutsideyourregionanddon’thavetrainedprofessionalswhoknowwhichcultivarsareappropriateforyourarea.Checklocalnurseriesandnurserycatalogsthatgrowtreessuitableforwhereyougarden.AlsostudyonlineandprintpublicationssuppliedbyyourstateCooperativeExtensionService(seeResources).Inadditiontodwarfversusstandardtreesize,thereareafewchoices

you’llneedtomakeconcerningthefruits.Peachandnectarinecultivarsgenerallyhaveeitherwhiteoryellowflesh.ThosewithwhiteflesharemorepopularinAsia,andforfresheating;thosewithyellowflesharemorepopularinAmerica.Cultivarswithyellowflesharemoreacidic,theirtartflavormellowingastheyripen,whilethewhite-fleshonesaresweeter.Thewhite-fleshcultivarsmaybeslightlyhardier.Anunusualpeachis‘IndianBlood’,whichhasredskinandwhitefleshheavilystreakedwithred.Thentherearethefreestonesandtheclingstones.Thesenamesjust

refertowhetherthecentralpitclingsoriseasilyremovedwhenfruitsarecutinhalffromthestemendtothebottom.Clingstonepeachesandnectarinesgenerallyripenearlierandhavefirmerflesh;theyaresuperiorforcanningifyoudon’tmindtheextraworkoffreeingthepits.Freestonesarepopularforbothfresheatingandcanningduetotheeasyremovalofthepits.Youmayseetheterms“semi-clingstone”and“semi-free”;bothareusuallylumpedtogetherasclingstones.Youmayhaveseensmall,flattenednoveltypeachescalleddonut

peaches.There’sevenadonutnectarine.Maybeyouthoughttheywerejustmisshapennormalpeaches,butthey’reaseparategroupthatwasgrowninthiscountrybackinthe1800sandhasrecentlybecomepopular.Theyhavefirmfleshandsmall(orno)pits.ThesealsogobythenamesPeentopeaches,bagelpeaches,Chineseflatpeaches,andChinesesaucerpeaches.Althoughtheoriginaldonutpeacheshadwhiteflesh,newercultivarsmayhaveyellowflesh(moreappealingtoAmericanbuyers).

NectarineCultivars

Manynewcultivarsareeasiertogrowthantheoldernectarines.Mostnurseriesdon’toffermanykindsofnectarines,andthereisn’tmuchoverlapbetweenthoseofferedbyonenurseryandthosefromanother.RipeningseasonbeginsinJune(earlycultivars)intheWestand

SouthandJulyintheMidwestandmid-Atlanticstates.Chillingrequirementisthenumberofhoursneededbelow45°Fforfloweringandfruiting.Manynectarinesarefreestone,includingallthosebelowexcept‘Hardired’.

ApricotCultivars

Apricotcultivarsdon’tvarygreatly;they’regenerallygoldenwithorangeoryellow-orangeflesh.Mostaresuitableforplantingonlywheresummerseasonsarelongandwintersarerelativelymild(Zones5to8).Manycultivarsareatleastsomewhatself-fertile,butnurseriesusuallyadviseplantingatleasttwokindsforbettercrops.Ripeningseasonbegins(earlycultivars)inJuneintheWestandSouthandinJulyintheMidwestandmid-Atlanticstates.Chillingrequirementisthenumberofhoursneededbelow45°Fforfloweringandfruiting.Pitsofthoselistedherearefreestone.

PeachCultivars

Thefollowingchartshowssomeofthemorepopularpeachesforthehomegarden,tohelpyoutochoosefromamongthethousandsthathavebeendevelopedworldwide.Chillingrequirementisthenumberofhoursneededbelow45°Fforfloweringandfruiting.RipeningseasonbeginsinJune(earlycultivars)intheWestandSouthandJulyintheMidwestand

mid-Atlanticstates.Occasionallyincatalogsyou’llseeanumberwithaplusorminussignfollowingthenameofapeachcultivar,suchas‘Reliance’(-3).Thisreferstothenumberofdaysthecultivarripensbefore(-)orafter(+)‘Redhaven’,apopularcultivar.Thosebeforeoraroundthistimeareearly-season,thoseacoupleweeksorsoafter‘Redhaven’aremidseason,andthoseatleast3weekslaterarethelate-seasoncultivars.Often,though,you’llseepeachesreferredtoasearlytolate,orinrelationtoanotherwell-knowncultivar,asin“atthesametimeas‘Loring’.”Unlessnoted,fruitskinsareyellowwitharedblushofvaryingdegree.

Store-boughtplumshavenothingonthejuicysweetnessoftheirtree-ripenedcousins.

CHAPTER12

PlumsforEveryRegion

Plumspickedbeforethey’reripeandshippedhundredsofmilescannevercomparewiththosethataresun-ripenedonthetree.Oneyear,Igotimpatientforourstoripenandinaweakmomentwentoutandboughtapackageofplastic-wrapped,commerciallygrownplums.Theyweremuchlargerthanoursandabeautifuldeepburgundycolor,butthetastewasdisappointinglyflat.InsomeareasoftheWest,plumspracticallygrowthemselveswith

minimalcare.Butonlyafewpartsofthecountryareconsideredperfectplum-growingregions.Therestofushavetosettleforlessthanperfectionandexpectayearnowandthenwhentherewillbealightcropornoneatall.Nevertheless,Ibelieveeveryhomefruitgrowershouldincludeplum

treesbecausethefruitissodelicious.WhenIwasgrowingup,therewerenoneinourfamilyorchard,unfortunately,butourneighborsalwayshadthem.Theoldtreesgotnocarewhatsoever,buttheyborefruitnearlyeveryyear.Andhowwemissedthemwhentheydidn’t!

‘President’isalate-ripeningEuropeancultivarthatisresistanttoblackknot.

‘GreenGage’isasmall,sweetheirloomvarietywithamberflesh.

LotsofColors,Shapes,andUses

POSSIBLYBECAUSEPLUMSoriginatedinsomanydifferentplaces,fewfruitsvaryaswidelyinsize,shape,color,andflavor.Therangeismorevariedthanthatofapples—fromsmall,nativeAmericantypestolargeEuropeanpruneplumsandgiantJapanesecultivars.Despitetheirdifferences,eachtypeisrecognizableasaplum,bothbytasteandbyappearance.Similartoitspeachcousins,plumcultivarsmaybeeitherfreestone(withapitthatseparateseasilyfromtheflesh)orclingstone(withfleshthatclingstothepit).ThedriedpruneswebuyaremadefromEuropeanprune-plumsthatwhenfreshcontainlessmoistureandmoresugarthanotherplums.Ifyouintendtogrowafewplumtreesinyourorchard,youshould

knowaboutthethreemaingroups,theirvariations,andthecrosseswithplumfruitrelatives.Althoughthetreesandfruitsofeachspecieslook

similar,they’redifferentenoughthattheyusuallywon’tpollinateeachother.This,ofcourse,causestroubleforgrowerswhoplanttwounrelatedplumtrees.

EuropeanPlums

ThefirstgroupconsistsofcultivarsoftheEuropeanplum(Prunusdomestica).Thesearethemostwidelyplanted,withmuchofthecommercialproductiongoingfordriedplums(madefromcultivarswithahighersugarcontent).Driedplumswereformerly,andstillarebymany,knownasprunes—anamethatchangedbecauseofitsnegativereputationasalaxative.Oval,darkblueformsofEuropeanplumssuchas‘Stanley’areoftencalledpruneplumsfromthisuse.EuropeanplumsgottheirstartinthesouthernregionsofEuropeandwerebroughttotheNewWorldbytheEnglishsettlersintheEastandtheSpanishmissionariesintheWest.Beingaroundforsomanycenturies,thisplumspecieshasmany

cultivarsandvariations.Europeanplumshavebeengroupedinvariousways,soincatalogs,you’llfindthemlistedindifferentandsometimesconfusingways.

PlumFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:European,5–9;Japanese,6–9;Americanhybrids,(3)4–8

Height:Standard,12–25feet;semidwarf;12–15feet;dwarf,5–8feet

Spacing:Standard,18–20feet;semidwarf,10–15feet;dwarf,6–8feet

Pollination:Twodifferentcultivarsofthesameplumtypeneededforfruit

Pruning:Latespring,centralormodifiedleaderforEuropeananduprighttypes;opencenterforothers

Specialrequirement:Earlybloomerssusceptibletolate-springfrosts

Yearstobearing:Standard,4–6;semidwarfanddwarf,3–5

Yieldpertree(bushels):Standardandsemidwarf,2–6;dwarf,1–2

TheoriginalEuropeanplumswereroundedanddarkpurple(asisoftenseeninthebullacetypesofplums).FromthesecamethepopularDamsons;atonetimethesewereconsideredaseparatespecies,butnowtheyaregenerallyconsideredaEuropeantype.Damsonswithstandharshergrowingconditionsthanmostotherplums.TheblueDamsonsarepopularforjamsandpreserves.Theovalfruitsmaybeaninchlongandhalfaninchwide,withlargefreestonepitsandgreenfleshthatstartssourbutbecomessweetwhenripe.DamsonsprobablyoriginatedinwhatisnowSyria,asthenamecomesfromDamascus.Seedshavebeenfoundfromtheprehistoricera,andthefruitwasmentionedinrecordsdatingbacktoMesopotamiaandtheGreekpoets.RelatedtotheDamsonsarethe‘Mirabelle’andthe‘GreenGage’

plums,bothoriginallyfromFrance.Oval,darkyellow‘Mirabelle’anditscultivarsarepopularforfresheating,jams(mainuse),pies,andevenwineorbrandy.The‘GreenGage’cultivars(alsoknownas‘ReineClaude’)aresomeofthesweetestplums;theyaresmallandoval,andwhenripearegreenbothoutsideandinside.They’regrownforfresheatingandcanning.Oncecandiedinathicksyrupofsugarandcornstarch,‘GreenGage’plumswereusedasdecorations,madefamousbyreferencetothesugarplumfairiesintheNutcrackerballet.

JapanesePlums

ThesecondgroupistheJapaneseplum(P.salicina)anditscultivarsandhybrids.AsthecultivarsverylikelyoriginatedinChina,they’resometimescalledAsianorOrientalplums.Thesearetheplumsmostoftensoldinstores.Excellentforfresheating,theycomeinavarietyoffleshandskincolors.Oftenthey’reroundandjuicy.TheywereintroducedintothiscountryfromJapanmorethanacenturyago.Althoughsomecultivarsarefairlyhardy,mostarebestsuitedfor

warmerregions,andsomecanbegrownasfarsouthasFlorida.AdifferentspeciesofAsianplumiscalledChineseplumorJapaneseapricot(seeGalleryofUncommonTreeFruits,pages193).

AmericanPlums

SpeciesandhybridsoftheAmericanplum(P.americana)compriseanothergroup.Mostarecrossesofnativewildplumsandotherforeignspecies,mainlythehardiestJapanese,sothey’resometimesknownastheJapanese-Americanhybrids.Theyproducefruitsthataregenerallysmall,rounded,andwitharangeofflavors.Thesehybridsareoftenthebestchoicesforgrowinginthecolderzones,andonsoilsthataretoowetandheavyforotherplums,providedthey’regraftedontoAmericanplumrootstocks.

Rootstocks

Full-sizeplumtreesnevergetverylarge,andmostpeoplepreferthem,sodwarfplumsarenotasreadilyavailableasaredwarfappletrees.Ifyouwantashortertree,pruningmaybeabetteroptionthanplantingadwarf.DwarfplumtreesareusuallygraftedontotheMidwestsandcherry(Prunusbesseyi)andthesandplum(P.angustifolia).Theserootstocksarehardy,soifyouchoosehardycultivarsaswell,thesedwarftreesshouldgrowinZone3.Thedownsideisthatyourselectionmaybelimitedbecausethesearen’tcompatiblewithmanycultivars,sotreesmaydieafteronlyafewyears.Dwarfplumsareagoodchoiceforlargecontainers.AlmostallEuropeanandJapaneseplumtreesaregraftedontoeither

peachseedlings(suchasLovell)ortherootsoftheMyrobalanorcherryplum(P.cerasifera),ahardyAsianspecies.Forareaswithnematodes,considereithertheMariannaplumortheNemaguardpeachrootstocks.TheMariannaisacrossbetweenanativeAmericanspeciesandtheMyrobalanplum.TheMariannaplumisn’twellanchored,though,andtheNemaguardpeachislesstolerantofwetsoilsthanplumrootstocks.Somenewer,semidwarfingrootstocksaretheKrymskplumfromRussia,whichisveryhardy,andSt.Julien,whichisusedforslightlydwarfingrootstocksthattoleratearangeofsoiltypes.

ClimateConsiderations

AMERICANHYBRIDSarethehardiestoftheplums,sothesearethetreesforthosewhogardeninthecoldpartsofNorthAmerica(Zones3and4).EuropeanandDamsoncultivarsarelesshardythanAmericanhybridsbutarestillpossibleinsomecold-climateareas.TheJapanesearetheleasthardyofall,somostarebestinmildclimates.Therearecultivarsineachgroupthatcanwithstandsubzerotemperatures,though.TheJapanesecultivarsgenerallyrequirefewerchillinghoursthantheEuropean.Plumsbloomearly,usuallyaweekortwoaheadofapples,which

makesthemaspecialtargetinthefrostbelt.TheJapanesehybridsbloomearliest,sothesearen’tgoodchoiceswherelateorheavyspringfrostsarecommon.Ifyou’reluckytohaveenoughlandthatyouhaveoptionsforplacestoplantyourplumtrees,choosethehighspotofaslopewherespringfrostsaren’taslikelytostriketheflowers.Coldairsinks,solowareasarethemostsusceptible.

HowPlumsDiffer

Yellow‘Mirabelle’andpurple‘Damson’plumsaresosmall,theycanbeeatenbythehandful.

AmericanhybridplumslikethesetendtobehardierthanEuropeanorJapanesetypes.

Oncethetreesareinbloom,ifthetemperaturedropsintothemid-

20s,there’slittleyoucandotosavetheblossoms.We’vetriedeverythingfromwrappingblanketsandplasticsheetsaroundlimbsoncoldspringnightstorunningsprinklers,withlittlesuccess.Aheavymulchhelpstokeeptherootscool,whichmaydelay

bloomingforafewdays.Butincoldclimates,thisprecautiondoesn’talwayshelp:frostpatternsareunpredictable,andoccasionallyearlybloomingisgood.Someyearsourtreeshavebloomedduringawarmspellandsetlittlefruits.Then,afewdayslaterthetemperaturedroppedtothelow20s,butnodamagewasdonetothecrop,apparentlybecausetheformingfruitsaremoreresistanttocoldthantheflowers.

PollinationMatters

LOTSOFGARDENERSplantafewplumtreeswithoutconsideringthepollinationfactorandhavewonderfulcropseveryyear.Othershaveaterribletime,andwecontinuallyheargrumblingfrompeoplewhoseplumsbloomedheavilyandsetlotsoftinyfruitsthatthenfelloff.Therearenumerousreasonsforcropfailure—poorsoil,shortageof

bees,andfrostdamage—butlackofpollinationisthemostlikelycause.Togetfruit,twodifferentcultivarsofthesameplumtypearenecessary.Forexample,ifyouhaveonlyonetree,oroneJapanese,oneEuropean,andoneAmerican,fruitwillprobablybemissingbecauseofimproperfamilyplanning.Oftendescriptionsofplumswillsuggestsuitablepollinators.Ifchoosingyourown,makesurethey’llbloomatthesametime.Makesurethetreesarecloseenoughforbeestotransferpollen.Keepdifferentcultivarsofthesameplumtypewithin80feetofeachother,halfthatdistanceiftheyareplantedinlandscapeswithotherpollensources.AJapanese-Americanhybridshouldbepollinatedbythenative

speciesthatwasitsparentorbyaJapaneseplum.ThesehybridsusuallypollinateJapaneseplumsbloomingatthesametime.Hybridswithotherspecies(pluots,nectaplums,apriums)shouldbepollinatedwiththepredominantparent—aJapaneseplumcouldbeusedtopollinateapluot,forexample.AsimilarprincipleappliestohybridsofAmericanspecies;forthese,anativespeciesshouldbeincludedforpollination.Descriptionswillusuallygivethisinformation.

Toaddfurtherconfusion,theviabilityofthepollenofcertainplumsvariesconsiderably,dependingonwherethey’regrown.Insomeareas,thecultivarsofdifferenttypescross-pollinatewithnoproblems.Inotherareas,however,twokindsthatshouldmateperfectlywillnot,eitherbecauseofweakpollenorbecausethetreesdon’tbloomatthesametime.Afewplums,suchas‘Methley’,aJapaneseplum,areself-fertile.The

Damson,‘GreenGage’,and‘Stanley’Europeanplumsareoftenself-fertile;the‘SantaRosa’ispartlyself-fertile.YoumayseesomeEuropeanplumslistedasself-fertile.Forthebestyields,andtoensurethatyourtreesgetpollinated,plantapartnerfortheseasyouwouldformostotherfruittrees.Don’tbediscouragedbythecomplexityofplumpollination.Ifyou

havespace,plantthreedifferentcultivarsofthesameplumtypeforinsurance.Ifyoudon’thaveroomforthatmany,tryaself-fertilecultivar,orperhapsyoucantalknearbyneighborsintotheadvantagesofdiversifiedfruitgrowing.Ifyourgardencenterornurserycatalogrecommendsaplumcultivarthatisanespeciallygoodpollenizerforyourarea,incorporateoneofthoseinyourorchardorlandscape.‘Compass’,asmallcherryplum,producessomuchvigorouspollenthatyoumaywanttoplantitasapollenizerforAmericanhybrids.

PlantingandCare

IFYOUSTARTwiththekindsbestsuitedforyourregion,you’llfindplumtreeseasytogrow.Theirrelativelysmallsizemakespruningandharvestingsimple(alsospraying,ifnecessary).Theystartproducingearlyinlifeandareseldomsubjecttoblightsandotherepidemicsthatcanwipeoutlargenumbersofotherfruittrees.Aphids,mice,anddeerdon’tbotherthemasmuchastheydoappleandpeartrees.Trytobuytreesthatarecertifieddisease-free,andplantthemseveralhundredfeetfromanyotherplumorcherrytreestoreducethechanceofinfectionbydiseaseoravirus.Thiswillhelpyourplumtreeslivetoaripeoldage.Followthesamebasicsoilpreparation,planting,andaftercareasfor

othertreefruits(seechapters15and16).Likepears—butunlikemostothertreefruits—plumswilltolerateheavy(clay)soilswithless-than-

perfectdrainage.Theygrowbestinwell-drainedsoils,though,sotrytoplantingoodsoilinaspotthatgetsadequatedrainage.Europeanplumsarethemosttolerantofheavysoils;Japanesetypespreferaloamysoilwithgooddrainage.

TIPSFORGROWINGPLUMS

•Chooseasitewithabundantsunandwell-drainedsoil.(Someplumstolerateless-than-perfectdrainage.)Plumsbloomearly,solookforasiteonaslopetominimizeriskfromalatespringfrost.Tryforasiteawayfromwildplumsandcherries,whichcouldspreaddiseasestoyournewtrees.

•Selectatype,andcultivars,suitedtoyourarea.Toassurecross-pollination,buyatleasttwocultivarsofthesametype(threeisbetter),andplantwithin40feetofeachother.

•Fertilizeyearlyinspring.

•Provideamplemoisturethroughoutthegrowingseason.Athickmulchhelpsconservesoilmoisture.

•TrainEuropeananduprightcultivarstoacentralormodifiedleaderform,opencenterforothertypesofplums.

•Pruneinlatespringaccordingtotype:JapaneseandAmericanhybridsneedmorepruningthanEuropeanselectionsdo.Onuprightcultivars,spreadyounglimbssotheygrowata60-degreeangletothetrunk.

•ThinfruitonJapanesehybridswhenthesizeofadime,sothey’re4to5inchesapart;thinothersonlyiftoocrowded,andthento2to4inchesapart.

Becauseplumsproducealargeamountoffruitonarelativelysmalltree,adequateamountsoffertilizerandmoisturemustbeavailable

throughoutthegrowingseason.Athickmulchandagenerousdoseoforganicfertilizeraroundeachtreeeveryyearhelptoprovidethis.

PruneAccordingtoType

SeveralyearsagoIfoundtwoarticlesrelatedtoplumgrowinginthesameissueofagardenmagazine.Oneexpertwrotethatplumsneedlittleifanypruning.Theothersaidthey’reonefruitthatshouldbeprunedseverelyeveryyear.Probablythewritershaddifferenttypesofplumsinmind,becausetheJapaneseandthefast-growingAmericanhybridscertainlyneedmorepruningthantheslower-growingEuropeans.Aswiththeothertreefruits,pruneplumtrees:•toletinmoresunshine(forhealthyandbetter-coloredfruit)•toshapeintoastrongerandmoreattractivetree•topreventbranchesbreakingunderheavyfruitloadsonJapanesetypes

Small-fruitedplums.There’snodoubtthatcertainsmall-fruitedplumtreesproducewellwithnopruningatall,butI’vefoundthatmostvarietiesgreatlybenefitfrompruning.Properpruningresultsinfewerbutlargerfruits,encouragesannualbearing,andhelpspreventbreakagebyeliminatingbadcrotchesandweaklimbs.Prunesothatthetreebecomesnicelyshaped,easytoworkwith,andproductive.

EuropeanandJapaneseplums.TheEuropeantypesmayneedonlylightpruning;theyproduceannuallyonolderspurs(mostly2to6yearsold),sothere’slessneedtostimulateformationofnewbranches.TheJapanesetypes,whichproducefruitonbothspursand1-year-oldstems,needheavierpruningtostimulatenewgrowthinordertokeepfruitscomingyearly.InthearidWestundergoodgrowingconditions,heavypruningwillhelpreducesomeofthecroploadtoamanageablelevelforyouandthetree.Lightpruningtoshapetheyoungplumtreewhenstillsmallwillsaveyouagreatdealofcorrectivesurgerylateron,andwillbelessofashockforthetree.

Plumtreesbeartheirfruitonshort,stubbyspurs(likeapples,pears,andcherries),sobecarefulnottocutofftoomanyofthesewhenyou’repruning.

PruneAccordingtoHabit

Likeapples,allplumtreesdon’tgrowinthesamefashion.Trytoadjustyourpruningstyletotheparticulargrowthhabitofeachtype.TheEuropeanandJapanesegrowmoreliketrees,EuropeantypesoftenmoreuprightthantheJapanese.Modified-leadertraining(seepage246)isusuallyrecommendedfortheuprightEuropeanplumsandforanyuprightJapanesecultivars,suchas‘SantaRosa’.Lowersemidwarfordwarftreesmaybefinetrainedtoacentralleaderiftheywon’tbetoohighforyourmaintenanceandharvesting.MostJapaneseplumsarespreadingtreesthatdobestprunedtoanopen-center(vase-shaped)style.AmericanspeciesandJapanese-Americanhybridsarealso

spreadingandshrubbier,soanopen-centerpruningstyleismoreappropriatefortheseaswell.Certainplums,suchas‘SantaRosa’,tendtogrowskyward—even

theoutsidebranchesturnup.Ifyounglimbsonthesearetoovertical,youneedtospreadthem,aswithpears(seepage150),tocreatethestronghorizontalbranchanglesneededtosupportheavyloadsoffruit.Occasionallycutbackthetopsofuprighttrees,whenneeded,toencourageamorespreading,lower-growingtreethat’seasiertomaintainandpick.Othervarietiesspreadsowidethattheouterbranchesbecomeweepyandhangtotheground.Prunebackallbranchesthatarespreadingtoowidebeforetheybegintotrail.

AvoidingWaterSprouts

Heavypruning,coupledwithlotsoffertilizer,willcauselotsofwatersproutsfromthebaseofplumtrees.Pruninglesseachyearandpruningannuallyratherthanwaitingafewyearstodoaheavypruningwillhelpdecreasethenumberofwatersprouts.Ifthenewgrowthistoovigorous,slowitdownbybendingbranchtipsintoaweepingshape.Eitherhangweightsfrombranchesnearthetips,ortieflexibleendsofbranchestoweightsontheground.Thispractice,calledfestooning,iscommoninBritain.

ThinningFruit

Someplumsproducemorefruitthantheplantreallyneeds.Aswithpeaches,you’llneedtomanuallythintheimmaturefruitswhenthey’rebetweenthesizeofadimeandaquarter,leavingfruits4to5inchesapartforJapaneseplums.ThinningmaynotbeneededforEuropeancultivars;ifitis,spacefruits2to4inchesapart.Damsonsandnativeplumsneednothinningunlesstheyhaveacroptooheavyfortheirlimbstosupport.Thinning,alongwithpruning,willencourageannualbearingonthosetreespronetobearmoreheavilyeveyear.

DiseasesandInsects

MostplumsgrowwellinthearidWestbecausetheretheyaren’ttroubledbydiseases.Althoughthelistofplumdiseasesisnotasgreatasitisforotherfruits,beonthelookoutforblackknot,bacterialspot,

brownrot,andscab.Somecultivars,suchas‘President’,‘AURoadside’,and‘SantaRosa’,areresistanttoblackknot.Inhotandhumidclimates,nematodesmaybeaproblem,inwhichcaselookfornematode-resistantrootstocks,mentionedearlier.Ifyourtreesaregraftedontoapeachrootstock,don’tplantinwetorpoorlydrainedsoil,aspeachrootstocksaresusceptibletorootrotsthatplumrootstockswon’tget.AnotherreasonplumsareeasierthroughouttheWestisthat

gardenersdon’thavetoworryabouttheplumcurculio.ThisisthemaininsectpesttowatchforeastoftheRockies.Fordescriptionsofthecurculioandplumdiseasesandtheircontrols,seechapter18(page279).

HarvestingPlums

PLUMTREESareextremelyproductive,andthey’relong-lived—oftento30yearsforstandardtrees.Ifallgoeswell,thelarge-fruitingkindsshouldbear2to6bushelspertree(20to120pounds).Thefruitisripewhenit’swellcoloredandhasapowdery“bloom”(awhitewaxycoating).Atthistime,itshouldseparatefromthebrancheasilyandbesweetandjuicytoeat.OnlyJapaneseplumsmaybenefitfrompickingashorttimebeforethey’retree-ripe;allowthemtoripeninacool,butnotcold,roomforafewdaysbeforeeating.Manyplumcultivarsripenoverafairlylongseason,sothey’rean

excellenthomefruit.They’llkeepforafewweeksinarefrigeratororothercoolplace,butcheckthemoccasionallyandusebeforetheygetmushy.Besideseatingthemrightoffthetree,weenjoyourdeliciousplums

indessertsauces,pies,andcoffeecake.Wepreserveplumconserveforwintertreats,andfreezeplumsbothrawandcooked.Sometimeswefreezethetangyjuiceforapunchbase—chilledandmixedwithgingerale,it’sourtraditionalChristmascocktail.Figureon1bushelofplumsyielding24to30quartscanned.For1quartcanned,ittakesjustover2poundsoffruit.Plumscanbedriedinadehydrator,eithercutinhalfwithpits

removedorsliced.Ifcut,firstsoakfor10minutesinascorbicacidorasimilarproductfromthestoretopreventbrowning.Thenfigureon6to

10hoursinthedehydratorforslices,24to36hoursforhalves.Youcanalsodryplumswhole(cracktheskinsfirstbydippinginboilingwaterfor30to60seconds),buttheprocesstakesalotlonger.

PluotsandPlumcots

Plumsarecloselyrelatedtoapricots,aswellastopeachesandnectarines,socleverbreedershavecomeupwithsomecrossesamongthevariousspecies.Thesecrossesaresweeterthaneitherparent,withsimilarhardiness(generallyZones5–9).Thepluotisacrossbetweenanapricotandaplum,withmoreplum

heritage.Fruitshavesmoothaskin,liketheirplumparent,andasweetflavor.Theyrequire400to500chillinghours.PlantwithanapriumorJapaneseplumtoensurepollination.Treesareattractive,three-seasonlandscapeplantswithnicespringflowers,summerfruit,andfallleafcolor.Somecultivarsare‘DappleDandy’,afreestonewithmaroonskinandcreamyredflesh;‘FlavorKing’,withred-purpleskinandredflesh;and‘Splash’,withred-orangeskinandorangeflesh.Theplumcothasaboutthesameamountofapricotandplum

heritage,withaplumlikeshape,anaromaofplums,andtheslightlyfuzzyskinofanapricot.Theflavorhasbeendescribedasablendoffruitjuices.Aswithpluots,plantwithanapriumorJapaneseplumtoensurepollination.Thecultivar‘Flavorella’hasyellowskinandfleshandasweet-tartflavor;itripensearly.Plumcotshavealowchillingrequirement,250to400hours.Otherhybridsarelesscommon.Apriumshavemoreapricotthan

plumintheirbackground,sofruitsmoreresembleapricotswithjustalittlefuzzontheskin.Plantwithanapricottoensurepollination.‘Tri-lite’,apeach-plumhybridthatripensearly,hasauniquetastewithaflavorfirstofpeachesandthenaplumaftertaste;it’sgoodforcanningaswellasfresheating.‘SpiceZee’isanectaplum,whichisanectarine-plumhybridwithaspicysweetflavor.Itmakesaniceornamentaltreewithspringblooms,andreddishleavesinspringturnareddishgreeninsummer.

Pluot

Plumcot

PlumCultivars

ItwouldbeahopelesstasktotrytolistallthemanyplumsgrowninNorthAmerica,andnewonesappeareachyear.Herearefewwidelyavailablecultivarsthataretastyandgoodforfresheatingaswellasotheruses.FruitingseasonrangesfromlateMaytolateAugustinwarmerclimates,mid-Julytomid-Septemberincolderclimates.

WildPlums

SeveralnativeplumsgrowwildinvariouspartsofNorthAmerica.Theyproducevastamountsofsmallfruitsthatbirdsandanimalsdevourandpeoplecollecttomakeintotastyjamsandjellies.Thosethatmakesmallbushesaregoodlandscapeplantsinbeds,alongfoundations,orasawindbreak.Oneofthebestknownofthesenativeplumsisthebeachplum

(Prunusmaritima),foundgrowingalongtheshoresofthenorthAtlanticcoast.Ifyoudeducefromitsnamethatittoleratessandandsaltysoilsandair,you’recorrect.Butitwillgrowequallywellawayfromthebeach,inZones3to7,aslongasitgrowsinfullsunandwell-drainedsoil.Massesofwhite(sometimespink)flowersinspringmakethis6-footshrubagreatornamental.Unlessit’sgraftedontoanupright-growingunderstock,itwilltendtogrowsuckersandspread,anditcanbequitethorny.Youcantrainitwithsomeyearlypruningintoahedgeorshrub.Fewproblemsbotherit.Yieldsarevariable,lotsoneyearandlittleanother.Twoseedlingsor

cultivarsareneededforcross-pollination.Fruitsaresmall,generallylessthananinchacross,andreddishtodeeppurple.Becausethey’reabittart,they’rebestinjellies.Cultivarswerepopularinthemiddlepartof

thelastcenturybutaredifficulttofindnow.Whatyou’llusuallyfindareplantsgrownfromseedlings.Hybridsofwesternsandcherries(seepage184)andstandardplums

areknownaschumsinCanadaandascherry-plumsintheUnitedStates.They’vebeenaroundforacentury,andoriginallycameoutoftheGreatPlains.Theyproduceasmallplum,notasgoodinqualityasatrueplum,buttheytolerateseverewintersanddroughtforthosewhocan’tgrowplumsotherwise.

Thearrivalofripe,sweetcherriesmarksthebeginningofsummerinmanypartsofthecountry.

CHAPTER13

Cherries,SweetandSour

InschooloneyearwereadabookaboutsomeEnglishchildrenwhohadagreatmanyadventures,mostofwhich,I’msure,wereexciting.ButtheonlythingIrememberabouttheirexploitsisthatonsummermornings,theboysclimbedouttheupstairswindowoftheirbighouseintoamonstrouscherrytreeandatethegiantsweetcherries.Thatmadeabigimpressiononme,andIdecidedthatsomedayIwouldhaveatreejustlikethat.ThecherrytreesthoseEnglishchildrenclimbedtosuchgreatheights

weresweetcherries.Becausewecouldn’tgrowthoseinourclimate,Iraisedsourcherries,whicharenaturallysmallertrees;mostnevergrewmorethan8feettall.Evenasmallchildcouldn’tclimbtothesecondfloorinoneofthem.AlthoughIneverdidclimbacherrytree,Idolovethetasteofripe

cherries,sweetorsour.Theyhavetheaddedbenefitofbeingbeautifulornamentaltrees,althoughtheirspringflowersarenotasshowyasthoseofthefloweringcherriesthatdon’tfruit.Cherriesareanancientfruit;pitshavebeenfoundinEuropeancaves

datingtotheStoneAge.TheywerebroughttoAmericainthe1600sbyearlysettlers.Today,mostofusarefamiliarwithsomesortofcherry,ifnotfromcherrypieandthemaraschinocherriestoppingsundaesthenfromthewildspeciesthatgrowinalmosteveryregionofNorthAmerica.

Sweet,Sour,andBushCherries

WHENYOUSHOPforcherrytrees,you’llfindtwomaingroups—thesweet(Prunusavium)andthesourortart(P.cerasus).Thetwotypeshavedifferentgrowthhabitsandthusdifferentpruningneeds,aswellasdifferentusesfortheirfruit.

SweetCherries

Thesweetcherrygroupincludesmanymorecultivarsthanthesour.Thesearemorepopularbecauseoftheirsweetness.Theygrowwellinthesameareasasthepeach(Zones5–8),excepttheydon’tgrowwellinsummerheat.Springfrostscandamagetheearly-to-bloomflowers;oncetheirchillingneedsaremet,amildspellinwintercaninspirethemtostarttogrowevenearlier.Treesgenerallygrowtallandmoreupright,20to30feethighand20to25feetwideifnotprunedorgraftedontoadwarfingrootstock.They’remoreparticularaboutgrowingconditionsthansourcherriesare.Theygrowbestincooler,westernregions,wheretherearefewerdiseasesandpeststobotherthem,andindriersoils.Attheendoftheseason,wetweathercancausefruitstocrackandbecomediseased.Newercultivarsbearfruitswithmoreelasticskinsthatareresistanttothiscrackingandsplitting.

HearttypesandBigarreaucultivars.Sweetcherriesaredividedintotwogroups,basedonfruitshape.Hearttypeshave,asyoumightguess,heart-shapedfruit.TheBigarreaucultivarsaremorerounded.Becausetheyhavefirmerflesh,andthusalongershelflife,they’retheonesyoufindinstores.Withineachofthesegroups,cultivarsthatproducedark,reddishjuiceareknownasdarksweetsandthosethatproducepale,almostcolorlessjuicearethelightsweets.

SourCherries

Incatalogs,sourcherriesareoftencalledpiecherries,asthat’swheresomanyofthemaredestined.Theyhavethewidestrange,generallygrowingwellinZones4–7.(InZone4theymaygettrunkdamagefromthecold,andthatwillleadtotheirdemise.)Flowersmaybedamagedbylate-springfrosts,socommercialorchardsareoftenlocatednearbodiesofwater,whichmoderatetheclimate.OnesuchisLakeMichigan,whichiswhythestateofMichiganproducesabout75percentofthenation’s

sourcherries.Sourcherriesneedafewweeks’chillinginordertoflowerandfruit(seechillinghours,page192).Ifyougardeninafrost-freeornearlyfrost-freepartofthecountry,you’relikelytohavetroublegrowingthem.Wheretheygrowwell,they’llbeshorterthanthesweetcherries—15to20feettallandwide—withamorespreadinghabit.

Sweetcherries(left)havedense,sweetflesh.Sourcherries(right)havealighter,moretranslucentappearanceandtendtobesomewhatsmallerthansweetcherries.

AmarelleandMorellotypes.Sourcherriesalsofallintotwodistinctgroups.MorecommoninNorthAmericaaretheamarelletypes,which

include‘Montmorency’,themostpopularpie-cherrycultivar.Cherriesinthisgrouphavebrightredfruitswithyellowflesh,flattenedontheends,andproduceaclearjuice.MorecommoninEuropearetheMorellosourcherries,whichgrowonsmallertrees.Theirfruitsareroundedwithbrightredfleshandproduceadarkredjuice.AfamousMorellocultivar,‘Marasca’,wasusedinItalytoproducealiqueurcalledmaraschino.Thisliqueurgivesitsnametothecandiedcherrieswebuytoday,whichareactuallyothersourcherries,bleached,thencoloredandsugared,withnothingmuchleftoftheoriginalexceptthecherryshape.

BushCherries

Membersofstillanothergroup,thebushcherries,arequitedifferentfromorchardcherries,eventhoughthefruitsaresomewhatsimilar.Thesearesmall,veryhardyshrubs.ThoughlistedashardyinZones4to6or7,somecanbegrowninZone2,especiallywheredeepsnowprovidesgoodwinterprotection.Inspring,ifalatefrostthreatensflowers,plantsareshortenoughthatyoucanspreadrowcoversoverthemforfrostprotection.

Nankingcherryisabeautifulfloweringshrubthatproducesbrightredberriesinmidsummer.

CherryFastFacts

USDAHardinessZones:Sweet,5–8;sour,4–7(varieswithcultivar);bush(2)4–6(7)

Height:(Standardtrees)sweet,20–30feet;sour,15–20feet;bush,4–10feet

Spacing:(Standardtrees)sweet,20–25feet;sour,15–20feet;bush,3–6feet

Pollination:Sweetgenerallyneedcross-pollination;notessentialforsourormostbushcherries

Pruning:Latespring;modifiedleaderforsweet;modifiedleaderoropencenterforsour;cutolderbranchestogroundforbushcherries

Specialrequirement:Bepreparedtosharecropwithbirds,unlesstreesaresmallenoughfornetting

Yearstobearing:Sweet,5–7;sour3–5;bush,2–3

Yieldperstandardtree/bush:Sweetandsour,60–80quarts;bush,2–4quarts

Rootstocks:Standard,Semidwarf,orDwarf?

Cherries,liketheothertreefruits,aregrafted,andtheheightofyourmaturecherrytreeswilldependonwhichrootstockwasused.Theplantlabel(oryoursupplier)willtellyouwhattoexpectforthematureheight.Dwarftreesareonlyhalftheheightofastandardcherrytree,sometimesshorter.Butrootstockscontrolmorethanjustheight,soit’sworthfindingoutmorebeforeyoubuyyourtrees.Cherries,liketheotherstonefruits,canbegraftedinterchangeably

onrootsofothercherriesoronthoseofplum,peach,andapricottrees.Rootstocksimpartmanycharacteristicsinadditiontoheight,suchasshape,vigor,soiladaptability,nematoderesistance,agewhentreesbegintobear,andhardiness.Whenbuyingcherrytrees,especiallyfromacatalog,youmaybefacedwithachoiceoftwoorthreedifferentrootstocksforaparticularcultivar.

Dwarfing.AgoodselectionforsweetcherriesinthehomegardenisGisela,oneofthenewerdwarfingrootstocks.TheGiselaseriesiswidelyavailableandproducesshorterplantsthanaMazzardrootstockdoes(seebelow),eithersemidwarfordwarf,dependingontheselection.Theycanalsobeusedforsourcherriesandmayprovidesomediseaseresistance.Giselarootstocksresultinheavycrops,sofruitthinningisespecially

importantforsuchtrees.

Nematoderesistance.ThemostcommonrootstockisMazzard,awildEuropeansweetcherry(Prunusavium)that’sbelievedtohavebeenusedforacoupleofthousandyears.Mostcommonlyusedforsweetcherries,Mazzardwillworkwithmostsourcherriestoo.Itprovidesresistancetoroot-knotnematodesinthesoil,goodanchorage,andmoretoleranceofless-than-perfectsoildrainage.

Forsandysoil.MahalebisawildsemidwarfEuropeansourcherry(P.mahaleb)usedmainlyforsourcherries.Itresultsinashorter,hardiertree,andonemoretolerantofsandysoilsanddrought.TreesonMahalebrootstocksdon’ttoleratepoorlydrainedsoils,however.Whenusedforsweetcherries,Mahalebmayproduceatreewithamorespreadinggrowthhabit.

Otherdwarfs.Youmayencountertwootherdwarfingrootstocks;botharerelativelynewandcompatiblewithallcherries.ThoseintheKrymskseriesfromRussiadon’tsucker,andtheyleadtofruitingatanearlierage(precociousisthetechnicaltermforthis).ColtresultsinashorterplantthanacherrygraftedontoMahaleb,anditprovidessomediseaseresistanceaswellasbettertoleranceofless-than-perfectsoildrainage.

Nankingcherry.ThepopularNankingcherry(P.tomentosa)makesagorgeousfloweringshrubinspring,6to10feettallwithwhitetopinkishflowers.Thehalf-inch,brightredberries,whichripeninmidsummer,haveagoodflavorbetweensourandsweetcherries.ThisshrubisoftenusedasawindbreakinZone3,aswellasinlandscapes,andsometimesforarootstock.Plantatleasttwoforcross-pollination.

Westernsandcherry.Thewesternsandcherry(P.besseyi)isnativetotheGreatPlains.Itformsasuckeringshrub4to6feettallandisoftenusedasadwarfingrootstockforpeaches,apricots,andplums,whichthenmaydevelopitssuckeringhabit.Clothedinfragrantwhiteflowersinlatespring,itbearsdarkpurplecherriesinmidsummer.Thebitterfruitssweetenastheyripen;althoughthey’reedible,they’remorecommonlyusedforjellies.Glossygreenleavesturnorange-redinfall.

Thewesternsandcherrygrowsbestinwell-drainedsoilsbutwilltolerateratherunfavorablesitesinZones3to7,includingalkaline,sandy(asthenameindicates),andclaysoils.It’sseldombotheredbyinsectsanddisease,andwilltoleratedroughtonceestablished.Plantatleasttwobushesforcross-pollination.‘Hansen’s’,withlarge,darkpurplefruits,isthemostcommoncultivar.

Interspeciescrosses.Otherbushcherriesarecrossesbetweenspecies,orevenwithplums(theseareknownaschumsorcherry-plums).‘CarmineJewel’,developedintheCanadianprairiesinthe1940s,isacrossbetweenthesourandMongoliancherries(Prunuscerasus×P.fruticosa).

PickyaboutPollination

SOURCHERRIESareoneofthefewfruitsthatalmostalwaysself-pollinatewell,soonetreeisallyouneed.Inmostcasessweetcherrieswillneedanothercultivarforsuccessfulfruiting.Afewsweetcherriesareself-fertile;seekoutcultivarssuchas‘Lapins’,‘Stella’,and‘Sweetheart’ifyouhaveroomforonlyonetree.Pollinationforsweetcherriesismorecomplicatedthanformost

otherfruits.Payattentionwhengettingsweetcherriesnotonlytobuyatleasttwodifferentcultivars,butalsotomakesurethatthey’llcrosswitheachother.Descriptionsshouldprovidethisinformation;somereferenceshaveatabletohelpyoumatchcultivarscompatibleforcross-pollination.Sourcherriesarenotgoodaspollinatorsforsweetcherriesbecausetheyseldombloomatthesametime.Norcancherryplumsandtheotherstonefruitssatisfactorilypollinatecherries.

Unlikemostvarietiesofsweetcherry,‘Sweetheart’isaself-fertilecultivar.Itdoesn’tneedtobepollinatedbyanothercherrytree.

HowSweetandSourCherriesDiffer

PlantingandCare

ALLCHERRYTREESfruitbestinfullsun.Sweetcherrytreesmusthavewell-drainedsoils,althoughsomerootstocksaremoretolerantofoccasionallydampsoil.Sourcherriescanwithstandaheavier,coolersoilaslongasit’sreasonablywelldrained.Whenplanting,makesurethegraftunionis1to3inchesabovethe

soillevel.Asthisunionmaybeweakincherries,it’simportanttostaketreesdirectlyafterplanting,sowindsdon’tbreakoffthetops(seepage238).Allfruittreesneedcarefulplanting(seechapter16),butcherries

requirespecialcarebecausetheirrootsdryoutsoeasily.Neverlettherootsgetdrywhenyou’replanting,andkeepnewtreesadequatelywatereduntiltheybegintogrowwell.Becausecherrytreesareshallow-rooted,droughtsarehardonthem,particularlythosegrowinginsandysoil.Theythriveunderathick,coolmulch.Cherrytreesneedverylittlefertilizer.Ifthesoilisingoodcondition,

youmaynotneedtoaddanythingotherthancomposteachyear.Overfeedingwillproduceatreethatgrowstoofast,bearspoorly,andismoresusceptibletodisease.Underfeeding,ontheotherhand,mayreducetheamountoffruityouget.Cherrytreesneedsomenutrients,especiallynitrogen,toproduceenoughshootgrowthtosupportformationoffruitbuds.Letyourtreeguideyouinhowmuchtofertilize.Followthe12–18

ruleonpage224foryoung,non-bearingcherrytrees.Oncetheybeginto

bearfruit,sweetcherriesmaybeexpectedtoproduceslightlymoregrowth(10–15inches)ayearcomparedtosourcherries(8–10inchesayear).Ifyourcherrytreesproducemorethantheseamounts,don’tfertilizethem;iftheyproduceless,youneedtofertilize.

PruneAccordingtoType

Sweet,sour,andbushcherrieshavedifferentpruningneedstomatchtheirdifferentgrowthhabits.Followthebasicguidelinesinchapter17,butadjustpruningbasedonyourtrees’vigor(especiallyasinfluencedbytherootstock),theamountoffruitingofaparticularcultivar,andtopromotelargerfruits.Cherries,likeplumsandapricots,beartheirfruitonspurs,short

bluntgrowthsoffbranches.Whenpruning,takecarenottoremovethesespursunlesstheylookoldor,onoldertrees,aretoonumerous.Flowersofsweetcherries,andthustheirfruits,areformedmostlyon2-to10-year-oldspursonolderbranches,althoughsomealsoappearatthebaseof1-year-oldbranches.Thelargest,andbest,cherriesareproducedonnewbranchesandyoungerspurs(1to3yearsold);tostimulatesuchnewgrowthit’simportanttopruneyourtreeseveryyear.Theflowersandfruitsofsourcherriesformmostlyon1-year-oldbranches,thoughsomewillappearon2-to3-year-oldspurs,too.

Timing.Thetimingforpruningcherrytreesdependsonyourclimate.Cherries,particularlysweetones,arequitesusceptibletobacterialdiseasesthataremostactiveduringcool,wetweather.Inaridregionssuchdiseasesaren’tmuchofaproblem;pruneinearlyspringtostimulatevigorousgrowth,oriftreesarealreadyproducingvigorousgrowthyoucanpruneinearlysummer.Everywhereelse,though,youshouldprunematurecherryplantsafterfloweringWhenpruningcherrytrees,becarefulnottoremovetoomanyfruitingspurs,orthatseason’sharvestwillbediminished.inlatespring.That’swhentemperaturesarewarmer,conditionsareabitdrier,andpruningwoundshealfaster,whichwillminimizethechanceofinfection.Ifcankersandotherdiseasesareknowninyourarea,trynottoprune2or3daysbeforerainispredicted—thiswilllessentheirspread.

Whenpruningcherrytrees,becarefulnottoremovetoomanyfruitingspurs,orthatseason’sharvestwillbediminished.

Trainingsweetcherries.Sweetcherriesgenerallygrowupright,sooftenthey’retrainedtoacentralleader.Ifyouhaveastandardtreeandwanttokeepitshorter,usethemodified-leadersysteminstead(seepage246).Trytoleaveabout12inchesbetweenscaffoldbranches.(Thisistwicethedistanceforsourcherries,assweetcherriesareusuallymorevigorousthansourcherries.)Onyoungsweetcherrytrees,prunebackthemainscaffoldbranches

aswellasthecentralleader.Alsoremoveathirdtoahalfofthetipgrowthonfuturefruitingshoots(thoseformedthepreviousyear).Theseheadingcutswillpromotemorebranchingandreducetheeventualcroploadtoalevelthatcanbesupportedwithoutlimbsbreakingundertoomuchweight.Alsopruneback,orevenremove,themoreuprightbranchesandthosethatareoverlyvigorousandthreatentodominateothers.Topromotewider,stronger,45-degreebranchangles,spread

branchesatanearlyage,asyouwouldforpears(seepage150).Thisisoftenneededonsweetcherries,whichgrowmoreuprightthanthesour

cherries.Thesimplestmeansistouseclothespinsforafewweekswhenbranchesareonlyafewincheslong.Attachaclothespintothetrunk,justaboveabranch,toholdthebranchatamorehorizontalangle.Onceyoursweetcherrieshavebeenbearingforacoupleyears,start

headingbackaboutafifthtoaquarterofthefruitingbrancheseachyear.Thiswillpromotedevelopmentofnewspursthatwillformbetter-qualityfruit,anditwillreducesomeoftheheavycropload.Onupperbranches,leave3-to5-inchstubs;leavelongeroneslowerinthetree,wheretheyreceivelesslight.Continuetothinoutnewshootsthatappearweakortooupright.

Trainingsourcherries.Sourcherrieshaveamorespreadinghabitthansweetcherries,sousuallythey’retrainedtoamodifiedleader(page246).Youmaytraintoanopencenterifyouwanttokeeptreesshorter,butsuchplantsmaynotbearasheavily.Don’tpruneasheavilyassweetcherriesinthetrees’earlyyears;toomuchpruningofyoungsourcherrieseachyearwillresultinstuntedtrees.

Whenthebranchesofacherrytreeareyoungandflexible,clothespinscanbeusedtotrainbranchessothattheyhaveawideranglefromthetrunk.

Identifyfourtosixmain“scaffold”branchestoallowtodevelopandpruneouttherest.Thesescaffoldbranchesshouldbeabout6inches

apartandspacedevenlyaroundthetrunk,notdirectlyaboveeachotherordirectlyacrossfromeachother.Don’tprunethesescaffoldbranches,anddon’tcutbacktheleader,asyoumightforotherfruits,asyoudon’twanttostunttrees.Oncesourcherriesbegintobear,cutbacktheleadertoalateral

scaffoldtobeginmodified-leadertraining.(Or,tokeeptreesshorter,switchtoopen-centertraining.)Alsopruneoutsomeolderstems(3to5yearsold)eachyeartostimulatenewgrowth.Becausethesetreestendtobetop-heavy,withupperlimbsshadingthelowerones,youmayneedtothinoutsomeupperbranches,too,eachyear.

Pruningbushcherries.Bushcherriesneedlesspruningthanothertypes.Theygrowasshrubswithnewshootseachyearsproutingfromthebase.Mostfruitisproducedonshootslessthan5yearsold,socutoldershootsrighttothebaseoftheplantinlatewinterorearlyspring.Thiswillkeepnewerfruitingshootsformingeachyear.Alsoremovesuckersgrowingoutintoareaswhereyoudon’twantthem,andthinshootsthataregettingtoocrowded.Thiswillletmoreairandlightintothecenter,whichresultsinbetterfruitandlesschanceofdisease.

Birds,Insects,andDiseases

Birdslovecherriesmorethananyotherorchardfruits,andareprobablythegrower’sbiggestproblem.Youmaybeabletousenettingonsmallertartcherrytrees.Onlargertrees,try“scare-eye”balloonsandsimilardevices(seepages189amd298).Somepeopletrytooutwitthebirdsbyplantingyellowcherries,thinkingthebirdswillwaitforthemtoripenandturnred.Butbirdsarenofools,atleastnotforlong.Anddeermaybrowseyoungtreesandgrowth,resultinginlossoffruitandstuntedtrees(seepage295).

Diseases.Althoughcherriesaresubjecttoseveraldiseases(mostofthesameonesthataffectplums),manyhomeorchardistsneverspraytheircherrytreesandhavenoproblemsatall.Keepingdeadorinfectedfruitandleavespickedup,removinganddestroyinginfectedbranches,andcuttingdowninfectednearbywildcherrieswillgreatlyreducediseaseproblems.

Themostcommondiseasesofcherriesareblackknotandbrownrot.Otherpotentialdiseases,particularlyofsourcherries,areverticilliumwiltandpowderymildew.Inearlysummer,verticillium(afungalwilt)causesleavestobecomedullandlightcolored.Thefungalperennialcankerthatinfectscherriesformsblackenedwoundsonstems.Insummer,X-diseaseofstonefruitscancausethesuddendeathofcherriesgraftedontoMahalebrootstock.FortreesonMazzardrootstock,X-diseasemaycauseaslowdeclineoverseveralyears.Acluethatthediseasemaybepresentisscatteredsmallandpinkfruitthattastebitter.Seechapter18formoreonthesediseases,andtheircontrols.Cherryleafspotisafungaldiseasethatbecomesnoticeableinspring,

shortlyafterpetalfall.Smallpurplishspotsappearonupperleafsurfaces,laterturningbrownandsometimesmergingtoformbrownpatches;inseverecasesleavesyellowandthendropprematurely.Thisdefoliationwillweakentreesoveraperiodofyears,reducingfruitingandleadingtowinterinjuryincoldclimates.Althoughallcherriesareatrisk,sourcherriesaremostsusceptible,plusit’smoredifficulttocontrolthediseaseonsourcherries.Inthefall,cleanupfallenleavesfrominfectedtrees;thismaybeallthecontrolyouneed.Otherwise,applyfungicidespraysasneeded,beginningafterpetalfallandcontinuinguptoharvest;youmayneedtosprayacoupleoftimesafterharvestaswell.Youcanalternatebetweensprayingonesideofthetreeoneweek,theothersidethenext.Asalways,followthespecificdirectionsandtimingonthelabelofanyproductyouuse.

Cherryleafspot

Cherrymaggothole

Blackknotfungus

Ifyouhavejustafewbirdstoscareawayfromyourcherrytree,ascare-eyeballoonmaybetheanswer.

Nettingprovidesthebestprotectionagainstbirds.Installthenettingjustbeforecherriesbegintocolor.

Viruses.Leavesthatbecomemottledordistortedmayhaveavirus,whichusuallycomesfrominfectedrootstocksorfrominfectedtreesnearby.Thevirusspreadsthroughoutthetreeandbythetimeatreehasproducedforadozenyearsorsoafewlimbsbegintowiltanddie.Oftenwithin2or3yearsofthisstage,thetreeisdead.Fungicidesaren’teffectiveonviruses.Buyvirus-resistantorvirus-freetreesifatallpossible,andisolateyourplantingsfromwildandinfectedtrees.

Physiologicalissues.Barksplittingmaybemistakenfordiseasebutisactuallyaphysiologicalproblemcommononmanyfruittrees(seepage267).Anotherphysiologicalproblem,oneuniquetosomesweetcherries,isfruitcracking.Asthefruitsripenlateintheseason,rainyweathermaycausethemtoabsorbmorewaterthantheycanhandle.Thefleshinsideswellsbuttheinelasticskinsareunabletoexpand,sofruitscrackor

split.Thismaybeworsewhentheweatherisquitewarm.Iffruitsaren’tyetripe,rotdiseasemaysetinandruinthem.Toenablesplitfruitstoripenwithoutrotting,aprotectivefungicidespraymayberequired.Orgrowcultivarsresistanttocrackingsuchas‘BlackGold’,‘Lapins’,and‘WhiteGold’.

Insects.Thesameinsectsthatmayaffectplumscanalsostrikecherries:plumcurculios,peachtreeborers,SanJosescale,andmites.Luckilyforus,thetentcaterpillarisabouttheonlyinsectthathaseverattackedoursourcherrytrees.Forwaystomanageanyofthesepests,seechapter18.Thecherrymaggot,orcherryfruitfly,isaseriouspestinsomeareas.

Itoperatesinmuchthesamewayastheapplemaggot:adultflieslayeggsinsidethefruits,andthesehatchandcausewormycherries.Thisinsectalsolayseggsinwildcherries,sokeepyourcultivatedtreesawayfromtheirwildcousins.Removinganycherriesremainingontreesafterharvestandrakingupfallencherriesonthegroundmayprovidesomecontroltoo.Maggotsspendupto10monthsayearinthesoil,about2inchesdeep;adultsultimatelyemergeinlatespringtoearlysummer.Watchfortheemergingadults.Ifyouplantouseapesticide,it’simportanttosprayduringthefewdayswhentheadultshaveemergedbutbeforetheylayeggs.Oncetheeggsareinsidethefruits,they—andlatertheleglessmaggots—willbeprotectedfromsprays.Insteadofachemicalspray,youcanhangredballstickytraps(seepage263)inthetrees;they’llattractandentrapmanyadultflies.

TIPSFORGROWINGCHERRIES

•Chooseasitewithfullsunandwell-drainedsoil;sweetcherriespreferalighter,sandiersoil;sourcherriestolerateheaviersoils.

•Staketreesafterplanting.

•Don’tletrootsdryout;keepwell-watereduntilestablished;waterregularlyindryclimates,andonsandysoils.

•Don’toverfertilize;annualcompostapplicationmaybeallthatis

needed.

•Prunebackthemainbranchesofyoungsweetcherriesbyone-thirdtoone-half;don’tprunebackyoungsourcherries.

•Onlyprunematuresweetcherriestothinorremovebrokenbranches;pruneoutolderbranchesofmaturesourcherries.

•Usebirdprotection,ifneeded.

HarvestingCherries

CHERRIESAREDELICIOUSrightoffthetree.Theirsize,color,taste,andeaseof“pull”fromthebranchwilltellyouwhencherriesarereadytopick.Generallythesourcherriesripen2to3weekslaterthanthesweetcherries.Thelongeryouleavesourcherriesonthetree,thesweeterthey’llbecome,butbesuretopickthembeforetheirskinscrack.Pickingcherriesiseasyandfun.Leavethestemsonthefruits.You

canpiletheminacontainerwithoutharmingthefruit,butusethemsoonafterpickingbecausetheykeepforonlyashorttime.Inarefrigerator,thefirmsweetcherriesshouldkeepfrom2to3weeks,butthesoftsweetkindsandthesouroneslastonlyaboutaweek.Unlessthebirdsbeatyoutothefruit,yourtreeswillproducelotsof

cherries.Figureon60to80quarts,or25to100pounds,fromeitherasweetorasourcherrytree.Ifyouhaveasurplusofcherries,thereare101differentwaystouse

them!Therearefewpeoplewhosemouthsdon’twateratthementionoffresh-baked,homemadecherrypie.Cherriescanalsobefrozen,canned,anddriedormadeintorelish,juice,andpreserves.Ratherthanuseamostlyartificialmaraschinocherryindrinksandonsundaes,tryareal,tasty,andhealthfulcherryfreshfromyouryard.Darkcherriesaretheeasiesttofreeze,astheirfleshwon’tdarken;

thosewithlightfleshneedtreatmentwithascorbicacidtopreventdarkening.Pitfirst,thenfreezewholeonrimmedbakingsheetspriortopacking.Thisway,youcanremovethemasneeded,andtheywon’tbe

frozenintoablock.Youcanalsofreezewithsugarorinsyrup;usingascorbicacidinthesyrupwillpreventbrowningofthelightcherries.Ifdrying,pitfirstandcutlargeonesinhalfbeforeputtinginthedehydrator.Whencanning,figureon2to2½poundsofcherriestomakeaquartofcannedfruit.

Therearefewpeoplewhosemouthsdon’twateratthementionoffresh-baked,homemadecherrypie.

Cherriescanbepitted(above)andusedforpiesandjams,ortheycanbepressedforjuiceorsyrup(left).

CherryCultivars

Thousandsofcherrycultivarshavebeendevelopedandnamed,thoughonlyafewarenowavailableingrocerystoresandproducemarkets.Althoughnewcherrycultivarsdonotappearasfrequentlyasnewapplesandpeaches,there’sstillagoodselection.Thefollowingchartdescribessomeofthebestcherriesforhomegardens.MostgrowbestinZones5to8,unlessnoted,andrequirebetween700and1,000chillinghours.

GalleryofUnusualTreeFruits

Inadditiontothoselistedbelow,sometreesgrownasornamentalshaveediblefruits.Amongthesearecorneliancherry(Cornusmas),hackberry(Celtisspecies),andstrawberrytree(Arbutusunedo).Tofindthefruitslistedhere,youmayneedtoseekoutspecialtyfruitnurseriesandcatalogs,andrare-fruitorganizations.Recommendedregionsareonlygeneral;somefruitsmaygrowinotherareasdependingonlocalconditionsandmicroclimates.ThisisespeciallytrueoftheWest,wheresomefruitspreferwarmerregionsandothersthecoolerPacificNorthwest.

KoreanMountainAsh(Sorbusalnifolia)

USDAHardinessZones:4–7

Bestregions:North,Midwest,West

Height:Upto45feet

Spread:20–30feet

Plantdescription:Leavesdividedintomanyleaflets

Fruitdescription:Clustersofsmall,brightreddishpinktopurpleberriesinlatesummerandearlyfall

Culture:Avoidtoodryandtoowetsoils,alsoalkaline;pronetofireblightdisease

Uses:Goodfreshwhenfruitsarefullyripeandsoft;alsogoodforjam,jelly,andjuice

ChineseDateJujube(Ziziphusjujuba)

USDAHardinessZones:6–9

Bestregions:South,Midwest,West(warmersections)

Height:15–20feet

Spread:10–15feet,dependingoncultivar

Plantdescription:Smallyellowflowersinmidsummerwithafragrancelikegrapesoda;canspreadwithsuckersfromroots;goodornamental;attractivebarkwithspinesthatfalloffwithage

Fruitdescription:Reddishwhenripe;wrinkledlikeasmalldate,1to2inchesacross;tasteslikeanapple

Culture:Needssummerheat;lowchillrequirement;somecultivarsareself-fruitfulbutbearmorewithcross-pollination;fewproblemsor

pruningneeds;onceestablished,toleratesdroughtandsalineandalkalinesoils;won’ttolerateshade,severecold,andpoorlydrainedsoils

Uses:Pickinfallwhenripe;eatfresh,candied,ordried(useasyouwouldraisinsanddates);minced,they’reusedinconfections

JapaneseApricotUme(Prunusmume)

USDAHardinessZones:6–8

Bestregions:SouthandWest

Height:10–20feet

Spread:10–15feet

Plantdescription:Pinktowhite,singletodoublespringflowerswith

spicyfragrance

Fruitdescription:Yellow;1inchacross;summer;usuallyself-fruitful

Culture:Toleratesmanysoiltypes,includingacidic;problemssimilartothoseofapricots

Uses:Canbecandied,boiled,usedforaliqueurorasourjam,orpreservedwithsugar;preservedwithsalt,they’reknownassaltplumsorumeboshi,forsushiandAsiancuisine

Loquat(Eriobotryajaponica)

USDAHardinessZones:8–10

Bestregions:South,West(warmersections)

Height:10–15feet

Spread:10–20feet

Plantdescription:Evergreentreeorlargeshrubwithlargeleavesandcreamywhite,fragrantfallflowers

Fruitdescription:Yellow;fuzzy;pear-shaped;1–2incheslong

Culture:Lowmaintenance;plantatleasttwotoensurepollination;maytoleratepartshade;droughttolerantbutfruitbetterwithamplemoisture;avoidoverfertilizing;thinsometerminalshootsafterharvest;plantswilltolerateseverepruning

Uses:OftengrownasanornamentalinsubtropicalandMediterranean-typeclimates,asashruborespalier;maygrowinazonecolderbutnotbearfruit;ripefruitseatenorusedfresh,unripeonesbestinjams;avoideatingseedsandyoungleaves,astheseareslightlytoxic

Medlar(Mespilusgermanica)

USDAHardinessZones:5–8

Bestregions:South,Midwest,West

Height:10–25feet

Spread:8–15feet

Plantdescription:Largeleaves;largewhiteflowersinearlysummer;verylonglived

Fruitdescription:Oddappearance,resembleapplesbutwithflaredendsoppositestems;chestnutbrown,ripentodarkbrowninfall;1inchwide;flavorofapple-sauceandspices

Culture:Doesn’ttolerateextremeheatorcold,unlikeotherfruits;ifgrafted,plantsotheunionisbelowsoilline

Uses:UncommoninNorthAmerica,popularinEuropeforcenturies;toosouranddifficulttoeatwhenpickedafterfirstfrost,soletripenincoolandlightfor2to3weeks(amaturingprocesscalledbletting)

Mulberry(Morusspecies)

USDAHardinessZones:Black(M.nigra),7–10;red(M.rubra),3–9

Bestregions:Varieswithspecies

Height:Blackto30feet;red,40–70feet

Spread:Black,20–30feet;red,40–50feet

Plantdescription:Flowersnotshowy;droopingcatkinsinspringasleavesemerge

Fruitdescription:Resemblesblackberriesontreesinlatesummer,withsimilartaste

Culture:Plantawayfrompavedsurfacestoavoidstainingbyfruits;withoutmaletrees,femalesproduceseedlessfruit;canbekeptshorter

withpruning(fruitsareproducedonnewwood);prunewhiledormantandonlybrancheslessthan2inchesindiameter(largewoundsmaynotheal);don’toverfertilize

Uses:Blackarebestchoiceforfresheating(sweetandlessacidic);eatonlyripefruitofred;alsousedinjelliesandsyrups;goodshadetreeforlandscapes;somecultivarsmakeeffectivewindbreaks.Note:Checkwithstateagenciesorlocalhorticultureprofessionalsbeforeplantingwhitemulberry(Morusalba),whichhasbecomeinvasiveinmanyareas

Pawpaw(Asiminatriloba)

USDAHardinessZones:5–8

Bestregions:South,Midwest,West

Height:15–25feet

Spread:8–10feet

Plantdescription:Elongatedovalleaves;springflowersmaroonanddownward-facing,upto2inchesindiameter

Fruitdescription:Greentoyellowskin,orangetoyellowflesh;tropicalflavors;latesummertofallripening,dependingoncultivar;3–6incheslongand1/3to1poundeach;fewerfruitsincolderclimates

Culture:Likescoldwintersandhotsummersonceestablished(protectfromfullsunthefirstcoupleofyears);canbekeptshorterwithpruning,whichalsopromotesyoungergrowthwherefruitareborne;cross-pollinationneeded,soplanttwo;ifheavyfruiting,supportbranchestopreventbreakage;doesn’tliketransplanting;toleratesmanysoilsexceptwaterlogged;withfewproblems;needs400chillinghours(below45°F)and160frost-freedays;doesn’tgrowwellindryandwindyclimates

Uses:Eatorusethepulpfresh,orfreeze;heatfromcooking(intojams,forexample)canchangeitsflavor

Note:Somepeopleareallergictothisfruit

AmericanPersimmon(Diospyrosvirginiana)

USDAHardinessZones:5–9

Bestregions:Most,varieswithcultivar;nativetotheEast,southernUnitedStatesHeight:35–60feet

Spread:10–30feet

Plantdescription:Leavesto5incheslongand2incheswide;lightyellow,fragrant,bell-shapedflowerslatespringtoearlysummer

Fruitdescription:Yellowtopaleorange;atleast1inchindiameter;rounded;softanddrytexture;astringent;infall,persistsontreesforsometimeafterleavesdrop

Culture:Mayneedcross-pollination(twoplantsyieldbetterfruiting),treesusuallymaleorfemale;toleratescolderclimatesbutwon’tfruit;

fruitisattractivetowildlife

Uses:Maysuckertoformthickets;maytoleratepartshade;toleratesdroughtonceestablished

Oriental/AsianPersimmonKaki(Diospyroskaki)

USDAHardinessZones:7–10

Bestregions:SoutheastandSouthwest

Height:15–35feet

Spread:15–20feet

Plantdescription:Leavesto7incheslongand3incheswide;inconspicuousflowersinearlysummer;oftenbrightredfallfoliage

Fruitdescription:Red,orange,oryellow;roundedtooblongorflattened;jellyliketexture;somecultivarsareastringent

Culture:Mayneedcross-pollination(planttwoforbetterfruiting);treesmaleorfemaleorboth,whichmayvaryyearly;prunesimilartoapples;removefruitfromyoungbranchestopreventbreakage

Uses:AmajorcropintheirnativeAsiawherethefruitisfoundinstores;firm,astringentkakis,whenpeeledanddriedwhole,becomesweetwithtextureofdates.

Note:Ifyou’vehadrecentgastricsurgeryorcomplications,don’teatlargequantities

Onematurewalnuttreecanproduceaharvestof60to75poundsofnutsayear.

CHAPTER14

Nuts

NearlyeveryregioninnorthAmericaoncehadanabundanceofwildnuttrees.Itusedtobeanannualeventforcountryfolkstotakeburlapbagsintothewoodsonacrisp,falldayandracethesquirrelstothetastytreatshiddenamongthenewlyfallenleaves.Backhomethey’ddumpouttheirstickytreasuresontotheatticfloortodryforwintercracking.Unfortunately,blights,weather,andheavycuttingofthenuttreesfortheirvaluablelumberhavetakentheirtoll.Nutting,asitwascalled,ismostlyathingofthepast.Mostnuttreesgettoolargeforasmallsuburbanlot.Thoughpruning

cankeepthemshorter,small-spacegardenerswillneedtolimitthemselvestothetwothatgrowonbushes—filbertsandhazelnuts.Forthosewithspace,nuttreesareornamentalandeasytogrow,andprovideshadeandfoodforwildlifeaswellashumans.Theyrequirelessinthewayofcareandchemicalsthanmostfruits.Andunlikefruits,youcaneasilystorethemformonthsorevenyearswithoutprocessing.Nutsdifferfromothertreefruitsastheyproduceasingleseed

enclosedinahard,woodycasingthatmustberemovedbeforeeating.Nutsareanexcellentsourceofproteinandothernutrients.Severalnuts(almonds,hazelnuts,pecans,andwalnuts)arerichinheart-healthyoils,withmorethantwiceasmuchpolyunsatu-ratedfatsassaturated.Mostarearichsourceofomega-3fattyacids,too.Eatingnutsisoneofthemostenjoyablewaystousethem,ofcourse,

buttheyareprizedtooforthemanyusesoftheirlumber—fromfine

furnituretosportsequipment.EvenbeforethechestnutblightstruckNorthAmerica,mostofthegreatchestnutforestsoftheEasthadalreadybeencutfortheirfinelumber.

GettingtoKnowtheNuts

MOSTNUTTREESneedapartner,andtobecompatible,thepartnermustbeofthesamespecies.Thetwoshouldbewithin100feetofeachother,becausealmostallnutsarepollinatedbywindratherthanbees.Anythatareself-fertilewillbelistedassuchbynurseries.Althoughasingleblackwalnutorbutternuttreeshouldproducenuts,eventhesebenefitfromhavingacompanion.

FilbertsandHazelnuts

Filbertshavetheadvantageofmaturingtoasizethatfitswellintomosthomelandscapes.Thetreesgrowfrom10to15feettalloraboutthesizeofasemidwarfapple.Plantthemabout20feetapart,yetbeawaretheEuropeanfilbertcanspread.Unlikemostothernuttrees,theydon’thavealongtaproot,sothey’reeasytotransplant.Soilssuitableforfruittreesusuallysuitfilberts,butfertilizethemonlylightlysotheydon’tgrowtooquickly.Filberttreesrooteasilyfromlayersandrootsuckers,soevencultivarsareseldomgrafted.Ifyoubuyatree,youcanpropagateitinthiswaytoincreaseyourplantings.

TIPSFORGROWINGNUTS

•Chooseasitethatallowsenoughspaceforthematuretreespread.

•Unlesslistedasself-fertile,plantatleasttwoofthesamenuttype(butnotthesamecultivar)forcross-pollination.

•Plantinwell-drained,deepsoil.

•Placetreeguardsonthetrunktoprotectfrommice;wheresunscaldisaproblem,firstcoatthetrunkwithwhitelatexpaintdilutedto

halfstrengthwithwater.

•Thefirstyear,makesuretreesgettheequivalentof2inchesofraineachweek.

•Refrainfromfertilizingthefirstyear;subsequently,feedasforfruittreesinthespring.

•Pruneminimallytopromoteastrongform,followingtheappropriatesystemforeachtypeofnut.Ifgrafted,removeanysuckersthatarisefromthebase.

TheroundEuropeanfilbert(Corylusavellana)isfamiliartoeveryonewhohaseverboughtabagofmixednuts.It’snativetosouthernEurope,probablyoriginatinginItaly.MostofNorthAmerica’scommercialfilbertproductionisinthePacificNorthwest,althoughtheycanbegrowninareaswherepeachesdowell.Theybeginbearingatanearlyage.Thenutsareflavorful,nutritious,andeasytocrack,andtheydropfreefromthehusk.AnAmericancousinoftheEuropeanfilbert,thehazelnut,or

Americanfilbert(Corylusamericana),isslightlyhardier(Zones4to9)andgrowswildinhedgerowsalloverthenorthernUnitedStatesandsouthernCanada.Thesmallnutsarefavoritesofchipmunksandsquirrels,andaschildrenweusedtogatherthem,too.Italwaysseemedhardlyworththeefforttotakeoffthepricklyburrsanddryandcrackthenutstogetthetinysweetmeat.Overthedecades,breedersontheWestCoast,Canada,andthenorthernUnitedStateshaveworkedtogetbetterfruitandresistancetoablightdisease.OtherhazelspeciesgenerallygrowinZones4to7,perhaps8.The

Turkishhazelorfilbert(Coryluscolurna)mayreach90feettall.It’sgoodforlandscaping,withattractivemottledbark.ThiswascrossedwiththeEuropeantomaketheTrazel,whichisshrubbywhenyoungbutwhenoldermakesatreeto60feettall.TheChinesetreehazel(C.chinensis)andtheIndiatreehazel(C.jacquemontii)alsohaveattractivemottledbark.Thebeakedhazel(C.cornuta)growsonlytoabout12feettallasalarge,multistembush.Itsuniquefruitshavenutswithhusksprotruding

inbeakshapes.ThisnativeAmericanhazelwascrossedwiththeEuropeanfilberttomakeafilazel,orahazelbert,ofwhichseveralcultivarshavebeenselected.

FastFactsforNuts

Becauseoftheirsmallsize(10to15feet)andrangeofhardiness

(Zones4to9),hazelnutsareoneoftheeasiestnutstoworkintothehomelandscape.

Chestnuts

TheAmericanchestnut(Castaneadentata)wasanimportantpartofcolonialAmericanlife.ItslumberwasgreatlyprizedforpanelingandforexporttoEurope.Holidayswerenevercompletewithoutchestnutdressingfortheturkeyorgoose.Whenintheearly1990sblightwipedoutalmosteverychestnuttree,asearchbeganforblight-resistantvarieties.TreeswereintroducedfromChina,Japan,Manchuria,andSpain,andsomeweresuccessfullycrossedwiththefewremainingAmericanspecies.ManyoftheresultinghybridsarenowproducingqualitynutsinAmericanbackyards.TheChinesechestnut(C.mollissima),introducedbytheUSDA,isthe

chestnutusuallysoldinnurseriesandgardencenters.Thereareseveralcultivarsthathavebeendeveloped,withgoodbutnottotalblightresistance.Somehavenutsthatcanbeeatenraw;othersbearnutsthatneedroastingoverafireorinamicrowaveforaboutaminute.TheChinesechestnutisquiteornamental,withlongleavesandsweetlyfragrantflowers.Asimilarspecies,theJapanesechestnut(C.crenata),hasevenbetterblightresistance.

Chestnutsareborneinsidelarge,spinyburs(calledinvolucres);thenutisripewhentheinvolucresplitsopen.

Almonds

Almonds(Prunusdulcis)arecloselyrelatedtopeaches(andoftengraftedontopeachseedlingrootstocks),butthey’remuchmoreparticularintheirclimaterequirements.Theyneedlowhumidityanddon’ttoleratewetsoils.Thoughlistedforseveralhardinesszones,theyrequiremildwintersandhot,dry,andlongsummers,asistypicalintheMediterraneanandtheCentralValleyofCalifornia.Infact,somethree-quartersoftheworldalmondproductioncomesfromCalifornia.They’vebeencultivatedformorethan5,000years,andwerefirstbroughttoCaliforniabySpanishpadresinthe1700s.Theirattractiveflowersarefragrantandlightpinkorwhite.Trees

bloomquiteearly(February),makingthemsusceptibletofrostsinmanyareaswheretheplantsareotherwisehardy.Rainfallduringbloomcandestroythecropaswell.Treescanget20to30feettall,alittleoverhalfthatwide,andifprunedtoamodifiedcentralleadercanbekeptevenshorter.Prunebackverticalbranchessotheythey’llbranchoutward.Sincealmondsfruitonone-year-oldwood,pruneoffsomeoflastyear’sfruitingbranches.Thealmondsweeatcomefromthenutsorpits

(similartoapeachpit),whichinturnareencasedinafuzzyhusk.TreesarebestplantedinJanuaryorFebruary.Almondsgenerally

requirebetween250and500hoursofchillingoverwintertoflowerandfruit.Theyneed180to240daystomature.NutsareharvestedbetweenearlyAugustandlateSeptember,dependingonthecultivar.

BadCompany?

Nuttreeshavesomebadhabits.Bothblackwalnutandbutternutrootsgiveoffatoxicsubstance(juglone)thateliminatestheircompetitionbykillingcertainnearbyplants,especiallyevergreens.Fortunately,theydon’thavethispoisonouseffectongrass,oronsomeannualflowers(suchasimpatiens),andmanyherbaceousperennials.Mostoftheseandthefewresistantvegetablesyouwouldn’twanttoplantunderatreeanyway,asthey’dgettoomuchshade.Rememberwhenchoosingwhich,ifany,nuttreestoplantthatsomepeopleareveryallergictonuts.

NutPines

ThoughpeopleontheEastCoastmightnotthinkofgrowingtheirownpinenuts,intheWestthenutsofnativepinyonpinesarewellknown.Many,especiallynativeandHispanicpeoples,collecttheminthewild.Oftenthepinenutsyouseeinstorescomefrompinyonpines.Pinenutsareslightlysmallerthanpistachiosandareanexcellentsourceofprotein.Nutpinesareself-fertile,soyoucangetnutsifyouplantjustonetree.Likemostfruittrees,though,you’llgethigheryieldsfromeachtreeifyouplanttwoforcross-pollination.Perhapsmostcommonofthe20orsopinesgrownfortheiredible

nutsaretheKoreanpine(Pinuskoraiensis)andtheSwissstonepine(P.cembra).Althoughconestake3yearstomature,oncetheyreachbearingage(5to8years)therewillbematureconeseachyeartoharvest.BothspeciesarehardyinZones4to7andmakeniceornamentalplants.Theyhaveprovidedfoodforthousandsofyears,sincethePaleolithicera.

Pinyonpineshavelongbeenutilizedasasourceofnutritiouspinenuts.

Asyoumightguess,theKoreanpineisnativetonortheasternAsia.Ithasblue-greenneedles,anditsbranchesdroopalmosttotheground.Ithasapyramidalshapeandreaches30to50feettall.SpaceKoreanpines25to35feetapart.TheSwissstonepineisthemainediblepinenutinEurope,along

withtheItalianstonepine(P.pinea).Thispine,nativetothemountainsofEurope,hasdarkgreenneedlesandgrowsslowly.Whenyoung,ithasapyramidshape;itbecomesmoreroundedasitages.TheSwissstonepinereaches30to40feettallatmaturity;spacethem15to20feetapart.ThepinyonpineisanativeyoumayencounterintheWestandthe

centralUnitedStates,andinMexico.Therearethreemainspecies,theColoradopinyon(P.edulis),thesingle-leafpinyon(P.monophylla),andtheMexicanpinyon(P.cembroides).Americanpinyonpinesgrowquiteslowly.Ifstartedfromseeds,theywillreachjustacoupleoffeettallin10years,andtheybegintobearconesin10to12yearsfromsowing

seeds.Eventually—in60yearsorso—treesmayreach20to60feettalland16feetwide.ThesetreesgrowinZones5to8(sometimescolder).Thisisagooddrought-resistantlandscapetreeintheWest.

HickoriesandPecans

Thereareseveralspeciesofhickories.Pecans(Caryaillinoinensis),themostcommon,areouronlymajornativenutcrop.PecancultivarscanbegroupedintothosefortheEast,West,andNorth.Easternpecansarethosetraditionallygrownin,andadaptedto,thewarmandhumidsoutheasternstatesandhaveresistancetodiseasesfoundthere.Westernpecansdon’thavesuchresistance.ThosefortheNortharegenerallyhardytoZone5butproducenutsonlytoZone6andwarmer,anddon’trequireaslongaseasontoripen.They’reoftenlistedas“northernstrains,”orsimilarwording.ThemainfactorlimitingpecansintheNorth,wherethey’rehardy,isawarm-enoughsummerandlate-enoughfallforthenutstoripenfully.Pecanskeepforonlyafewmonthsatroomtemperature,butstorewellforayearormoreattemperaturesbelowfreezing.Youneedmorethanonecultivarorseedlingtypeforcross-

pollination;threeiswhat’sgenerallyrecommended.Unlikeothernuts,thebestyieldscomefrommixingcultivarsfromtwodifferentgroups,oftencalledtypes1and2.Somepecansshedpollenearly,beforethefemaleflowerisreadyforit(protoandrous,ortype1).Onothersthefemaleflowerisreceptivebeforethepollenisshed(protogynous,ortype2).Don’tletthebotanyconfuseyou;nurseriesandcatalogswilltellwhichtreewillpollinateanother.

Oftenthoughtofasasoutherncrop,afewcultivarsofpecanarehardytoZone6.Theyneedalong,warmsummerfornutstomature.

UnlikemostNorthAmericannuts,thepecanhasbeencultivatedcommerciallyformanyyears,andmanycultivarshavebeendeveloped.Thesehavemorediseaseresistance,betteryields,andearliermaturingnutsthanthespecies.Althoughhickoriesareseldomofferedcommercially,they’remuch

appreciatedbythoseluckyenoughtolivewheretheygrow,inZones4to9.Theshagbarkhickory(C.ovata),thebestofdozensofnativespecies,hasthedisadvantageofaverytoughshellandasmallmeatthatusuallybreaksincracking.Ifyoucanfindacultivarorselectionfromwildtrees,itshouldbearnutsatayoungeragethatarelargerandeasiertocrack.Thehardinessofthenewkindsisn’talwaysknownforsure,however,andthusfarnotmanyarebeinggraftedandofferedforsale.Shellbarkhickory(C.laciniosa)isslightlylesshardy(Zones5to8)thanshagbark.Bothhaveattractive,shaggybarkandmakegoodornamentaltrees.Inanefforttocombinetheflavorofpecanswiththehardinessof

hickories,horticulturistshavecreatedhybridhicans.Thesehybridscan

begrownfarthernorththanpecans,butthedifferentcultivarsvarywidelyinhardiness.

Walnuts

Persianwalnuts(Juglansregia)areoftencalledEnglishwalnutsinEnglish-speakingcountriesbecausethey’vebeengrowninGreatBritainforcenturies.TheywereconsideredfartootenderformostofNorthAmericauntilamissionarydiscoveredastraingrowingwildinthecoldmountainsofPoland.HebroughtseveralthousandseedstoOntariointhe1930sandfoundtheygrewwellthere.Theysucceededsowell,infact,thatwithinonlyafewyearsthecultivarheintroduced(J.regia‘Carpathian’)wasbeinggrowninZones5and6.Sincethen,somenurserieshaveselectedtheirownstrainsfromplantsoriginatingintheCarpathianmountainsofPoland,eventhoughtheplantisnativeasfareastasKorea.MostwalnuttreesyouseeforsalearethemorehardyCarpathianstrains.ThehardiestofthesewillsurviveinmoreprotectedpartsofZone4.Thewalnutsyouusuallyfindinstores,however,arefrommuchlesshardystrainsgrowninCalifornia.

Englishwalnutsarebyfarthemostpopularkindofnutinthiscountry.OriginatingintheMiddleEast(andoftencalled“Persianwalnuts”),theygrowbestinwarm,dryclimates.

Walnutsarewithoutdoubtthemostpopularofallnutsbothtoeat

outoftheshellandtoenjoyincountlessappetizingbakedgoods.Unfortunately,somepeoplegetcankersoresfromeatingthemandthushavetosacrificearealdelicacy.Aswithbutternutandblackwalnut,rootsofthisplantproducejuglone,whichistoxictosomeotherplantsifgrownnearby.Walnutspreferaslightlysweeter,morealkalinesoilthanmostnuts.

Avoidplantingtheminfrostpockets,asthey’resusceptibletospringfrosts.Japanesewalnuts(Juglansailantifolia)haveaspreadinggrowthhabit.

Onaveragetheygrow35feettallandspread30to50feet.TheirflavorisbetweenthatoftheEnglishwalnutandthebutternut.Thespecieshaslargerleavesthanthebutternut,withroundednutsslightlymoredifficulttocrackthanEnglishwalnuts.Asyoumightguess,thefruitsofheartnut,avarietyofJapanesewalnut(J.ailantifoliavar.cordiformis),areheart-shaped.Treesareproductive,earlytobear,rapidgrowing,andhardyinZones5to9,sometimescolder.

ButternutsandBlackWalnuts

Likedriedcorn,beans,andsmokedmeat,butternutswereoneofthestaplefoodsthathelpedtheIroquoisIndianstolivewellthroughthehardnorthernwinters.Theearlysettlerssoonlearnedtostoreandusethemtoo,andthey’vebeenawintertreatintheNortheasteversince.Thebutternut(Juglanscinerea)isoneofthehardiestnuttrees(Zones

3to7;5to7forgraftedplants),anditsoilymeatsaresomeofthemostflavorfulnuts.Eventhewildonescrackeasilyifyoupourboilingwateroverthem,letthemstandfor15minutes,thendrain.Withoneeasyhammerblowyoucanthenpopthehalvesapartintact.Thisworksforblackwalnutstoo,althoughyoumayneedafewblowswiththehammer.Butternutbloomsareeasilydamagedbylate-springfrosts.Thetrees

arelikelytobearabundantlyoneyearandthentakeafewyearsoff,soit’sluckyforusbutternutloversthatthenutsstorewell.Unfortunately,butternutdecline,orcankerdisease,hasalmostwipedoutnativestandsinsomeareas,sothetreeisconsideredthreatenedorendangeredinplaces.

Theblackwalnutisamultipurposetree:inadditiontoproducingunusuallyflavorednuts,it’salsoagoodsourceoflumber.

Butternutshavebeencrossedwithheartnutstoresultinthebuartnut.Thistreeisvigorousandhardy,hasgoodyieldsanddiseaseresistance,andoftenproducesunusuallyshapednuts.SeedlingswillgrowinZones4to7;graftedplants,inZones5to7.Theblackwalnut(Juglansnigra)doeswellthroughoutmostofZones

4through7.HardierstrainssurviveinZones3and4,andyou’llfindthemoccasionallyintoZone8.NativetotheeasternUnitedStates,itisvaluedmoreforitstimberthanforitshardnuts.Noteveryonecaresfortheblackwalnut’sunusualflavor(smokyandstrongwithatasteofwine),butitsfansuseittoflavorcakes,icecream,andotherdesserts.Thegreenouterhuskscoveringthenutsproduceanalmostindelibleblackstain,sowearglovesandprotectiveclothingwhenremovingthem.Inadditiontothedifferentstrainsofseedlings,whichvarywidely

acrossthecountry,thereareseveralcultivarswithnutsthatareeasiertocrackandcontainlargerandbetter-flavoredkernels.Cultivarstendtobelesshardy,however.Hind’sblackwalnut(J.hindsii),nativetonorthern

CaliforniainZones7to9,hasagoodflavorandisusedasarootstockforthePersianwalnut.

StartingfromScratch

Unlikemostfruits,youcangrownuttreesfromseed.Eitherplantanutwhereyouwantthetreetogrowpermanentlyorstartitinanotherpartofthegardenandtransplanttoitsfinalspotafter2or3years.Fallisthetimewhenthesquirrelsdotheirplanting,andit’sthebest

timeforus,too.Mostnutssproutwellonlyiftheyhavebeenfrozenforafewdaysfirst,soifyouforgettoplanttheminthefall,youcanstilldoitinthespring,afterfreezingeachnutforaweekinsideacontainerofwaterkeptinthefreezer.Theymaynotsproutquiteasquicklyaswhenshellshadtimetosofteninthegroundduringthewinter,however.Itmaybemidsummerbeforeyournewlittleseedlingfinallybursts

throughthesoil.Assoonasitdoespopup,itwillgrowrapidly,however,andmaybe2or3feettallwithin6or8weeks.Thenutitselfcarriesenoughnutrientstogetthetreeofftoagoodstart,sodon’tfeeditanythingoritwillkeepgrowingtoolateintheseasonandbewinter-killed.Ifyouplantomoveyourtree,don’twaituntilitgetsbig.Mostgrow

tremendoustaprootsthatheadspeedilytowardthecenteroftheEarth,sodon’tattempttomovethemaftertheygetmuchmorethan3feettall.Ifyoushouldbreakorbendthetaprootintheprocessoftransplanting,thetreeislikelytodie.Thebesttimetotransplantisinearlyspring.

Digasmallholeandburythenutaninchorsodeep.

Afteryouplant,protectthenutwithawirescreen,particularlyifyouhavesquirrelsorchipmunksaround.Theymayforgetwherethey’vehiddentheirownnuts,butthey’llhavenotroublefindingyoursandhaulingthemaway.

PlantingandCare

NUTTREEStakealongtimetobear,somostpeoplebuyatreealreadystartedtogetaheadstart.Oftenyou’llfindstrainsfromaparticular

nurserysoldasthespecies,withclaimsforsomefeaturesuchasgrowthrateorhardiness.Someofthenewcultivarsareassuperiortowildnutsasnamedapplesaretothesourwildones,soifthecultivarswillgrowinyourclimate,considerplantingthemratherthanseedlingtrees.Graftedcultivarstakemuchlesstimetoproducetheirfirstcropthandoseedlingtrees,whichmayrequire8yearstobeartheirfirstnut.

Pollination

Planttwodifferentcultivarsorafewseedlingtreesofthesamespeciesforcross-pollination.Ifyouplantahazelnutcultivarsuchas‘Santiam’,plantanothersuchasJefferson,orsomewildfilberts,topollinateit.Two‘Santiam’hazelnutswillnotpollinateeachotherbecausetheybothoriginatedfromthesametree.Eachseedlingtreeisdifferent,however,soaseedlingwillpollinateanyotherseedlingorhybridofthesamespecies.

SiteSelection

Whenchoosingalocation,keepinmindtheeventualsizeofthetree.Filbertsremainnicelywithinfruittreedimensions,butmostotherspeciesattainaheightofatleast50feetandgrowalmostaswide.Givethemenoughroom,anddon’tplantthembeneathoverheadwiresortooclosetoyourhouse.Thefallingnutscanbecomeanuisance,too,soplantawayfromstreets,sidewalks,roofs,andanylawnsthatwillbemowedinlatefall.Nutsaretoughonmowersandcanbeasafetyhazardwhenmownover.Incoldclimatestrytoavoidlowareas,whichcouldbesubjectto

late-springfrosts.Frost-nippedflowerswon’tproducenuts.Plantingonaslopeissafer.

Planting

Likefruittrees,nutsgrowbestinwell-drainedsoil,butmostwilltolerateheaviersoil(aslongasit’snotconstantlywet).MostpreferaslightlyacidicsoilpH(6.0to6.8),slightlymoreacidicforChinesechestnutsandslightlymorealkalineforwalnuts.Chestnutswillgrowinsandysoilsandinquiteacidicsoils.

NutProblems

Diseasesandinsectsseldominfestbackyardnuttrees.Thisisfortunate,becausesprayingsuchlargetreesisnosimplematter.Keepingleavesandnutsrakedupinthefallhelpstominimizediseasesbyremovingoverwinteringsporesandbacteria.

Mostnuttreesdevelopalongtaprootastheymature,whichmakesthemdifficulttotransplantoncetheybecomeestablished.

Plantinganuttreeismuchthesameasplantingafruittree(seechapter16).Duringthefirstyear,it’simportanttoprovidesufficientwater—atleast2inchesaweekifraindoesn’tsupplythisamount.Thismaymean5gallonsforasmalltreeand10foralargeone.(Moreisneededonsandysoils.)Oncetreesmature,theyarefairlydrought-tolerant.

Fertilizing

Holdoffonfertilizerthefirstyear.Afterthat,feedinspringasforfruittreesbutuseabalancedfertilizerthat’shigherinnitrogen(such5-3-4or10-4-10).Nuttreesneedmorenitrogenthanfruittreestogrowwell.Asatreegrows,slightlyincreasetheamountoffertilizeryouapply.Forpropernutformation,treesinsomeareas(andparticular

seasons)mayneedapplicationsoftheelementzinctosupplementwhatisnormallypresentinsoilsorwhatisfoundincompletefertilizers.Zincmaybeneededparticularlyforpecans,incoolandwetspringseasons,andonalkalinesoils.Iftheleavesonyournuttreesappearoddlydistorted(curledorwavyedges,orbunchednearbranchtips),contactyourCooperativeExtensionServiceforinformationaboutzincproducts,andtheirapplication,toapplytocorrectadeficiency.Asoiltestfornuttreesmayprovidethisinformationaswell.Toimitatetheconditionsofthelushforestfloor,applyathick

organicmulchwhenthetreeisstillyoung.Mulchhelpskeepweedsfromcompetingwiththeyoungtreefornutrientsandwater.

PruningNutTrees

Becauseevenahybridnuttreestillcloselyresemblesitswildrelatives,itneedsnospecialpruning.Toomuchpruningcanactuallydelayfruitingforafewyears.Onagraftednuttree,removeanysuckersthatarisefromthebaseoftheplant.Formostnuts,prunetoonecentraltrunkwhenthetreesareyoung

topromoteastrongstructure.Ifatreeyoubuyhasnotalreadybeencutback,headbackthemainstemthefirstyear,removingaboutathirdof

thetopgrowth.Thiswilldevelopastrongerleaderthantheinitialwhip(seedling);italsopromotesformationofsidebranches.Removeexistingsidebranchesjustbelowthecuttodirectenergyintomakingastrongercentralleader.Thenextfewyears,thinoutbranchesonlytocreatewell-spaced

branchesspiralingupthetrunkindifferentdirections.Thesebranches(scaffolds)shouldbeabout18inchesapart.Removethosethatformanarrowcrotch(lessthan40degreesfromthetrunk).Alsoremoveanyuprightlimbsthatcouldcompetewiththecentralleader.Whenthereare10to15goodscaffoldbranches,cutbackthecentralleadertooneoftheselaterals,andtrainthetreethereaftertoamodifiedleadershape.(Seechapter17formoreonpruning.)Oncetreesreachmaturity,littlepruningisneededexcepttoremove

deadanddamagedbranches.Formaturetrees20to30yearsold,thinoutafewoftheupperscaffoldbranchestoletmorelighttotheinterior.Hazelnutsareanexception;growtheseasbusheswithfivetoseven

mainshoots.Thinoutweakershoots,cuttingthemoffatgroundlevel.Alsoremovesomeofthecentershootssomorelightcanreachthecenter.Therelatedfilbertsareusuallytrainedtogrowassmalltrees;it’simportanttoremovethesuckersthatsproutfromthebaseonyoungplantstoencourageamoretreelikeform.

HarvestingNuts

WHENTHENUTSbegintofalloffatree,thismeansthey’rematureandreadytopick.Theyoftenchangecolor,usuallyfromgreentoyellowish,andsomecanbedentedwithafingernail.Squirrelsdon’talwayswaitforthemtodrop,however,soit’sbesttobegincollectingassoonasthesquirrelsdo.Ifyou’recarefulnottodamagethelimbs,youcanshakemostnutsfromthetrees.Infact,walnutsandpecansareoftenharvestedcommerciallybymechanicalshakers.Theentirecropofmostnuttreescanbegatheredatonetime,althoughsome,likewalnuts,willneedseveralpickings.Don’tletnutsstayonthegroundforanylengthoftime;aftertheyfalltheydeterioraterapidly.Nutsmustbedriedthoroughlybeforetheirmeatsareripeenoughto

eat.Spreadthemout,onelayerdeep,onbenchesinagreenhouseorgarage,onawarmatticfloor,or,bestofall,onraisedscreenswheredryaircancirculatearoundthem.Turnthemoccasionallysothey’lldryonallsides.(Onouratticfloor,theplayfulkittensturnedthemforus.)Afterdryingthenutscompletely,storetheminburlapbags,boxes,orbarrelsinacoolplace,makingsurethestorageareaismouse-proofandsquirrel-proof.Shelling,thenfreezing,isanotheroptionusedtostorenutsuptoseveralyears.You’lllikelyneedaheavy-dutynutcrackerforthehardshellsofnuts

suchasblackwalnuts.Someuseahammer,othersashopvise.PeelChinesechestnutswithaknife.Thenutsofblackwalnutsandbutternutsarecoveredwithhullsorhusksthatwillstainfingersandclothingdarkbrown.Thesehuskshavebeencookedintodyesforfabricandwoodworking,evenhairdye.Hickoriesandwalnutshavehardhusksaswell,whicharemoreeasilyremovedwhenripeandsomewhatspongy—whennutsfallnaturallyfromatreeratherthanfrompicking.

Althoughbutternutsandblackwalnutsmayneedagoodsoakingandahammertoopen,formostnutsasimplenutcrackerisallyouneed.

NutCultivars

Asnutstakesolongtimetobear,breedinghasdevelopedlessrapidlythanforfruitsandberries.Themostprogresshasbeenmadewiththosegrowncommercially:almonds,filberts,pecans,andPersianwalnuts.Newercultivarsarehardier,bearyounger,andproducenutsthatarelarger,tastier,andcrackmoreeasilythantheirwildancestors.Manynutsaregrownasthespeciesratherthancultivars;evenwhencultivarsareplanted,thespeciesmaybeplantedforcross-pollination.Thenuttreesyou’llfindatanurseryareoftensimplyseedlingsfromordinarywildtrees(asforpinyonpines),butafewcultivarsarelistedhere.

Hardinessmayvaryamongcultivarsaswellasamongplantsoriginatingfromdifferentregions.Thenumberofyearstofirstharvestvarieswithclimate,culture,andcultivar.

PARTFOURGrowingHealthyFruits,Nuts,andBerries

Provideyourfruitingplantswithawell-preparedsite,appropriatepruning,andsufficientwater,andyou’llberewardedwithdeliciousfruitforyearstocome.

WHENYOUPLANTAFRUITTREE,BERRYplant,orvine,keepinmindthatwithpropercareandalittleluckwithweather,itwillprovideyouwithamplefruitinitslifetime.Growinggoodfruitstartswithgoodsoil,butproperplanting,pruning,andpestcontrolareequallyimportant.Adeep,fertilesoilisessentialforthefuturehealthofyourfruits,

especiallyfruitandnuttrees.Ifyouhitarockledgeorhardclaywhenyoudigahole,seekoutanotherlocation.Thetreeorshrubrootscanfindtheirwayaroundsmallrocks,butifthesoilistooshallow,yourplantingwillbedoomedfromthestart.Attemptstobreakupsubsoilswithanironbar,apickax,oratractorsubsoilerareusuallysofrustratingthatyoushouldresorttooneoftheseonlyifnootherlocationisavailable.Youcanplantstrawberriesinraisedbedsifyouhavepoorsoils.

Sometimesgardenershurrytheplantingoperationtoomuch.Whenatreethey’veorderedintheleisureofwinterarrivesduringthespringrush,itsnewownerunwrapsithastilybypullingawaythestringsandpacking,scrapingoffbarkintheprocess.Theyletthedefenselesstreelieinthesunandwindwhiletheydigaholethat’stoosmall.Thentheycramtherootsintheholeasbesttheycan,heapthesoiloverpartofthem,andleavethetreetoitsowndevices.“Whydidmytreedie?”theownerpuzzles.Afewsimplestepswillensurethatyournewlyplantedtreessurviveandthrive.Properpruninghelpsaplanttoproducebetterfruitand,evenmore

important,itconservesitsstrengthforalonger,healthierlife.Thisisespeciallyimportantforyoungtrees.Justasmanyadulthabitsaresetinchildhood,soisthematuretreestructureestablishedinthefirstyears.Fruitingbushesneedpruningalso.Evenstrawberryplantsneed“pruning”:removingtheblossomsonyoung

plantsimprovesyieldsandhelpsplantslivelonger.Inrecentdecadesthere’sbeenashiftawayfromthespray-for-every-

pestmentality.Manyofthetreesnowbeingsoldaresurprisinglydiseaseresistant.Withgoodsanitation,youshouldbeabletogetbywithverylittlespraying,especiallyifyourplantingsarelocatedsomedistancefromaneglectedorchardorinfectedwildfruittrees.Ifyoudon’tmindablemishortwo,youmaybeabletogetawaywithnosprayingatall.Wheninterventionisnecessary,therearenowmanyproductsthatevenorganicgardenerscanusewithaclearconscience.Therearecombinationsprays,oftenofinsecticidesandfungicides,tomakeyourpestcontrolsimpler.Mostofuswhotoilovertreesandberrybushes,however,hopeto

keepatleastasmallpartofthefruitsofourlaborsforourselves.Fencesandrepellentsaresomeofthemeanstokeepawayunwantedwildlife.

Addinggenerousamountsoforganicmatterisagoodwaytoimprovethequalityofyoursoil.

CHAPTER15

ImprovingYourSoil

Howwasyourdietthispastweek?Ifallyouhadwasalittleweaktea,chancesareyoudon’tfeeltoomuchlikeaneveningofvigoroussquaredancingorpaintingthesparebedroom.Ifyouhadhealthfulmealseachday,you’remuchmorelikelytobefeelingenergeticandreadytotakeonanything.Nobodyconsidersasteadydietofweakteatobesensible,butagreatmanywould-begardenersactasiftheirfruitplantscangetbynicelyonsuch,orevenless.Oftenpeopletellmetheirtreesarelookingpoorlyandaskwhatcouldpossiblybewrong.“Whatdoyouuseforfertilizer?”Iask.“Fertilizer?”theysay,lookingpuzzled.Thoughtherearegardenerswhooverfertilizetheirplants,often

endingupwithmoreleavesthanfruit,manymoreneglectfertilizingaltogether.Becausethesoilaroundatreeistherepositoryforthenutrientsitneeds,you’llwanttounderstandthatsoilandhowtotreatitproperly.

WhatIsSoil?

GOODSOILISsomethingspecial.It’sfulloflifeandprovidestherightconditionsforplantstogrowandthrive.Itcontainsmineralnutrients;clay,sand,andotherrockparticles;andhumusformedfromdecayingplantlifeplusmoistureandair.Goodsoilalsohasanabundanceofbeneficialbacteriathatbreakdowntheorganicmatter,anditcontains

earthwormsthatloosenthesoilandaddfertility.Therearefungithathelprootsabsorbnutrients,andawholehostofothermicroorganismswithoutwhichyourplantswouldgrowpoorly.Ifyouhaveeverdugahole,youalreadyknowthatsoilisfoundin

severallayers,usuallyofvaryingcolors.Mostoftheactiontakesplaceinthedarktopsoillayer,andthat’sthemostimportanttogardeners.Goodtopsoilcontainshumusandfertilityandislooseintexture.Subsoil,thenextlayerdownandoftenlighterincolor,isusuallyquitehard.Itcontainsmostlymineralsandpossiblytracesoforganicmaterialfromlongago.Oftenit’sfilledwithlumpsofclay,veinsofgravelorsand,andlargerocks.Rootsoftrees,particularlydeep-rootedtrees,penetratethissubsoilandabsorbmanymineralnutrientsfromit.Fartherdownisthehardpan,whichisathicklayerofclayandbedrock.Rootscan’tpenetratehardpan,exceptinspotswherebreaksorfaultsoccur,andwatercannotmovethroughitfreely.

SOILLAYERS

Thedepthsofbothtopsoilandsubsoilvarygreatlyfromplacetoplace.Veryfewspotsontheeartharestillblessedwithdeepfertiletopsoilofjusttherighttexture,moisture-retainingability,andpropersoilacidityforgoodplantgrowth.Mostofushavetodoctorupoursoilsinsomeway,andit’sveryimportanttodiagnosesoilproblemsandcorrectthem,notonlybeforeyouplant,butalsofrequentlythereafter.Ifyoursoilisgoodenoughtogrowanicelawn,youcanusuallyget

itintoshapeforberriesandfruits.Tohelpunderstandwhat’sgoingonbeneaththesurfaceofyourorchardorberrypatch,let’sdividethepropertiesofsoilintothreeimportantcomponents:texture,pH,andfertility.

Sand,Silt,orClay?

Soiltexturecanbedefinedlooselyasthegeneralmakeupofthesoil,

whetherit’ssandy,clay,rocky,orworn-outpowderydust.(Somepeoplerefertothisassoiltype,but“type”isamoreinvolvedclassificationsystem.)Soilstructurereferstohowtheseparticlesclumptogether:soilwithgoodstructureformscrumbsofvarioussizesthatbreakaparteasily.Becausetreesinparticularneedconsiderableroomtospreadtheirroots,neitherrocksnorheavyclaysnorwetmuckysoilsprovideadequategrowingconditions.Nordoessandorgravel,asthesedryoutsoquickly.SoiltextureismoredifficulttoimprovethanpHorfertility.Ifyou’re

stuckwithathinlayerofsoiloversolidrock,there’slittleyoucando,shortofhaulinginmanyloadsoftopsoil.Ownersofnewhomesmayhavethisproblem,becausebuildersusuallyscrapeoffallthegoodtopsoilandlaterputbackonlyafewinchesforalawn.Ifplantsarealreadyestablished,don’taddtoomuchsoilorcompostontop,asthiswillsmothertrunksandlowerbranchesandcauseshallowrootingnearthesurface.

BeyondChemicals

Somegardenersregardsoilassomethingthatholdsupaplantandactsasatemporaryrepositoryfornutrientsandmoisture.Theylearnwhichnutrientsaplantneeds,mixthechemicalsincorrectproportions,thenpourtheconcoctionoverthesoiltofeedtheplant.Organicgardenershaveadifferentviewpointandconsidersoila

livingthing.Theybelieveitshouldbeloose,spongy,andfulloflife,containinganabundanceofdecayingorganicmatteraswellasadditionalmineralsinnaturalform.Toprotectsoil,theycoveritwithmulchoralivingcrop,suchasgrass.Theybelievethatwhensoilscontainanabundanceofnutrientsinnaturalform,soilmicrobeswillmakethemavailablegradually,asplantsneedthem.Syntheticnutrients,theyargue,disturbandmaykillsoillife.Syntheticfertilizersareoftenhighlysoluble.Thismeanstheycanwashoutofsoilsinaheavyrain,andtheycancauseflashesofgrowththataremoresusceptibletoinsectanddiseaseattack.Gardeningorganically,there

islesschanceofexcesschemicalswashingintoandpollutingawatershed.Organicallymanagedfruitplantingshaveabetterchanceof

continuingtoproducegoodfruitif,foranyreason,theymustbeneglectedforaseasonortwo.Aplantingthatischemicallydependentcansufferwithdrawalanddeclinewhentheapplicationsarediscontinuedforanylengthoftime.Thereisathirdgroupwhofeelthatthebestwaytogardenfalls

somewhereinbetween.Agreatmanygardenersbelongtothisgroup.Theybelieveingood,healthyorganicsoils,indeepmulches,andinrecyclinggardenwastes,buttheyfeelnoguiltaboutaddingalittlechemicalfertilizerifaplantseemstolacknutrients.Theyknowthatsoilswellstockedwithorganicmatterwillmakebetteruseofanyadditionalfertilizer,organicorsynthetic.Organicmatter(humus)islikeasponge;itcanabsorbandholdontonutrientssotheywon’twashawayinthefirstheavyrainandyetareavailabletoplants.

EnhancingSoilQuality

Nevertheless,therearemeasuresyoucantaketoenhancepoorsoil.Createmoremoisture-holdingcapabilityinasandysoilbytillingincopiousamountsofshreddedbark,manure,leafmold,peatmoss,orcompost.Ifyou’replantinginanareathatwaspreviouslygardens,youmayneedonlyaninchortwospreadontop,thentilledin.Otherwise,add4to5inchesofcompost.Inadditiontohelpingsoiltexture,compostprovidesslow-releasenutrientsandhelpsbufferagainstpHandnutrientimbalances.Compostalsofeedsthesoilmicroorganismsthathelptheplants;good-qualitycompostmayevenhelppreventsomediseases.Addingcomposttosoilsprovidesyourplantswithahealthful,gourmetmeal.Mulches,too,canperformmiracleswhenyou’retryingtoimprove

yoursoil,buttheytaketime.Anotherwaytoimprovesoilistoplantandplowundercropsofgrowingplants,suchasclover,oats,andwinterrye,aprocesscalledgreenmanuring.Thisrequiresplanningahead,asittakesseveralmonths,butit’sanexcellentwaytoreduceweedsinplantingareasandtoaddorganicmatteroveralargearea.

Heavyclaysoilscanbeimprovedbygenerouslytillingincopiousamountsofshreddedbark,manure,leafmold,peatmoss,orcompost.You’llstillseesandoftenrecommendedtolightenheavysoilsbut,infact,addingsandmaymakethestructureworse.Tobreakupclaysubsoils,plowdeeplyoruseabackhoe,althoughprobablyneitherofthesemethodsisfeasibleifyouownonlyasmallpieceofland.Ifyoudohavepoorheavyorrockysoilanduseabackhoeforsomeotherreason(suchasIdidtobuildastonewall,oraneighbordidforasepticsystem),taketheopportunitytoremoveandreplaceyourfuturefruitgardensoil.

Mulchingnotonlykeepsdownweedsandincreasesmoistureretentioninthesoil,italsoimprovesthesoilqualityovertime.

Goodgrowthcan’ttakeplaceinsoilthatispackedhard.Compactingmaybecausedbyheavymachinesorbyexcessivefoottrafficthroughthearea,anditismostcommoninsoilslackinginorganicmatterandinareasafternewconstruction.Spreadingcompostaroundplantswillhelpovertime,aswillmulchingandnotwalkingordrivingnearplants.

AcidityandAlkalinity

SoilpHindicatesthealkalinityoracidityofthesoilandismeasuredon

ascaleof1.0to14.0,with7.0consideredneutral.Belowthismidpoint,soilsareacidic(“sour”);aboveitthey’realkalineorbasic(“sweet”).OnthepHscaleonepointis10timesthepreviousone,soasoilwithapHof5.0is10timesasacidicasonewithapHof6.0.Mostsoilsrangebetween4.0and8.0.ThepHiscausedbythebalanceinthesoilofpositiveandnegative

ions(elementparticleswithacharge).Hydrogenandaluminumions,withpositivecharges,causeacidity,andoftenrelatetotheparentmaterialfromwhichthesoilisformed.Soilsfromweatheredgranitearegenerallymoreacidicthanthosefromlimestone.Soilsfromevergreenforestsandunderpinetrees,forinstance,tendtobeacidic.Awetclimate,asintheeasternstates,tendstoproducemore-acidicsoils,asrainshaveleachedawayalkalineelementssuchascalciumandmagnesium.Acidrainintensifiesthisleachingprocess.

WhypHmatters.Whensoilbecomestooacidicortooalkaline,plantrootscan’tabsorbthefertilizerandthenutrientsremainlockedwithinthesoil.PlantshaveacertainpHrangeoverwhichtheycanbestutilizesoilnutrients.Formostfruits,theidealis6.0to6.5;forblueberriesit’s4.5to5.5.Don’tworryifyoursoilpHisnotquiteinthepreferredrange,asmostplantsarenottoofussyaslongasit’sclosetothedesiredrangeandnotextreme.Similarly,plantnutrientsaremostavailablewithinacertainsoilpH

range.NitrogenismostavailablewhensoilpHis6.0to8.0;potassiumismostavailablebetweenapHof5.5and10.0.Ingeneral,thepHrangeforbestavailabilityofallnutrients,andthusbestplantgrowth,is5.5to6.8.Soilswithampleamountsoforganicmatter,suchascompostand

manure,arelesslikelytohavepHproblems.Organicmatterhastheabilitytoabsorblotsofionstocounteractbothacidityandalkalinity,bufferingchangesinthesoilchemistry.Twoformsoforganicmatter,sawdustandespeciallypeatmoss,areacidicandwillreducethepHofsoilsthataretooalkaline.Ifyouplantousesawdust,justmakesurethatit’soldandpartiallydecomposedorrotted,asotherwiseitcantakeawaynutrientsfromplantsasitbreaksdown.

TestingsoilpH.Todetermineyoursoil’spH,youcanpurchaseaninexpensive,simple-to-usesoilaciditytestkitinagardenstore.Forsomewhatmoremoneyyoucangetacompletetestingkitthatwillalsoshowyoursoil’sfertility,andforabitmoreyoucangetanelectronictesterthatwillanalyzesoilpHinstantly.We’veusedsuchameterinournurseryformanyyears,butformostsmallgardensthechemicalkitsareadequate.MoststateCooperativeExtensionServicesofferasoil-testingservice;ittendstocostmorethanthesimplepHkitsbutischeaperthanthecompletekits.Theresultsaremuchmoreaccuratethanfromahomekit,andgiverecommendationsforadjustingpHandnutrientsbasedonyourregion’ssoils.

AhandheldpHmeterisonewaytomakesureyourgardensoilisneithertooalkalinenortooacidforthefruitsyou’dliketoplant.

AlteringyourpH.SoilpHiseasytoimprove;seetheboxonpage221.Makeacidsoilsmorealkalinebyaddinglimeorwoodashes.Youcansimplyspreadlimeevenlyontopofthesoilandletraindissolveit,butbecauseitmovesthroughthesoilslowly,forfasterresultsit’sbettertotillitin.Claysoilshaveagreatercapacitytoabsorbcalciumandsorequiremorelimethansandyones.Don’tbetemptedtoaddmorethanisdirected,becausetoomuchlime,liketoolittle,locksupthefertilizerandstopsplantgrowth.Toomuchlimealsocausesfruittreestodroplargenumbersoffruitsbeforetheymature.AlwaystestsoilpHbeforeyouaddanything.

LoweringthepHisseldomnecessaryintheeasternstates,exceptwhenyou’regrowingacid-lovingplantslikeblueberries.Ifyou’replanningtouseasyntheticfertilizercontainingammoniumingredients,beawarethatthesewilllowerthepH.Manywesternsoilsareoverlyalkaline,andduetotheirspecificnaturemayhavespecificneedsforamendmentstolowerthepH.Aluminumsulfateisacommonlyused,andquick-acting,amendmenttolowersoilpH.Useitwithcaution:itwillburnplantrootsifoverused,andsomegardenersfeelthatitspoilstheflavorofblueberries.Betteralternativestocreateandmaintainacidityarecottonseedmealandpeatmoss.Oakleavesandpineneedles,althoughtheystartoffacidicwhenfresh,losetheiracidityovertimeandhaveonlyasmalleffectonsoilpHinallbutverysandysoils.Forseverealkalinity,useelementalsulfurtolowerpH.Moreisrequiredtoneutralizeclaysoilsthansandyones,andit’sslowactingovermonthsorevenayear.

SoilFertility

Soilfertilityisdeterminedbytheamountofreadilyavailablenutrients.Soilsaredepletedbybotherosionanduse,soorchardandberrycropsarelikelytoneedsomeadditionalfertilizereveryyear.Thethreemainelementsneededforplantnutrition(majororprimarynutrients)arenitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium.Thesethreeareincludedinanybalancedor“complete”fertilizer.Thoseneededinlesseramounts(secondarynutrients)arecalcium,magnesium,andsulfur.Don’tapplytheseunlessasoiltestshowsadeficiency;toomuchofanyonecanmakeothernutrientsunavailableandcreateanewdeficiency.Thentherearesomeelementsneededinveryminuteamounts.Thesemicronutrients(sometimescalledtraceelements)areboron,copper,chlorine,iron,manganese,molybdenum,andzinc.IfyouuseabundantamountsoforganicmatterandyoursoilpHisin

therightrange,usuallyyouneedbeconcernedonlywithsupplyingthemajornutrients.Secondaryelements,necessaryinsmalleramounts,maybepresentormaybesuppliedthroughregularfertility,butthey’resometimesoutofbalance.Boostcalciumandmagnesiumlevelswithdolomiticlime,whichcontainsboth,butdon’tusewheremagnesiumlevelsareadequate.Calciticlimestonesuppliesonlycalciumandnot

magnesium.Boostlowlevelsofsulfurwithelementalsulfur(foralkalinesoils),sulfateofpotashmagnesia(langbeinite,forsoilsalsolackingmagnesiumandpotassium),orgypsum(forsoilsalsolowincalcium).Micronutrientsarepresentinalmostallsoilsandaresuppliedby

compost,butparticularsoilsinsomepartsofthecountryorspecificlocalesmayhavetoomuchortoolittleofoneoranother.Ifyougrownuttrees,zincisimportantforgoodnutformation.AsoiltestfromyourstateuniversityExtensionServiceisthebestwaytotell.Don’tguess.Thesenutrientsareneededinverysmallamounts.Addinganexcesscanresultinplanttoxicitysymptomssuchasstuntedgrowthandleafbrowning.

TheBasicsofN–P–K

Nitrogen.Thisisnecessaryforgoodfruittreegrowth,anditislackinginmostsoils.Organicgardenerswhousegreensand,woodashes,granitedust,androckphosphatemaynotrealizethatthesedon’tsupplynitrogen.Thiselementisabsorbedfromtheairinsmallamountsbythesoil,andthunderstormsprovidesome.Nitrogeninitspureformisagas,soitcanbevolatile(canevaporatefromthesoil).Insomenitrateformsitwillburnplantsifusedinexcessiveamounts.Ifyoudon’tuseabalancedfertilizer,youcansupplynitrogenby

applyingsyntheticsourcessuchasnitratesororganicsourcessuchasmanuresandbloodmeal.Mostorganicformsreleasenitrogenslowlyandsoprovidesaferfeedingforlongerperiodsthanthechemicalones.(Batguanoandpoultrymanureareexceptions;freshanduncomposted,botharestrongenoughtoburnplants.)Excessiveamounts—morecommonwithsyntheticsourcesthanwithorganicsources—canstimulateproductionofshootsandleavesattheexpenseoffruits,andmakeplantsmoresusceptibletosomeinsects(especiallyaphids)anddiseases.

Anyfertilizer,whetherorganicorsynthetic,shouldclearlyshowtheN-P-Kanalysis,aswellasthesourceofeachnutrient.

Phosphorus.Anutrientusedbyplantsforrootsandearlygrowthinparticular,phosphorusdoesn’tmovewellinsoil,somixitinbeforeplantingifasoiltestshowsit’sneeded.Oftenyoumayfindasufficientamountalreadypresent,ifthesitewaspreviouslylawnorgarden.Toomuchcanwashintoandpollutewaterways,especiallywhenappliedintheformofsuperphosphateortriplesuperphosphate.Abalancedfertilizerblendshouldsupplyallthephosphorusyouneed,oryoucanuserockphosphate,bonemeal,manures,orcompost,tosupplyit.Whenyoursoiltestshowsplentyofphosphorusalreadypresent,lookforafertilizerwithlessornophosphorus(onewithalowmiddlenumberofthethreeintheanalysis,suchas10-4-10insteadofthemorecommon10-10-10).Thisisimportanttoreducephosphoruspollutionofwaterways.

Potassium.Thiselementisnecessaryforhealthyrootsandfruit,anditincreasesdiseaseresistance.Again,abalancedfertilizerblendshouldprovideallthepotassiumyouneed.Greensand,seaweed-based

fertilizers,andwoodashesalsosupplythiselement.Somesourcesfoundinsyntheticfertilizersarevariouspotashsalts,suchaspotassiumsulfate.

PreparingSoilforFruitingPlants

FIRST,TESTYOURSOIL’SPH;ifthisiswayoff,plantswon’tbeabletomakeuseoffertilizers.Eitherbuyaninexpensivetestingkit,orsendasampletoasoillaboratory(seeSourcesandResources;thelabwillinstructyouhowtocollectasample).Ifpossible,sendasoilsampletoyourstateuniversityExtensionServiceorasoillaboratory(seeResources,page307)foracompletesoiltest,whichwillshownutrientlevelsaswellaspH.Levelsofsoilnitrogenaredifficulttomeasure,butthetestwilltellyouifyoursoilisoutofbalanceordeficientinothernutrients.IfthepHishigherorlowerthanthedesiredrangeforthefruits

you’regrowing,amendasneeded.Becauselimestoneisslowacting—ittakesseveralmonthstoaffectpH—itisusuallyaddedinthefall,sothesoilwillbereadybyspring.IfyoumustraiseorlowerpHbymorethanonepoint,doitinstages(ideallyover2years).Applytheamountsbelow,waitafewmonths,andtestpHagainbeforeaddingmore.Avoidhydratedor“quick”lime,whichiscausticandcanburnplants.

Instead,usefinelygroundorpelletizedlimestone.Ingeneral,usecalciticlimestone;dolomiticlimestoneisappropriateonlyifthesoiltestindicateslowlevelsofmagnesium.

HowtoFertilize

Ifyou’rejuststartingoutorputtinginanewrowofstrawberries,youcanamendandfertilizepriortoplanting.It’sbesttomixanyfertilizerintotheplantingareaaheadoftimetoavoidthepotentialofburningsensitivenewroots(thereislesschanceofburningwithorganicandless-concentratedfertilizers).Forexistingplantings,you’llneedtotop-dress—applytothesurface—theneitherworkinwithabitofrakingor,betteryet,waterintothesoil.

Newplantings.Fornewplantings,youmayneedlittleornoadditionalfertilizerthefirstyearifyoutestedyoursoilandprepareditproperlybeforeplantingwithadequatenutrientsandcompost.Strawberriesare

anexception;theyoftenneedsomeadditionalnitrogenamonthorsoafterplanting,particularlyifleavesareyellowish.Inmildclimates,withvigorouscropsyoumayneedtofertilizestrawberriesmonthlyuntilmid-September.(Seepage54.)

AmendingSoilpH

Listedbelowaretheapproximateamountsoflime(toraise)andsulfur(tolower)toadjustsoilpHonepointfor100squarefeetofgarden.UsehalftheseamountsforhalfapointonthepHscale.ClaysoilswillneedmorethansandysoilstoachievethesamechangeinpH.Note:Don’tapplylimeorwoodashesatthesametimeasanitrogenfertilizer,asthelimewillcausemuchofthenitrogentoevaporate.

Ifyoudidn’tincorporatenutrientsbeforeplanting,youwillneedtoapplyabalancedfertilizertofruittreesandbushesamonthorsoafterplanting,orwhennewgrowthis4to6incheslong.

Establishedfruitgardens.Forexistingplantings,latewinterorearlyspringisthebesttimetofertilizeinmostareas,whengrowthisbeginning.Inverymildclimates(suchasmuchofCalifornia),youmayfertilizeduringspringbloomandfallharvest.Don’tfertilizeaftermidsummerinallbutthemildestclimates,sonewgrowthcanhardenoffforwinter.(Again,strawberriesareanexception:midsummer—afterrenovation—andearlySeptemberarethemostimportanttimes;don’tfertilizebeforeharvest.)Ifasoiltestduringtheseasonshowstheneedforphosphorusor

potassium,youcanadditinlatefallaftergrowthstopsandbeforethe

groundfreezes.Applynitrogenearlierinthegrowingseason;itmovesthroughsoilrapidlyandsoshouldbesuppliedwhiletheplantsaregrowingandabletoutilizeit.Letyourfruittreestellyouifthey’regettingenoughfertilizer(seeThe12–18Rule,page224).

AroundtheTree’sDripline

Treesarelarge,sothewayyoufertilizethemisimportant.There’sapproximatelyasmuchofatreeundergroundasthereisabove:theareacoveredbythetree’srootsystemisatleastthesamesizeasthespreadofthebranches,andlikelymuchwiderifthetopsoilisshallow.Thelargestrootsarenearthetrunk;thesmall,fibroushairrootsthatabsorbthesoilnutrientsarefartheraway.Withayoungtree,they’reinacirclebeginningafootortwofromthetrunkandcontinuingtotheoutsidespreadofthebranches—thedripline.Witholdertrees,allthefeederrootswillbefartherfromthetrunk,andanyfertilizerplacedclosetothetrunkormuchoutsidethebranchareaisgoingtobewasted.Bulkyfertilizerssuchascompostandmanureshouldbespreadon

topofthesoil.Ifyoumulchregularly,pulloffthemulchandspreadthefertilizerdirectlyoverthesoilbeneaththebranches.Thenreplacethemulchandaddtoitasnecessary.Dryfertilizersworkmoreeffectivelyifthey’reputinthesoil;theylosenitrogenreadilywhenexposedtoair.Cutaslitwithaspade,orpunchaholewithanironbar,andputthefertilizerafewinchesintothesoil.Ifyouhavemanytrees,youmaywanttoinvestinatreefeedingprobe,thekindprofessionalsuse.Youattachthistoahose,addfertilizertothereservoir,andsimplyinserttheprobe(whichhasholesinthetip)intothegroundwhereyouwanttofertilize.Fertilizertreestakesandsimilarproductsalsowork:simplypressthemintothesoilaroundthetreeaccordingtoproductdirections.IfyouliveintheNorth,don’tspreadlime,manure,compost,oranykindoffertilizeronfrozengroundunlessitwillbecoveredwithmulch.Otherwise,meltingsnowsandrainswillwashitawaybeforeithasachancetowork.Don’toverfertilize!Ifindoubt,don’t—oruseless.Toomuch

fertilizerdelaysbearingonyoungtreesandcausespoorfruitcoloranddelayedripeningonmaturetrees.

ChoosingFertilizers

Eachgardenerhashisorherfavoritesourceofplantnutrients.Compostprovidesmanynutrients,butgenerallyinlowconcentrations.Manurealsosuppliesmostnutrients,butbecarefulthatyouaren’tintroducingmillionsofweedseeds.Ihaveafriendwholovestoboasthowhegota“deal”onsomefreemanurefromafarmer,butthenwonderswhyeachyearhehassomanyweeds.Horsesandcowsmaybefedhaythatcontainsweedseeds,whichthenpassintothemanure.Buyingcompostedmanuresinbulkorinbagsshouldeliminatetheweedproblem.Ifyouwanttouserawmanures,allexceptrabbitmanurearebest

compostedoragedatleast6months;freshmanurecandamageplantsfromhighlevelsofammoniaandmaycontainhumanpathogens.Forstrawberries,freshmanureshouldbecompostedatleasttwiceto140°Ftokillpotentialfoodpathogens.

Commercialfertilizers.Whenyoubuycommercialfertilizer,whethersyntheticororganic,theguaranteedanalysisisprintedonthebag,asrequiredbylaw.It’slistedinnumbers,suchas5–10–10.Thefirstnumberindicatesthepercentageofnitrogen(N),thesecondofphosphorusoxide(P2O5),andthethirdofpotassiumoxide(K2O).Thus,a50-poundbagof5–10–10fertilizercontains2½poundsofnitrogenand5poundseachofcompoundsoftheotherelements(notoftheindividualelements).Mostoftheotherweightisfiller,whichconsistsofinertingredients.

Manynaturalamendmentssupplythenecessarymacronutrients(N–P–K),alongwithsmallbutimportantamountsofmicronutrients.

PROPERFERTILIZERAPPLICATION

Spreadfertilizerovertheentireareawherethefeederrootsarelocated.Ontrees(A),spreadatleasttothedripline,belowtheoutermostbranches,beginingatleastafootawayfromthetrunk.Forberrybushes(B),spreadovertheentirebedbutkeepfertilizeratleast6inchesawayfromstems.Liquidfertilizers(C)offeraneasyalternativetogranularfertilizers.

A“complete”orbalancedfertilizersuchas9–5–4or5–10–10containsatleastsomeofeachofthesethreeprimarynutrients,butifit’sfromsyntheticsources,itmaycontainfewifanymicronutrients.An“incomplete”fertilizercontainsonlyoneortwooftheprimaryelements(suchassuperphosphate,0–20–0,orbonemeal,4–12–0),evenifitcontainsawiderangeofminornutrients.Somesyntheticcompletefertilizersarenowavailablewithreducedlevelsofphosphorus(themiddlenumberofthethree),whichreducesthechanceofexcesswashingintowaterways(wherephosphorushasbecomeaseriouspollutant).Althoughorganicfertilizersoftenhavealoweranalysis—thatis,lowernumbers—thansyntheticfertilizers,theireffectisstillsignificant,astheygenerallybreakdownslowlyandreleasenutrients

overamuchlongertime,supplymicronutrients,andaidsoilmicrobes.Whateverfertilizeryouuse,readthelabelcarefullyandfollowthe

recommendedapplicationratesforyourparticularplantsandaccordingtosoiltestresults.Don’tthinkthatoverfeedingyourtreesandbusheswillgiveyoufastergrowthandmorefruit.Youmayendupwithlotsofleavesandnofruitorplantsthatarepronetoinsectsanddisease.Likeoverfeedingourselves,itisn’tagoodidea,andtwiceasmuchisnevertwiceasgood.

The12–18Rule

Letyourtreestellyouiftheyneedfertilizer.Lookatthemostrecentgrowthatthetipsofbranches—thetender,oftenlight-coloredandthingrowththatcomesfromahardenedringofwoodwherethepreviousyear’sgrowthended.Ifthisis18to24inchesforyoungtrees,10to12inchesformaturetrees(thatis,thoseofbearingage),they’regettingenoughnutrients.Thisiscalledthe“12–18rule.”Ifamaturetreeproducedlessthan12inchesofgrowthinthepastyear,fertilizemore.Ifyousee12to18inchesofnewgrowth,fertilizethesameasbefore.Ifyourtreesproducemorethanthis,don’tfertilizeatall.Insomeareas,youmayexpect4to6inchesmorethantheseforcherries,plums,andpeaches.

Manygardenershavegoodluckusingblendedfertilizers,whichconsistoftwoormoredryfertilizerproducts.Organicblendsarenowwidelyavailable,aswellassynthetics.Youcanmakeupyourownblendusingthenutrientslistedinthechartopposite.

Liquidproducts.Specificliquidfertilizersareusefultohelptransplantsgetestablishedandtogetthemgrowingquickly.Manysyntheticformulationsnowcomewiththeirownhoseattachments,soyousimplyhookthemupandwater.They’resoeasythatitmaybetemptingtooverusethem.Resist!Aswithallchemicals,useaccordingtodirectionsandneveraftermidseason,soyouwon’tencouragelate-summergrowth.

Fishemulsion,liquidseaweed,andblendsofthetwoareorganicliquidfertilizers.Youcanmakeafast-actingmanureteawithcompostedmanure.Justmixmanureandwaterinalargegarbagecan,letsoak,dilutetothecolorofweakblacktea,thenpourthe“tea”overthesoilandeventheleavesforfoliarfeeding.Avoidsprayingitondevelopingfruit.

Slow-releasefertilizers.Slow-release(nowoftencalledcontrolled-release)syntheticfertilizersreleasetheirnutrientsslowlyoveraperiodofweeksormonths,similartoorganicones,ensuringalongseasonofevenfeeding.Theyalsoreducethelikelihoodofburningplantsfromexcessfertilizer,andarelesslikelytoleachawayinrainsthanordinarychemicalfertilizers.Someareavailableinapillformthatyouburynearatreeorplant.Onthedownside,unlikeorganicfertilizersmanydon’tsupplytraceelements,andthey’remuchmoreexpensivethanmanyotherblendedfertilizers.Althoughslow-releasesyntheticfertilizersgivelong-termand

consistentfeedingunderordinaryconditions,whenthetemperaturerisesunusuallyhigh,thereleaseinsomeproductsisfaster.Forthisreason,inwarmclimatesit’sbettertoapplytwosmallerfeedingsperyear,ratherthanoneheavieroneinthespring.

OrganicNutrientSources

Youcanusetheorganicsourcesheretosupplyanutrientthat’sdeficientinyoursoil,orblendthemtomakeyourownbalancedfertilizer.Forexample,mixbloodmealwithgreensandincombinationwithbonemealorrockphosphateforacompletefertilizer.Followrateslistedonthelabelsorrecommendationswithsoiltests.

Alfalfameal.Driedpelletsfromalfalfaplantsprovidenitrogenandpotassium(about2–1–2);alsoaddtraceelements;goodforcompost.

Bloodmeal.Driedanimalblood,typically12–0–0.Goodsourceofnitrogen;actsasadeerrepellent.

Bonemeal.Finelygroundanimalbones,generallysteamed,typically

around4–12–0.Theodormayattractskunksdigginginthesoillookingfortheburiedbones.

Cottonseedmeal.Goodforacid-lovingplantssuchasblueberries,typically6–0–1.

Fishproducts.Derivedfromfishprocessing;availableinvariousforms,oftenwithfishysmell(deodorizedhaveless);completefertilizer(5–2–2)alsoaddtraceelements.

Greensand.Materialfromoceandeposits.Maycontainonly0–0–3analysis,butisvaluableformanyadditionaltraceelements.

Poultrymanure(composted).Sostrongsmellingthatsomegardenersthinktreesgrowjusttogetawayfromit.Morepowerfulthancowandsheepmanure.Toavoiddiseaseissuesandriskofburningplants,makesureit’scomposted.Fresh,itmaybeashighas56–45–34.

Othermanures.Analysiswillvarydependingonwhethermanureisfresh,dried(dehydrated),orcomposted,andfromwhatanimal.Dehydratedcowmanureiswidelyavailable.Althoughtheanalysisislow(oftenintherangeof1–1–1),italsosuppliestraceelements,lotsoforganicmatter,andissafetouseinquantity(unlikemoreconcentratedfertilizers).Dehydratedpoultrymanuremaybedoubleormorethanthesenumbers.Checkthelabelonbagsofdehydratedmanureforusagerates.Freshmanuresareproblematic:theyareveryhighinnitrogenand

mayburnplants,andtheymaycontainpathogensharmfultohumans.Fortunately,compostingforatleastamonthbeforeusingwilleliminatethesehazards.Turnthepileeveryfewdayswithashovel,andwearglovestoprotecthandsfrompathogens.

Rockphosphate.Naturalphosphaterockthathasbeengroundveryfine,usually0–3–0.Becomesavailabletotreesextremelyslowly,butshouldlastforatleast3years.

Seaweed.Fromkelpandseaplants,invariousforms;minimalmajorelementsbutaddsmicronutrientsandotherbeneficialcompounds;apply

tothesoilorleaves.

Soybeanmeal.Driedpelletsfromsoybeanplantsprovidenitrogenandphosphorus(about7–2–1).

Woodash.Ashesmakesoilmorealkaline,souseonlyonacidicsoils.Typically0–1–3,upto8percentpotassium.Don’tapplyatthesametimeasafertilizercontainingnitrogenintheformofureaorammonium,aseitherwillreleaseammoniagaswhencombinedwithsuchanalkalinematerial.Oneruleofthumbisagallonofashespersquareyardofsoil,withhalfthatonsandysoils,ornomorethanhalfaninchtop-dressedonsoil.

MulchesAreLabor-Savers

ORGANICMULCHESoffersuchgreatadvantagesthatitwouldbeamistakenottousethemonyourorchardandberryplants.Inadditiontoenhancingthestructureofthesoilandprovidingfertilityastheyrot,theysuppressweedsandgrassesthatstealsoilnutrients,preventerosionfromwindandrain,keepsoilscooler(whichmaybegoodinhotclimates,andhelpsdelayspringbloomincoldclimates),andhelpretainsoilmoisturebygreatlydecreasingevaporation.Theyalsoencourageearthwormsandothersoilorganisms,andguardagainstrapidfreezingandthawingofthegroundincoldclimates.Somegardenerslikethecleanappearanceofanonorganicmulch

suchascrushedrockaroundtheirplantings,andsomespreadblackplasticbetweenrows.Nonorganicmulcheslastforyearsbutaddnohumusornutrientstothesoil.Don’toverdomulches,however,ormoundthemuparoundatrunk,

creatinga“volcano”effect.Mulchesthataremorethan2inchesdeepaftertheysettlecanhavethesameeffectasburyingatreetoodeep:smotheringtheroots,whichneedexposuretoair,andresultingintoo-shallowroots(thesearesensitivetodryingoutanddon’tanchorplantswell).Deepmulchesalsomakeitdifficultforrainandwateringtoreachtheroots.

Mulchprovidesaconvenientnestingplaceforrodents,whowillthankyouduringwinterwhiletheyfeastonthetreebark.Ifyoumulchyourfruittrees,installtreeguardsorhardwareclothtoprotecttrunksfromnibblingmiceandvoles(seepage238).

Mulch“volcanoes”likethisonehavethesameeffectasplantingthetreetoodeeplyinthesoil,andalsoprovideaplaceforbark-gnawingrodentstonestrightupagainstthetrunkofthetree.

Spreadingmulchinaringaroundthebaseofthetree,ontheotherhand,willhelpdirectwatertothetree’sroots.

MulchMaterial

Myfavoritewaytomulchfruittreesistospreadalayerofmanureorcompostaroundeachtreefromthetrunktotheoutsidespreadofthebranchesandthencoverthiswithathicklayerofnewspaperorcardboard.Thissmothersthegrassandweedsveryeffectively.ThenIaddalayerofwoodchipsorshreddedbarkacoupleofinchesdeeptohidethenot-too-attractivepaperorcardboard,andtokeepitfromblowingaway.EachyearIreapplytheselayers,addingalittlefertilizerfirst.Thispracticeiscalledsheetmulching.Forwiderowsintheorchard,mowngrassiseasiest.Mulchesalsoaregoodforberrybushes.Besidesalltheother

advantages,mulcheskeeprainsfromspatteringdirtonripeningstrawberries.Don’tuseslow-to-rotwoodchipsonstrawberrybedsifthey’llbeplowedbackintothesoilwithinayearortwo.Straw,driedlawnclippings,andshreddedleavesmakebettermulchesforthem.Fornarrowaislesbetweenrowsofstrawberriesandmaturebushes,I

useacombinationofacommerciallandscapingfabriconthebottomandwoodchipsorbarkontop.Landscapingfabricallowsairandwatertopassthroughbutpreventweedsaslongasitdoesn’tgetpunctured.(Weedsseemtofindanyholeandedge.)EachspringIsimplypeelbackthelayer,addsomecompost,thenputitback,replacinganytornareasoffabric.Don’tuseweedfabricsaroundbushesthatspread,suchasraspberries,oryou’llpreventneededgrowthofnewshoots.

Sheetmulchingaroundtreesorbushesisagoodwaytosmothergrassandweeds,butkeepmulchawayfrombaseoftrunk.

ThreeWaystoUseLeavesforSoilImprovement

1.Shredandaddimmediatelytothesoil.Runalawnmoweroverarowofrakedleavestoshred,orputthroughashredder.

2.Compostforatleastayearbeforeyouincorporatethemintothesoil.Leavescompostintoleafmold,whichisoneofthebestsoilamendmentsandfertilizers.

3.Useshreddedleavesasamulcharoundfruittreesandberryplants.Checkthesoilunderneathinayear,andyou’llfindearthwormsgaloreandhundredsoflittleroothairsexploringthecompostedleavesfornourishment.

OneofthebestmulchesI’veeverfoundisalsoonetheleastexpensive:leaves.Ifyou’reluckyenoughtoliveinanareawheretheylieinlargeheapsonthegroundeveryfall,considerthemagiftfromnatureandscoopthemup.Ihavefriends,notsofortunate,whomakefallpilgrimagestotherecyclingcentertocollectothers’bagsofleaves.Theonlyproblemtheyreportisthatyouhavetogetthereearly,asthecompetitionforleavesisheatingup.Gotafriendorneighborwithlotsofdeciduoustrees?Makeadealtohaulthemawayforfree.Leavesareanexcellentsoilconditioner,andofferadoublebenefitas

nature’sownfertilizer.Therootsoflargetreesreachfarintothesubsoiltobringupnutrientsandtraceelementsthatshallow-rootedtreesandplantsneverreach,andtheseendupintheirleaves.

MakeYourOwnCompost

COMPOSTINGDOES,inafasterandmoremanageableway,whatnaturedoesallthetimeingardens,fields,andforests.Therottingoftreesandplantsovermillenniahasprovideduswiththehumusinthesoilthatmakesitpossibletogrowourplantsandtrees.Gardenersandorchardistscanspeedupthenaturalprocessbybuildingcompostpiles.Pilingwastematerialinheapsincreasestheheatingprocessandspeedsdecomposition.Theeasiestwaytogetagoodmixofingredientsinyourcompostpileistoalternatelayersofdry“browns”andfresh“greens”andsoil.Brownsincludefallenleaves,straw,shreddednewspaperandcardboard,andsawdust(notfrompressure-treatedwood).Greensincludemanure,grassclippings,coffeegrounds,crushedeggshells,fruitandvegetabletrimmings,greengardentrimmings,andsod(brokenintosmallpieces).Althoughalltheseareidealforcompost,don’tworryandskipcompostingifyou’reshortonaningredient.Compostingwillsaveaddingsuchdecomposingmaterialstolandfills,ifnothingelse.

Agoodcompostpilewillhavealternatinglayersofdryorganicmatter(suchasleavesorstraw),greenorganicmatter(suchasfreshlawnclippingsorkitchenwaste),andsoilorcompostedmanure.

Finishedcompostwillbedarkandcrumbly,andwillhaveadeep,earthyaroma.

Organicmatterthatyoucanaddtoacompostpilecanbemostanynaturalmaterialthatdecomposes.Justmakesureyoudon’tadddiseasedorweedyplantstoyourcompost,orweedsthathavegonetoseed.

Neveraddmeatscraps,petwastes,oryardtrimmingswithpesticideresidues.Examplesofplantsandproductsthatdecomposemostrapidlyareshreddedleaves,shreddedpaper,eggshells,coffeegrounds,fruitpeels,vegetablescraps,andfinewoodshavings.Slowtodecompose,taking2yearsormore,arewoodchips,corncobsandcornstalks,andnutshells.Breakinguporshreddingtheseslowermaterialsoraddingextranitrogenwillhelpspeedthingsup.Microorganismsareresponsibleforbreakingdownmaterialstoform

compost.Addingsoilormanuretothecompostpilesuppliesthem.Manureandother“greens”supplythenitrogen(N)theyneed.Theplantsandother“brown”productsarethecarbon(C)sourcesmicroorganismsuseforfood,andtheresultiscompost.AlthoughyoucangetrathertechnicalwithratiosofC:Nandhowthevariouscomponentscontributetothetotalratio,youcanmakegoodcompostwithabout2to3partsofbrownmaterialstoonepartofgreen.

Troubleshooting

Ifthecompostisdecomposingslowly,youmayhavetoomuchorganicmatterorcarbonsource—the“brown”materialsmentionedabove.Tobalancethis,addmore“green”matter—thenitrogensource.Ifyoudon’thavemanure,tryaddingsomefreshgrassclippingsornitrogenfertilizer(about1cupperlayerfora4-foot-by-4-footpile).Ifyousmellammonia,youhavetoomuchnitrogenandneedtoadd

morebrownmaterialsasacarbonsource.Ifyouneedlotsmorecarbon,sawdustandchoppedleavesaregoodchoices.Someliketoaddasprinklingoflimetocounteracttheacidityofmostfreshmaterialsincompost.Compostmicroorganismsneedaneutraltoslightlyacidicenvironmenttoworkbest.

TIPSFORCOMPOSTING

•Useacompostbinormakeapileatleast4feetby4feetand3feethighaftersettling.

•Choporshredcoarsematerialssuchaslargeleavesandwoodchipstohastentheirbreakdown.

•Alternatelayersofcarbon-rich“browns”5to8inchesdeepwithnitrogen-rich“greens”2to3inchesdeep,toppingeachdoublelayerwithsoilorcompostedmanure1to2inchesdeep.Brownsincludeleaves,straw,woodchips,shreddednewspaperandcardboard;greensincludecompostedmanure,grassclippings,fruitandvegetablewastes,andgreengardentrimmings.

•Moistenlayersasyougo.Materialsshouldbeaboutaswetasawrung-outsponge.

•Turnthecomposteveryfewdaysorweeklytoaerate.

Buildyourpileintheopen,orencloseitinacommerciallymadeboxorbinoroneconstructedfromstones,boards,orcementblocks.Somebinsarequiteattractive.Ilikethemountedbarreltypethatyoucaneasilyrotatetoturnandaeratethecompost.Sometownsforbidopencompostpiles,socheckyourlocalbylaws.Ifnecessary,youcanmakecompostincoveredgarbagecansinagarageorshed;justmakesuretoopenthemdailyandturntomixinenoughair.Ifyourcompostsmellsrotten(whetherinabinorouttheopen),it’stoowetorisn’tgettingenoughair.Coveredbins,oratarpoverthepile,willkeepexcessrainoffandthecompostfrombeingtoowet.Ifnotinabin,compostpilesshouldstandabout3feethighafter

settlinghastakenplace.Keepthetopofthepileflatorslightlyconcavesoraincansoakin.Ifrainsarelackingoryougardeninadryclimate,watereveryfewdays.Turntheheapoccasionallytoprovideairandtospeedupdecomposition.Anactiveandidealcompostpileshouldheatupinsideto110°to140°Fwithinacoupleofweeks,whichyoucanmeasurewithaspecialcompostthermometeravailableatgardenstoresorfromcatalogs.Don’tworryifyoursdoesn’theatupquickly;justmakesureyouhavetherightratioofingredients,turnperiodically,andbepatientwhilethecompostorganismswork.Ifapileisproperlymadeandturned,therewon’tbeanyunpleasant

smelleitherwhenthecompostisrottingorwhileit’sbeingused.Ifyourcompostpileisnearafieldorsourceofweedseedsthatmayblowin,keepitcoveredwithaplastictarp.Removeplasticwhenrainisforecastoryouneedtowater,andtoturnthecontentseveryfewdays.Compostisfinishedwhenit’sdarkandcrumblyandsmellsearthy

sweet.Inareaswithnormalprecipitation,itmaytakeafullyeartorotanoutdoorcompostheapproperly,butturningandkeepingtheheapmoistduringdryweatherwillspeedthingsup.Youcanalsoaddactivators,availableatgardenstores,forevenfasterdecomposition.Largepilestendtodecomposefasterthansmallones;thoseinwarmclimatesfasterthanthoseincoolclimates.Mostgardenersliketohavethreecompostpiles:onethat’sbeing

made,asecondintheprocessofrotting,andathirdactivelyinuse.Iusuallyhaveatleasttwobins.Iforkthecompostfromonebinintotheothertoturnit.Growingup,Ihadonelargebinmadeofconcreteblocks,withenoughroominsidetoforkthecompostfromonesidetotheother.

Plantingwell,mulchingproperly,andkeepingweedstoaminimumwillhelpensurethatyourfruitingplantsgetofftoagoodstartinlife.

CHAPTER16

GettingPlantsofftoaGoodStart

Eachspring,weobservedArborDayatourlittleone-roomcountryschool.Thetree-plantingceremonywasquiteimpressive.Afterasalutetotheflag,someoneespeciallychosenforthehonorwoulddigthehole,adecreethathadgoneoutfromthegovernorwouldbedulyread,andachildalwaysrecited“Trees,”byJoyceKilmer.Finallythegroupsanganappropriatesong,quiteoff-key.Thenwewouldplantthetree.Theceremonywaswellorganizedandthepoetrymorethan

adequate,butwewerealldeficientinourplantingability.Nooneconsideredthatthetreemightbeplantedtooshallowortoodeep.Noonethoughtitmightbesufferingmorethanwewere,asthepoemsandreadingswentonandonandboththeyandthetreeweregettingdrieranddrier.Nooneeverthoughttocoverthelittletree’srootsortobringapailofwater.Ifwe’dpaidasmuchattentiontothetreesaswedidtotheceremonies,moreofthoseArborDaytreeswouldhavesurvived.Comparedtootherfruitcrops,fruittreestakethebiggestinvestment

ofyourtimeandmoneytogetgoodfruitandbigyields.Soitpaystogetthemofftoagoodstart.Berrybushesandvinesmaycostless,butyou’llbeinvestingyourlaborinthem,sogivethemasimilargoodstart.Thischapterdiscussesbushesandtrees;forstrawberries,seechapter4.

CareStartsbeforePlanting

THETREESANDBUSHESyoupurchaseatanurseryoragardencenterareprobablyincontainers.Largerspecimensmaybeballed-and-burlapped.Bothhavethebenefitoverbare-rootplants,inthattheycanbeheld

throughtheseasonuntilyou’rereadytoplant.Justmakesuretokeepthemwellwatered,oftendailyunlessthere’sagoodrain,especiallythosewithrootsencasedinburlap.Forthese,ifyou’renotgoingtoplantrightaway,ithelpstomoundmulchorwoodchipsaroundtheballofsoil.Mostmail-ordertreesareshippedbare-root,packedinsomesortof

moisture-retainingwrap.Treattheselikefish:theycan’tlivelongwithoutlotsofmoisture.Bare-roottreesaretheleastexpensiveandusuallyoffermorevarietythanthoseballed-and-burlappedorincontainers.Nurseriesdigtheminthefall,storethemincontrolledtemperatureandhumidityshedsduringthewinter,thenwrapandshiptheminthespring.They’relikelytobequitedrywhentheyreachyourdoorstep,soyourfirst,andveryimportant,stepshouldbetounwrapthemuponarrivalandsoaktherootsinapondortubofwaterfor3to6hours(butnotover24hours).Don’tworryifthetreesarriveonacoldday.Eveniftherootsarefrozen,there’snoproblemaslongasyouletthemthawslowlybyleavingthepackageinacoolbasementorgarageforhalfadaybeforeyousoakthem.Youcansetoutballedorcontainer-growntreesandbushes

successfullyatanytimeoftheyearwhenthegroundisn’tfrozen,butit’sbesttoplantbare-rootedtreesinthespring,beforegrowthstartsincold-climateareas(Zones5andcolder),sothetreeswillhaveafullseasontogetestablishedandwellrootedbeforewinter.IfyouliveinZone6orwarmer,however,youcansafelyplantinthefall.

Soakbare-roottreesandbushesinatubofwaterforseveralhoursbeforeyouplantthem.

Trytokeeptherootballintact,disturbingrootsaslittleaspossible,whenremovingthewrappingofballed-and-burlappedplants.

Removeanyplasticwrappingorcontainerfromaballedorpottedtree,butkeepintactthesoilballsurroundingtheroots.Ifyoudisturbit,you’llbreakallthelittlefeederrootsthatmakeaballedorpottedtreesuperiortoonethat’sbare-root.Anyrootsthatarebrokenshouldbeprunedoffatthebreak.If,inspiteofyourbesteffortsandcare,thesoileasilyfallsofftherootswhenyouremovethepotorburlapsurroundingtherootball,treatitlikeabare-roottree.Ifthathappenswithacontainer-grownspecimen,chancesarethetreewaspottedonlyrecently.I’veseenthisinsomegardenstoresthatdon’tgrowtheirtreesandfromretailersthatdon’tspecializeinplants.Buyyourtreelaterintheseasoninapotanditwilllikelybewellrooted,butthentheselectionisratherpoor.Presumablyyou’vealreadychosenagoodlocationwithplentyofsun

(atleast8hoursaday)andwell-drainedsoil,notinalowareawherelate-springfrostscoulddamagespringblooms.Allowenoughroomforthematuresizeofthetree.Figureonaspaceaboutaswideastreesaretall,sofora10-foot-talltree,spaceatleast10feetapartfromothertrees.Followthespacingrecommendationslistedontheplantlabel,orthegeneralrecommendationsatthebeginningofeachfruitchapter.

PlantingWellPaysOff

PLANTINGAROWOFBERRIESorbushesdiffersfromplantinganindividualbushortree.Ifyou’replantingawholerow,beginayearaheadbyaddingplentyofcompostorotherorganicmatterontopofthesoilandtillingitindeeply.Iftherowisweedyorcoveredinsod,plantacovercroptheseasonbeforetohelpenrichthesoilandcontrolweeds.Thisisthetimetoaddlime,ifcalledforbyasoiltest.Foratreeorasinglebush,digtheholemuchwiderthanyouthinkis

reallynecessary—oneaswideasabushelbasketshouldbeadequatefora6-foottree.Putallthesoilthatyouremoveintotwoheaps,thegoodtopsoilononesideandthepoorersubsoilontheother.Pourapailofwaterintotheholeandletitsoakin.Don’tdigtheholedeeperthan

you’llspreadtherootsorplacetherootball.Unlessthesoilunderneathisfirmedproperly,itwillsettleandthetreewillendupplantedtoolow.Thissmothersthebarkandforcesrootstogrowtoonearthesurface.Plantingtoolowincreasesthepossibilityofrotsettinginaroundthebaseandmayresultinthedeclineandevendeathofthetreeovertime.

BestSitesforFruitTrees,Bushes,andVines

•Atleast8hoursofsunaday

•Deep,well-drainedsoil

•Awayfromwildfruittreesandbushes

•Goodairflow,butnottoowindy

•Avoidlowareas,asthesearefrostpocketsandsoildrainagemaybepoor

Fortreesandbushes,nofertilizerisneededintheholeatplanting(itmayburnthetenderroots).Ifpossible,tillorforksomecompostintotheareaaroundtheplantinghole,whichiswherefuturerootswillgrow.Asuggestioninthepastwastomixgenerousamountsofcompost,peatmoss,ormanurewiththetopsoilbeforebackfilling.Mostrecommendationsnowcallforlittleornoaddedorganicmatter.Youcanprobablyincorporateupto25percentbyvolumewithnoproblem,butstudieshavefoundthattherootstendtostayinsucharichsoilanddon’tgrowaswelloutintothesurroundingsoil.Thisstuntedandreducedrootgrowthisreflectedinlesstopgrowthandtreesthataren’tanchoredwell.Ifthesoilispoor,trytofindabettersite,orchooseafruitorcultivarthatwilltoleratepoorsoil.Someapplerootstocks,forexample,arebetterthanothersinpoorsoils.Setthebushortreeataboutthesamelevelasitgrewinthefieldor

pot.Onabare-roottree,youcanfindthisleveleasilyonthebarkjustabovetheroots.Whendiggingthehole,Iliketofirstmeasuretheroots

orpotwithayardstickortapemeasure,thenmakesuretheholeIdigisthesamedepth.Ifyouplantatreetoodeep,therootswillbesmothered,whichislikelytokillit;ifyousetittooshallow,therootswilldryout.(Forthecorrectdepthtoplantstrawberries,seepage53).

PLANTINGATREE

1.Whenplanting,digaholemorethanwideenoughtocontainalltherootswithoutcrowding.Forgraftedtrees,makesurethegraftunionis2to4inchesabovethesoillevel.Putthebettertopsoilononesideoftheholeandthepoorersubsoilontheother.

2.Slowlypourawholewateringcanfullofwaterintothehole.

3.Backfillthebettertopsoilaroundtheroots,eitherwateringinasyougo,orfirming.Ifyourunoutoftopsoilnearthetop,addplentyofcomposttothesubsoilbeforefinishing.Filltheholealmosttothetopwiththeremainingsubsoil-compostmix.

4.Leaveaslightdepressioninthesoilaroundthetrunktocatchrainandwaterfromthehose.Waterinwell,supplying2or3gallons.Youcanuseadiluteliquidfertilizerifdesired.

Ifthebushortreeisinacontainer,removethecontainerandthenloosentheouterrootswithyourfingers,trowel,orgardenfork.Whenrootsarethickandtightorcirclingthepot,makethreeorfourverticalcutswithasharpknife.Thiswillstimulatenewrootstogrowoutwardonceplanted,ratherthanaroundandgirdlingthetrunk.Foragraftedtree,plantsothegraftunionwillbe2to4inchesabove

thesoil.Atthehigherendofthisrange,you’llgetmoreofthebenefitsfromtherootstock,suchashardinessandheightcontrol.Iftheunionisbelowsoillevel,thetoporscionwillrootandyou’lllosethebenefitsoftherootstock.Ifit’stoohigh,suckergrowthmaycomeupyearlyfromtherootstockbase.Ifyouknowtherootstock,andthatit’spronetosuckersorburrknots,plantthetreewiththegraftunionatorjustabovesoillevel.Holdthetreestraight(apartnertoholdthetopwhileyouworkon

thebottomishelpful),spreadouttheroots(ifbare-root),andputbackenoughofthesoiltobarelycovertheroots.Gentlymoveabare-roottreeupanddowntohelpsettlethisinitialsoilaroundtheroots.Gentlytampthesoildowntoremoveairpockets,oraddsomewater.Nowaddsomemoresoilandwater,andcontinueuntiltheholeis

filled.Alternatively,firmthesoilasyouadditbackaroundtherootswithgentlefoottamping;packingasifyouwerejumpingonatrampolinewillharmbothsoilandroots.Becarefulnottodamagethetreewithyourshovelduringtheprocess,becausethebarkistenderandcan’tstandroughtreatment.Itmaybenecessarytousealittleofthesubsoilyou’veduguptofilltheholecompletely,butmostofitshouldbeusedelsewhere,suchasforfillingalowarea,ormixedinwithsomeofthebettertopsoil.Leaveaslightdepressioninthesoilaroundeachplant,beginninga

fewinchesfromthemainstemortreetrunk,tocatchrainandwaterfromthehosesothewaterwillsoakintothegroundandrootzone.(Ifyouhaveextrasubsoil,youcanuseittobuildupaberm.)Waterthetreeorbushwellonceit’splanted.Waituntilgrowthstarts(usually2to4weeks)tofertilizebare-rootplants.Unlessitrainshard,waternewlyplantedtreesandbushes

thoroughlyeachweekforthefirstmonth.Iftheweatherstayshotoryouhavesandysoil,youmayneedtowatermoreoften.Pourslowly,soallofitreachesthebottomoftheroots.

Rootsthatwraparoundandaroundinsidethepotwon’tuntanglethemselvesafterplanting.Ifyoucan’tloosentheserootswithyourfingers,useasharpknifetomakethreeorfourslicesabout½inchdeep.

Thisstepofwateringcannotbeemphasizedtoostrongly.It’stheleastexpensiveandmostdependablewaytohelpalittletreegetofftoafaststart.Don’toverdoeitherthewateringorthefertilizing,though,especiallyifyouhaveaheavyandpoorlydrainedsoil.Oneofourneighborsaccidentallyleftthehoserunningonasmalltreeforanentireweekend.Notonlywasthishardonhiswell,butbyMondaymorninghispoortreehaddrowned.Figureonusing3to5gallonsofwatereachtimeforanewtree4to8feettall.

PamperafterPlanting

CHECKTOMAKESUREtherearenolabelswrappedaround,ortiedto,limbsorthetrunkthatwillstranglethetreeasitgrows.Ifyoubuyabare-roottreethroughthemail,ithasprobablyalreadybeencutbackbeforebeingshipped.Ifnot,it’sagoodideaforyoutoprunerightafterplantingtohelpcompensateforthelossofrootsatthetimeofdigging.Dothistooifyoumoveyourownsmalltreefromelsewhere.Evenifit

wascutback,orifthetreewasballed-and-burlappedorpotted,youmayneedtopruneselectivelytostartshapingitsstructure(seechapter17).

Atreeguardwillhelpprotectthetrunkofayoungsaplingfrommechanicaldamagecausedbyweedtrimmersandmowers.Tallerguardsareneededtoprotectagainstwinterbarksplitting,sunscald,andmicefeedinginareaswithsnow.

MulchandProtect

Spreadalayerofmulcharoundtreesaftertheplanting.Asexplainedonpage226,amulchhelpsholdmoisture,suppressesgrassandweeds,andimprovesthesoilstructureovertime.Themulchshouldnotbemorethan2inchesdeep:morethanthatwillsmothertherootsandlowertrunkorstems,similartoplantingtoodeeply,aswellaspreventwater

fromreachingthem;lessanditwillprovidelittlebenefit.Evenwhenyou’replantinginawell-keptlawn,removethesodacouplefeetoutfromthetrunk.Thiswillreducecompetitionforthenewtreerootsfromgrass,willprovideanareaformulch,andwillkeepawayerrantweedtrimmersandmowers.Keepmulchacoupleofinchesawayfromthetrunk,anddefinitelydon’tpileitupagainstthetrunk,asiscommonlyseeninlandscapesinsomeregions;otherwise,itprovidesahomefortrunk-munchingvolesoverwinter.Onceyou’vemulchedbutbeforeyou’vestakedthetree,installatree

guard(seepicture).Thisprotectstheyoung,tenderbarkfromsplitting,causedwhenthebarktemperaturechangesrapidly,suchasfromthesunheatingitquicklyafteracoldwinternight,ortemperaturesplummetingatnightafterawarmandsunnyafternoon.Treeguardsalsoprotectagainstmechanicalinjury(weedtrimmers,mowers),andfromwinterfeedingbysmallmammalssuchasvoles.Youmayneedadditionalprotectionfromlargemammals—specifically,deer.Theselovetobrowsetheyounggrowthandthenfuturebudsinwinter(seepage295).

Staking

Newlyplanted,standard-sizefruittreesseldomneedstakingifyousetthemincarefully.Inawindyarea,however,theymayleanwiththeprevailingwindsunlessyougivethemsomehelpintheirearlyyears.Youngdwarftrees,whichareextremelyshallowrooted,willneedstakingunlessyou’veputtheminashelteredlocation.Mostgrowersusea10-footsectionof1-inch-diameterelectricalconduitpipe,asit’srelativelyinexpensive,sturdy,andeasytohandle.Placethis4to6inchesoutfromthetrunk.Pushorpoundit2feetintotheground,leaving8feetabove.Thensecurethetreetothepostwithstripsofcloth,specialtwineforjustthispurpose,orwireenclosedinpiecesofgardenhose.Thiskeepsthewirefromcuttingintothebark.Ifyouonlyhaveafewtreesandthey’reinalandscape,youcanuse

moreattractivewoodenpostsorstakes.Poundtheseinthegroundbeginning12to18inchesfromatreeandangledslightlyoutward.Placethreeequallyspacedaroundthetrunk.Attachthetreetothemasabove,makingsurethefasteningmaterialisn’ttootightaroundthetrunk.Checkatleastannuallytomakesurethewrappingstillisn’ttootight.

Whenthetreesare3or4yearsoldandwellanchored,removethestakes.Theexceptionisadwarfingrootstockthatbynaturedoesn’tprovidegoodanchoringforthetree—keepplantsthataregraftedonthattypeofrootstockstaked.

Fertilize

Twotofourweeksafterplantingabare-roottree,whenitstartstoshownewgrowth,fertilizewithalow-analysisorslow-releasefertilizer.Ifyoupurchasedtheplantinacontainerorballed-and-burlapped,youcanfertilizeafterplanting.Ifgrowthisvigorous,orifyou’replantingaftermidsummer,don’tfertilize.Itmaybebesttowaitlongertofeedblueberries,astheyaresensitivetotoomuchfertilizeratthispoint.Seetheindividualfruitchaptersforspecificfertilizerrecommendations.Scatterdryblendsseveralinchesawayfromtheplanttoavoid

burningthenewlyformingroots.Manygardenersuseasolubleliquidfertilizer,suchasfishemulsion,oronespecificallyfortransplantingthat’sabithigherinphosphorus(goodforrootgrowth,suchas3–10–3).Ifusingadryfertilizeronstrawberries,trytokeepitofftheleaves;waterafterfertilizingtowashtheproductoffleavesandintothesoil.

Document

Labelssoonfadeandfalloff,soinachartrecordplantnames,dates,andanyotherpertinentinformation,suchaswhereyouboughttheplants.Asimplespreadsheetordatabaseprogramonacomputeriswhatmanyuse.Arecordofyourplantingswillnotonlyidentifythefruitswhentheystarttobear,butwillalsohelpyouifyouneedtoreplaceanytrees.Makesureanylabelsontreesarelooseandwillnotstranglebranchesasthesegrow.

Don’tHarvestTooSoon

ASABEGINNINGFRUITGROWERanxiouslyawaitingmyfirstcrop,Iwasalwaysdelightedtofindatreebloomingthefirstorsecondyearafterplanting.Asthelittlefruitsgrew,itwasevenmoreexcitingtoseehowmanyofthematreewasproducing.Actually,asIfoundoutlater,this

wasn’tatallgoodfortheyoungtree.Ifyourtreeisgrowingextremelywellandisingood,rugged

condition,itprobablywon’thurtittobearafruitortwothesecondyearafterplanting.Formostfruittrees,though,youshouldpickoffallfruitsuntilthethirdyear.Itmaybedifficulttodo,butit’sforthetree’sowngoodandtoensurebetterfruitinginthefuture.Ayoungtreedoesn’thavesufficientrootsandenoughresourcestosupportbothnewgrowthandfruit.Removingfruitinearlyyearsisespeciallyimportantforcultivarsthathaveatendencytobearfartoosoon(“precocious")andtooheavily,whichcanweakenthemsomuchthattheywon’tproduceanothercropforseveralyears.Suchatreecaneasilybecomeinfectedanddieanearlydeath.Evenafteratreeismature,controloverbearingbyannualpruning

andbythinningoutthefruitswhensmall(seepage257).Otherwise,thetreemaybearlargecropsofsmall-sizedfruiteveryotheryear(alternatebearing),orbranchesmaybreakundertheweightoftoomanyfruits.Similartreatmenttopostponethefirstcropwillimproveyouryields

withotherfruitsaswell.Forgrapes,removeflowersthefirsttwoyearssovinesbearnofruits;thiswilldirecttheplant’senergyintogoodrootgrowthandnewcanes.Removethefirststrawberryflowerssothoseplantstoowillputenergyintogrowingmoreleavesandrootstosupportfruitproduction.DothistheentirefirstyearforJune-bearingstrawberries;removeonlythefirstbloomclusterforeverbearingtypes.

Removingflowersforthefirsttwoyearswillhelpensurethehealthofthevinesandabundantharvestsinfutureyears.

Annualpruningshouldbeapartofanyfruitgrower’smaintenanceschedule.

CHAPTER17

Pruning:NotJustforTrees

Yearsago,whenIwasinthenurseryandlandscapingbusiness,Ioftenprunedotherpeople’sfruittrees,shrubbery,andhedges.Isoonlearnedthatthejobwentbestwhentheownerswereaway.Everyoneseemedtolikethefinishedresultsbut,tomanypeoplewatching,theprocedureseemedabitlikeslaughteringasteer:“You’llkillthattree!”or“Howcanyoubesoruthless?”Afewpeoplelookhappyaslarkswhenthey’recuttingawayattheirtreesanddreamingofharveststocome.Manyothersprunefartoocautiously,withjustlittlesnipshereandthere.Pruningafruittreeformaximumproductionisdifferentfrom

pruningitforbeauty.Aproperlyprunedorchardtreeisnotbeautifultoalleyes,especiallyinwinter,whentheleavesareoffanditlooksbutchered.Atreethatisimportantinthelandscapeshouldhavelesspruning.Wehaveanappletreeinourbackyardandenjoybothbeautyandgoodcropsoffruitbypruningitonlymoderatelyeveryyear.

Headingvs.Thinning

Anydescriptionofpruningendsuptalkingabouttwotypesofcuts.Thinningorathinningcutreferstoremovingwholebranches(largeandsmall)bycuttingthembacktoalargerbranch.Headingbackoraheadingcutreferstoremovingjustpartofabranch(alsocalled

tippingandtippingback).Thereasonyouneedtoknowthisisthatthedifferentcutscauseabushortreetogrowindifferentwaysafterward.Headingbackabranchstimulatesmoregrowthfromjustbehindthecut.Ifyoudon’twanttostimulatemoregrowth,thenremovethebranchatitspointoforigin(anotherbranchorthetreetrunk)instead.

WhyPrune?

PROPERPRUNINGHELPSaplanttoproducebetterfruitand,evenmore

important,itconservesitsstrengthforalonger,healthierlife.Thisisespeciallyimportantforyoungtrees.Justasmanyadulthabitsaresetinchildhood,soisthematuretreestructureestablishedinthefirstyears.Withoutthisinitialshapingoffruittrees,severalyearsofdormantpruningmaybeneededtocorrecttheshape,andfruitingmaybedelayedduringthisperiod.Fruitingbushesneedpruningalso(seeindividualchaptersforspecificdetails).Evenstrawberryplantsneed“pruning”:removingtheblossomsonyoungplantsimprovesyieldsandhelpsplantslivelonger.Pruningisnotatalldifficultwhenyouunderstandthereasonsand

procedures.First,keepinmindthatthere’snoonerightwaytopruneatreeorbush.Then,asyouapproachyourbushesandtrees,sawandclippersinhand,rememberthereasonsforpruning:

•Totrainaplanttogrowintoagoodshapeandbestrongenoughtoholdupitsfruitload.•Tokeepitatasizethat’sconvenienttoprune,spray,andharvest.Ourstandardfruittreeswouldgrowto25feettall,butwekeepthemcutbacksowecanreachalmostallthefruitfromtheground.Somebramblesareeasiertomanageifcutbackto4or5feettall.•Toremovebrokenbranches,thosesufferingfromwinterinjury,andanyinfectedbydiseaseorinsects.Harvestingallbramblesiseasierwhendeadcanesareremovedeachyear.•Todecreasetheamountofbearingsurface.Bythinningoutthelimbs,asmallernumberoffruitswillresult,butthey’llbelargerandthetotalyieldwillbegreater.Treesthatnaturallybearinalternateyearsmaybegintobeareveryyear.•Toremoveanycrossedlimbs.Limbsthatrubagainsteachotherinthewindopenwoundsthroughwhichdiseasecangetafoothold.•Toopenupthebushortreesothatmoresunlightcanreachintotheinnerbranches.Anopenplantallowsfruittoripenevenintheinterior,andhelpscontroldiseasesbyallowingmoreaircirculation.•Torenewbearingwood.Youcanrenewmostofthebearingsurfaceofatreeeveryfewyearsbyremovingafewoftheolderlimbsthathavelostvigor.New,healthylimbswillreplacethem.Thisisimportantforbushes,too.

•Toremoveanyweaktreelimbsthatwillsplitwhenthetreeisloadedwithfruitorice.BranchesthatgrowatanarrowV-shapedanglewiththetrunkcan’tsupportasmuchweightascanmorehorizontalbranches.

WhentoPrune

LONGTIMEORCHARDISTSlovetoargueaboutthebesttimetoprune.Afewmaintainthattheyprunewhenevertheirtoolsaresharporwheneveritfitstheirschedule.Incoldclimates,mostpruneonwarmdaysinearlyspring,whileit’sstillcoldbutthetemperatureisabovefreezing.(Thisisbeforeanygrowthbeginsorbudsbegintoswell.)Workingwhenit’sabovefreezingiseasierontheprunerandalsoontheplant,ascutsmadetofrozenbranchesmayresultincolddamageanddiebackonsomefruits.Inwarmerclimates,youcanprunesafelyallwinter,aslongasthetreesaredormant.Thisisreferredtoasdormantpruning.Inallareas,itisbestnottoprunewhentreesstarttoleafoutin

springbecausethiscaninterferewithflowering.Plumsandcherriesareanexception;prunethesetreesinlatespringafterbloom.Don’tpruneinlatesummer,asthisoftenstimulatesnewgrowththatwon’thavetimetohardenbeforefall.Norisfallpruninggood,asthewoundswon’thealanddiseasescanenterthecuts.Earlywinterpruningshouldbeavoidedincoldclimates;thiscouldresultinwinterdamage.Pruninginearlysummer,appropriatelytermedsummerpruning,is

usedtotraingrowthonyoungtrees,letmorelightintotheinterior,thinheavyfruiting,removewatersproutsandsuckers,andgetridofbrokenbranches.Becausesummerpruningdoesn’tstimulateasmuchgrowthasdoesdormantpruning,it’salsoessentialforespalieredfruittrees(seepage253).

Summerpruningisgoodfordirectingnewgrowthinespaliers.Makeheadingcutstojustaboveabud,thinningcutsbacktoabranchortrunk.

YoumayseereferencestoLorette,orModifiedLorette,pruning,whichwasdevelopedinFranceearlyinthelastcenturyandnamedafteritsinventor.Thesesystemsuseonlysummerpruning(nodormantpruning)toencourageless-vigorousandmore-uprightgrowth.ThepracticeismorepopularinEuropeandBritain.InthiscountryLoretteandModifiedLorettepruningarerarelyused,exceptforespalieredfruittrees.Wepruneourorchardinearlyspring,becauseit’smuchmore

pleasanttoworkduringthebrightspringdays,andIfinditeasiertoseewheretocutwhentherearenoleavesorfruitsonthebranches.Afteralongnorthernwinter,Irelishtheexcusetoworkoutside.AtthattimeIcanalsonipoffanybranchesthathavebeenchewedbythedeerandthosebrokenbysnowandice.Ifind,too,thatit’seasiertocheckforproblemssuchasfireblight,blackknot,andsunscald(seechapter18).Ialsocarryapairofsmall,handheldpruningshearswheneverIwalk

throughtheorchardduringthegrowingseason.Frequentlightpruningiseversomuchbetterforatreethancuttingofflargelimbslater.Italsoconditionstheorchardisttothepruninghabitandhelpsdevelopboththerightattitudeandtheskill.

PruningBushFruitsandGrapes

THESHOOTSOFRASPBERRIESandblackberriesgrowforayear,fruitthenext,andthenthey’redone.Pruneawaythespentcanestokeepnewonescoming,andsothepatchdoesn’tbecometoocrowded,whichreducesfruitingandcanleadtodisease.Thisalsosimplifiespicking.Everbearingraspberriescanbecuttothegroundeachspringtogetanewheavycropeachfall(seepage70).Blueberriesneedlesspruningthanmostotherfruits.Forthefirst5

yearsorso(longerincoldclimates)littlepruningisneededexcepttoremovebrokenandrubbingbranches.Thismaybeallthat’severneededforlowbushtypes.Otherwise,whenplantsreach5or6feettall,cuttothegroundshootsthatare5yearsoldormore,andthosemorethananinchthick.Prunetokeepplantsatamaximumof6feettall.Thiswillmakepickingeasier,andwillletinmorelighttoripenberriesandreducedisease(seepage83).

Bushfruitsneedminimalpruning;thingrowthandremovesomeoftheoldeststemstoimprovecrops.Removecanesofbramblesafterthey’vefruited.

Currants,jostaberries,elderberries,andotherbushfruitsneedminimalpruningaswell.Oncurrants,removethelessproductiveshootsthatareatleast3yearsold—thesearethedarkgraytoblackishones.Waitayearlatertoremovethoseongooseberries.Onelderberries,oncetheplantismaturewith6to8uprightstems,pruneawayolderstemsasnewonesdevelop,keepinginmindthatfruitareformedonnewgrowth—bothonnewshootsandonnewbrancheson2-year-oldstems(seepage95).Withoutsuchpruning,elderberrieswillformathicketwithlotsofoldstemsthatareweak,andwillfruitpoorlyornotatall.(Seechapter7formoreonpruningthesefruits.)Grapesbynatureproducemoretopgrowthandflowersthantheir

rootscansupport,sovinesrequireextensivepruningforgoodfruitproductionandquality.Remove70percentormoreofthetopgrowtheachyearinlaterwinter,andthinnewfruitclusterstoleavejusttwobunchespernewshoot.Followoneofthetrainingsystemsinchapter8,andyoushouldgetplentyofgood-qualitygrapes.

MatchPruningStyletoYourTree

SOMEFRUITCULTIVARSgrownaturallyintoaniceshapewithlittlecare.The‘Dolgo’crabapple,forexample,shapesitselfbeautifully.Ontheotherhand,the‘YellowDelicious’appleandmostpearsseembentongrowingasmanytopsaspossible.Forsuchtrees,you’llneedtocutbackallbutonecentraltrunk(“leader”)toencourageastrongformandawidertree.Also,manyplumtreesgrowsowidethattheirouterbrancheshangonthegroundunlessyousnipthembackoccasionally.Ifyouturnedadozenorchardistslooseonyourtrees,notwowould

trimthemquitealike,yeteachmightdoagoodjob.Thethreemainstylesforfruittreesaretheleader,themodifiedleader,andtheopenvase.Somerefertothesethreepruningstylesastrainingsystems,usingthewordpruningonlytorefertocutsmadetomaintainatree’sexistingstructure.Theultimateexampleoftrainingisespalier,inwhichbranchesaretrainedtogrowintocertainshapesonaverticalplane(seepage253).

Cutbackunbranchedwhipsto30–36inches;cutjustaboveabud.

Onbranchedtreesremoveallbutthreetofivewide-angledbranches.Pruneoffbranchesgrowingatnarrowanglestothetrunkortooclosetogether;headbackmainbranchesbyhalf.

PruningYoungTrees

Ifyoubuyabare-roottreethatwasn’talreadycutback(askyoursupplierifunsure),youshouldpruneitatplantingtime,dependingonthefruitandhabityouwant(seebelow).Thenuntilfruittreesbegintobear,theyneedrelativelylittlepruningcomparedtolaterintheirlives,excepttoremoveunwantedbranchesandbegintheimportanttreeshaping.Overpruningatthisstagecancauseexcessivegrowth,whichinturncandelaysbearing.Asyourtreegrows,you’llneedtocorrectanybadcrotchesandremoveextratops,branchesgrowinginthewrongdirection,andanysuckersorwatersproutscomingfromtherootsorbelowthegraft.

CommonTrainingSystems

•Centralleader.Hasastrongcentraltrunk,creatingacone-shapedtree;oftenusedforstandard,semidwarf,andevendwarfapples,Europeanpears,plums,sweetcherries,nuttrees

•Modifiedcentralleader.Likethecentralleader,butwiththeleadercutback;oftenusedforapples,cherries,pears,apricots(semidwarf),plums,persimmon,pecans,walnuts

•Opencenter,vaseshape.Limbsgrowingoutaroundanopencenter;usedforpeaches,nectarines,apricots,pomegranates,Japaneseplums,almonds,figs,filberts

Thefirstsummerandattheendofthefirstwinterarewhenyoushouldbeginsteeringgrowthtowardthedesiredformforeachtypeoftree,asdescribedbelow,byselectivelyremovingbranches.Althoughagnarled,spreading,twistedoldfruittreemaylookpicturesque,ifyouwantmaximumfruitproduction,thisearlyshapingisessential.Afterthetreebeginstobearfruit,youshouldgetmoreseriousandprunemoreheavilyeachyear.

Central-LeaderTraining

Pruningtoacentralleadersimplymeanskeepingastrong,singletrunkinthemiddleofthetree.Verticalbranchesthatcouldcompetewiththiscentraltrunkareremoved,buthorizontalbranchesareallowedtogrowfromit.Theresultisacone-shapedorChristmastree–shapedhabit.Thissystemcanmakedwarfandsemidwarfapplesstrongerandearlierbearing,andit’sexcellentforweaktreesandforthosegrowingonpoorsoil.It’sthemostcommonsystemforstandard,semidwarf,anddwarfappletrees;Europeanpears;plums;sweetcherries;andlargenuttrees.Ifyourtreewasnotprunedbeforepurchase,afterplantingremove

anyshootsbelowabout18inchesupthestem,thencutthetopoffatabout3feet(2feetforpears,1footabovethetopbranchesontreeswithlotsofthem).Cutjustaboveahealthybudorshoot.Cuttingoffmorewillstimulateexcessivegrowth;toolittleresultsinawhorlof

weakgrowthnearthetopwithlittlebelow.Thefirstsummeristhetimetoestablishacentralleaderinyoung

trees.Onceamainstemstartsgrowingfromabudnearwhereyoucutbackthemainstem,trainthisasthecentralleaderbyremovingtheshootsjustbelowit.Duringthesummer,removeanyvigoroussideshootsthataregrowingupward,asthesewouldcompetewiththedevelopingleader.Thefirstsummeralsoisthetimetochoosethemainscaffold

branchesyou’llwanttokeep.Scaffoldsarebranchesthatarehorizontalorslightlyupright;thesearestrongerthanverticalonesandproducemoreandbetterfruit.Sidebranchesforfuturescaffoldsshouldbe3to4inchesapartupthestemondwarftrees,8to12inchesapartforothers.(Thismayvaryslightlydependingonthefruitornuttree;seespecificchapters.)Theyshouldbespacedevenlyaroundthetrunk,withnotwodirectlyacrossfromeachotherordirectlyaboveeachother.Choosethreetofivewell-spacedbranchesasscaffoldsandremoveothersidebranches.Especiallyinsunnyclimates,ifthelowestscaffoldisonthesouthwestsideitcanshadeandpreventsunscalddamagetothetrunk.Insubsequentyearsinlatewinter,pruneoffaboutaquarterofthe

leaderifitgrewover18inchesthepreviousyear.Thiswillresultinanewtopbudtakingoverasleader,asinthefirstyear,andtheformationofmorescaffoldbranches.Iftheleadergrewlessthan18incheslastyear,cutbackbothitandthescaffoldbranchesbyaboutathirdtostimulatemoregrowth.Youcanskipcuttingbacktheleaderifyouwantanuprighttreemorequickly,orearlierfruitingondwarftrees(attheexpenseoffewerbranchesandsolessfruit.)Removeanyuprightbranchesthatcouldcompetewiththenewcentralleader.Inareaswherefireblightisaproblem,youcanallowmorethanone

uprightcentralleadertodevelop,incasethediseasegirdlesthemainleader.Thismultiple-leadersystemisoftenusedonEuropeanpears.

Modified-LeaderTraining

Trainingforamodifiedleadermeanskeepingacentralstempartwayupthetrunk(about6feet),thenallowingittobranchmorefreelyintoseveralscaffoldbranches.Themodified-leaderhabitisnotastallorasconicalasthecentralleader,butit’smoreuprightthanthevaseshape

describedbelow.Ifyouprefertogrowstandardtreesoryougardenwheredwarfsorsemidwarfsaren’thardy,youcankeepastandard-sizetreeatamanageablesizeforanindefiniteperiodwithamodified-leaderapproach,ifyoubeginearlyenoughandarepersistent.Themodifiedleaderisalsorecommendedforespeciallyvigoroustrees.Inadditiontoapples,it’softenusedonsourcherries,figs,persimmons,andwalnuts.Inareaswherefireblightdiseaseisprevalent,thisisthemethodusedtokeepappletreesmoreopeninordertoreducesusceptibility.Inhotclimateswithstrongsun,asintheSouthwest,itcanbeusedonpeachestoprovideabitmoreshadetothefruit.Youmayseethesamefruitsplacedvariouslyinthisorthecentral-leadergroup,dependingontheregionorpurpose.Trainyoungtreestoacentralleader,asdescribedbelow.Onceyou

havefourorfivewell-spacedhorizontalscaffolds,cutofftheleader.Assoonasthetreeisabout7feettall,selectivelycutbackthetopstoabout6feet.Thetreewillgrowbackduringthesummer,sorepeatthecuttingbackeachspring.Don’tshearstraightacrossthetop(givingatreeacrewcutiscalledtopping).Toppingstimulatesthegrowthofshootsatthetopthatwillshadethelowerbranchesonwhichfruitsformandtakethetree’senergyfromfruitproduction.

Open-Center(Vase)Training

Pruningtoanopen-centerorvaseshapemeanskeepingthecenterofthetreeopenandlettinglimbsgrowaroundthisopenspace.Theresultisalower,morespreadinghabit.Thisarrangementallowsthemaximumamountofsunlighttopenetratethetree’sinterior.Peachesarethecommonsubjectforthistypeofpruning,andit’salsousedonnectarines,apricots,pomegranates,Asianpears,plums,almonds,figs,andfilberts.Evenapples,sweetcherries,andplumsmaybeprunedtoanopencenterinsomeregions,suchasontheWestCoast,tokeepplantslower,orformorespreadingapplecultivarssuchas‘GoldenDelicious’or‘Freedom’.

CENTRAL-LEADERTRAININGPruningthisappletreetoacentralleadermeansremovingcompetinguprightshootstoleaveasingleverticaltrunk.

OPEN-CENTER(VASE)TRAININGToprunepeachesorplumstoanopen-centertree,thefirstyearremovethemostuprightbranchesinthecenterandleavethreetofivemainscaffoldbranches.

Afterplanting(ifnotalreadypruned),prunebackthemainstemtoabout30incheshigh.Ifthetreehaslateralbranches,selectthreetofivetobethescaffoldsandremovetheothers.Aswiththecentralleader,goodscaffoldbranchesshouldbespacedevenlyaroundthetrunkand8to12inchesapartupthestem(3to4inchesondwarftrees).Iffewornolateralsarepresentatplanting,waituntiltheendofthefirstwintertoselectscaffolds.Atthistime,alsopruneoffanyuprightshootsfromtheinsideofthemainscaffolds,thencutbackuprightshootsontheendsofscaffoldstojustaboveaoutward-facingbud(pruneoffotheruprightshootsonthescaffolds).Repeatthispruningofuprightshootsin

subsequentwintersorearlyeachspring.Unlikemostothertreefruits,stonefruits(peaches,cherries,plums,

andapricots)canbeprunedrightafterbloom.Thishelpsreducetheriskofcankerdiseaseandcanbeusedtoremovewooddamagedbylatefrosts.Prunestonefruitsminimallyforseveralyears,untilthetreesarebearingandsomewhatmature.Peachesusuallythenneedmorepruningtokeepthemtoamanageableheight(8feetorso)thandocherries,plums,andapricots.Fortheselatterfruits,thinningoutsomeinnerbranchesandremovingbrokenorrubbinglimbsmaybeallthat’sneeded.

WhattoCutonTrees

Beforepruning,learnthefruitinghabitsofeachtree.Thiswilldeterminewhatbranchesyoushouldremoveandwhichtoleave.Peachesandnectarinesproducetheirfruitsonlyalongthebranchesofthepreviousyear’sgrowth,andnotatthetips.Theseneedheavypruningeachyeartostimulatetheformationofnewfruit-bearingbranches.Mostotherfruitstendtobearmostlyonshort,stubbyspurs(short

wrinkledstemsunder4incheslong).Applesandpearsproducefruitmainlyonspurs,butthesespursgenerallydon’tproduceflowerbudsuntilthesecondyear,andmostdon’tfruituntilthethird.Spursonappletreescanlivemorethan10years.Youdon’thavetopruneapplesandpearsasheavily,asyoudon’twanttostimulatelotsofbranchgrowth.Youdowanttobecarefulwhenpruningandharvestingnottobreakoffthesespurs,oryou’llreducenextyear’scrops.Cherries,apricots,andplumsbearalongstemsandatthetipsof

stemsaswellasonspursonolderwood.Spursonsweetcherriesproduceforadecadeormore,thoseonsourcherriesproduceforonlyhalfaslong.Yetcherryspursproducefruitwhenonly1yearold.Similarly,plumsproducefruitfromyear-oldspurs,buttheyproduceonlyfor3years.Whendecidinghowmuchtocut,rememberthatthemoreseverethe

pruning,themoregrowththetreewillproduceinreaction.Ifatreeisvigorousalready,don’tpruneasmuch.Perhapsyouneedtoreducefertilityinsteadifyouwantthetreetogrowmoreslowly.Ifatreeisweak(notproducingabundantgrowth),prunemoreseverelyto

stimulategrowth,butdon’tgetcarriedaway.Amistakeofbeginningtree-fruitgardenersistocutofftoomuchofthepreviousyear’sgrowth,whichresultsinnofruit.Horizontalbranchesbearmorefruitthanverticalones,andthey’re

strongeraswell.Ingeneral,keepthemorehorizontalbranchesandremovethemoreverticalones(excepttheleader).Ifyourtreedoesn’tnaturallyproducehorizontalbranches,you’llneedtobendbranchesatanearlyagetomakethemlessvertical.(Seepage150.)Someuseclothes-pinsforyoungbranches(seepage187);theyuseflatstickswithforkedendsforolderbranchesandwiderangles.Commercialgrowersuseshort,thinwoodsectionswithnailsoneachend(sharppointsstickingout)tobendbranches.Othershangweightsfromthebranches.(Loweringbranchesbytyingorweightingthemisalsodonetoslowvigorousgrowthonplums.)Differentcultivarsofthesamefruitgrowindifferentways,sotryto

determinethegrowthhabitofeachcultivar.‘RedDelicious’appletreestendtogrowmoreupright,forexample;treesof‘Jonagold’and‘Liberty’haveaspreadinghabit.Mostpearsandsweetcherriestendtogrowupwardandproducemanyuprightbranches.Althoughyoucanpruneawaysomeofthebrancheswithnarrowangles,you’llneedtospreadatleastsometogiveyoumorehorizontalbranches.Inheavysnowcountry,don’tlettreesbranchtooclosetotheground.

Settlingsnowcanbreakthelowerones.Asatreegrowsandbeginstobearheavyloadsoffruit,branchesthatformerlygrewuprighttendtohangdownward.Becausethesearelikelytobeintheway,eventuallyyou’llhavetoremovethem.Bycuttingoffsuchgrowthwhenit’sstillsmall,youcanavoidmuchheavypruninglateron.

BRANCHESTOREMOVEONMATUREFRUITTREES

(A)Deadordiseasedbranches.(B)Brokenbranches.(C)Highbranchesthataredifficulttoreachandthatshadetheinteriorandlowerbranches.(D)Verticalbranchesthatcompetewithacentral-leaderorvaseshape.(E)Crowdedbranches.(F)Branchesthatrub,whichwearawaythebark.(G)Watersprouts.(H)Suckers.(I)Branchesgrowingatnarrowanglestotrunk(lessthan45degrees);willbreakfromwindsandundertheweightoffruit.

MakingtheCuts

INPRUNING,howyoumakethecutisasimportantaswhen.Alwayscutsmalllimbsbacktoanotherbranch,bud,orthetrunkwithoutleavingalifelessstub.Suchastubwillrotandofteninvitecankerorotherdiseasesthatcankillthetree.Youwanttocutbacktothebranchcollar—thatraisedareaonthetrunkfromwhichthebranchemergesandfromwhichthegrowththathealsthewoundwillgrow.Cutbackto,butnotinto,thiscollar.Ifyou’recuttingalargelimbandthecutishorizontal,makeitataslightslantsowaterwillrunoffinsteadofsettlingandrottingintothewood.Whenremovingthetoporendofabranch,cutonaslantabouta

quarterofaninchabovethebud.Also,alwayscutaboveabudthat’sontheoutsideofabranch,soaspreadingtreewillresult.Branchesgrowingfrominsidebudswillturninwardandcreatedapyramid-shapedtreethat’stoodenseforthetree’shealthandfruiting.Makealllargecutsinthreestages.Thelimbsoffruittreesareheavy

andwhenpartiallysawedoffarelikelytosplitintothemaintrunkwithabigraggedwound.Lightentheloadbycuttingoffthemainpartofthelimbfirst.MakeundercutAfirst,thenovercutB,andwhentheweightofthebranchisremoved,youcanfinallymakecutCtoremovethestubbacktothebranchcollar.Ifnecessary,smoothoveranyroughspotswitharasporchisel.Coveringwoundswithatreepaintwasoncerecommended,butstudieshaveshownthatthisdoesn’thelpthehealingprocessandmayevenbeharmful,trappingdiseaseandmoistureinside.

LARGECUTSMakealllargecutsinthreesteps.First,makeanundercutatA,so

thelimbwon’tsplitfromitsownweightwhenyoumakeyournextcut.ThencutoffthelimbatB.Oncethelimbisoutofyourway,makethefinalsmoothcutatC,justoutsidethebranchcollar.

CUTTINGALONGABRANCHWhencuttingalongabranch,alwaysmakethecutjustaboveanoutward-facingbud;thistypeofpruningencouragesspreadingbranchesandamoreopentree.Pruningaboveaninside-facingbudcausesingrownlimbsandcrossedbranches.

CUTTINGFLUSHWhencuttingoffanentirebranch,don’tleaveastub,butalsoavoidcuttingofftheswellingatthebranch’sbase(thebranchcollar).Cutswillhealfastestifflushwiththeoutermostedgeofthecollar.

WHERETOCUTONABRANCH(A)istooclose;thebudwilldie.(B)leavestoomuchofastubandshouldbemoreangled.(C)showstherightwaytocut.

PruneaLotoraLittle?

•Ifatreeisalreadyvigorous,don’tprunetoomuch.Ifitappearsweak,prunemoreseverelytostimulategrowth.

•Fruitstopruneheavily:non-spurapples,Japaneseplums,nectarines,

peaches;blackberries,raspberries;kiwis,grapes;weaktrees

•Fruitstoprunelightly:spur-typeapples,apricots,cherries,pears,persimmons,plumsandplumcots,quince;nuttrees;blueberries,currants,elderberries,jostaberries;vigoroustrees

TIPSFORBETTERPRUNING

•Keepyourtoolscleanandsharp,sothatyoucanmakesmoothcuts.Thesewillhealfasterandthejobwillgomuchquicker.Haveasharpeningstoneonhand.

•Sterilizetoolsaftercuttingdiseasedwood.(SeeDisinfectingPruningTools,page273.)

•Pruneeveryyear.Atreesuffersfarlessstressifyoupruneitmoderatelyeveryyearinsteadofcuttingoffalotofwoodeveryfewyears.

•Becarefulwhenworkingintalltrees.Useasturdyladder,wellsupported,andaskanotherpersontohelpsteadyit.Ifbranchesaretoohigh,astheymaybeonstandardtreesandnuttrees,payanarboristratherthanriskpayingthehospitalifyoufall.

•Whenyouprune,don’tbutcherthetree,butdon’tbestingy,either.Justasinthinningthefruit,myScottishbloodkeptmefromdoingagoodjobatfirst.NowIhaveaveryeffectivemethod.Igooutoneday,cutoffallIdareto,andhaulofftheprunings.Ithenreturnthenextdayandcutoffmore—aboutasmuchasIcutthefirstday—andthatappearstobeaboutright.Usetheadagethatthetreeshouldbeopenenoughthatabirdcouldflythroughitwithouthittinganybranches.

•Pruneeachtreeaccordingtoitsgrowthhabit.Determineifyourfruittreeneedstobeprunedtoacentralleaderortoanopencenter.In

addition,everyfruittreegrowsdifferently;adjustyourpruningtoeachtree’snaturalhabit.Withaspreadingtree,youmayoccasionallyneedtocutbacktheendsofbranchessoittreewon’tgettoowide.Withanupright-growingtrees,pruneoutbrancheswithweak(narrow)crotches,andpruneorspreadlimbstoforcethelimbstospreadoutmore.

•Removethewoodandtrimmings.Afteryou’vefinishedpruning,alwaystakeawaythebranchesyou’vecutoffandeitherburnthemorbringthemtoalandfill,soyouaren’tprovidingaplaceforinsectsanddiseasestospendthewinters.

•Don’tuseachainsawforpruning.Temptingasitis,Iwouldneveruseachainsaw,eventomakelargecuts,unlessitistotakeoutadeadorunwantedtree.Evenasmallpowersawisdifficulttocontrolwhenyou’redoingprecisionwork,andit’stooeasytocutintoanearbybranchthatyoudon’twanttoharm.

•Don’tpruneneglectedtreestooheavily.It’sashockforanoldtreetobeprunedheavilyifithasn’tbeentouchedformanyyears.(SeeRevivingOldTrees,page259.)

•Prunewithconfidence.Thiscan’tbeoveremphasized.Asyouprune,keeptellingyourselfit’sforthegoodofthetree.Ifyoustillhavedoubtsabouttheadvantagesofseverepruning,drivepastacommercialorchardafterit’sbeenprunedtoseehowmuchwoodwascutout.

Espaliers:PruningasArt

THEMOSTINTENSIVEFORMofpruningisthatrequiredtotrainafruittree(andsomeshrubsandvines)asanespalier.Inthistechnique,aplantistrainedtogrowinaverticalplane,usuallyflatagainstabuilding,wall,orfence.EspaliersarewidelyusedinEurope,wheregardensaresmallandlandisscarce;inNorthAmerica,gardenersusethemprimarilyfortheirornamentalvalue.

Youmightguessthatanespalierismoredifficulttotrainthanaregularfruittree,asitmeansforcingatreetogrowinamannercompletelydifferentfromhowitotherwisewould.Naturally,anespalierrequiressomeextracare,butthetrainingisn’tatallcomplicatedandnotnearlyasexactingasbonsai.Thesimplestespalier,theverticalcordon(anuprighttrunkwithnobranches),mayneedlittleornopruningifyoubuyacultivarbredforthishabit.Althoughthese“pillartrees”arebeingdevelopedforefficientcommercialproduction,theyarewonderfulforsmallpropertiesorpeoplewithlittletimeforpruning.Youcansaveagreatdealoftimeandeffortbybuyingatreewiththe

shapingalreadystarted.Becausethemorecomplicatedpreliminaryworkhasalreadybeendone,it’sasimplemattertocontinuethetraining.Adwarforsemidwarfvarietywillneedmuchlesspruning.Pear,appleandcrabappletreesaregoodchoices,becausethey’re

easiesttotrain.Peaches,nectarines,andapricotsareonlyabitmoredifficult.It’spossibletousecherries,plums,andquinces,too,buttheirbushyhabitofgrowthmakestrainingtrickier.I’veseengrapes,blueberries,trailingblackberries,andeventhetaller-growingvarietiesofcurrantsandgooseberriesespalieredinsmall,cottage-typegardens.

CommonEspalierPatterns

Verticalcordon(columnar).Simplest:basicallyacentralstemwithsidebrancheskeptprunedoff,permitsyoutogrowmanytreesinasmallspace;oftenseenwithapples.Afewapplecultivarsarenaturallycolumnar,suchas‘GoldenSentinel’and‘Northpole’.

Tiered.SometimesknownashorizontalcordonorhorizontalT:horizontalwiresandstemsontwoorthreelevels;similartovineyardsystems,alsogoodforapplesandpeartrees;goodstartingpointforothershapes;someoftheothers,suchascandelabra(seebelow),areactuallythesameshapeinsuccessivetiersorlevels.

Fan.Branchestrainedinaspreading,fan-shaped,uprightpattern,withstraightlines/stems;goodforapricots,peaches,andfigs.

Candelabra.SeriesofUshapes,eachlargerthantheoneaboveasyougodownthetrunk;goodforsmallornarrowspacesandtallwalls;goodwithapplesandpears;easiestisthesimpleUshape.

Informal.Branchesuprightbutinnoregularpattern;lines/stemsoftennotstraight;easywithfigs,persimmons,andpomegranates.

VerticalCordon

Fan

Candelabra

Tiered

Avoidplantinganespalierunderawideroofoverhang,asthetreewillneedbothsunlightandrain,andiceandsnowfallingfromtheroofcouldbeaproblem.Chooseaspotwhereitcangetatleasthalfadayofsunshine,preferablyfullsun.Asouth-orwest-facingwallisideal(exceptinhotclimates).Inadditiontousingespaliersagainstbuildingsandwalls,youcanplanttheminafreestandingrow.

ChooseaDesign

Thefirststepistodecideonthedesignyouwant.Then,gotoanurserythathasagoodchoiceoftrees,soyoucanfindoneyoucantrainwiththeleastamountoftrouble.Besuretoselectavarietythatbearsonspursratherthanbranchtips(assomeapplesdo),otherwiseyou’llendupcuttingoffmostorallofthebearingwood.Selectasmalltreewithbranchesthatarealreadygrowingintherightdirections,ifpossible.Foracandelabra,aU-shapedtreethatwouldbeunsuitableforanorchardmaybeperfect,becauseyoucanspreadoutthetwotopstostartthedesign.Ifyoufindnothingcandelabra-like,chooseatreewithtwobranchesthatarealmostoppositeeachotherandprunebackthecenterstem,leavingonlythetwobranchesandstartwiththat.

PlantingandTraining

Setthetreesothetrunkisabout18inchesawayfromthebuildingorwall.Installsupportsfortraining.Bamboostakesareoftenusedinitiallytotrainstemsintherightdirectionsandtokeepthemstraight.Securethebranchestothebambooorothersupportswithplastictiesorclothstrips.Don’tusestringorwire;eitherwillcutintothetenderbark.Tieevery6to8inchesalongthebranchestopreventacurvedorbowedshape.Addmorefastenersasthetreegrows.

Supportingwithwires.You’llneedhorizontalwirestosupportthestemsandtheirbamboostakes.Installapost7or8feethighateachendofwheretheespalierwillultimatelygrow;seteach2feetdeep.Besurethepostsarewellbracedsotheywon’ttipfromthepullofthewires.Staplestrandsof9-gaugewiretorunbetweenthepoststomakea

“fence”offourorfivestrands.Placethebottomwireabout2feetfromthegroundandthetopthreewireseachaboutafootapart.Makethewirestautandsecurelyanchorthemtothepostssotheywon’tsag.

Applesandpearsaresomeoftheeasiestfruitstoespalier.Bepatient,asanespaliermaytake5to10yearsoftrainingtoreachitsfinalshape.

Guidingthebranchdirection.Asthebranchesbegintogrow,sniporpinchoffallthataregrowinginthewrongdirection(suchasperpendicularfromthedesiredplane)andovercrowded,crossing,andmainbrancheslessthanafootapart.Thedirectionthebudisfacingisthedirectionthefuturebranchwillgrow.Chooseuprightbudsformoreverticalgrowth,budsfacingdownwardorsidewaysformorehorizontalgrowth.Alwaysprunebacktothemaintrunk,toabranch,ortojustaboveabud,anddon’tleavestubs.Removeflowerbudsthefirstcoupleofyearstopromotebettershootandrootgrowth.

Pruning

Pruneleader(s)untilthedesiredheightisreached,usuallyjustbelowthetopwire,thentop;dormant-pruneonequarterofthepreviousyear’sleaderHandclippers,long-handledpruners,andapruningsawforlargecutsareallthetoolsyouneedtogrowfruitonasmallscale.Agoodpairofgloveswillsaveyoumanyablisterwhenpruninglotsoflimbs.Ifyouhavelargetrees,poleprunersthatreachupintothecanopywillalsobeuseful.

SomeUsefulPruningTools

Handclipperscomeaseitherbypasspruners(bladescutlikescissors)oranvilpruners(thebladecontactsasolidbar).Mosthavereplaceableblades.Thesearegoodforsmallbranches,butyou’llneedlong-handledprunersforthickerbranches.

Useratchetloppersorapruningsawforheavierbranches.Acurvedorshortsawisusefulforsmalllimbsandtightclearances;foldingmodelsareavailable.Abowsawmakespruninglargerbrancheseasier.

Resistbuyingbargaintools:theybecomedullquicklyandbreakeasily.Evenwithgoodtools,youmaywanttokeepasparehandy.It’sa

nuisancetostopinthemiddleofapruningjobtofindanotherpairofclippers.

Sharpbladesmaketheworkgoalotfasterandarebetterforyourplants.Manygardenandhardwarestorescarryacarbonstoneorsomethingsimilarforsharpeningtoolblades.

Pruningfruitingshootsissimilartothemethodusedfortraditionalpruning(seespecificfruitchapters).Whenplantsareyoung,pruneduringthedormantseasontostimulategrowth.Asplantsmature,domostofyourpruningduringsummer(notaftermidsummerincoldclimates)toslowgrowthandpreventundesirablewatersprouts.Branchesthataremoreupright(45degreesorlessfromvertical)growfaster;youcanslowtheirgrowthbybendingthemwhenyoung(flexible)inamorehorizontaldirection.Checkeveryweekorsotomakesurethebranchesaregrowingthewayyouwantandnotsneakingoutinthewrongdirection.Whenthetreeissturdy,rigid,andwellshaped,youcanremovethewiretrellis—thoughyoumayprefertoleaveitinplace,especiallyfordwarfcultivars.

Takingshape.Bepatient.Itmaytakemorethantwoseasonsbeforetheespalierbeginstotakeonitsshape,sodon’tbediscouragedifitdoesn’tlooklikemuchthefirstyear.Achievingthefinalshapecantake5to10years.Astheseareplants,eachwillbedifferentwithitsowncharacter;don’texpectaperfectgeometricshape.Evenwhenmature,theplant’snaturaltendencyistogrowbranchesinalldirectionseachyear,soyou’llneedtocheckthroughouttheseasonandprunetokeeptheshape,alsotostimulatesomenewgrowthforfruiting.

Watchthebuds.Whencuttingoffnewgrowth,watchforthefatflowerbudsthatareforming.Don’tclipofftoomany,oryou’llhavefewfruitsthefollowingyear.Lackoffruitonanespaliermayalsobeduetoimproperpruning(seespecificchaptersforhowtopruneeachfruittoensurefruitingwood),orotherfactorssuchaspoorpollination.(SeeWhyDoesn’tMyTreeorBushHaveFruit?,page268.)

ThinningFruits

Oneofthemostimportanttypesofpruningrequiresnotoolatall:Useyourfingerstopickoffdevelopingfruits.Matureappletrees,nectarines,peaches,pears,andplumsallproducebetter-qualityfruitwhenyouthinbeforetheirfruitmatures.Inaproductiveyear,youmayhavetopickandthrowawayabout80percentofthecrop.Thetree’senergyisthendivertedtotheremainingfruits,allowingthemtogrowlargerandresultinginbettercolorandquality.Oftenthecropwilladduptomorebushelsthanifyou’dkeptthemall.Ifyoudon’tthin,atreemayuseupallitsenergytoproducethecropandspendthefollowingyearrecuperating,bearingfewifanyfruit(thisiscalledalternateorbiennialbearing).Thoughyoungtreesusuallydon’tproduceenoughfruittoneedthinning,theprocedureisessentialformaturetrees.Thetimeforthinningisearlysummer,rightaftertheJunedrop,or

2to3weeksafterbloom.Thefruitsshouldbebetweenthesizeofadimeandaquarter.TheJunedropisthenaturalthinningthatmanytreesundergoasaresultofproducingmoreflowersthantheyneed.Don’tworryifyouseefruitsthesizeoflargemarblesunderyourtree;itjustmeansthetreeisdoingsomeofyourworkforyou.It’sasignalthatit’stimeforyoutohelpout.Thinsothateachfruitisatleast6inchesfromanyother(4inchesforplums)andonlyonefruitisleftineachcluster.

Thinsothateachfruitisatleast6inchesfromanyother(4inchesforplums),andonlyonefruitisleftineachcluster.least6inchesfromanyother(4inchesforplums),andonlyonefruitisleftineachcluster.

RevivingOldTrees

THERE’SSOMETHINGMAJESTICandnostalgicaboutagnarledoldappletree.Itexudescharacter.Oldfruittreesarebeautiful,butaretheyworthsaving?Ifyourtreesarebadlybroken,hollowinside,andfallingapart—orifthefruitishard,bitter,orsourevenwhenripe—well,let’sfaceit:Thepracticalthingtodoistoturnthemintofirewoodandstartoverwithyoung,healthytrees.Ontheotherhand,iftreesappeartobeinsoundconditionandthe

fruitisofgoodqualityeventhoughsmall,theymaywellbeworththeconsiderableworkofrenovating.Oldorchardsoftencontainsomefineantiquecultivarsthattodayaredifficulttocomeby.Beforeyoudecide,examineyourtrees.Iftheyhavemorethanone

trunkoraregrowingintightclumps,theymaybenewsproutsfromthewildrootstock—relativelyworthlessspecimensthatproduceinferior

fruit.Theseprobablyaren’tworthsaving.Treesgrowingmuchtooclosetogetherandinahaphazardmannerratherthaninorderlyrowsareprobablyseedlingsfromfallenfruit.Unlessyou’reconvincedthefruitisgood,bettertakethesawtothese,too.Wildanddomesticanimalsoftenbrowsethelowerbranchesoftrees

inanabandonedorchard.Thisforcesthegrowthupwardandmakesthetreesgrowtall.Iftreesaremorethan18feettall,withfewlowerbranches,you’rebetteroffreplanting.Inrevivinganoldorchard,asinstartinganewone,asmallnumber

ofwell-cared-fortreeswillbefarmoreproductiveandmuchmoresatisfyingthanalargeorchardofevenpartiallyneglectedones.Limityourorchardtoasizethatfitsthetimeyoucanspareforit,andsaveonlythetreesthatareworththeeffort.Shouldyouplantnewtreesinbarespotsamongtheolderkinds?The

soilofanoldorchardmayalreadybefullofrootsfromlivingorlong-gonetrees.Itwillbemanyyearsbeforetherootsofalargetreecompletelyreturntothesoil.Furthermore,alittle-understoodafflictioncommonlycalledreplantdiseaseisoftenprevalentinnewplantingsinoldorchards.Forthesereasons,you’rebetteroffplantinginanewspot.Ifthat’snotpossible,beforeyouorderanytrees,getthesoilinasgoodaconditionaspossible.Thefirststepistogetridofthosetreesthataren’tworthsaving.Burn

orchipallthebranchesandwoodyouremove.Tacklethepruningnext.Resistthetemptationtoremakeyourtreesallatonce;instead,spreadtheoperationoveratleast3years.Althoughayoung,vigoroustreecanstandhavinguptoathirdofitslimbareaprunedaway,thiswouldbefartoomuchshockforanelderlyone.Thisisespeciallyimportantinareaswherethegrowingseasonisshort.Ifheavypruningdoesn’tkillatreeoutright,it’slikelytostimulateanabundanceofnewgrowththatwillbekilledduringthewinter.

RenovatinganOldOrchard

Firstcutoutallthebrokenlimbs,deadanddiseasedbranches,andsuckergrowthatthebaseofthetrunks.Youcandothisatanytimeoftheyear,butdon’tremovehealthybranchesuntilthetreeisdormant.Removewholelimbsratherthanjustcuttingthemback.Cuttinglimbsonlypartiallybackwillstimulategrowthofunwantedwatersprouts.Thislimitedpruningisaboutallthetreecanstandthefirstyear.Althoughyoushouldn’tcutoffbearingwoodthefirstyear,youcanimprovethequalityofthefruitimmediatelybythinningit(seepage257).Theyearaftercleaningouttheorchard,fertilizetheremainingtrees

athalftheusualrecommendedrateforhealthyspecimens.TestthesoilpHandamendifneeded.Soilsinoldorchardsmaybewornout,andformanyyearstheweedsandbrushhavecompetedwiththetreesforwhatlittlefertilitywasavailable.Don’toverfertilize,asthiswillstimulateunwantedgrowth.Unlesstheareaaroundthetreesistobemowedweeklythroughoutthegrowingmonths,useamulch.Thesecondyear,begintothinouttheregularwoodwhenthetreeis

dormantbuttheweatherisabovefreezing.Prunetoletsunshineintothetree’sinterior;thinningoutsomeofthebearingwoodwillincreasefruitsizeandqualityandencourageannualbearing.Removewholelimbs,asinthefirstyear.Aimtoleavebranchesthatgrowslightlyupward(ata60°angle),ratherthanhorizontal,vertical,orhangingdown—theselatteronesarecandidatesforpruningout.Alsocutbackafewofthetallestbranches.Bythethirdyear,itshouldbesafetoprunemoreheavily.Intheyearsthatfollow,pruneintheusualway.Diseasesandinsectsmaybeproblemsinoldandneglectedorchards

becauseboththriveonbrokenlimbs,loosebark,andweakenedtrees,aswellasondeadleavesanddecayingfruitontheground.Orchardsanitationwillsolvemanyproblems(seechapter18).

1.Removeunwantedtrees:thosethatareweak,tooclosetogether,badlybroken,orhollowinside,andthosewithfeworpoor-qualityfruits.Burnorhaulawaytreepruningstoeliminatepestsanddiseases.

2.Thinoutremainingtrees,ifneeded,sotreesdon’ttoucheachother.Cutoutbrokenlimbs,deadanddiseasedbranches,andallsuckergrowthatthebaseoftrunks.

3.YEARONE:Whentreesaredormant,prunelightlytoremoverubbing/crossinglimbs;pruneoffwholelimbsratherthanheadingback.Avoidremovingbearingwood.Thinfruitsinearlysummer.

4.YEARTWO:Whentreesaredormant,thinoutsomelimbstoallowmorelightintothecenter,removingweakandveryoldlimbsfirst.

5.YEARTHREE:Prunemoreheavily.

6.SUBSEQUENTYEARS:Pruneasyouwouldanyotherfruittree.

Diseases,pests,andphysiologicalproblemsinfruitingplantscanoftenbeavoidedwithroutinemaintenanceandawatchfuleye.

CHAPTER18

Diseases,Insects,andOtherFruitProblems

Smallhomeorchards,fruitgardens,andediblelandscapeswithamixoffruitsarenotasinvitingtobugsanddiseasesasareplantationsconsistingofacresofallthesamekindoffruit.Still,ifyougrowfruityearafteryear,soonerorlaterthere’sagoodchancethatafewpestswilllocateyourplantsanddecidetomakethemasummerproject.Fruitshavebeengrownforsomanycenturiesandinsomanyplacesthatthey’veaccumulatedahugenumberofpests.Yetwiththesehavedevelopedahugenumberofnaturalenemiesforthesepests.It’strulyabug-eat-bugworldoutthere.Minimizeyourorchardsprayingasmuchaspossibletoavoidkillingoffthesegoodbugsandthusinvitingmorepests.Diseasesandinsectsarenotthemostexcitingsubjectstoreadabout

formostpeople,sojustgetfamiliarwithwhatfollowsincaseyouneedit.Likeamedicalreference,thesedescriptionsareheretohelpyoucopewiththoselittlesurprisesnatureoccasionallytossesatustomakelifemoreinteresting.Rememberthatusuallyyourfruitswilltoleratesomeoftheseproblems,andwon’tevenexperiencemostofthem.

NonchemicalControls

ONEOFTHEALL-AROUNDbestpestcontrolsistoplantcultivarsresistanttoaparticulardiseaseorpest.Theseminimizeoreliminateproblemsbeforetheyappear.Manyarenowavailable,andsomeproducefruitofsuperiorquality.Eachfruitchaptergivesafewrecommendations.Contactlocalexpertsand/oryourstateuniversityExtensionServiceforthebest

cultivarsforyourclimateandparticularpestproblems.Pestcontrolbeginsattheplanningstagesoffruitgrowing.Locate

yourplantingasfarawayaspossiblefromwildfruittreesoraneglectedorchard.Removeanywildfruittreesandbramblesyouaren’tmaintaining;theymayharbordisease.Ifthereareothersmallorchardsinyourarea,trytocoordinateyourpest-managementstrategies.Mixupyourplantings.Largegrowersneedallthesamecultivarstogether,butsmallgrowersdon’t.Asoneofourfriendsputit,“Ifabugfindsoneofmyplumtrees,I’mnotgoingtomakeiteasyforhimtohoptothenextone.”

GoodSanitation

Goodsanitationaroundyourfruitbushesandtreeswillreduceoreliminatemanyproblems.Thefollowingpracticesaresimpleyetsurprisinglyeffective.

•Pickupalldroppedfruits.Burytheminthecompostpileifthey’rehealthy;ifthey’rediseased,destroythem(burytheminthegroundordisposeoftheminbagswithyardwaste).Manybugsanddiseasesoverwinterinoldfruit.•Pruneyourtreesregularly.Thinoutthebranchestoallowmoresuntoenterandpermitbetteraircirculation.Thiswillhelpcontrolfungaldiseasesinparticular.Also,pruneoffdiseasedbranchesandanymummifiedfruit.Burnthepruningsiftheyhavediseaseordisposeofthemwithyardwaste.

Toremovesitesforoverwinteringinsectsanddiseases,pickupalldroppedfruitandrakeupleavesunderfruittrees.

Wildflowerscanwelcomebeneficialinsectsandpollinatorsintotheorchard.

•Rakeupandcompostfallenleaves,asthesearefavoriteoverwinteringspotsforscabandotherdiseases.Theheatfromthecompostingprocesswilldestroymanyfungiandinsecteggs.Ifyourtreesandbusheshavehaddiseasesoryourcompostpileusuallydoesn’theatupmuch,burnorburytheleavesinstead.

•Carefullytrimloosebarkfromoldertreessoinsectscan’toverwinterthere.•Removetreewrapsfromyoungertreesduringthesummer;insectsmayhidethere.•Keepthegrassmowedaroundbushesandtreestodiscouragefieldmiceandvolesandtoeliminatebreedingplacesforinsectsanddisease.Removesodina2-footareaaroundtrees,especiallyifthey’regrowinginalawn.(Asasidebenefit,thiswillpreventpossiblegirdlingoftreesfromastringtrimmer.)Replacesodwithmulch—woodchipsorbarkmulch;andinstalltreeguardsforrodentprotection.

Traps

Somepestscanbereducedtomanageablelevelswithsimpletraps,orthesecanbeusedtomonitorforpests.Combiningpheromonelures(chemicalstoattractpests,availablefrommanysuppliers)increasestheeffectivenessofsuchdevices.Thesearesomeofthemorecommontraps:•Gallonglassjugswithapintorsoofvinegarinthemwillattractandtraplargenumbersoffruitflies.•Papercupswithabitofmolassesinthebottom,hungamongthelimbsofappletrees,trapegg-layingcodlingmothsinthespring.•Redartificialapples(availablecommercially),coveredwithastickymaterial,attractandtrapegg-layingapplemaggotsinearlysummer.Therearevariousother“stickytraps”orcardsthatprofessionalsoftenusetomonitorwhichinsectsareabout.•Japanesebeetletrapshavepowerfulhormonalattractantsthatwilldrawinbeetlesfromallaround.Placetrapsfarawayfromyourberrybushesandfruittrees,asonlyabout70percentofthebeetleswillendupinthetrap,andthosethatdowillprobablyhavealastsupperonyourplantsonthewaytotheirend.

Keepinginsect-eatingbirdslikechickensisaneffectivewaytominimizeinsectpestproblems.

NaturalPredators

Enlisttheaidofnaturalinsectenemiestohelpyouwithpestcontrol.Birds,bats,toads,andturtlesconsumeenormousquantitiesofinsects.Chickensarefamousfortheirpest-controlprowessinorchards.Ahedgerowprovidesprotectionandnestingplacesforinsect-eating

birds.Birdhouses,feeders,andbirdbathsalsoencourageresidency.Justmakesurethehedgerowsaren’tsurroundingyourbushesandtrees.Iftheyactaswindbreaks,keepingdownairflow,youmayencourage

diseases.Toadseatvastquantitiesofthoseinsectsthatspendpartoftheirlife

cycleontheground.Encouragethesebeneficialandfriendlyfellowsbylayingoutinvertedclaypotswithaholebrokenononesideandprovidingpansofdrinkingwater.Beneficialinsectscanbeagreatally.Becausetheuseoftoxicsprays

mightkillthem,asmuchaspossibleavoidsprayingandurgeyourneighborstoavoidspraying,too.Ifyoumustspray,followtheprecautionsforminimizingharmtoyourinsectallies.Toattractflyingbeneficialstoyouryard,dedicateevenasmallpatchofyourgardenororchardtocreatingahabitatforthem.Usecovercrops,suchasbuckwheat,clovers,andhairyvetch,betweenplantingsandonfallowground.Plantsflowerssuchasthoseinthedaisyfamily,orherbssuchascaraway,dill,andfennel.You’llgetmorebeneficialsfromadiverseplantingofspecies,includingshortandtallplants,andbothannualandperennialspecies.Youcanevenbuyseedmixesdesignedtoattractawidevarietyofinsectpredators.

Someofthemorecommonbeneficialinsectsare:

Groundbeetles.Theselarge,iridescentbrownordullblackinsectshavebodiesridgedlengthwise.Theyrunrapidlybutdon’tfly.Boththebeetleanditslarvaeeatcaterpillarsofalltypes.

Lacewings.Thesepalegreeninsectswithlacy,nettedwingslayeggsonleaves,eachtinyeggontheendofadelicatethreadlikestalk.Theyfeedvoraciouslyonmanypestssuchasaphids,thecrawlerstageofscaleinsects,spidermites,andevensmallcaterpillars.

Syrphidfly

Ladybugs.Thesebeetles,sometimescalledlady-birdbeetles,feedonaphids,scales,andspidermites.Unfortunately,importedladybugsmaynotstayaroundallsummerunlessyouhavealargesupplyofaphids,althoughtheyusuallystickaroundlongenoughtobehelpful.

Parasitoids.Thesearesmallfliesorwaspsthatfeedonorinotherinsects.Theadultscanbeseen,butit’smorecommontoseetheeggsorlarvaeonthehost.Theattackedpestmayhaveholesorberigidandmummified.Tachinidflieshaveiridescentwingsandaregray-black,andresemblebighouseflies.They’resomeofthemoreimportantpredators,astheyattacksomanyofourfruitmothandbeetlepests.

Prayingmantis.Thesize(they’rebig!)andstrangeappearanceofthesecreaturesmakethemalittlefrighteningatfirstglance,butthey’rewell-knownconsumersofaphidsandotherunfriendlyinsects.Theirhugebrowneggcasesareawelcomesighttothegardenerinthefall.Mantidsdon’tsurvivethewinterinverycoldareas,buttheythriveintheregionswherethey’remostneeded.Likeladybugs,they’reoftenlistedforsaleintheclassifiedcolumnsofgardenmagazines.

Syrphidflies.Thesebrightlycoloredinsectswithyellowandblackstripes,resemblingbees,hoverastheyflyandsoarealsoknownashoverflies.Theyfeedonaphids,scale,andcaterpillarsbysuckingtheirfluids.

Truebugs.Notallbugsarebad.Damselbugsandassassinbugsinparticulararedesirablepredatorsthatusetheirfrontlegstograbandholdtheirprey.

DeterminingWhat’sWrong

DIAGNOSINGTHEPROBLEMcorrectlyisessentialinordertofigureoutwhatstepstotake.Firstruleoutphysiologicalproblems(seeboxonpage268,WhyDoesn’tMyTreeorBushHaveFruit?).Ifaplant’sproblemsarenotcausedbyitsenvironmentorbymechanicaldamage,checkforinsects

ontheleavesandbark.Some,suchastentcaterpillarsandJapanesebeetles,youcanspoteasily.Others—mitesandscale,forexample—aretinyanddifficulttoidentify(evenwitha10-powerhandlens),butyoucanrecognizethembytheirdamage.Stillotherinsectsspendthedaylighthoursoutofsightanddoalltheirmischiefatnight.Somemothslaytheireggsinsidetheblossomsorundertheskinofthefruit.Theeggsthenhatchandthelarvaeworkinsidethefruit,invisibleuntilyoutakethatfatefulbite.Thechartonpage288willhelpyoudiagnosewhat’swrong.Diseasesareeasiertoidentify.Whoevernamedmanyofthemused

termssodescriptivethatalmostanyoneseeingtheproblemforthefirsttimecanrecognizethem.Howcouldyounotidentifybrownrot,powderymildew,leafcurl,scab,sootyblotch,fireblight,blackknot,orrust?Othersmaynotbequiteasobvious.Iftheleavesareyellow,forexample,anynumberofthingscouldbewrong.Youmayneedtocallinanexpertforhelp.Startwithtrainedprofessionalsatagardenstore,thelocalCooperativeExtensionoffice,ormastergardenerprograms.Moststateuniversitieshaveaplantdiagnosticclinicthatcanprovidedefinitiveanswers.(SeeResources.)

Someinsectsaretinyanddifficulttoidentify,butyoucanrecognizethembytheirdamage.

PhysiologicalProblemsofFruitPlants

PLANTSCANAPPEARUNHEALTHYforavarietyofreasons,andthetroubleisnotalwayscausedbyinsectsordisease.Manytimesit’sphysiological—createdbyenvironmentalconditionsorculture,notadiseaseorganism.Ifafruitplantisunhappywithitsclimate,moisture,soil,fertilizer,orlightconditions,orifit’scompetingwithweedsandgrass,itwillnotdowell,andnoamountofsprayingorprayingwillhelp.Poorsoilandtoo-deepplantingarecommoncausesofunhealthytrees,oftenresultingindeathoverthelongterm(seechapter15).Likewise,ifatreehasbeendamagedbyanimals,chemicals,salts,ormachinery,it’salmostcertain

tolooklessthanthrifty.Ifabushortreeisn’tgrowingorproducingwell,considerwhetheroneofthesemaybethecause.

Lackofsun.Fruittreesandbushesrequirealmostfullsuntogrowwellandtoproducegoodfruits.Ifplantsareshadedbybuildingsorlargeshadetrees,theywon’tproduceabundantbloomsorfruits.Ifpossible,removelimbs(oreventrees)thatshadeyourplants.

Toomuchsun.SometimesintheSouth,orintheWestwheretemperaturesarehighandskiesclear,fruitsandberryplantsgetstressedbymoreheatthanisgoodforthem,especiallyunderdroughtconditions.Pearsandapplesmaydevelopoff-colorpatches,Europeangooseberryplantsmaycollapse,plumsandapricotsmaydeveloppitburn(seebelow).Toavoiddamage,choosecultivarssuitedtosuchclimates.Forpeaches,useamodified-leadersystemforpruningtoprovidesomeshadetoinnerbranchesandfruit(insteadoftheusualopen-centerpruningdesignedtoletinlight).

Toomuchwater.Fruittreesneedgoodsoildrainage.Theirrootsshouldneverstandinsoilthatisconstantlywetorwherepoolsofwaterstagnateforhoursafteraheavyrain.They’llgrowpoorly,theirrootswillrot,andthetreeswilleventuallydie.Butifyoursoilsareonlyperiodicallywet(foradayortwo),lookforrootstocksthatwilltoleratesuchconditions;plumsoftentolerateperiodicwetness.

Toolittlewater.Indryseasons,berriesandtreescansufferfromlackofwater,especiallyinpoororsandysoils.Leaveswillwilt,turnbrownontheedges,and,ifsevere,turnyellow.Tohelpplantstoleratedryspells,incorporateextraorganicmatter(suchascompost)intothesoilbeforeplanting,useaheavymulch,andwaterdeeply.

Over-limedorunder-limed.Toomuchlimeortoolittlelocksupnutrientsinthesoilandcausesfruitdropandpoorgrowth.TestyoursoileveryfewyearstodeterminethepH,andtakestepstomakeanynecessarycorrections.

Overfertilized.Fertilizerburnshowsupasabrown,scorchedappearance(“burned”)onleavesandmayevenkillatree.Moderate

overfertilizingcancauseayoungtreetogrowtoofastanddelaybearingforyears.Itcanalsocauseamaturetreetoproducefruitswithpoorcolorandwithlessflavor.

Underfertilized.Whenatreemakesweakgrowthandtheleavesappearyellowishorpalegreen(chlorotic),lackofnutrientsmaybetheproblem.TestthesoilfertilityandpH.Inalkalinesoils,ironmaynotbeavailable,causingyellowingbetweentheveinsofleaves.Otherfactorsthatkeepaplantfromtakingupthenutrientsitneedsarecoldandwetsoilsandverydrysoils.Addingmorefertilizerundersuchconditionsprobablywon’tdoanygood.Similarsymptomscanbecausedfromviruses,ordamagefrompesticidesandherbicides.

Spring-frostinjury.Budsthatfailtoopenorbloomsthatfailtosetfruitmayhavebeenkilledbyalatefrost.Anearly-springfrost,whenleavesandbudsarejustappearing,maycausebrownedleavesandbuds.Inareaspronetospringfreezes,choosecultivarsthatbloomaslateaspossibleanddon’tplantinlowfrostpockets.

Animaldamage.Whenbarkisrubbedorchewed,ortwigssnappedoff,wildordomesticanimalsmaybetheculprits.

Mechanicaldamage.Ifyouseethatbarkisscrapedfromthetrunk,especiallyatgroundlevel,suspectthecarelessuseofamowerorsimilarequipment.Athincutintothebarkatthegroundline,asfromweedtrimmers,maybenotasnoticeable.

Roadsalt.Incoldclimates,meltingsnowandsaltrunofffromroadsanddrivewayscancausedryingoutofleaves,weakeningofatree,andbrowningofleafedges.Thesymptomsaresimilartothoseoffertilizerburn.Reducetheamountofsaltifyouuseitonadrivewayorwalkway.Ifplantsareyoung,considermovingthemawayfromtheroad.

Oilburn.Sprayinghorticulturaloilsforpestcontrolatthewrongtimesortemperatures,andwhentreesarestressed,mayburnleaves,causebarktobespottedordarkeroverall,resultinwater-soakedareasonfruit,andcauserusseting.Don’tuseolder-typedormantoilsduringactivegrowth;atthatstage,useonlysummer-weighthorticulturaloils.

Pitburn.Onplumsandapricotsinhotclimates,theinnerfruittissuesturngray,thenbrown.Thisoccursduringperiodsofunusuallyhottemperaturesduringfruitdevelopment,whenfruitsdon’tgetenoughoxygentomaturenormally.

Saltburn

Catfacingonstrawberry

Catfacing.Thisreferstofruitthatisscarred,puckered,anddeformed.It’smorecommononstrawberriesandstonefruits.Insectssuchasthetarnishedplantbugcancausethis,ascanpoorpollinationandenvironmentalfactors.

Fruitingvariesyeartoyear.Thisisusuallynotadisease,butratherthealternate-orbiennial-bearingnatureofmanytreefruits,particularlyapples.Moderateannualpruninghelpsminimizethis.Ifpoorornofruitingisrandomfromyeartoyear,anothercause,suchaspoorpollinationorclimatestress,mayberesponsible.

Excessivesuckering.Somerootstockssenduplotsoflittleplantsbelowthegraftunion.Woundingthetrunk,asfromsapsuckersorinsects,canstimulatethisunwantedgrowthaswell.Removetheseplantsuckersregularlytodirecttheenergyintothegraftedpartofthetree.

Watersprouts.Iftreesproducetoomuchnewuprightgrowtharoundarecentlyprunedlimb,trypruningearlierinspring.Doamoderateamountofpruningannuallyratherthanseverepruningevery2or3yearstohelppreventwatersprouts.

Sunscald/barksplitting.Sunscaldresultswhenwarmsunshineinacoldwinterstrikesdark-coloredbark,raisingthetemperatureofthewood.Thesuddendropintemperatureasnightfalls,orwhenacloudcoversthesun,cancauserupturingoftheplantcellsinthebark,makingitsplit.ThehotdaysofsummermaycauseasimilarinjuryintheSouth.Droughtfollowedbylotsofrain,aswellastoomuchgrowthstimulatedbyoverfertilizing,mayalsoresultinbarksplitting.

WhyDoesn’tMyTreeorBushHaveFruit?

Thisisprobablythemostfrequentquestionaskedbyfruitgrowers.Usuallyit’saphysiologicalproblem.Amongthepossibilities:•pollinationproblems•frostinjurytoflowers•toomuchshade•toomuchfertilizer(especiallynitrogen)•treeisalternate-bearingtype•improperpruning

Withasharpknife,trimtheflaredbarkedgesaroundthesplit.Thenkeeptreewateredduringdryspells.Ahealthytreewillhealsuchwoundsmostthetimeonitsown,leavingaridgeofbark.Topreventinjury,youcancoatthetrunkofyoungtreesontheeastandsouthsidewithwhitelatexpaintdilutedtohalfstrengthwithwatertoreflectthesun.

Diseases

DISEASESARECAUSEDgenerallybyafungus,abacterium,oravirus.Mostoftheonesyou’llseelistedarefungaldiseases,commonlyspreadbywind,rain,andinsects,andarecontrolledbyfungicides.Bacterialdiseasesarelesscommonthanarefungaldiseases,butmoredifficulttocontrol;theywon’trespondtoafungicide.Fireblightandroot(crown)gallaregoodexamplesofbacterialproblems.Virusesarespreadinthesamewayandalsoareoftenpassedonthroughaninfectedscionorrootstock.Mostvirusesgreatlyshortenthelifeofatree,reducingvigorandyields,andareverydifficulttoeradicate;pesticidesandfungicidesareineffectiveagainstviruses.Abouttheonlywaytocopewiththemistostartwithvirus-freeplantsandisolatethemfrominfectedones.Disinfectingtoolsafterpruningplantscanhelppreventthespreadof

manydiseases(seeDisinfectingPruningTools,page273).Wearprotectiveclothing(ifusingchlorinebleach)anddon’tuseanyofthesolutionsonprunedplants,astheycanburnthem.

Anthracnose.Thisfungusdiseaseshowsupasleafdiscolorations,incontrasttoleafspotsfromotherdiseases,anddarkandsunkenspotsonfruit.It’smorecommononstrawberries,raspberries,andblueberries,lesscommononcurrantsandotherRibes.Cutbackanyplantsthatshowsignsofinfection,anddestroythediseasedbranches.Toreducechancesofrecurrence,keepweedsandgrassoutoftheplantingbeds,andthinsomebranchestoimproveaircirculation.Fungicidescanbeused,butkeepingthediseaseouttobeginwith(exclusion)andlookingforresistantcultivarsmaypreventthisdisease.

Bacterialblossomblast.Thisdiseaseisprimarilyapearproblem

occurringduringcold,wetspringsinthePacificNorthwest.Itcanalsoaffectapples,anditcanshowupundercold,wetconditionselsewhere.

Bacterialspot.Thisisaseriousdiseaseofstonefruits.Itappearsastiny,darkspotsontheskinofpeachesorwater-soakedspotsonsmooth-skinnedstonefruits.Leaveshaveangularspots,whichturnbrown,thenfallout,leaving“shotholes.”Thisdiseaseismostoftenseenduringrainyperiodsandinregionswithlotsofrainfall.Alternatingcopperandantibioticspraysprovidescontrol,asdoeschoosingresistantcultivarsandnotplantingnearinfectedtrees.

Blackknot.Thisone’seasytorecognizebythethick,gnarledblackmassonlimbsofplumtrees.Itcanbeaseriousproblemonplums,andmaybefoundoccasionallyoncherries,peaches,andapricots.Thisfungaldiseasebeginsinsummerasstickysecretionsbutismostnoticeableinwinter,whentheleavesaregone.Itcangirdlestems,killingthem.Sprayingislargelyineffective,soremovealldiseasedlimbsinsummerassoonasyouspotthem,andcutdownanyinfectedwildplumsandcherriesthatarenearby.

Blackrot.Thisfungaldiseaseisparticularlycommonongrapesbutalsofoundonapples,especiallyineasternandmidwesternstates.Itcanoccuranytimeduringtheseasonunderwarmandwetconditions.Leavesbecomecoveredwithbrownspotsandblackpimples,andfruitsturnblack,rotten,andshriveled.(Theseshriveledfruitsarecalledmummies.)Onapples,itstartsasreddishbrowncankersofvarioussizesontwigsandbranches.Sporesfromtheseinfectleaves,resultinginpurplespotswithconcentricringsthatgiverisetoitsalternatename,frog-eyeleafspot.Keepingbarkhealthywithoutwoundswillhelppreventcankers.Pruneoffanytwigsandbrancheswithcankers,disinfectingtoolsbetweencuts(seeDisinfectingPruningTools,page273).Goodsanitationbycleaningupoldfruitandleaveswillhelpgreatlybypreventingdiseasesporesfromoverwintering.Spraysforapplescabshouldcontrolthisonapplesaswell.

Brownrot.Thisdiseaseisalsocausedbyafungus.Itattackstheflowers,fruits,andspursofallstonefruits,plumsandpeaches

especially.Afruitbecomesamassofmushyrotjustbeforeitripens.Brownrotisprobablythemostcommondiseaseofcherries,causingfruittobecomegrayandfuzzybeforeitfinallyrots.Likescab,itoverwintersindecayingfruitonthegroundandisworseinwetsummers.Cleaningupfallenfruit(drops)attheendoftheseasonhelpspreventinfection.Regularsprayingwithafungicidecontrolsit.

Canker.Initsmanyforms,cankercanbecausedbyeitherafungusorabacterium.Oneormoreformswilloccasionallyinfectfruitandnuttreesaswellasberriesandgrapes.Appleblistercanker,bleedingcanker,blueberrycanker,butternutmelanconisdieback,camelliacanker,currantcanker,grapedead-armdisease,perennialcankerofstonefruits,andnectriacankerareonlyafewofthem,butfortunatelyprobablynonewilleverbotheryourorchard.PerennialcankercanbeseriousinsomeareassuchastheNortheast,particularlyonpeaches.Cankermanifestsitselfasaverynoticeablediseasedsectionofthe

woodypartofatreeorbush,andmayshowasanopenwound.Insomecases,itspreadsaroundthecircumferenceofthetrunkandkillsthetree.Cankerisoftensecondary,thediseasecomingaboutfromaninjurythathasbeenleftuntreatedsuchassunscaldwinterinjuryonbark,mechanicalinjury,brokenbranches,orimproperpruning.

Anthracnose

Blackknotfungus

Brownrotonplum

Applecanker

Fireblight

Generallythebesttreatmentforcankeristopruneoffandburndiseasedlimbsbeforearainyperiod.Onlargebranchesorthetrunk,useasharpknifetoremoveinfectedtissue.Createapointedovalcutalongthebranchaxisforthewoundtohealquickly.Thendisinfectallthetoolsyouused(seeDisinfectingPruningToolsboxonpage273).Ifyouknowthataparticularcankeriscausedbyafungus,youcansprayafungicideforcontrol.

Fireblight.Thisdeadlybacterialdiseaseattackspears,apples,andquince;somecultivarsareespeciallyvulnerable.Fortunatelymanyresistantvarietiesarenowavailable,makingthislessofanissueeveniffireblightiscommoninyourlocality.Ifyou’restrollingthroughyourorchardandseesomesick-lookingleaveshangingonbranchesthatlookasthoughsomeonehadheldtheminaflame,fireblightbacteriaareprobablyatwork.It’samysteriousdiseasebecauseitcanbebadinsomeyearsandthendisappearentirelywithnotreatment.Atthefirstsignofthedisease,pruneawayallinfectedpartsandburn

them.Fireblightbacteriaarespreadbywind,insects(includingbees),andpruningtools.Thefirsttwoaredifficulttocontrol,butyoucanpreventinfectionbythelatterwithgoodsanitation.Eachyear,pruneallyouruninfectedtreesfirst.Immediatelyafterpruningtheinfectedones,disinfectalltools.

Flyspeck.Thisfungaldiseasecreatesablack,speckledpatternofmany

shinydotsonfruitnearharvesttime,mainlyonapplesandpears.Flyspeckismostlyanappearanceproblem.Itmayshortenthestoragelifeoffruitbutdoesn’tcauseittodecay.Controlsaresimilarforsootyblotch(seebelow),aswhenyoufindone,youoftenfindtheother.

Graymold.Alsocommonlycalledbyitsscientificname,botrytis,thisfungaldiseaseiscommonunderdampconditionsandonold(overmature)fruitofmostkinds,particularlystrawberries,brambles,andgrapes.Blossomsareinfectedfirst,andthediseaseisoftenworstwhenweatheriswetduringbloom.Keepplantsprunedproperlyforgoodaircirculationandkeepripefruitspickedtolessenoreliminatethisdisease.

Powderymildew.Thisshowsupasawhite,velvetysubstancecoveringleaves,twigs,andfruitsofgrapes,currants,andtreefruits.Itcanbeamajorprobleminwarmandhumidareasandseasonsongrapes,especiallyonFrenchhybridsandEuropeancultivars.Topreventit,buymildew-resistantcultivars,providesanitaryconditions,don’tletplantsgetcrowded,andpruneratherheavilytopermitgoodaircirculation.Bordeauxandwettablesulfurhavelongbeenthestandardtreatments,butseveralfungicidesnowonthemarketgivebettercontrol,includingsomeorganiconesrelatedtobakingsoda.SomeAmericangrapecultivars,suchas‘Concord’,‘Chambourcin’,‘Foch’,and‘LeonMillot’,aresensitivetosulfursprays.

Root(crown)gall.Thisbacterialdiseasecauseslargeswellingsandfleshygrowthsontherootsoffruittrees,grapes,andbrambles.Somecultivarsandrootstocksappeartobemoresusceptiblethanothers,andinsomecasesthegalldoesn’tgreatlyaffectaplantorthecrop.Becausethereisnoknowncure,plantonlycertifieddisease-freeplantsinsoilnotpreviouslyinfectedwithdiseasedbrambleplants,treefruits,grapes,orrelatedplantssuchasroses.Ifthediseasegetssevere,digoutalltheplants,disposeofthem,andstartanewbedelsewherewithnewplants.

Scab.Oftencalledpeachscab,blackspot,orfreckles,thisfungaldiseaseattackspeaches,nectarines,apricots,andplums.Itcancausesmall(¼-inch)roundandyellowishspotsonleafundersides.Thesespotsmayfall

out,leavingshotholes,andifsevere,theleaveswillfalloff.Itmaystartwithevensmaller,superficialolivegreenspotsonhalf-growntomaturefruits;thesespotsenlargetoformvelvetyblotches.Inseverecases,fruitswillbestunted,misshapen,andcrackopen.Ifthereareonlyafewspots,thesewillmainlyharmtheappearanceandnocontrolisnecessary.Toeliminatetheneedforafungicide,avoidmoistandlowareaswhenplanting,andpruneawaydeadandpotentiallyinfectedtwigsinearlyspring.Mowinggrassandweedsaroundtrees,alongwiththinningbranchesandfruit,willreducehumidityandsomayslowthisdisease.Aseparatefungaldisease,applescab,isamajorproblemonapples(seepage135).

Sootyblotch.Aptlynamed,thisappearsassooty-coloredorolivegreencirclestolargepatchesonnearlymaturefruitsofappleandpeartrees.Oftenthisfungaldiseaseisseenwithflyspeckduringextremewetperiods,asbothgrowundersimilarconditions.Thindevelopingfruitsandpruneplantstoincreaseaircirculationandtoreducemoisturearoundfruit.Weedingandmowinggrassaroundtreesalsohelpsreducemoisturelevels.

Verticillium.Causedbyafungus,thisisoneofthemostcommonwilts(seebelow),attackingvegetablesandshadetreesaswellasfruits.Itisoneofthemostseriousdiseasesofstrawberriesandbramblesinsomeareas;otherfruitsaresusceptible,includingstonefruits.Onraspberries,caneswillsuddenlydroopanddie,usuallyinmidsummer.Itisusuallyseenincoolweather,andismostsevereinwetsoilsandafteracool,wetspring.

Botrytisonstrawberry

Peachscab

Verticilliumonstrawberry

Crowngallonraspberry

Blossomwiltonappletree

Controlofverticilliumwiltisespeciallydifficult;bythetimeyouseethedamage,sanitationisyouronlyoption.Cutoutinfectedlimbsorbramblecanesandburnthematonce;inthecaseofstrawberries,digoutanddestroytheentireaffectedplant.Asapreventive,plantfruittreesandberriesawayfromvegetablesthatmayharborthedisease:eggplants,melons,peppers,potatoes,andtomatoes.Don’tplantinsoilsthathavegrowntheseforatleast5years—wait10yearswherethediseaseisalreadypresent.Keepawaytheweedyrelativesoftomatoes,suchasnightshadeandhorsenettle,thatmayharborthisdisease;lamb’s

quartersisanotherhostweed.Soilsolarization(seepage274)greatlyreducesthisdisease.Disinfectanypruningtoolsandshovelsusedoninfectedplants(seeDisinfectingPruningToolsboxonpage273).

Viruses.Anumberofvirusdiseasesaffectfruits.Leavesongrapesandtreefruitsmayhavespotsorvariousdiscoloredandmottledpatterns,withsymptomsmoreoftenseenduringacoolspring.Bramblecanesmaybemarbledgreen,withgreenishyellowmottledleaves,ortheirberriesmaycrumble.Raspberryandotherbrambleplantsdecreaseinsizeeachyearuntiltheyperish.Virusesweakentreesandgrapesandshortentheirlife.Fruityieldsmaybereducedupto50percent.Atonetime,mostoftheestablishedappletreesinNorthAmericawereinfectedwithvariousviraldiseases;existingoldertreesmaystillharborsuchdiseasesandmayserveasasourceofinfection.Youmayseevariousnamesfordifferentfruitvirusessuchasplumpoxandmosaic.Virusesaredifficulttocontrol,astheyaren’tkilledbypesticides.

Thankstonewpropagationmethodssuchastissueculture,manytreesandbushesarenowavailablevirus-free.Replaceinfectedplantswithcertifiedvirus-freeplants,andplantthem500feetfromsimilarplants(suchaswildbrambles,forvirus-freebrambles)toreducechancesofinfection.Makesureyoursoildoesn’thavenematodes,whichcanspreadviruses.Ifyou’repruningplantsthatappeartohaveavirus,disinfecttoolsbeforepruninghealthyplants(seeDisinfectingPruningTools,right).

Wilt.Thenamereferstoanydiseasethatcausesasuddendroopingofabranchortheentireplant.Thatbranch(ortheentireplant)looksasifit’ssufferingfromlackofwater,evenwhenthesoilhasplentyofmoisture.Differentwiltsarecausedbyvariousviruses,fungi,andbacteria,andtheytroubleanassortmentoftreefruitsandberries.Verticilliumwilt(seeoppositepage)isprobablythemostcommononfruits.

X-diseaseonasweetcherrytree

X-disease.Whenaplantdiseasenameisn’tdescriptive,thisusuallymeansthatthecauseisn’tknown,oratleastwasn’tinitially.SuchisthecasewithX-disease,whichwasoncethoughttobecausedbyavirus,andnowisknowntobecausedbyadifferentorganism—amycoplasma-likeorganism(MLO).TheMLOisaparasitethatlivesincertainplantcellsofstonefruits,especiallypeaches.Whatitdoesonpeachesistocauseleavestocurlinward,withreddishspotsthateventuallydropout,leavingshotholes.Leavesandfruitdropprematurely.Incherries,treescandiequicklyifgraftedontoMahalebrootstock.Thisdiseaseisharboredinwildchokecherries,soeliminatinganynearbywillhelpwithcontrol.It’sspreadbyleafhoppers,whichareespeciallyattractedtoredclover,strawberries,andblackberries.ControllingleafhopperswillhelpcontrolX-disease,too.

DisinfectingPruningTools

Afterpruninginfectedplants,it’simportanttosterilizetoolstopreventthespreadofcankers,somefungi,fireblightandotherbacterialdiseases,andviruses.Ifyouhavealotoftrees,considerusingasecondpairofprunerswhilethefirstaresoaking.Aless-effectivealternativeistowipebladeswithoneofthesolutionsbelowortodipaftereachcut,topreventspreadingthediseaseelsewhereon

ahealthytree.Firstcleananydirtanddebrisfromtools.Soakthem,oratleast

theblades,foratleast5minutes(longerfortoolswithroughsurfaces),thenrinsewithwateranddry.Ifyouprefernottousechlorinebecauseofitspotentialdamageto

plants,clothes,tools(itcanbecorrosive),andevenyourhealthshouldyougetitonyouandbreathethevapors,tryoneofthealternatives.Lysolhasbeenfoundtobeamongtheleastcorrosivetotoolsandtogivethemostconsistentresults.Themostcommonsolutionis1partchlorinebleachto9parts

water.(Someuseastrongersolution:1partbleachto5partswater.)Alwaysaddbleachtowater,nottheotherwayaround;readthelabelandusecautionwhenhandling.Mixonlyasneeded,becausechlorineevaporates.Nonchlorinealternativesincludehouseholddisinfectantssuchas

denaturedorrubbingalcohol(fullstrength),alsoListerineandLysol(fullstrengthordiluted,1partListerineorLysolto5partswater).

SolarizingSoiltoControlNematodes

Anematodeisn’taninsectoradisease,butamicroscopic,eel-likeroundworm.Therearemanyspecies,buttheroot-knotnematodesarethemostdamagingtomanycrops,notjustfruits.They’reoftenworstinwarm,sandysoils.Theycausedistinctiveswellings,orgalls,onroots,whichdamagethemandalsoallowdiseasestoenter.Thesearen’trubbedoff,asarethenodulesonrootsofnitrogen-fixingplantssuchaslegumes.Aboveground,plantswiltandgrowpoorly.You’llneedtoruleoutpossiblesimilareffectsfromtoolittlewaterornutrition,orfromrootrots.Ifyoususpectnematodes,checkwhetheryourlocalCooperativeExtensionServicewilltestforthem.Nematodesareusuallyintroducedthroughinfectedsoil.They’re

difficulttocontrol,soavoidbringingtheminthroughdirtytoolsandboots,orbymovinginfectedplantswithsoilonrootsbetweengardensorevenwithinlargeplantings.Startingwithhealthyplantsandminimizingstressessuchasdroughttokeepplantshealthywillgoalongway.Lookforresistantcultivarsandrootstocks.Ifyouknownematodes

areaprobleminyourarea,considerleavingthegroundbare(fallow),orplantacroponwhichtheycan’treproducebeforeyouplantyourfruittreesandbushes.Plantanannualcovercropsuchaswheatorbarley,ortryresistanttomatoandbeanvarieties.Themarigolds‘Nemagold’,‘QueenSophia’,and‘Tangerine’willsuppressnematodesifplantedoverthewholearea.Upto4yearsofsuchcontrolsmaybeneededtoridanareaofnematodesbeforeyoucanplantfruittreesandbushes.

1.InMayorJune,weedtheareaandcultivatetoloosenthesoil(asforplanting).

2.Moistenthesoil,asmoistsoilwhenit’sheatedwilldestroymorepests.

Soilsolarizationisoftenpracticedinstrawberrybeds,providingpreventionforayearortwountilnematodesreturn.Whendoneproperly,itcankillmanyweedseedsandsoildiseasessuchasverticilliumwiltwithinthetop8inchesaswell.Thisprocessinvolvescoveringthesoilwithaclearplasticsheetfor6to8weeksandlettingthesunheatthesoil.Doitbeforeyoudoanyplanting.It’sbesttodothisinJuneandJuly,whenthesunishottest;otherwiseyou’llneedmorethan8weeksforittobeeffective.

3.Coverwithclearplasticsheeting;burysidesunder5or6inches

ofsoilorsecurewithboardsorbricks.

4.Leavefor4to6weeksinhotclimates;incoldclimates,leavefor6to8weeks.

Insects

ONEDAYINHIGHSCHOOLbiologyclass,ourteacherconfidedinahushedvoicethatasingleinsectcouldproduce100,000descendantsinafewweeks.Whileallofuswereshowingtheexpecteddegreeofamazement,theboysittingbehindmewhisperedloudly,“Imaginewhatwouldhappenifsheevergotmarried!”Thatlittleremarkstayedwithme,andIthinkofiteachspringascocoonsburstandlarvaeproliferate.NolongerdoIpretendtobeamazedattheprocreativeabilityofbugs.Ireallyamamazed.Earlycontroloforchardpestspreventsagreatdealoftroublelater

on.Getinthehabitofcheckingyourplantsatleastweekly.Themanytypesofinsectsattackfruitplantsandtreesindifferentways.Somechewtheleaves,someburrowintothetrunkoracane,stillotherssucknutrientsfromtheleavesorthroughthebark.Everyinsectyouseeinyourorchardisnotanenemy.Mostarequite

harmless,andsomeareimportantpredatorsofcommonpests,soit’simportanttodistinguishfriendfromfoebeforeyouloadupthatsprayer.

Alsofollowtheprecautionsonpage283tominimizedamagetobeneficialspecies.Thepestsdescribedherearegeneralistsandmayshowuponvarious

typesoffruits.Additionalpestswithmorespecifictastesarediscussedinthefruitchapters.

Greenappleaphids

Aphids.Thesearecommon,smallinsects,andmaybegreen,pink,black,orwhite.Variouskindsattackthebark,leaves,orfruitofalmosteverytreeandplant,andalthoughthere’snovisibledamageatfirst,theysuckoutthejuicesandgreatlyweakenaplant;theycanalsotransmitviruses.Atightcurlingofnewleavesattheendsofbranchesonyoungfruittreesisagoodindicationthataphidcoloniesareatwork.Thesweetsecretiontheyleavebehindgrowsablackcoatingcalledsootymold,whichisanothersignthataphidsareatwork.Antstooareasign,asthey’reattractedtothissweetresidueandmayevenprotectaphidsfromnaturalpredatorsinordertokeepgettingit.They’renotafteryourfruit,onlytheby-productoftheaphids.Youcanknockoutsmallinfestationswithaforcefulstreamofwater.

Ifthatfails,insecticidalsoapswillcontrolthem;repeatthetreatmentin

1weektocatchanythatappearlater.Becarefulwithallsprays;thesecankillnaturalpredatorsandleaveplantsmorevulnerabletoaphids.Decreasingtheamountoffertilizer(especiallynitrogen)maymakeplantsmoreresistant,becauseoverfertilizingmakesforthelushgrowththatattractsthem.

Borers.Thesearesmalllarvaeofsomeinsects(mothsandbeetlesinparticular)thatburrowintothetrunksoftrees,oftennearorjustabovegroundlevel,buttheymayboreintootherpartsaswell.Thepeachtreeborerisoneofthemostcommontypes,asareappletree,shothole,anddogwoodborers.Mosttreefruitsaretargets,asarenuttrees.Apileofsawdustandsomeexcrement,togetherwiththeweakenedconditionofatree,indicatethepresenceofthisalieninvader.Evenoneborercanweakenatreeenoughtocauseittobreakoffatgroundlevel.Themosteffectivemeansofdisposingofitistobrutallypunchthefatgrubwithawireinsertedintotheholeinthetrunk,asspraysarenotlikelytoreachit.Treewrapshelpdiscouragethiscreature,but,unfortunately,treesfromnurseriessometimescontainyounglarvaewhenyoubuythem.Inspectyourtreesfrequentlyandlookcloselyatthetrunksofallnewpurchases.Becauseborersareattractedtotreesweakenedtreesfromstress,suchasdroughtordisease,keepingthemhealthyisagoodstarttowardpreventionofthispest.

Peachtreeborermoth

Earwig

Codlingmoth

Fruitwormmoth

Codlingmoths.“What’sworsethanfindingafatworminyourapple?”Theansweris,ofcourse,“halfaworm.”Thelarvaeofcodlingmothsaretheculpritsthatcausethosewormyapples.Toalesserextentthisinsectattacksotherfruits,inparticularpears,aswellasEnglishandblackwalnuts.Theplump,whiteorgrayishgrubanditsexcrementaroundaholeinthefruitaresolidindicatorsthatthisinsecthasbeenactive.Thecodlingmothlaysitseggsinthefloweratbloomtime,sothebestwaytocontrolitistosprayafterthebeesleave—directlyafterthepetalshavefallen—butbeforethenewfruithasformedenoughtoprotectthehatchingeggs.Sometimesasecondandthirdgenerationappearlaterthesameyear.Codlingmothsoverwinterinshelteredspots,andafavoriteoneisundertheloosebarkonolderfruittrees.Specialtriangulartraps,oftencalledDeltatraps,areavailableforluringandcapturingthem.Thinningfruithelpspreventthemothsfromgoingbetweenfruit,andallowsbettercoverageifspraying.

Earwigs.Ifyouseeareddishbrowninsectabout¾inchlongandwithwhatappeartobedangerouspincersontheendasinascience-fictionmovie,don’tbealarmed—it’sjustanearwig,anditwon’tattackahuman.Infact,earwigsarebeneficialinmanycases,eatingaphids,mites,insecteggs,andotherpests.Theyalsofeedonsoftfruit,suchasthestonefruitsandberries,especiallythosewithholesalreadyinthemfromanotherpest.Ifearwigsbecomeaproblem,worktoreducetheirhabitatwheretheyrestbyday—weeds,groundcovers,andmulches.Youcanalsotrapthemwithrollsofmoistnewspaperorcardboard,orashortcan(suchasfromcatfoodortunafish)containinghalfaninchoftunaoilorvegetableoilwithabitofbacongrease.

Fruitworms.Thesesmallcaterpillarsareoftencalledgreenfruitworms,asthevarioustypesarebasicallygreenwithwhiteoranothercolorstripes.Theseeatunopenedflowerbuds,chewleavesandtiethemtogetherlooselywithsilkythreads,andgougeoreatfruit.They’renotpartialtoanyonefruit.Naturalcontrolsmaykeepthemincheck,orspraywithBtoranotherproductthatliststhemonthelabel.

Grasshopper

Grapeleafhopper

Grasshoppers.Thesefamiliarjumpersaremainlyapestongrainsandherbaceouscropssuchasvegetables,butwhenpopulationsarelargeenough,they’llfeedontheleavesofstrawberries,grapes,andfruittrees.Ofthemanyspecies,onlyfourorfivearecommon.Usuallythey’reaproblemonlyinareasthatgetlessthanabout30inchesofrainayear—primarilypartsofthewesternstates—andwhenotherfoodsourcessuchasfieldshavebeenharvested.Spraysmaynothavemucheffectonadultsinlargepopulations.Ifyoudon’twanttouseaspray,focusonhabitatinstead.Keepsomeunmowngrassyareas,evenwateredandfertilized,nearbyforthemtoliveinandfeedoninstead.Orplantsomedesirabletrapcropssuchaszinniastolurethemtooneareawherethey

canfeedandyoucanthenfocusyourcontrolefforts.Placerowcoversoverstrawberriestokeepthemout(they’lleatthroughlighterfabricssuchascheesecloth).Poultryaregreatpredators,iftheydon’tdisturbyourplantingsastheyscratcharound.Finally,thereareseveralnaturalcontrolsyoucanpurchasesuchasthosecontainingNosema(asingle-cellprotozoan,adisease-causingorganismthatistoxiconlytograsshoppers).

Japanesebeetles.Theseshinybronze-and-greenbeetlescanbefoundonmostfruits,butthey’reparticularlyattractedtograpesandmanymembersoftherosefamily,especiallybrambles.Ifyoufindthemonyourberrybushes,simplyknockthemoffintoapailofsoapywater.Trapsarewidelyavailable,butthey’llattractthesebeetlesfromafar.Milkyspore,abiologicalcontrol,worksonthebeetlegrubsinwarmerclimates(Zones6andwarmer).Youmusttreatallthegrassinthesurroundingareawithmilkyspore,asthat’swherethegrubslive.Ifyouwanttoturnlawnintoaberrypatch,growcornforayearortwoonthesitetoeliminatetheJapanesebeetlegrubsbeforeyouputintheberryplants.

Leafhoppers.Thesearesmallinsectsthatusuallydolittledamageontheirown,buttheycauseproblemsbytransmittingviruses.Youmayfindthemonstrawberries,raspberries,andgrapes,aswellasonapplesandplums.Theysuckthefluidsoutofplantcellsandleavebehindastickyexcrementthatdarkenswithage.Inadditiontothisundesirabletrait,leavesmayyellow,bestuntedordistorted,andevendropoffifpopulationsarehigh.Ifdamageisextensive,ortopreventviruses,considerorganicorsyntheticcontrols.Otherwise,themanynaturalpredatorsthatfeedonleafhoppersmaykeeplevelstolerable.

Leafrollers.Severalspeciesofcaterpillarscanrollleaves,oftenwithwebbing,andeatleavesandflowers.Theymaydamagefruit(causingyoungfruittofalloff)andriddlematurefruitswithdeepgouges,oftenbronzecolored.Afewleafrollerscanbetolerated,butifyouhavetoomany,Btandotherspraysworkonthecaterpillarsanddormantoilappliedbeforeflowersopenwillworkoneggs.

Orientalfruitmoths.Althoughthispestmainlyattackspeaches,itcanbefoundonotherfruits,too.Thelarvaeborethroughtenderterminalshoots,causingthemtowilt(similartothetarnishedplantbug;seebelow).Later,thelarvae,boringintothem,causeyoungfruittodropandmaturefruittobewormy.Inapples,thedifferencebetweentheOrientalfruitmothandthecodlingmothisthattheformertendstotunnelatrandomandthelattertunnelsdirectlytowardthecenterandfeedsontheseeds.Inthewild,theOrientalfruitmothiscontrolledbymorethan130naturalpredators,butmanyofthemaren’tpresentinanorchardorarekilledbysprays.Aregularsprayprogramshouldcontrolthispest,aswillpheromonetraps,whichdisruptitsmating.Thetrapsaresimpletwistties,treatedwiththeappropriatepheromone,thatareattachedtobranchesoffruittrees.

Leafrollermoth

Plumcurculios.Theselong-nosedweevilsareaserioustreefruitpesteastoftheRockyMountains.Theirnameismisleading,astheyattackapplesandmostothertreefruitsandnotjustplums.They’remosteasilyidentifiedbythetelltalecrescent-shapedscartheyleaveonfruits.Theycreatethissmallpuncturejustasafruitisforminginordertolayeggs;thepunctureoftencausesthefruittodropprematurelyorenablesbrownrottoenter.You’llfinddarkblotchesaroundthepuncturesonthefruitsthatremainonthetree.Maturefruitsmaybeknobbyandgnarled.Treatwithasprayafterpetalfall,whentheadultsarereadytolaytheireggs.

Beginlookingforthecurculioseveryfewdaysbeforeflowersopen.Holdawhitepaperplateunderabranchandshakethelimb;especiallyoncoldmornings,they’llfallontotheplateratherthanflyaway.

SanJosescale.ThisisneitheramusicaltermnorapestlimitedtoSanJose;rather,it’saninsectsotinythatyouneedamagnifyingglasstoseeit.Itlivesunderahardfilmorscaleithasbuiltforprotectionand,alongwithitsnumerousrelatives,sucksnutrientsfromthetwigsinsuchquantitiesthatentirebranchesoftendie.Barkmayappearashgraywherescalesmass.Fewfruittreesareimmunetothispest,butdormantoilcontrolsitverywell,asdoesastandardorchardsprayprogrambeforebloomandafterpetalfall.

Sapbeetles.Thesepestsaresmall,onlyabout1/8inchlong,andbrown.They’reaproblemprimarilyonstrawberries,andinsomeareasonraspberries.Oncestrawberriesstartdeveloping,thesebeetlesmayappeartofeedonthem.Theresultissoft,mushyfruitandperhapslarvaelivingandeatinginside.Becausesapbeetlesliveinleaflitterandpreferfruitrestingontheground,keepingbedscleanandplantsmulchedsoberriesrestonstrawhelpscontrolthem.Besuretoremoveanydamagedfruit,andrenovatebedsregularly.

Orientalfruitmothlarva

SanJosescale

Sapbeetle

Gooseberrysawflylarvae

Sawflies.TheEuropeansawfliesandrelatedsawfliescanattackmostfruitsinsummer,causingacircularraisedridgeontheskin.Theirlarvaefeedonleaves,skeletonizingthem.Thesamecontrolssuggestedforapplemaggots(seeabove)afterpetalfallareeffective.

Spidermites.Oftenreferredtosimplyasmites(althoughtherearemanytypesofmitepests),thesearesosmallthatyou’llneedahandlenstoseethem.Youcanseewiththeunaidedeyetheircharacteristicfinestipplingdiscolorationofleavesandtheirwebbingontheundersidesofleavesandbetweenleavesandstems.They’remoreapttoshowupwhenconditionsarehotanddryandplantsarestressed.Tryhosingthemoffleaves;youmayneedtorepeatthisacoupleoftimesinaweekortwo.Mitesaren’ttrueinsects,soinsecticideswon’tworkonthem;youneedaspecializedmiticideunlessyouuseaninsecticidalsoaporhorticulturaloil.Thereareothertypesofmites,althoughspidermitesarethemostcommon.Somemitesareevenbeneficialpredators.

Spidermites

Tarnishedplantbugs.Thesearetruebugsthatsuckplantjuicesfromflowers,stems,andfruits.(Theyalsoattackcropplants.)Theresultsaretenderyoungshootswiltingonpeaches,puncturesordeepdimplesonyoungapples,andblemishesorscabsonmaturefruit.Strawberries,oneofthebug’sfavorites,canbemisshapen,orhardgreen“buttons”candevelopinsteadoffruit.Somedamageonstrawberriescanbetolerated.

Watchforthisinsectasstrawberryplantsbegintobloom.It’sabout¼inchlongwithblackandyellowmarkings.Monitorwithwhitestickytraps.Naturalenemieswillprovidesomecontrol,butkeepingthebedfreeofweedsandawayfromoverwinteringherbaceousplantsisperhapsthebestwaytolimittheirpopulations.Becausethispestisquitemobileandactiveduringbloom,spraycontrolsareineffective.

Tentcaterpillarsandwebworms.Thesecaterpillarscreatecobwebmassesthatareafamiliarsightonfruitandnuttrees.Thewebsprotectthewormsfrombirdsastheyconsumelargequantitiesofleavesduringthesummermonths.Cutoffandburnthewebstogetridofthem,orspraythebiologicalcontrolBtonleaveswhileyoungcaterpillarsarefeeding.Learntorecognizethetentcaterpillar’sdistinctivebrownorgrayfrothyeggcase,whichwrapsaroundbranches.Asyou’repruninginlatewinter,pruneoffanddestroythesmallbranchescontainingtheseeggcases,andyou’lleliminatetheproblem.

Thrips.Thripsaretiny,slenderinsectsthatsuckthefluidsoutofplantcells.Theyfeedonmanyplants,includingthesmallfruits.Theevidenceoftheirfeedingisscarredflowers,leaves,andfruitsurfacesanddistortedplantparts.Damagefromthripsusuallyisn’tsevereenoughtomeritspraying.Therearemanybeneficialinsectsthatfeedonthesepests,andyoucanexcludethripswithrowcoversoverstrawberries.Analternativeistosurroundplantswithareflectivemulch,whichconfusesthripsandotherflyinginsectssuchasaphids,leafhoppers,andwhiteflies.

Tarnishedplantbug

Tentcaterpillars

Pearthrip

TimeYourPestPatrol

Somekeystagesofstoneandpomefruitsareusefultoknow,asyou’llhearorseetheminrelationtoplantcultureandinparticulartoscoutingforinsectsanddiseases.Thesestagesrespondtoandvarywithseasonandclimate.Commercialgrowersmonitorevenmorestages,butthefollowingshouldbesufficientforthehomefruitorchard.Applesandpeachesareusedasexamplesofpomeandstonefruits;otherfruitsineachgrouparesimilar.CornellUniversityhasagoodvisualguideforeachstageonline(seetheappendix).

Herearethetimestolookforsomecommoninsectpestsanddiseasesonfruittrees.Takeheart:justbecausethesearelistedforastagedoesn’tmeanyourtreefruitswillgetthem.•Dormancyuntilsilver-tipstage:scales,plantbugs•Silver-tiptotight-clusterstage:leafrollers,aphids,scales,plantbugs,fruitworms,scab,powderymildew,cedarapplerust,brownrot•Pinkstagetopetalfall:plumcurculios,leafrollers,pearpsylla,fruitworms,aphids,plantbugs,scab,powderymildew,cedarapplerust,leafspots,fireblight,brownrot•Themonthafterpetalfall:codlingmoths,leafrollers,applemaggots,sawflies,cherryfruitflies,mites,aphids,scales,plantbugs,scab,powderymildew,leafspots,fireblight,brownrot•Midsummeruntilharvest:codlingmoths,leafrollers,cherryfruitflies,applemaggots,Orientalfruitmoths,mites,aphids,scales,

borers,cherryleafspot,brownrot

Spraying:How,What,andWhen

SOMETIMESGOODSANITATIONandcultureisnotenough.Manygardenersrelyonacombinationoforganicandsyntheticpest-controlspraystogrowfruit.Someuseonlythoseproductscertifiedfororganicgrowing;othersresorttothelatestandsafestsyntheticproducts,particularlyfordifficult-to-controlpests.Rememberthatchemicals—whetherorganicorsynthetic—don’tdiscriminate;theykillgoodaswellasbadinsects,andcanpoisonthebirdsthateatthesprayedbugs.Inadditiontoecologicalreasonsfornotusingchemicals,manyfolksdon’twanttoeatfruitthathasbeensprayedwithmaterialsthatmightbetoxic.Keepinmindthatwithgoodculture,IntegratedPestManagement,andatoleranceforsomepestsanddiseases,youcanusuallygetbywithlittleornospraying.Themoreblemishesyoucantolerateonyourfruit,thelessyou’llneedtothinkaboutspraying.

PreventiveSpraying

Whendiseasesorinsectsareespeciallybad,preventivesprayingmaybe

necessary,becausebythetimesymptomsappear,considerabledamagemayalreadyhaveoccurred.Whetheryouusesyntheticororganicsprays,timingisveryimportant.Alldiseasesandinsectshavetimeswhenthey’remostvulnerableandothertimeswhensprayingisawasteoftimeandmoney.Diseasesandinsectscanspreadatanalarmingrate,soknockingoutthefirstwavesavesmuchwork,money,andgrieflateron.YourlocalCooperativeExtensionofficemaybeabletoprovidethedatesofwheninsectshatchinyourarea.Oftentheysupplyspecificclimateinformationtohelpyouevaluatetheriskofaparticulardisease,suchasscab,soyoucandecidewhethersprayingwillbeneeded.Therearetimeswhenyoudefinitelyshouldnotspray,evenifyouuseanorganicpesticide.Neverspraywhenthetreesareblooming,becauseyou’llkillthepollinatingbees.Second,neversprayclosertopickingthanthetimerecommendedontheproductlabel;manyspraysmustbestoppedatleast2weeksbeforeharvest.

DormantOil

Thoughsomemayrecoilattheverywordspray,notallspraysarebad.Oneofthemostcommonisanoilthatworksbysmotheringratherthanpoisoning.Manygrowersuseadormantoilsprayonfruittreesbeforetheyleafout.Thisonesprayissometimesallthat’snecessaryifyou’veplanteddisease-resistantcultivarsandfollowgoodsanitationpractices.Manyhomegardenerssprayonlyasmallpartofatree,butforgood

pestcontrolyoumustgetthoroughcoverageatthetopofthetreeandalsotheinnerbranches.Chooseadaywithnowindforthejob.Iprefertodoanysprayingintheearlymorning,whentheairisusuallyquietandit’snottoowarmfortheprotectiveclothingweallshouldwear.Ichooseaniceday,too,becauserainwithinafewhoursislikelytoundoeverything.Cold,rainyseasonsaredifficultonesfortheorchardist.

Insecticides,Fungicides,Herbicides

Whetherorganicorsynthetic,thechemicalsusedonfruitsandberriesfallintothreecategories:insecticides,fungicides,andherbicides.Insecticidesareusedtocontrolinsects,andincludemiticidesformites.Fungicidestreatawidevarietyoffungi,butwillnothelpyoucontrolinsectpestsordiseasessuchasbacteriaandviruses.Herbicidesarethose

chemicalsdesignedforeliminatingunwantedweeds,grasses,andwoodybrush.Somegardenersprefertheconvenienceofaready-mixed,commercialhome-orchardspraycontainingbothafungicideandaninsecticide,soonesprayingwillcontrolmostcommonorcharddiseasesandpests.Newpesticidesareintroducedeveryyearthataresaferandmore

effectivethantheexistingones.Becauseproductsandtheirlabelscontinuallychangeandavailabilityvaries,youwon’tfindspecificproductslistedhere.AskyourCooperativeExtensionService,stateorprovincialagricultureofficials,oralocalfarmorgardenstoreforthemostup-to-date,effective,andsafesttreatmentforanyproblemsinyourarea.

Gardensprayer

SprayingEquipment

Sprayingequipmentrangesfromsmalltrombonesprayersthatsprayfromapailandcostonlyafewdollarstolarge,power-drivenmachines.Don’tbuyacheapmodelofwhateversprayeryouchoose.Thetrombonetypeiseasytoclean,hasfewpartstowearout,isconvenienttostore,andisidealforsomeonewhohasonlyafewbushesortrees.Trombonesprayersarenothandytouse,however,soaneasier-to-carrysprayerisbetterifyouhavemorethanadozentrees.Thecompressed-airtanktype

workswellandisperfectlysatisfactoryifyouhavelow-growingtrees,butthespraymaynotreachthetopsoffull-sizetrees.Forlargertreesandplantings,therearebackpacksprayers,bothpower-andhand-operated,andevenelectricallypoweredmistblowersthatcancoveratreewithonlyasmallamountofspray.Alwayscleanasprayerafteruse.Leftoverspraywillcorrodethetank

andplugthesmallorifices.Replaceworngasketsimmediately,sothatthespraydoesn’tsquirtoutonyou,and,forthesamereason,neveropenatanksprayerbeforethepressureisrelieved(seeSafetyFirst,onpage287).

OrganicSprays

Thefollowingorganicspraysareavailableatmanygardenstoresandonline.Aswithsyntheticsprays,followlabeldirectionscarefullyandcompletely.

Bt.ShortforBacillusthuringiensis,Btisabacterialbiologicalcontrolthatkillsthelarvaeofcertainharmfulcaterpillarlarvae,suchasleafrollers.Itisn’taseffectiveagainstthosethatattackfruitdirectly,suchasthecodlingmoth.Makesureyougetthecorrectproductforfruits,asthereareseveralversionsofBt.

Clay.Clay-basedproductscontainhighlyformulatedkaolinclay,whichwhensprayedonplantsservesasabarrieragainstinsectsandmites.(Don’ttryordinaryclaypowder;itisn’tveryeffectiveandcandamageplants.)Itdriestoawhitecoatingthatconfusespestslookingforhostplants.Applyaccordingtolabeldirections,forthefirsthalfoftheseasonforplumcurculiosandearlycodlingmothsandforleafhoppersongrapes.Applythroughtheseasonifthere’salargepopulationofpests(it’sgoodformostmajorapplepests).Clay-basedproductsareusedinhotclimatesforsunburnprotection.Avoidapplyingwithinafewweeksofharvestsoyoudon’tendupwithwhitepowderonyourfruit;thefinekaolinclayisnotharmfultohumansbutdoesn’trinseoffeasily.

Dormantoil.Dormantandhorticulturaloilskilloratleastsuppressmanyinsects.Appliedjustasthefirstbitofgreenshowsintheswellingbudsoffruittrees,theoilssmotheroverwinteringeggsofaphidsand

mites.Forthebestcontrol,thoroughlycoatthetrunksandbranchesofdormanttreeswiththeoil.Earlyversionswereappliedonlyduringdormancy,astheyweretoostrongtoapplyduringthegrowingseason,hencethename.Currentversionsofdormantoilsarehighlyrefined,thoughtheystillmaybestrongerthansummeroils.Bothdormantandsummeroilsareoftencalledhorticulturaloils;nowthewordsdormantandsummermaybeusedtorefertothetimingratherthanthetypeofoil.Don’tusesummeroilsattemperaturesoverabout80°Ftoavoidburningplantleaves.Also,don’tusewithinaweekofapplyingproductscontainingsulfur,asthecombinationharmsleavesandfruit.

Applecoatedwithkaolinclay

IntegratedPestManagement(IPM)

Ifyou’vegardenedmuch,you’veprobablyheardaboutIPM—thetechniqueofcontrollingpestsbyusingacombinationofsanitationmethods,physicalandnonchemicalcontrols,beneficialinsects,andthen,ifnecessary,someofthesaferpesticides.Itinvolvesregularscoutingforpestsanddiseases(whichmeansknowingwhatyou’relookingfor)andtoleratingsomeofboth,especiallyonesthatwon’t

causesignificantdamage.Theleastharmfulcontrolstrategyisusedforanyproblemsthatarise,takingcareofthemattherightstages.Itminimizestheuseofharmfulchemicals,sothefruitproducedisfarlesslikelytohaveharmfulresidues.

Garlic.Thisisthebasisforseveralproductsthatrepelahostofinsectsandmayhelppreventsomediseases.Strongerformulashelprepelbirdsfromfruit.Onepopularproductlabelsaysthatitcanbeuseduptoharvestwithnolastingtasteorodoronfruit.Ifyoumakeyourownspray,tryitonasmallportionoftheplantfirsttomakesureitwon’tharmleaves,anddon’tsprayrightbeforeharvest.Garlicspraysmayrepelbeneficialinsectsaswell,sodon’toveruse,anduseonlyoninfectedplants.

Evenwithorganicsprays,it’simportanttowearamasktoavoidinhalingthefinemist.Whensprayingharshchemicals,moreprotectionshouldbeworn,asindicatedonthewarninglabeloftheproductyou’reusing.

Insecticidalsoap.Thiscontrolsaphids,mites,mealy-bugs,scales,and

whiteflies,amongotherinsects.Severalbrandsarereadilyavailable.Youmayneedmorethanoneapplicationforcontrol.

Neem.Neemoilisfromtheneemtree(Azadirachtaindica),arelativeofmahogany.Itactsagainstmanyinsects,mites,andfungibydisruptingtheirmoltingandreproduction.Usedasdirected,it’ssafearoundfishandwildlife.

Rotenoneandpyrethrum.Theseareinsecticidesmadefromplants.Bothhaverelativelylowtoxicitytohumansbutarehighlytoxictofish;pyrethrumisalsohighlytoxictobees.Theykillarangeofinsects,includingbeneficialones,butastheybiodegradeinafewdaysthey’relessdamagingtobeneficialinsectsthanaremanysyntheticcompounds.Theymustbeappliedfrequentlytobeeffective.

Sabadilla.ThisisapotentinsectkillerderivedfromaLatinAmericanplantofthelilyfamily(Schonocaulonofficinale).It’sespeciallygoodagainstfliesandtruebugs,suchasthetarnishedplantbug.It’stoxictohoneybees.

Sulfur.Eitherbyitselforinproductssuchascoppersulfateandlimesulfur,sulfurisusedasafungicidefordiseasessuchasscab,powderymildew,andbrownrot.Theseproductsoftenhavetobeappliedregularlythroughtheseasononapplesifdiseasesarepresentandwhenrainwashesthemoff.Thescheduleistospraybeginningatgreentipuntil4weeksafterpetalfall,thenevery2weeksifdiseaseisstillpresent.Stoptheuseofcopperfungicidesatthehalf-inchgreenstagetopreventdamagingfruit(russeting).Uselimesulfurwithcaution,asit’scaustic;applyrightaftermixing,anddon’tstoreitformorethanaseason.AcommonproductthatthatbeenusedfordecadesisBordeauxmix,acombinationofcoppersulfateandhydratedlime.Thisandcoppersulfateareoflowtoxicitytohumans(unlessusedlongterm),butaretoxictofishandmayendangerbees.Coppersulfatemayalsobepoisonoustofarmanimals,andextensiveusemaykillsoillifesuchasearthworms.

SyntheticSprays

Ifyouchoosetofollowthenonorganicorsyntheticsprayroute,here’sascheduletofollow.Thefirstsprayisthesamedormantoilusedbyorganicgrowers.All-purposeormultipurposesyntheticorchardspraysareavailableinhardwareandgardenstores.Mostconsistofamixtureofatleastoneinsecticideandafungicide,whichenablesyoutocontrolbothinsectsanddiseaseswithoneshot.Followlabeldirections,eveniftheydifferfromtheguidelineshere.

1.Dormantspray.Whentipsofbudsareswellingandturninggreen.Usedormantoilforthisone.

2.Budspray.Whenleafbudsarejustbeginningtoopen.

3.Pinkspray.Whenblossombudsshowpinkandarealmostreadytoburstopen.

Rememberthatchemicals—whetherorganicorsynthetic—don’tdiscriminate;theykillgoodaswellasbadinsects,andcanpoisonthebirdsthateatthesprayedbugs.

SafetyFirst

Allpesticidesmustbehandledwithcare.Evenorganicsprays,likethesyntheticones,maybeharmfultohumans,fish,pets,andbeneficialinsects.Makesurethelabelsaysthattheproductwillcontrolyourtargetpest,andalwaysfollowthedirectionsonthepackagecarefully.Noteallprecautions,assomechemicalscanburnplantleaves.Checkthelabelofanyproductyouusetoseehowclosetoharvestyoucanapplyit.Don’tbuymorethanyoucanusewithinayearorso.Shelflifefor

manyofthemislimited,andtheirpotencycanchangeovertime.Alwaysstorepest-controlproductsinadry,coolbutnon-freezingplace,securefromchildrenandpets,andawayfromallfoodstuffs.Keepthemintheiroriginallabeledcontainers,anddon’tputextrain

jarsorcans.Usecarewhenhandling.Evenwiththesafestspray,avoid

breathingitinandgettingitonyourskinorinyoureyesorhair.Weararepellentraincoatandcap,goggles,andrubberorplasticbootsandgloves.Labeldirectionswilladvisewhetheranyspecialprotectionisrequired,aswellaswhateverelseyouneedtoknowforsafeandeffectivecontrol.Alwaysstandwellbehindthespray.Ifyouaccidentallygetanychemicalonyou,washitoffimmediatelyandthoroughly.Ifyougetastrongproductorconcentrateonyouandhaveanadversereactionevenafterwashing,orgetsomeinyoureyes,seekmedicalattentionatonce.It’sbesttouseupanysprayyou’vemixed,ratherthandumpitout.

Makesurewhenrinsingthesprayernottodumprinsewaterdownastormwaterdrainorwhereitcouldrunoffandendupinawaterway.Whenyou’refinishedwithaproductorcontainer,checkwithyourlocalwaste-disposalagencyonhowtogetridofit;donotdiscardinthetrashunlessyou’retoldthatit’ssafetodoso.

DoNOTsprayanypesticides,organicorsynthetic:

1.duringbloom,toavoidkillingbeespollinatingflowers

2.withintherecommendedperiodbeforeharvest

3.withoutreading,andfollowing,labeldirections

4.Petal-fallspray.Whenalmostallpetalsareoffthetree.Thisisthemostimportantsprayofall.Youmayneedtorepeatthisapplication10dayslater.

5.Summersprays.Twoormoreadditionalspraysmaybenecessaryinsomeareas,andinsomeyearsbeginningmidsummer.Spacethese10to14daysaparttocontrolmites,sawflies,applemaggots,andsummerdiseasessuchasbrownrotandscab.Discontinueallspraying4weeksbeforeharvest,oraccordingtolabeldirectionsontheproductyou’reusing.

Becausetreesbloomatdifferenttimes,thesecond,third,andfourthsprayswillhavetobedoneaccordingtothefloweringperiodofeachspecies.Afterthatfourthapplication,youcanspraythewholeorchardatonetimeifmoreiscalledfor.Ifyourspraydoesn’tseemtobeprovidingcontrol,perhapsyouaren’t

puttingonenough.Thisisacommonproblemofsomehome-fruitgrowers,especiallyfortrees.Mostspraysaremeanttobesprayedto“runoff.”Thatmeansuntilthesprayisdrippingfromtheleavesandstems.Ifyoudon’tgettheundersidesoftheleaves,insectsmayescapetheirdoom.

DiagnosingWhat’sWrong

Don’tgiveupongrowingyourownfruitwhenlookingatthislistofproblems!Youshouldseeonlyafewifanyofthese.Manyhavesimilarsymptoms,soifyou’renotcompletelysure,seekthehelpofaprofessional,yourlocalExtensionoffice,orauniversityplantdiagnosticclinic(seetheappendix).AlsoseeNutProblemsonpage207.

Notonlywilldeerhelpthemselvestoyourfruitharvest,they’llalsoeatthefoliageandstripthebarkfromyourtrees.

CHAPTER19

WildlifeFriendsandFoes

Overtheyearsmyattitudetowardwildlifehaschangedquiteabit.Whenwehadaflockofchickens,Ithoughtofcoyotes,bobcats,andfishersasvillains.Sincewe’vebeenraisingtreesandplants,Ilookattheseformerso-calledvarmints—alongwithowls,hawks,andweasels—inadifferentway.Thosepredatorsconsumerabbits,mice,andwoodchucks,which,alongwithporcupinesanddeer,havebecomethebadguysinmybook.Whereveryoulive,youmayfaceunexpected,uninvitedgarden

guests.Inafewmonthsunderfavorableconditions,micecanmultiplyastronomicallytostripthebarkofmanyfruittreesinwinter,anddeercandestroymanyyears’worthofgrowthinafewhoursoffeeding.Asonewhohastriedtogardenandgrowfruitsforfourdecadesontheedgeofawilderness,Isympathizewithanygardenerwhomustbattlewildlife.Suburbiahasspread,andourhomesarenowwherewildlifehomes

oncewere.Naturehasadjustedtotoday’schangingworld,andcityandsuburbangardenersoftenfindwoodchucks,skunks,raccoons,rabbits,andevenbearsintheirgardens.Deerandevenmooseoccasionallystrolldownthestreetsofgood-sizecities.Thesehavesurvivedastheirpredatorshavemovedonordiedout.Oftenthemosteffectivepredators—humans—aren’tallowedtokillortrapwildlife.Ofcourse,somepeopleplantfruittreesandbushesbecausethey

wanttoattractanimalsandbirds.ThisisoneofthewaysyoucangetyourbackyardcertifiedaswildlifehabitatbytheNationalWildlifeFederation.Mostofuswhotoilovertreesandberrybushes,however,

hopetokeepatleastasmallpartofthefruitsofourlaborsforourselves.ThoughIenjoywatchingthecedarwaxwingsandotherbirdsfeastontheunripefruitfrommyserviceberries,I’malwayshopefulthey’llleaveafewtoripenforme.

PreventingMouseDamage

MICEANDVOLES(fieldmice)areamongtheworstproblemsfacingfruittrees,simplybecauseoftheirsheernumbers.Particularlyupsettingistheirhabitofchewingthebarkfromthetrunksoftreesbeneathwinter’ssnow,soyoudon’tseewhat’shappeninguntilspring.Eventhoughagirdledtreemayleafout,itwillsoondie,andthereisusuallynopracticalwaytosaveit.Ifit’sgirdledonlyhalfwayaround,ithasabetterchance.Micegirdlenotonlynewlyplantedfruittrees,butalsothose8inches

orsoindiameter.Someyearsthedamageisworsethanothers,andbecauseyoucan’tpredictwhenthey’llstrikeinfullforce,it’sbesttobeonguardatalltimes.Agoodhuntingcatisfinecontrol,butincaseshemissesamouseor

two,it’smorereliabletowrapyoungtreetrunksinhardwareclothorheavymetalscreening.Youcanleavethemonthetreesallyear,butremovethembeforetheyconstrictgrowth.Ifyouneedprotectionfromsunscald(seepage267),painttrunksbeforeyouwrapthem.Youcanalsowrapthetrunkscarefullyeachfallwithtwoorthreethicknessesofaluminumfoil,orusetheplastictreeguardsavailableatmostgarden-supplyfirms.Removetheseinthespring,however,becauseinsectsliketoworkinthedampnesstheyfindhere.Guardsshouldextendatleast2feetabovegroundandbesunkatleast2inchesintothegroundtoprovideadequateprotection.

Plasticguardsandthosemadewithsimilarmaterialsprotectyoungtreesfromrodentdamage.

Keepmulchandstrawawayfromtrunksandkeepgrassmowedtoreducemicedamagebytakingawaytheirfavoritehabitats.Forseriousmouseproblems,therearevarioussnap-typetraps;thosewiththemechanismenclosedinacasearemuchsaferanddon’tendangerpetsorothermousepredators.Somecommercialorchardistsspreadpoisoncornoroatsaroundtheirtrees,butthiscanbetoxictopetsdirectly,orindirectlyiftheyeatasickenedmouse.Birdsthatfeedonpoisonedmicetoowilldie.

Rabbits,Porcupines,Raccoons,andSquirrels

INSOMEPLACES,thesesmallanimalscausealotofgrief.Rabbitseatthelowerbranchesandbarkfromtrees.Porcupineschewthebarkandsometimescutoffentirelimbs,droppingthemtothegroundforeasiernibbling.Severaltimesthesepricklycreatureshaveinvadedourgarden,cuttingdownandconsumingawholelongrowofraspberrycanesinasinglenight.

Raccoonsandsquirrelsaremorelikelytoeatmaturefruit,andtheyofteninvadeourbarnstostealthenutsandfruitswe’vealreadypicked.Theraccoondoesn’twearhisbanditmaskfornothing!Graysquirrelsoftenrunmerrilyoveratree,takingonebitefromeachappleandruiningthewholecrop.Somedogschaseawaytheseanimalsveryeffectively.Ortryfencing

themout;lowelectricfencesareoftenusedtokeepawayporcupinesandraccoons.Therearesomesmellrepellentsthatmaywork,too.Huntingandtrapping,wherethey’reallowed,areanoption;youcanhirealicensedtrapper.Somecountiesandstateshavelawsprohibitingtrappingandreleasingwildlife.Beforesettinganytraps,contactyourlocalwildlifemanagementofficeorstateFishandWildlifeagencytobesureit’slegaltorelocatetrappedanimals,andtoaskaboutthebestplacetodoso.Thebestdefense,however,istoeliminatethehabitatsthatattracttheseanimalpests.

Squirrelsareespeciallytroublesomeinnut-treeorchards.

DealingwithDeer

INCOMPARISONWITHfightingbugsandmice,deerseemlikemonsters.Theylovebothappletwigsandfruit,andalsoseemtogetakickoutofscrubbingthebarkoffanyvaluabletreewiththeirantlers.Theylikeotherfruitstoo,especiallythenewgrowthonbrambles.(Apparently,thornsaren’tanissueoradeterrent.)Blueberryplantsandfruitsmaygetafewnibbles,buttheyseemtobeoflittleinteresttodeer,andserviceberries,chokeberries,andcurrantsgenerallyescapeaswell.Just

asdifferenthumanspreferdifferentfoods,sododeer.Thisexplainswhysomeplantsareresistantinoneplaceandnotinanother.Althoughbear,moose,andelkoccasionallydamagefruittreesandbushes,deerareusuallytheonlylargewildanimalsthatbotheranorchard.

NotTonight,Deer

Controlofsuper-smartdeerisdifficult.Butasthey’vebecomeoneofthemainproblemsforgardenersinmanypartsofthecountry,controlshaveproliferatedaswell.Amongthemarerepellentsbasedontaste,sound,light,andsmell.Exceptfortaste,theseworkonadeer’ssenseofdanger,eitherstartlingheror,inthecaseofsmell,maskingherabilitytoperceiveathreat.

Taste.Therearemanytasterepellentstosprayonplantsfavoredbydeer.Manyoftheneweroneslastmuchlonger,throughmanyrains,thaneitherolderproductsorhomeconcoctions.Althoughapepper-basedspraymaydeterthecasualdeer,itwon’thavemucheffectondeerdesperateforfood.

Sound.Aradioiseffectiveforawhile,butdeerwillbecomeusedtoitifyoudon’tmoveitaround.Thosewhouseradiosswearbytalk-radioshows,whichmaydrivesomefamilymembersawayaswell.Someorchardsusesoundcannons,butthesearen’tconducivetogoodneighbororevenfamilyrelations.

Light.Motion-detectorlights,thesameonesusedforhomesecurity,areanoption.Theseareusuallyavailableinhardwarestores.Ihaveonewithasolar-rechargedbattery,mountedonastandIcanmovearound,andonatimersothatitgoesoffafterafewminutes.Ithasbeensomewhateffective,exceptwhenI’mawayorforgettomoveitregularly.(Similartomotion-activatedlightsaresprinklers,oftensoldfordogcontrol,thatsquirtwateraboutwhentheysensemotion.)

Smell.Odorrepellentsfordeerincludesomeratherexoticproducts.Mothballs,hairfromabarbershoporbeautyparlor,driedblood,rotteneggs,lionortigermanure(ifyoulivenearazoo),sweatyunder-clothes,andhumanorpredatorurineshaveallbeenusedwithsomesuccess.

Rotationofseveralofthese,orwithothertypesofrepellents,isthekey.Manysmellrepellentsformulatedfordeerarenowavailablefor

purchase;theseworkbetterinwinterandforlongerperiodscomparedtoearlierproducts.Somehaveascentpleasanttohumansbutunpleasanttodeerandsomeothermammals,suchasoilofpeppermint,cloves,orlemon.Othersareabsolutelyvile,madefromslaughterhousewastes.Theydefinitelysignaldanger:somethingbadhappenedhereandit’sbesttoleavenow.IfigureifmydeerarestillaroundwhenIuseoneofthese,they’velosttheirsenseofsmell.Themostpopularodorrepellentisbarsofsmellysoap,themore

fragrantthebetter.Hangthem,stillintheirwrappers,intreesandaroundbushes.Hangthesoapswellawayfromatrunksotheywon’tdripdownthebarkastheydissolve;miceeatsoapandalsosoap-saturatedbark.You’llprobablyneedseveralsoapbars,closelyspaced,forthismethodtobeeffective;I’vefoundthatmylocalraccoonpreferssomebrandstocarryoffandnibbleon.

FenceThemOut

Inadditiontorepellents,thereareanumberoffencingoptions.Infact,mostgardenershavefoundthatahigh,tightfenceistheonlyanswertoaseriousdeerproblem.Inourexperience,deerwillgiveuponanorchardonlywhenit’smadeimpossible—notmerelydifficult—forthem.Adeerfencemustbeextremelywellbuilt,asdeercanandwillsqueezethroughthemostunlikelyplaces.Ifyouhaveonlyafewtreesinayard,orasmallbramblepatch,

fenceeachindividuallywithwiremesh5or6feethigh.Justmakesurethemeshisasmall-enoughweavethatdeercan’tgettheirnosesthroughandfarenoughawayfromaplantthattheycan’tnibbletheedgesorreachtheplantoverthetop.Althougha5-or6-footfenceseemsadequateforafewbushes,alarge

orchardneedsafenceatleast8feethigh.Ifthefenceissolid(impossiblefordeertoseethrough),youcangetbywithonelower—perhaps6feethigh.Althoughdeercanjumpthis,theyusuallywon’tbecausetheycan’tseewhat’sontheothersideanddon’twanttorisktheunknownofgettingtrapped,orworse.Therearemanytypesoffencingandconfigurationsfordeercontrol.

Thesimplestandcheapestisastrandofcordorwhiteclothesline,withflaggingtapestripshungevery5feetorso.Deercan’tseewell,sotheflaggingletsthemknowsomethingisthere.(Flagginghelpskeepyoufromwalkingintotheline,too,thoughitmaynotbesufficienttokeepkidsfromgettingtanglediftheyplaynearby.)Acoupleofsinglecordsasabove,orfences4to5feethigh,paralleland5to10feetapart,willcreateaspacetheycan’tclear,andtheywon’twanttogetriskgettingtrappedinsideit.Asinglestrandofelectricfence(checklocalregulationsbeforeusing)

workswellwhenit’sinstalledattheheightofadeer’snoseandcombinedwithbait.Spreadpeanutbutteronaluminumfoilandsecureittothewireevery3feetorso.Deersmellthepeanutbutterandcometoeatit.Theresultingzapshouldscarethemoff.Lowerfencesareeffectiveonlywhenthey’retoowideforthedeerto

clear.Onetypehasstrandsofwireonadiagonalfromtheground.Theoffsetfencehasthreestrands,creatingatriangleincross-sectionabout5feethighand5to8feetwide.Theultimate,ofcourse,isthenettedormeshfence,8to10feethigh.

Plasticnettingisnowavailablethatperformsaswellaswide-meshwireandislessexpensive,plusit’sbarelyvisiblefromadistance.Anotherversionofthishaspostsinstalledwith8feetabovegroundandeightwirestrandsstrungbetweenthemaboutafootapartvertically.Ifyouoptforfishinglineorcordinsteadofwire,useflaggingtapeevery5feetorsoalongthecordsothedeercanseethatsomethingisthere.Astheflaggingtapesflutterinthebreeze,theymayfrightenthedeer.

TYPESOFDEERFENCES

Ifyouhaveonlyacoupleofplants,installingatallcagearoundthemisoneoption.

Inregionswheredeerarenotpersistentorhabituatedtohumans,asimpletautclotheslinetiedwithflaggingmaybeenoughtodeterthem.

Asingle-strandelectricfence,baitedwithpeanutbutteronpiecesofaluminumfoil,maytraindeertoavoidthearea.

Wheredeerareaconstantproblem,moreelaboratefencesmaybeneeded.Analternativetoatallfenceisaseriesofdiagonalwires,whichneedstobe5feethighand5to8feetwidetobeeffective.

DeerFacts

Tounderstandwhyaplantlistedsomeplaceasdeerresistantisfavoredbyyourdeer,orwhydeerbotherplantsinyouryardandnotinyourneighbors’,orwhyarepellentworksforawhilebutthenstopsbeingeffective,orwhyitworksforyourneighborandnotforyou,ithelpstoknowafewdeerfacts.

1.Deerhavegreatsensesofsmellandhearing,butbadeyesight.Theirnoseiswhatwarnsthemofdangerandtellsthemwhat’sgoodtoeat.Messwiththis—aswithsmellrepellents—andtheygetnervousandmaygoaway.

2.Deerarequicklearners.Iftheyfigureouta“deterrent”isn’taproblem,they’llresumeeating.Thisiswhyyoumustrotatenotonlythetypesofrepellentsbutalsotheirlocationtokeepdeerofftheirguard.Onesuburbanitekeptadogonachain.Thedeersoonlearnedhowlongtheleashwasandresumedfeedingonlyafewfeetawayfromthegrowlingcanine.Themessageis,ifyouhaveadogonaleashanddeerareabout,moveorlengthentheleasheveryfewdays.Likechildren,teachdeerearly—bothintheseasonandinage—thattheyaren’twelcome,andyourcontrolswillbemoreeffective.

3.Deerarecreaturesofhabit,soifyoufindtheirmainroutes,blockthemorputrepellentstheretotrytodeterthem.

4.Likemostanimals,deerdon’tlikedanger.Createasettingsuchasasunkenorwalledgardenwheretheythinktheymightgettrappedandtheylikelywon’tenter.Thisishowacoupleoflowparallelfences5orsofeetapartcanbejustaseffectiveasasingletallfence.Theycanjumpoverone,butiftheyaren’tsuretheycanmakebothandmightgettrappedbetween,theymaystayaway.

5.Deermusteattosurvive.Whenpopulationsarehighorthefoodscarce,they’lleatplantstheywouldn’tnormallyeat,inspiteoffoulsmellsandbadtastes.Thisiswhyacertainplantmaybelistedasresistantbutinsomeareasit’seatenbydeer,andwhya

repellentworksinoneyardandnotanother.Inthiscase,theonlyrealsolutionisagoodfence.

OutwittingBirds

FENCESCAN’TKEEPOUTbirdintruders,unlessyoubuildacageoruseanet.Wewelcomebirdsfortheircheerysongsandcolorfulways,andbecausethey’revoraciousinsecteaters,wedon’twanttolosethem.Still,somespecies,suchasjays,waxwings,andblackbirds,canbeaproblematharvesttime.Notonlydobirdslovecherriesandberries,buttheyoftenruinlargeamountsofapplesandotherlargefruitsaswell.Fruitisn’talltheymaybother,either.Sapsuckersborehundredsoforderlyholesinthebarkofthetrunksofourcrabapplesduringthewinterandspring.I’vebeenamazedathowmanyholesmychokecherrycanberiddledwithandstillkeepliving.

Scaretactics.We’veusedalltheploysindefenseofourcrop—stripsofflutteringaluminumfoil,noise-makers,radios,scarecrows,cats,netting,andplasticsnakes—andtheyallhelp,butonlytoapoint.We’velearnedtoinstallbird-scaringdevices(seepage189)justbeforethefruitismature.Ifweputthemouttooearly,thebirdsgetusedtothem;iftoolate,thefeatherygourmetshavealreadydevelopedacravingforthedelicaciesandhavenointentionofgivingup.

Nets.Nettingisthebestwaytokeepbirdsoffstrawberriesandberrybushes.Ifyouhavejustafewberrybushes,youcanputnettingdirectlyonthem.Withstrawberries,though,birdsmaybeabletopeckatfruitthroughthenetting,soalightweightwhitefabric(thesamerowcoverusedforinsectcontrol)willbemoreeffective.Orerectsomeformofstructureorframeonwhichtosuspendthenettingovertheplanting,especiallyifyouhavealargeberrypatch.Weightdowntheedgesofthenettingwithsoiloranythingheavy,suchasboards,rocks,andbricks.Aftercoveringthebushes,checkthemdaily;despiteyourbestefforts,somebirdswillfindtheirwayunderneathandbecometrapped.Somedesperategrowersusenettingonfruittrees;othershaveeven

builtlargechicken-wirecagesaroundtheircherrytrees.OneeasiervariationonthenetthemeI’veseenrecommendedistothrowaspoolofblackthreadbackandforthoveratree.Allthesethreads“may”getcaughtupwiththebirdsenoughtoreducedamage.Moreeffectiveistoerectsomeformoftentmadeofthreads,inamaypoleorChristmastreeshape,overatree.

Decoyplantingsandsprays.I’veheardthatithelpstoplantmulberrytreesnearby,becausesomebirdsseemtopreferthem,butI’venevertriedthat;afterall,itmayjustattractmorebirds.Therearesomegarlic-basedproductsthataretoutedaseffectiveatrepellingbirds.Whenyouharvestthegarlic-coatedfruits,simplyrinsethemwithwater;thetasteisnotabsorbedintothefruit.Beginsprayingwhenfruitsstarttoripenandbirdsbegintoappear,andresprayweeklyorasthelabeldirects.

NettingdrapedoveraPVCcageisthebestwaytokeepbirdsoutofyourberries.

AvoidingOtherHazards

BESIDESANIMALS,wefruitgrowershavelearnedtoexpectotherproblems.Insnowcountry,snowmobilersdon’talwaysbothertogoaroundyoungorchards,especiallyatnight.Trailbikersandhorsebackriderssometimesviewanewplantingasonlyabitofbrush.Childrenmaythoughtlesslybendoverandsnapoffalimborevenasmalltreetouseasawhiporcane.Butprobablythebiggestmechanicalthreatstoyourtreesareyourownlawnmowerandweedtrimmer,soimpresswhoevermowsthelawnorusesatilleroranyothermachinerytoexercisecarearoundyourtrees.Stringtrimmerswillquicklycutthroughthebarkofafruittree;cuttingthroughthebarkallthewayaround(girdling)willkillthetree.Thoseofuswholiveinagriculturalcountrycanexpectfarmanimals

tobreaklooseoccasionally,andiftheydo,they’realmostcertaintoheadforyourorchardorgarden.Inonlyafewminutes,aherdofcowsorafewhorsescandevastatethebestplanting,ascanwanderinggoats,sheep,andpigs.Puppiestendtotryouttheirgrowingteethonnewtrees,andcatslikeplayinggamesinthem.Ifanyoneofthesehazardsislikelyinyourbackyard,maybethebestanswerisastrongfencewithasturdygate.Chickens,ontheotherhand,areagoodpartnerforfruittreesasthey’lleatmanyinsectssuchasplumcurculios.

Glossary

More-commontermscanbefoundthroughtheindex.

alternatebearing(fruiting).Thepropensityofsomefruits,suchaskiwisandsomeapples,toproduceheavilyoneyear,thenlittletononethenext,alternatingbetweenheavyandlightyields.

apicalbud.Thebudatthetip(apex)ofshoots;pruningouttheapicalbudpromotesformationofsidebranches.

arm.Stemorshootofgrapestwoormoreyearsold;shortbranchesoffthetrunkfromwhichfuturecanesdevelop.One-year-oldshoots,calledcanes,producetheshoots(spurs)thatbearfruit.

asexualpropagation.Seevegetativepropagation.axil.Wheretheleafjoinsastem.axillarybud.Seelateralbud.balled-and-burlapped.Rootsandthesoilsurroundingthemareencasedinburlaptoholdthemtogether;canbeplantedifnotplasticcoated,asburlapwilldecompose.

bare-root.Referstoplantssoldwithnosoilaroundroots;commonwhenorderingfruittreesfromacatalog.

benchcut.Pruningamajoruprightlimbbacktowhereitjoinsalower,horizontallimb;usedsparinglytoshortentreesthathavegottentootall.

berry.Typeoffruitarisingfromoneflower,withsoftflesharoundoneormoreseeds;oftenusedtorefertosmallfruitsthatareusuallyeatenwhole.

bilateral.Growingintwooppositedirections,aswithgrapecanesoffthetrunkalongtrelliswires.

biologicalcontrol.Anaturallyderivedchemical,predator,ornonchemicalmeansofcontrollingpests.

bleed.Whensapoozesfromcutsorwoundsinearlyspringonsomeplants,suchasmuscadinegrapes.Thisdoesn’thurttheplants.

bloom.Withfruit,referstoawhitishcoatingasonplumsandblueberries.

blush.Alightredtintonskinofsomefruits,suchasapples,peaches,andyellowcherries.

botrytis.Seegraymold.bramble.AfruitingplantintheRubusgenussuchasraspberryandblackberry,oftenwiththornystems.

branchcollar.Theregionofatreetrunkfromwhichasidebranchemerges,oftenslightlyraised.Prunebranchesflushwiththeoutermostportionforfastesthealing.

bud.Foundintheaxils,basicallyadormantandcompressedshootthat,giventherightconditions,willresumegrowth.

budding.Vegetativepropagationmethodofattachingabud(scion)fromoneplanttothestemofanother(rootstock);wheretheymeetisthebudunion.

buffering.Abilityofsoiltoresist(buffer)changesinpHorfertility.burrknots.Ugly,misshapengrowthsonsomeapplerootstocks(suchasM.26andMM.111),sometimesonbranches,fromtheplanttryingtogrowrootsaboveground.Causeisunknown;providesentryforborersanddiseases.

bushel.Unitofvolume,equalto8gallons;usedmainlyfortreefruits.Abushelofapplesweighsabout42pounds.

button.Asmall,misshapenfruit,assometimesoccurswithapplesandpeaches;oftencausedbypoorfertilizationofflowers.

callus.Thegrowthofastemortrunkoverawoundorgraftunion.calyx.Infruits,theoppositeendfromwherethefruitisattachedtostem.Inflowers,agroupofsepalsbelowthepetals.

cambium.Thethinlayeroftissue,oftengreenorgreenishyellow,betweenthebarkandthewood;importantingrafting,asthecambiumofrootstockandscionmustbealignedinorderforthegrafttobesuccessful.

cane.Themainstemofmanyplantswithsmallfruits,suchasthebramblesandcurrants,thatproducemanystems;one-year-oldstemsofgrapes;orwoodystemsthathavebudsafterleavesfall.

canepruning.Atrainingsystemforgrapesinwhichwholecanesandmostcordonsareremovedeachyear.

canker.Adecayedorsunkenareaofbark,oftendiscolored,causedbydisease;mayhavesapoozingout.

canopy.Intrees,thetotalareacoveredbyleavesandshoots.Invines,theabovegroundportions.

catfacing.Scarringandpuckeringoffruit;mostcommononstrawberriesandstonefruits.

centralleader.Mainuprighttrunkatthetopofatree;alsoreferstoasystemoftrainingtreestoonecentralstem.

chillinghours.Thenumberofhoursbelow45°Frequiredbysometypesoffruitinordertoflowerandbear.

chlorosis.Yellowingofleavesoverall,generallyfromlackofanessentialelementsuchasnitrogen.

clone(adj:clonal).Aplantgeneticallythesameasitsparentoranotherplant,createdthroughvegetativepropagation.Clonesofmanyfruitsarenotabletopollinateeachother.

collar.Seebranchcollar.compost.Soilamendmentcreatedbymicroorganismsbreakingdownorganicmatter.

cordon.1.Oneofthestems(longarms)ofgrapesthatarehorizontal,oralmostso,and2ormoreyearsold,fromwhichcanesorspursarise.2.Thegrape-trainingsysteminwhichhorizontalstemssupportfruitingspurs.3.Aformofespalierinwhichthetreeistrainedtoanarrowcolumn.

core.Centralstemorstalkinsidethefruitofraspberriesandblackberries;alsocalledreceptacle.

cracking.Whenskinsoffruitssuchasgrapesandpeachessplit;alsocalledsplitting.Oftenoccursafterheavyrains;shortensstoragelifeandenablesdiseasestoenter.

crotch.Angleformedwheretwobranchesmeetorwhereamainlimbjoinsthetrunk.NarrowV-shapedcrotchesarenotdesirable,astheyareweakandcanbreakunderaheavyloadoffruitorsnow,orfromwind.

cross-pollination.Theprocessinwhichpollenistransportedfromoneflowertoanother,onthesameplantoramongflowersondifferentplants.

crown.Thebaseofaplant,wherethestemmeetstheroots.Onstrawberries,itistheshortenedstemfromwhichleavesemerge.Onsomebrambles,itisthecentralareaonthegroundfromwhichcanesemerge.Ontrees,thecrownreferstotheentirebranchstructurewithfoliage.

cultivar.Shortfor“cultivatedvariety”;acloselyrelatedgroupofplantswithinaspeciesoriginatingnotfromnaturebutinsteadbyhumansthroughaprocessofselectionorbreeding.Mostfruitselectionsarecultivars.Comparevariety.

cutting.Asmallpieceofplantstem,rootedtomakeanewplant.day-neutral.Astrawberrycultivarthatcontinuestobearthroughtheseasonandisnotaffectedbythelengthofdaylighthours.

deciduous.Ashrubortreethatlosesitsleaveseachfall.dioecious.Producingmaleandfemaleflowersonseparateplants(fromtheGreekmeaning“twohouses”).Examplesareholliesanddates.

division.Propagatingplantsbyseparating(dividing)themintosmallersections.

dormancy.Stageofgrowthduringwhichaplantisn’tgrowing,butiscapableofresuminggrowthgiventherightconditions.Manyplantsgodormantduringdroughtoroverthewinter.

dormantpruning.Trimmingwhenplantsarenotactivelygrowing,usuallyinlaterwinterorearlyspring.

dripirrigation.Wateringplantsusingsoakerhosesorasystemofhosesandtinyspouts(emitters)thatplacewateratthebaseofplantsratherthanwettingleaves.Thisisthemostefficientmethodofwatering.

dripline.Theareaunderatreebelowtheoutsideedgeofbranches.Manyfeederrootsarelocatedjustinsidethisline,socompostandfertilizershouldbeappliedallthewayouttothedripline.

drop.Afruitthatfallsontheground,especiallyearlyintheseasonfrominsectdamageoranotherproblem.

drupe.Technicaltermforastonefruit—thatis,atypeoffruitwitha

centralpitsuchascherry,peach,orplum.ethylene.Agasgivenoffbysomefruitssuchasapplesandbananas.Ethyleneisusedcommerciallytoartificiallyripenfruits;aripeappleorbananacanbeputinabagwithunripefruitsuchaskiwistospeedtheirripening.

everbearer.Astrawberrycultivarthatfruitsinearlyandlateseason;comparetoday-neutral.

floricane.Thesecond-year-old(fruit-bearing)caneofabramble;comparetoprimocane.

girdling.Removingbarkordamagingit,aswithastringtrimmer,aroundmostorallofatree’scircumference,resultinginthedeathofthepartsabovethedamage.

girdlingroot.Arootthatgrowsinacircularwayaroundtherootmass,nexttothetrunk,chokingofftheflowofnutrientsandweakeningandpossiblyeventuallykillingthetree;usuallyarisesfromnotlooseningrootsofpotboundtreesatplantingtime.

grafting.Propagatingbyattachingapieceofstem(scion)fromoneplanttothestemofanother(therootstock).

graftunion.Thepointwherethestem(scion)meetstherootstock.graymold.Anothernameforbotrytisdisease.grubs.Larvaeofinsects(mainlybeetles,suchasJapanesebeetles);theyaregenerallylightcoloredwithdarkerheadandresembleashortfatworm.Grubsaremostcommoninsoilbutaresometimesfoundinfruit(aswiththelarvaeofplumcurculios).

larvae,especiallyofJapanesebeetlesandsimilarinsects,oftenfoundinsoil.

hardiness.Theabilityofaplanttowithstandtemperatureextremes;usuallyreferstotheabilitytosurvivecoldtemperatures.

head.Theareaonagrapevinetrunkfromwhicharmsandcanesareproduced.

headingback(headingcut).Pruningbackstemspartwaytopromotesidebranching.

heel-in.Totemporarilyburytherootsofabare-rootplantinthegroundorinamoistmaterialsuchasdampsawdust.

hybrid.Aplantformedfromcrossingorpollinatingtwodifferentparentplants.

imperfectflower.Ablossomwitheithermaleorfemaleparts,notboth;comparetoperfectflower.

incompatibility.Inpollination,theinabilityofoneplanttopollinateanother;inpropagation,theinabilityofascionandarootstocktogrowtogether.

internode.Partofthestembetweenthethickenedareaswhereleavesorotherstemsjoin(nodes).

interstem.Pieceofstemgraftedontoarootstockandontowhichisgraftedthecultivarscion;usedtoimpartotherpropertiestothetreefromtherootstock;sometimesusedonapples,butmuchlesscommonthananordinarysinglegraft.

IPM.ShortforIntegratedPestManagement,controllingpestsanddiseasesbasedonunderstandingandtheninterruptingcyclesofproblems,beginningwithnonchemicalmethods.

larva(plural:larvae).Theimmaturestageofsomeinsectsduringwhichtheydon’tlookliketheadult.Thelarvaeofbutterfliesarecaterpillars.

lateralbranch.Asidebranchorshootthatgrowsoffamain(scaffold)branch;oftensimplycalledalateral,asinthecaseofgrapes.

lateralbud.Abudintheaxil,whereleavesorbranchesjoinatrunkoralargerbranch.

layering.Propagatingbyrootingstemsofplants,stillattached,onsoil.leafburn.Thebrowningofleaves,oftenattheiredges;oftencausedbytoomuchfertilizer,excessivesaltsinsoil,ordrought.

lime.AcalciummaterialusedtoraisethesoilpH,makingitmorealkalineandlessacid.Dolomiticlimecontainsmagnesium.

loam.Desirablesoiltexturewithabalanceofabout2/5sand,2/5silt,and1/5clayparticles;looselyusedtorefertogoodsoil.

microclimate.Alocalizedareawithenvironmentalconditionsdifferentfromthoseofitssurroundings,suchasintheshelterofabuilding,onasouth-facingslope,oratthebottomofahill.

modifiedleader.1.Asystemoftrainingfruittreesthathelpstoreduce

treeheight.2.Areplacementshootthatsproutswhenthecentralleaderiscutoff.

monoecious.Havingseparatemaleandfemaleflowers(imperfectflowers)borneonthesameplant.

mulch.Anorganicmaterialsuchaspineneedlesorwoodchipsusedonthesoilaroundplantstohelpconservemoisture,controlweeds,andkeepsoilscooler.

mummy.Afruitthatisshriveledanddarkwithdryrot,asfromtheblackrotfungus.

nematode.Amicroscopic,wormlikeorganism,alsocalledeelwormorroundworm.Beneficialnematodesaredecomposersthatspeedupthedecayoforganicmatter,orprovidenaturalpestcontrol.Otherspeciesareharmful,suchastherootknotnematodesthatattackplantroots(especiallystrawberries),causingimpairedgrowthordeath.

node.Partofthestem(oftenthickened)whereleavesorotherstemsjoin;thelocationofleafaxils,lateralbuds.

nut.Asingle-seededfruitenclosedinahard,woodycasingthatmustberemovedbeforeeating.Pecansandwalnutsareexamples.

opencenter.Amethodoftrainingtreesinwhichcentralbranchesareprunedaway,creatingavaseshape,toallowmorelightintothecenter.

organicmatter.Thepartofthesoilmadeupofcarbon-containingsubstancessuchasdecayedleavesandpeatmoss;importanttofeedsoilmicroorganismsandcreategoodsoils.

ovary.Theswollenbaseofthefemalepartoftheflower(pistil),whichdevelopsintothefruit.

overbearing.Thepropensityofsomefruittrees,especiallysomedwarfcultivars,tobeartoomuchfruittoosoon,beforetheyarefullygrownandhavesufficientrootstosupporttheirtopgrowthandfruiting.Unlesscheckedbyremovingorthinningfruitinearlyyears,itcanleadtoweakenedtrees.

own-root.Referstoseedlings,plantsnotgraftedontoarootstock.Moststandardfruittreesaregrownontheirownroots.

perennial.Aplantthatgrowsformorethan2years(ifhardy),producingnewgrowtheachyear.Usuallydescribesplantsthatdie

backtotheground,thenregrowinspring.perfectflower.Onethathasbothmaleandfemaleparts(bisexual);comparetoimperfectflower.

pH.Thescaleusedtomeasureacidity.Areadingof7.0isneutral;lowervaluesareacidicandhighervaluesindicatealkaline.SoilpHaffectstheavailabilityofnutrientstoplants.

phenology.Thestudyofthestagesofplantdevelopment(usuallyleavesandflowersandfruit)thatvarywithseasonandclimate.Recognizingphenologicalstagesisimportantforcontrollingfruitpestsanddiseases.

pheromone.Achemicalaninsectusestoattractanother,suchasthepowerfulchemicalsfemalesusetoattractmales.Syntheticpheromonesareusedinpestcontroltodisruptmatingortolurepestsintotraps.

physiological.Referstoproblemscausedbyanenvironmentalcondition,notbyadiseaseorganism.Examplesarebrownedleavesfromtoomuchfertilizerandfrostinjurytoflowerbuds.Alsocalledabiotic,todistinguishfromproblemswithabiologicalcause.

pinching.Removingthetipofadevelopingshoot,especiallyverytendergrowththatcanberemovedwithfingertips.

pit.Thehardenedcentralcasingaroundaseed,asincherries,peaches,andplums(botanicallyapyrene).Maybecalledastone,asinastonefruit.

pollen.Thefinepowderorgrainsonthemaleportionofflowers(anthers)containingmalecellsthatfertilizeflowerstomakeseeds(andthereforethefruitthatsurroundstheseeds).Pollenisusuallyorangeoryellow.

pollenizer.Aplantorcultivarthatproducespollencapableoffertilizinganotherplantorcultivarforsuccessfulcross-pollinationandfruitproduction.

pollinate.Totransfermalecells(containedinpollen)fromoneflowertoanother,generallyonadifferentplant;importantwithmanyfruits.Pollinationistheprocess.

pollinator.Theagentthattransferspollenamongflowers—beesandotherinsects,wind,ahuman—tobringaboutcross-pollination.

pome(pomefruit).Atypeoffruit,suchasanapple,withafleshylayersurroundingacorecontainingseveralseeds.

precocious.Bearingfruitatayoungagerelativetootherplants.(Thenounisprecocity.)

primocane.Afirst-yearcaneorstemofabramble,whichdoesn’tbearfruit;comparetofloricane.(First-yearcanesoffall-bearingcultivarsdobearfruit,sothesearesometimescalledprimocane-bearingcultivars.)receptacle.Seecore.

renewalpruning.Removingolderstems,usuallyatleast2yearsold,topromotenewshootsandgrowth.Examplesareremovingshootsofcurrantsmorethan3yearsoldandremovinglimbsofoldappletrees.

renewalspur.Ongrapes,acanecutbacktoacoupleofbudsinordertoproducethefuturecanes(renewalcanes)forthefollowingyear.

rootstock.Theplantontowhichanotherisbuddedorgraftedtoimpartvigor,hardiness,height,orothertraits;alsocalledunderstock.

runner.Onstrawberries,astemcomingoffthemainplantfromwhichanewplantwillariseatthetips.Alsocalledastolon.

russet.Areddishbrownrougheningofskinthatoccursnaturallyonsomeapplesandpears(resemblingtheskinofarussetpotato).Russetingcanalsobecausedbyinjurytofruit(asfromachemicalburn).

sanitation.Theremovalofinjuredordiseasedbranchesandfallenleavesandfruittoeliminatesiteswhereinsectsanddiseasescouldliveoroverwinter.Mowinggrassyareasandweedingaroundplantsarealsopartofgoodsanitation.

scaffold.Amainorprimarybranchoffatreetrunkthathelpsformthecanopyandfromwhichmayariselateralbranches.Importantintrainingfruittreestoastrongstructure.

scion.Thepartofaplant(usuallyasmallstemsection)thatisgraftedontoanotherplant(rootstock).

seedling.Aplantgrownfromseed(sexualpropagation)ratherthanfromagraftorcutting.

self-fertile.Aplantthatisabletopollinateitselfandthusbearfruitwithoutcross-pollination.Aself-fertileplantmayhavemaleandfemalepartsinthesameflower,orbearseparatemaleandfemale

flowersonthesameplant.Alsocalledself-fruitful.self-sterile.Aplantthatcan’tpollinateitselfandthusneedsanotherplantforcross-pollinationinordertobearfruit;theoppositeofself-fertile.

shoot.Thegreengrowththatarisesfromabud;canbeonbranches,trunks,canes,orotherplantparts.Ashootproducesleavesandmayalsoproducefruit.

side-dress.Toaddcompostorfertilizeralongthesideofarowofplants.

skeletonize.Theactbyaninsectsuchasasawflylarvawherebyiteatsleaftissuebetweentheveins,leavingaskeletonlikeappearance.

soakerhose.Apermeablehosethroughwhichwaterdripsalongitslengthtoprovidewateratthebaseofplants.Seealsodripirrigation.

soiltype.Seesoiltexture.soiltexture.Theproportionorratioofsizesofsoilparticles(sand,silt,andclay);seeloam,forexample.Sometimesincorrectlycalledsoiltype,butthatreferstoamoreelaborateclassificationofsoils.

splitting.Seecracking.sport.Amutationwithaparticularcharacteristicsuchasfruitcolor,treeshape,orleafvariegation.Seealsostrain.

spur.Astubbysidebranchoffalateralorscaffoldbranchthatbearsfruit.Commoninapples(somecultivars,suchas‘Delicious’,areavailableinbothspurandnon-spurtypes)andcherries;ingrapes,acanecutbacktousuallyoneortwobudstoproducethefruit.

spurpruning.Asystemforpruninggrapesinwhichfruitingcanesarecutbackeachwinter,leavingonlytwoorthreebudsoneachspur,andleavingthemainbranches(cordons)alongwires.

stolon.Seerunner.stonefruit.Seepitanddrupe.strain.Amutation(sport)ofaplantvarietythatispropagatedasaclone(vegetatively)tomaintaindesirablecharacteristicssuchasfruitcolor,treeshape,andleafvariegation.Allthevariantsof‘RedDelicious’and‘McIntosh’arestrains—differentfromeachotherbutnotenoughtobeconsidereddifferentvarietiesorcultivars.

strig.Adelicate,droopingflowerstemseveralincheslong,oncurrantsandgooseberries.Also,thefruitclusterontheseplants.

sucker.Ashootarisingfromundergroundstemsorroots.Suckersmaybedesirableonspreadingplants,buttheycanbeaproblemiftheysproutfromtherootstockofagraftedorbuddedplant.Suckersmayalsoarisefromthebaseofatreetrunk;seewatersprout.

tendril.Amodifiedcurlingshootthatsomevinessuchasgrapesusetoattachtoandhangontoawireortrellis.Atendrilarisesoppositealeafonastem.

thinning.1.Removingorpruningoutbranchesinordertoallowmorelightandaircirculationwithinaplantcanopy.2.Typeofpruningcutinwhichawholelimbisremovedatitspointoforiginratherthanbeingcutback(headingback).3.Removingsomeimmaturefruitinordertoenableremainingonestogrowlarger.

tissueculture.Thepropagationofaplantstartingwithonlyafewcellsorapieceoftissuegrowninasterilemediumofgrowthsubstancesandhormones.

top-dress.Toaddcompostorfertilizertothesoilsurfacearoundplants.type.Avaguetermthatmayrefertotreesize(dwarf,semidwarf)oruse(suchascookingordessertapples).Whenusedwithacultivar,itgenerallyreferstoasportormutationofaparticularcultivarthathasbeenselectedforbetterfruitcolor,fruitshapeortexture,oranothertraitsuchasdiseaseresistance.

understock.Seerootstock.variety.Abotanicaldesignationforcloselyrelatedplantswithinaspeciesthatsharesimilaratraitsuchasfloweringorgrowthhabit.Commonlybutincorrectlyappliedtocultivarsthatarisefrom,oraremaintainedthrough,humanaction.

vegetativegrowth.Thenonfloweringgrowthofstemsandleaves.vegetativepropagation.Creatingidenticalplants(clones)usinganasexualmethodsuchastissuecultureorcutting,amethodthatdoesnotinvolveseedsandthecombinationofmaleandfemalecells.Seealsoasexualpropagation.

veraison.Thestageofgraperipeningwhenberriesbegincoloringandsoftening.

vigor.Theamountandrateofgrowth.Plantvigorvariesamongcultivarsandisalsoaffectedbysuchgrowingconditionsassoilfertility.

watersprout.Avigorousuprightstemthatsproutsfromabranch,oftenjustbelowamajorpruningcut;seesucker.

whip.Ayoungtreewithonlyacentralstem;sidebranchesprunedawaytopromotevigorousupwardgrowth.

USDAPlantHardinessZoneMap

Hardinesszonesareareasthatsharesimilarwintertemperatures.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)createdthismap(updated1990)togivegardenersatoolforselectingappropriateplantsfortheirclimate.Azoneonthismapsharesthesameaverageminimumwintertemperature.Zone1isthecoldest;Zone4represents–20°to–30°Finwinter.www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone

Resources

SourcesandResources

Don’tforgettocheckyourownlocalnurseries.Oftennurseriesareexcellentsourcesofinformationinadditiontoplants.Therearemanyothersourcessuchascompletegardenstores;thosebelowmainlyspecializeinorhaveaverylargeselectionoffruit.Ifawebsitedoesn’twork,tryasearchusingthebusinessname.

RegionalInformation

CooperativeExtensionSystemNationalInstituteofFoodandAgriculturewww.csrees.usda.gov/Extension

NORTHEASTCornellGardeningResources,FruitCornellUniversitywww.gardening.cornell.edu/fruit

MID-ATLANTICFruitProductionfortheHomeGardenerPennsylvaniaStateUniversityhttp://ssfruit.cas.psu.edu

MIDWESTOhiolineYard&Garden,FruitOhioStateUniversityhttp://ohioline.osu.edu/lines/fruit.html

SOUTHSmallFruitsClemsonCooperativeExtensionClemsonUniversitywww.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/small_fruits

WESTExtensionandExperimentStationCommunicationsOregonStateUniversityhttp://extension.oregonstate.edu/catalog

GeneralInternetResources

Someofthefollowingmayofferprintedpublicationsaswell.

AmericanPomologicalSocietyhttp://americanpomological.orgSince1848,membership,publications

DaveWilsonNurserywww.davewilson.comWholesale,butextensiveinformationandfruitandnuttreedescriptions

HomeFruitGrowingwww.homefruitgrowing.info

HomeOrchardSociety,Inc.www.homeorchardsociety.org

NorthAmericanFruitExplorerswww.nafex.org

NorthwestBerry&GrapeInformationNetworkhttp://berrygrape.orgMainlycommercial,butsomegoodhomegardeninformation

SandyBarRanch&Nurserywww.sandybarnursery.comNoplantsbutgoodinformation;listofapplesforsouthernCalifornia

Nurseries

Manyofthesecarryawideselectionofberries,trees,andminorfruits.Mostalsosellorchardequipmentandotherfruitgrowingsupplies.

Aaron’sNursery888-652-7939

www.aaronsfarm.com

AdamsCountyNursery,Inc.717-677-8105www.acnursery.comFruittrees

AppleArtEspalier707-795-0919www.appleart.comApples,pears,otherespaliers

BayLaurelNursery805-466-3406www.baylaurelnursery.com

BottomsNursery770-884-5661www.bottomsnursery.comSpecialtyismuscadinegrapes

BurgessSeed&PlantCo.309-662-7761www.eburgess.com

BurntRidgeNursery&OrchardsInc.360-985-2873www.burntridgenursery.com

ChestnutHillTreeFarm800-669-2067www.chestnuthilltreefarm.comLow-chillfruits,chestnuts

CloudMountainFarm360-966-5859www.cloudmountainfarm.com

CumminsNursery607-592-2801

www.cumminsnursery.comFruittrees,unusualcultivars,customgrafting

DaisyFarms269-782-6321www.daisyfarms.netSmallfruits

EdibleLandscaping800-524-4156www.ediblelandscaping.comManyunusualcultivars

England’sOrchardandNursery606-965-2228www.nuttrees.netFruit,nuttrees

FedcoSeeds,Inc.207-873-7333www.fedcoseeds.comFruitplantsandsupplies

ForestFarm541-846-7269www.forestfarm.com

G.W.AllenNurseryLtd.902-678-7519www.gwallennursery.com

Grandpa’sOrchard877-800-0077www.grandpasorchard.comTreefruits

GreenBarnNursery514-646-1340www.greenbarnnursery.caFruitsforcoldclimates,permaculture;onlyshipsinCanada

GreenmantleNursery707-986-7504www.greenmantlenursery.comHeirlooms,applespecialty

Gurney’sSeed&NurseryCo.513-354-1492www.gurneys.com

Hartman’sFruitTreeNursery253-848-1484www.hartmannursery.com

Hartmann’sPlantCompany269-253-4281www.hartmannsplantcompany.comManyunusualcultivars,berries

HenryField’sSeed&NurseryCo.513-354-1495www.henryfields.com

HenryLeuthardtNurseries,Inc.631-878-1387www.henryleuthardtnurseries.comEspalieredfruit

HiddenSpringsNursery931-268-2592www.hiddenspringsnursery.comManyunusualcultivars

IndianaBerry&PlantCo.800-295-2226www.indianaberry.com

Ison’sNursery800-733-0324www.isons.comMuscadinegrapesaspecialty

JohnsonNursery,Inc.888-276-3187www.johnsonnursery.comManytypesoffruits,alsopecans

JustFruitsandExotics850-926-5644www.justfruitsandexotics.com

MapleValleyOrchards&Nursery920-842-2904www.maplevalleyorchards.comApples,pears,plums,heirlooms,scionwoodforgrafting

MidCityNursery,Inc.707-642-4167www.midcitynursery.com

MillerNurseries800-836-9630www.millernurseries.comManyfruits,includinggrapes

NourseFarms413-665-2658www.noursefarms.comSmallfruits

OikosTreeCrops269-624-6233www.oikostreecrops.comEdiblenatives,seed-propagated,less-commonfruits

OneGreenWorld877-353-4028www.onegreenworld.comManyunusualfruits

PenseNursery479-369-2494

www.alcasoft.com/penseBerries,grapes

RaintreeNursery800-391-8892www.raintreenursery.comManyunusualfruitsandcultivars

RollingRiverNursery530-627-3120www.rollingrivernursery.comOrganic,fruitsbothtemperateandtropical,nuts

SimmonsPlantFarm479-369-2345www.simmonsplantfarm.comBerries

SouthmeadowFruitGardens269-422-2411www.southmeadowfruitgardens.com

SpringHillNurseries513-354-1510www.springhillnursery.com

St.LawrenceNurseries315-265-6710www.sln.potsdam.ny.usGreatforcoldclimates

StarkBro’sNurseries&OrchardsCo.800-325-4180www.starkbros.com

TreesofAntiquity805-467-9909www.treesofantiquity.comFruits,heirloomfruittrees,manyorganic

TyTyNursery888-811-9132www.tytyga.comNutstoo

WhitmanFarms503-585-8728www.whitmanfarms.comNuts,somehard-to-findfruits

WillisOrchardCo.866-586-6283www.willisorchards.com

WoodstockNursery888-803-8733www.wallace-woodstock.com

AppleInformation

AllAboutAppleswww.allaboutapples.com

AppleSources

AppleLusciousOrganicOrchards250-653-2007www.appleluscious.comWhipsandapplestoeat,shippedinCanada

Applesource800-588-3854www.applesource.comApplestoeat,applefruittools

BigHorseCreekFarmoldapple@bighorsecreekfarm.comwww.bighorsecreekfarm.comSouthernheirlooms

StrawberryInformation

CaliforniaStrawberryCommissionwww.calstrawberry.comStrawberryrecipes

FraisesdesBoiswww.fraisesdesbois.comAlpinestrawberryinformation

“Strawberries:SafeMethodstoStore,Preserve,andEnjoy”UniversityofCalifornia,DivisionofAgricultureandNaturalResources.ANRPublication8256,byLindaJ.HarrisandElizabethMitcham,2007http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8256.pdf

StrawberrySources

KrohnePlantFarms,Inc.269-424-5423www.krohneplantfarms.com

SakumaBros.Farms,Inc.360-542-1299http://shop.sakumabros.com

TheStrawberryStorewww.thestrawberrystore.comAlpine,heirloom

StrawberryTymeFarms,Inc.519-426-3099www.strawberrytyme.com

BlueberryInformation

CooperativeExtension:Maine’sNativeWildBlueberriesUniversityofMainewww.wildblueberries.maine.edu

U.S.HighbushBlueberryCouncilwww.blueberry.org

WildBlueberryAssociationofNorthAmericawww.wildblueberries.com

BlueberrySources

BluegrassBlueberries270-432-5836www.angelfire.com/biz/kyblueberry

DeGrandchampFarms888-483-7431www.degrandchamps.com

DiMeoFarms609-561-5905www.dimeofarms.com

FinchBlueberryNursery800-245-4662www.danfinch.com/berrys.htm

JerichoCroftFarmandNursery270-908-0703www.blueberrycroft.com

WatersBlueberryFarmTrueVineRanch913-441-0005www.watersblueberryfarm.com

InformationonBrambles

OregonRaspberry&BlackberryCommissionwww.oregon-berries.com

BramblesSources

BrambleBerryFarm479-369-1705www.alcasoft.com/winfrey

BurnsideGreenhouse&BerryFarmShadoanEnterprises,Inc.606-561-4884http://somersetflorist.net

GrapeInformation

ColdHardyGrapesUniversityofMinnesotawww.grapes.umn.edu

NationalGrapeRegistryhttp://ngr.ucdavis.eduExtensivecultivarlisting

UCIntegratedViticultureUniversityofCaliforniahttp://groups.ucanr.org/iv/

GrapeSources

CaliforniaRootstock800-595-3754www.californiarootstock.com

DoubleAVineyards716-672-8493www.rakgrape.com

EcceVineyards&Nursery763-498-4782www.eccevines.com

GraftedGrapevineNursery,LLC315-462-3288www.graftedgrapevines.com

GreatRiverVineyard/Nursery877-345-3531www.greatrivervineyard.comCold-hardy,Minnesotacultivars

HermannJ.WeimerVineyard800-371-7971www.wiemer.com

LonJ.Rombough503-678-1410www.bunchgrapes.comGrapecuttings

NortheasternVineSupply802-287-9311www.nevinesupply.com

RedDogVineyardsandGrapevineNursery515-577-4192www.reddogvineyards.com

WinterhavenVineyard&Nursery507-234-5469www.winterhavengrapevines.com

InformationonNuts

NorthernNutGrowersAssociation,Inc.www.nutgrowing.org

AgriculturalResearchServicePecanBreedingProgramhttp://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/CARYAPecancultivars

NutsSources

GrimoNutNursery905-934-6887www.grimonut.com

NolinRiverNutTreeNursery270-369-8551www.nolinnursery.com

Rhora’sNutFarmandNursery

905-899-3508www.nuttrees.comAlsosomeminorfruits

InformationonOtherFruits

CaliforniaRareFruitGrowerswww.crfg.org

CenterforNewCrops&PlantProductsPurdueUniversitywww.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop

Elderberries.comhttp://elderberries.ning.com

InternationalWildHuckleberryAssociationhttp://wildhuckleberry.com

KSUPawpawProgramKentuckyStateUniversitywww.pawpaw.kysu.edu

OtherFruitSources

BlossomNurserywww.blossomnursery.comPawpaws

McGinnisBerryCrops250-338-8200www.berrycrops.netGooseberries,currants

TrippleBrookFarm413-527-4626www.tripplebrookfarm.comLesscommonfruits

SuppliesandEquipment

Inadditiontothesourceslistedhere,manynurseriesandsomegardeningretailers,bothlocalandonline,sellproductsofusetofruitgrowers.

AllSeasonsHomesteadHelpers,Inc.800-649-9147www.homesteadhelpers.com

A.M.Leonard,Inc.800-543-8955http://amleo.com

CanningSupplyDivisionofKitchenKrafts888-612-1950www.canningsupply.com

FertileGarden800-373-3880http://fertilegarden.comOrganicsupplies

GardensAlive!513-354-1482www.gardensalive.com

GemplersDivisionofGHCSpecialtyBrands,LLC800-382-8473www.gemplers.com

HomesteadHarvest877-300-3427www.homesteadharvest.com

Hydro-Gardens888-693-0578www.hydro-gardens.com

MidwestVineyardSupply,Inc.

217-864-9896www.midwestvineyardsupply.com

Oesco,Inc.800-634-5557www.oescoinc.com

InteriorPhotographyCredits(bypagenumber)

1.©EwaBrozek/iStockphoto.com2.©ElkeBorkowski/GAPPhotos5.almond©JillFromer/iStockphoto.com;apple©DeanTurner/iStockphoto.com;blueberry©EwaBrozek/iStockphoto.com;strawberry©RosemaryCalvert/GettyImages6.blackberry©FrankLukasseck/GettyImages;gooseberry©ValentynVolkov/iStockphoto.com;pear©NicholasEveleigh/GettyImages;raspberry©VitaliyPakhnyushchyy/iStockphoto.com7.cherries©Julia&VicPigula/GAPPhotos;peach©SusanTrigg2009/GettyImages;plum©EwaBrozek/iStockphoto.com;walnut©KevinDyer/iStockphoto.com10.©AngelaWyant/GettyImages;(inset)©BryanMullennix/GettyImages11.©RosemaryCalvert/GettyImages

12.©JonathanBuckley-EastRustonOldVicarage,Norfolk13.©KevinDyer/iStockphoto.com

15.©RosemaryKautzky16.©RosemaryKautzky17.©JonathanBuckley,designbyIsobelGillan/AlanTitchmarsh18.©JonathanBuckley-ChatsworthHouse,Derbyshire19.(top)©JonathanBuckley,(bottom)©JonathanBuckley,designbyMarkBrown-AmericanImpressionistsGarden,Giverny21.©VisualsUnlimited,Inc./Robert&JeanPollock/GettyImages22.©EdDarack/GettyImages

23.(left)©CosmoCondina/GettyImages;(right)©Heidi&Hans-JuergenKoch/MindenPictures24.©ZaraNapier/GAPPhotos

25.©UrosPetrovic/iStockphoto.com28.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto33.©JohnGruen36.©JonathanBuckley37.©MayyaMurenko/iStockphoto.com38.©RachelWarne/GAPPhotos

40.©JonathanBuckley41.©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven42.©PaulViant/GettyImages43.©JonathanBuckley-GreatDixter,EastSussex44.©JonathanBuckley

45.©JonathanBuckley,recipebySophieBurnside-ChatsworthHouse,Derbyshire46.©DianeMacDonald/GettyImages;(inset)©DennisGottlieb/GettyImages47.©ValentynVolkov/iStockphoto.com

48.©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven49.©MarilynBarbone/iStockphoto.com55.©JonathanBuckley57.©JonathanBuckley,designbyPatriciaFox-RHSChelseaFlowerShow59.(left)©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos;(right)©MelWatson/GAPPhotos60.©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven

61.©JonathanBuckley62.©JonathanBuckley63.©VitaliyPakhnyushchyy/iStockphoto.com64.(left)©JonathanBuckley;(right)©GillesDelacroix/agefotostock.com65.(left)©CathleenAlbers-Kimball/iStockphoto.com;(right)©KurtTysinger66.©JonathanBuckley

68.©JonathanBuckley,demonstratedbyAlanTitchmarsh73.SusanEllis,Bugwood.org

74.©JonathanBuckley76.©VictoriaFirmston/GAPPhotos77.©ErminGuttenberger/iStockphoto.com78.(left)©AGStock/Alamy;(right)©CuboImagessrl/Alamy80.©JohnEwing

84.(left)©CustomLifeSciencesImages/Alamy;(right)©RosemaryKautzky86.©BillJohnson

88.©JonathanBuckley

89.©ValentynVolkov/iStockphoto.com90.(top)©HoekanJansson/GettyImages;(bottom)©JonathanBuckley91.©imagebroker/Alamy

92.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto93.(left)©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos;(right)©PaulDeBois/GAPPhotos95.©KeithBurdett/GAPPhotos

96.©JonathanBuckley98.(left)©RosemaryKautzky;(right©KonstantinMikhailov/NPL/MindenPictures99.(left)©PawelGarski/Alamy;(right)©RosemaryKautzky100.©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven

101.©Lezh/iStockphoto.com103.(topleft)©JerryPavia;(topright)©VitalyLibo/123RF.com;(bottomleft)©JonathanBuckley;(bottomright)©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto104.©RosemaryKautzky

109.©JonathanBuckley113.(left)UniversityofGeorgiaPlantPathologyArchive,UniversityofGeorgia,Bugwood.org;(right)ClemsonUniversity-USDACooperativeExtensionSlideSeries,Bugwood.org114.NatashaWright,FloridaDepartmentofAgricultureandConsumerServices,Bugwood.org115.(topleft)MarsVilaubi;(topright)©NigelCattlin/Alamy;(bottomleft)©RussellWarris/iStockphoto.com;(bottomright)©EmilyNorton/iStockphoto.com116.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto

117.©JulietteWade/GAPPhotos120.©D.Hurst/Alamy121.©LeeReich122.©house_red/iStockphoto.com;(inset)©2009itsabreezephotography/GettyImages/FlickrRF

123.©GevorgGevorgyan/iStockphoto.com124.©JonathanBuckley125.©MelindaFawver/iStockphoto.com126.©JonathanBuckley128.©JonathanBuckley

135.(topleft)©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto;(topright)©NigelCattlin/Alamy;(bottomleft)©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos;(bottomright)UniversityofGeorgiaPlantPathologyArchive,UniversityofGeorgia,Bugwood.org138.©FhFGreenmedia/GAPPhotos139.(top)©EmmelineWatkins/Alamy;(bottom)©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven143.©PernillaBergdahl/GAPPhotos

144.©JonathanBuckley145.©Eddwestmacott/iStockphoto.com146–147.©RosemaryKautzky149.©JonathanBuckley-WestDeanGardens,Hampshire151.(top)©

FLPA/NigelCattlin/MindenPictures;(bottom)©AntjeSchulte-AntLife/Alamy152.©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven

155.©JonathanBuckley156.©TimGainey/GAPPhotos157.©IgorGoncharenko/iStockphoto.com158.(top)©CarolynDeAnd/iStockphoto.com;(middle)©

Natikka/iStockphoto.com;(bottomleft)©JulietteWade/GAPPhotos;(bottomright)©ChristinaBollen/GAPPhotos160.©BillJohnson

162.©FriedrichStrauss/GAPPhotos163.(left)©NigelCattlin/Alamy;(right)ClemsonUniversity-USDA

CooperativeExtensionSlideSeries,Bugwood.org164.©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven

166.©JohnGlover/GAPPhotos168.©TimGainey/GAPPhotos169.©Floortje/iStockphoto.com170.(left)©JonathanBuckley/GAPPhotos;(right)©Jonathan

Buckley,designbySarahRaven173.(left)©VictoriaThurmston/GAPPhotos;(right)©BillJohnson175.©JoWhitworth/GardenPictureLibrary/GettyImages177.(left)©FrankLukasseck/GettyImages;(right)©EdYoung/agefotostock.com179.©EdwinRemsberg

180.©JohnGlover/GAPPhotos181.©RedHelga/iStockphoto.com

182.(left)©JulietteWade/GAPPhotos;(right)©JohnGlover/GAPPhotos183.©CuboImagessrl/Alamy

185.©MarkWinwood/GAPPhotos186.©BillJohnson188.(top)©FloraPress/GAPPhotos;(middle)MarsVilaubi;(bottom)JosephO’Brien,USDAForestService,Bugwood.org191.(top)©JonathanBuckley,designbySarahRaven;(bottom)©FloraPress/GAPPhotos193.©BillJohnson

194.(left)©Imagewerks/GettyImages;(right)©SkyeHoffmann/Alamy195.(left)©JerryPavia;(right)©ElkeBorkowski/GAPPhotos196.(left)©HowardRic/GAPPhotos;(right)©WILDLIFEGmbH/Alamy197.(left)©VisualsUnlimited,Ltd./IngaSpence/GettyImages;(right)©MaddieThornhill/GAPPhotos198.©JonathanBuckley

199.©AndreyStenkin/iStockphoto.com201.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto202.©JonathanBuckley203.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto204.(left)©BillJohnson;(right)©JonathanBuckley205.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto

209.©RosemaryKautzky211.©JonathanBuckley212.©jasmina/iStockphoto.com;(inset)©MehmetHilmiBarcin/iStockphoto.com213.©Floortje/iStockphoto.com

214.©JonathanBuckley215.©FloreaMariusCatalin/iStockphoto.com218.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto219.©MichaelHowes/GAPPhotos220.©RosemaryKautzky222.©JosephDeSciose226.©RosemaryKautzky229.©JonathanBuckley231.©JerryPavia

232.©RonEvans/GAPPhotos233.©DonNichols/iStockphoto.com238.©RosemaryKautzky239.©JoshuaMcCullough,PhytoPhoto240.©HowardRice/GAPPhotos241.©Floortje/iStockphoto.com243.©BBCMagazinesLtd./GAPPhotos244.©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos253.©JonathanBuckley-PerchHill,EastSussex255.©Jonathan

Buckley-GreatDixter,EastSussex256.(left)©RosemaryKautzky;(topright)©FriedrichStrauss/GAPPhotos;(center)©JohnGlover/GAPPhotos;(bottomright)©MichaelHowes/GAPPhotos260.©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos

261.©BorutTrdina/iStockphoto.com263.©AnneGreen-Armytage/GAPPhotos264.©PernillaBergdahl/GAPPhotos265.JosephBerger,Bugwood.org267.(left)WilliamM.BrownJr.,Bugwood.org;(right)©

lucielang/iStockphoto.com269.(top)CharlesDrake,VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity,Bugwood.org;(bottom)©BillJohnson270.(top)©NeilHolmes/GAPPhotos;(middle)©GeoffKidd/GAPPhotos;(bottom)©FLPA/NigelCattlin/MindenPictures271.(top)ScottBauer,USDAAgriculturalResearchService,Bugwood.org;(bottom)ClemsonUniversity-USDACooperativeExtensionSlideSeries,Bugwood.org272.(top)BrianPerchtel,Bugwood.org;(middle)N.S.Luepschen,Bugwood.org;(bottom)©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos273.H.J.Larsen,Bugwood.org

276.©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos277.(all)©BillJohnson278.(left)©PaulDeBois/GAPPhotos;(right)©BillJohnson279.(top)

©BillJohnson;(middle)ClemsonUniversity-USDACooperativeExtensionSlideSeries,Bugwood.org;(bottom)EugeneE.Nelson,Bugwood.org280.(topleft)©BillJohnson;(topright)©GeoffduFeu/GAPPhotos;(bottom)©DaveBevan/GAPPhotos281.(top,

middle)©BillJohnson;(bottom)PennsylvaniaDepartmentofConservationandNaturalResources-ForestryArchive,Bugwood.org284.(left)©Photonic4/Alamy;(right)PeggyGreb/USDAARS

285.MarsVilaubi292.©DesignPicsRf/GettyImages293.©EricIsselée/iStockphoto.com294.©GeoffKidd/GAPPhotos295.©RosemaryKautzky

Index

Pagereferencesinitalicsindicatephotosorillustrations;pagereferencesinboldindicatecharts.

AAmelanchieralnifolia.SeesaskatoonAmericanpersimmon(Diospyrosvirginiana),197,197animals.Seewildlifeapplecultivars,140–41backyardgrowing,138‘Baldwin’,127–28,136,139choosing,137–43‘Cortland’,42,136,137,139‘Cox’sOrangePippin’,126,126crabapples,143,143,143‘CrimsonSpurRedDelicious’,131culturaladaptation,138‘Delicious’,33,136,138‘EgremontRusset’,126‘Empire’,127,137,138,139‘Fuji’,138‘Gala’,138‘GoldenDelicious’,127,137,138,139‘GoldenRusset’,132‘GrannySmith’,27,33,126,137‘Gravenstein’,136‘Greening’,139heirlooms,11,138,138

‘IdaRed’,139‘Jonagold’,126,127,139‘Jonathan’,126,127,136,138,138,139‘Liberty’,21,127,138low-chill/warmclimates,142‘Macoun’,138‘McIntosh’,27,126,136,137,138,139‘Mutsu’,127‘NorthernSpy’,132,136,137‘RedDelicious’,137,139‘Rome’,137‘Russet’,139tasteanduse,139,139‘Tolman’,139type,138‘Wealthy’,136‘Winesap’,127,136,137

applesandcrabapples(Malus,spp.),124,124–43choosing,tipsfor,127climates,choicesfor,126,126–28espaliered,255,255factson,127fruitvolumepertree,137growing,tipsfor,131harvesting/storing,136–37insectsanddiseases,134–36,135organicsprayschedule,134planting/staking,130–31pollinationmatters,127–28,128pruning,131,131–33,133ripeness,determining,43

rootstocks,understanding,129,129–30spur-vs.non-spur-type,131,131–32standard,semidwarf,ordwarf,129–30

Appleseed,Johnny,21apricots.Seepeaches/nectarines/apricotsArborDay,233arbors/pergolas/trellises,15–16,16grapeson,107pearson,149,149

Aroniaspp.SeechokeberriesAsiminatriloba.Seepawpaw

B“balled-and-burlapped”treescarebeforeplanting,33,33,234,234–35plantselectionand,31

bare-rootplants,31,234,234–35beachplum(Prunusmaritima),179,179bedsandborders,15–16bees,22,22–23,23beneficialinsects,264–65groundbeetles,264lacewings,264ladybugs,265parasitoids,265prayingmantis,265syrphidflies,265,265truebugs,265wildflowersand,263,263

birds,outwitting,298–99,299forblueberries,84,85

forcherries,188,189forstrawberries,57,58,58

“bloom,”40,41,176blueberries(Vacciniumspp.),76,76–87,86birds,insects,diseasesand,84,84–85cultivars,87‘Earliblue’,81factson,79ataglance,80growing,tipsfor,81growingincontainers,82harvesting,85‘Jersey’,81lowbush(V.angustifolium),78,78‘Brunswick’,78‘RubyCarpet’,78‘TopHat’,82

northernhighbush(V.corymbosum),78,78,83planting,81–82pruning,83,83rabbiteye(V.ashei),78,78,83ripeness,determining,43soilrequirements/pH,79–81,80,84,84,85southernhighbush,79upkeep,annual,82forvariousregions,78,78–79‘Well’sDelight’,81

brambles(raspberriesandblackberries),63–75bare-rootplants,67,67blackberries(Rubusspp.),62,62,65–66‘Darrow’,66

less-commonrelativesof,66trailingtypes,66,71

cultivars,75diseasesof,72–73factson,65gettingtoknowthe,64,64–66,65,66groundpreparation/planting,67–68,68growing,tipsfor,71harvestingfruits,74,74insectsand,73,73lesserknown,66mulching/weedcontrol,68plantandsiteselection,67pruning,essential,70,70–72,72raspberries(Rubusspp.),64–65black(Rubusoccidentalis)“blackcaps,”64,65‘Brandywine’,65less-commonrelativesof,66,66red(Rubusidaeus),24,64,64‘Royalty’,65

ripeness,determining,43supportingplants,69,69

bushfruits.Seeribes/elderberries/bushfruits

Ccanningfruit,45,45centralleadertrainingsystem,244,245,246,247cherries(Prunusspp.),180–92birds,insects,diseasesand,188,188–90,189branchesof,training,187,187bush,183–85,187

interspeciescrosses,184–85Nankingcherry(P.tomentosa),183,183,184westernsandcherry(P.besseyi),184

cultivars,192factson,183growing,tipsfor,190harvesting/processing,191,191plantingandcarefor,186–90pollinationmatters,185,185pruning,bytype,186,186–87ripeness,determining,43rootstocks,184sour(P.cerasus),182,182–83,185,187Amerelle/Morellotypes,183

standard,semidwarf,ordwarf,184sweet(P.avium),182,182,185,187heart/Bigarreautypes,182‘Sweetheart’,185,185

chillinghours,35Chinesedate(Ziziphusjujuba),194,194chokeberries(Aroniaspp.),98,98climate,18,123.Seealsofrost;zonemapchillinghours,35plantselectionand,47

columnartreesdefined,35pillarpeaches,160

compost,makeyourown,228,228–31,229,231tipsfor,230troubleshooting,229–30

containers,16–17

crabapples.Seeapplesandcrabapplescross-pollination,19,19–20cultivar(s).Seealsonuts;specificfruitchoosing,33defined,35

currants.Seeribes/elderberries/bushfruits

Ddeer,295–98facts,298fencingout,296–97,297repellents,295–96

design.SeegardendesignDiospyroskaki.SeeOriental/AsianpersimmonDiospyrosvirginiana.SeeAmericanpersimmondiseases,insects,fruitproblems,260,260–91determiningwhat’swrong,265,288–91diseases,specific.Seediseases,listofdisinfectingtoolsand,273insects.Seeinsects,listofintegratedpestmanagement(IPM),287lackoffruit,268nematodes,solarizingsoiland,274,274–75,275pestcontrol,nonchemical,262–65pestcontrol,timingof,282physiologicalproblems.Seephysiologicalproblemsoffruitplantssprayingplants,283–87

diseases,listof,268–73.Seealsospecificfruitanthracnose,268,269bacterialblossomblast,268

bacterialspot,268blackknotfungus,268,269blackrot,268–69botrytis,271brownrot,269,270canker,269–70,270fireblight,270,270flyspeck,270graymold,270powderymildew,271root(crown)gall,271,272scab,271,271sootyblotch,271verticillium,271–72,272viruses,272wilt,272,272–73X-disease,273,273

dryingfruit,45,45dwarfcultivars,34–35,129,130

Eelderberries.Seeribes/elderberries/bushfruitsEriobotryajaponica.Seeloquatespalieredtrees,15,15,16,253,253–57columnartrees,35commonpatterns,254,254design,selecting,255plantingandtraining,255pruning,255,257pruningand,243,243

Ffertilizing/fertilizer,220–225“12-18rule,”224applicationof,223,223aroundtree’sdripline,222choosingfertilizers,222,224howtofertilize,221N–P–K,basicsof,220,220organic,225over-orunder-fertilized,215,266

5-in-1tree,35floricane,70flower,partsof,20,20foundationplantings,15Fragaria{x}ananassa.Seestrawberriesfreezingfruit,44,44–45frost.Seealsoclimate;zonemapappletreesand,26,26spring-frostinjury,266strawberriesand,55–56,56

fruitplantneeds,basic,18–19fruitproblems.Seediseases,insects,fruitproblems;diseases,listof;insects,listof;physiologicalproblemsoffruitplantsFruitsandBerriesfortheHomeGardener(Hill),9FruitsfortheHomeGarden(Hedrick),158fruitsinyouryard.Seealsoespalieredtreesarbors/pergolas/trellises,16bedsandborders,15–16containers,16–17foundationplantings,15groundcovers,16

screensandhedges,14,15fungicides,213,283

Ggardendesign.Seealsositeselectionnumberofplants,47startingsmall,29,29–30thinkingbig,30–31

gooseberries.Seeribes/elderberries/bushfruitsgraftedtrees,21,21,237grapes(Vitusspp.),16,16,18,18,100,100–121,103climates,choicesfor,104,104–5incontainers,growing,108cultivars,muscadines,119cultivars,table/winegrapes,118–19‘Concord’,102,103,103,104,105,113,114‘GoldenMuscat’,103,103‘Merlot’,103,103‘Niagra’,103,103

diseasesof,113,113–14European(V.vinifera),101factson,102fox(V.labrusca),101gettingtoknow,102–3growing,tipsfor,105harvesting,116,116,117insectsandanimalpests,114,114–15,115Kniffensystem,106,110,110–11,111muscadine(V.rotundifolia),101,104,104,112,112,119plantingandcarefor,108–9,109pruning,essential,110,110–12,111,112

ripeness,determining,43‘Seyval’,108,113spurpruningformuscadines,112,112supportingvines,105–7,106,107trainingoptions,106,106–7,107

groundcovers,16growinggoodfruit,17–21fruitplantneeds,basic,18–19graftedtrees,21,21pollination,processof,20,20–21singletrees,pollinationand,19–21strawberriesforanylandscape,17,17

growingplants,basics,212,212,213

Hhangingplants,17,17,57,57hardinesszone,27,28,306,306hardyfruits,choosing,27–28harvesttime.Seealsoripeness,determiningplantcareat,40–42,41timingofharvest,239,239

Hedrick,U.P.,158herbicides,283homegarden,fruits/nutsin,13,13–23fruitsinyouryard,14–17growinggoodfruit,17–21yields,spacerequirementsand,32

huckleberries,79

Iinsecticides,213,283

insects,listof,276–81.Seealsobeneficialinsects;diseases,insects,fruitproblems;specificfruitaphids,276,276borers,73,115,277,277canegirdler,114climbingcutworm,114codlingmoths,277,277earwigs,277,277fruitworms,277,277–78grapeberrymoth,114,115grapefleabeetle,114,114grasshoppers,278,278Japanesebeetles,278leafhoppers,278,278leafrollers,278,278Orientalfruitmoths,278–79,279phylloxera,115plumcurculios,279rosechafer,115,115SanJosescale,279,279sapbeetles,279–80,280sawflies,280,280spidermites,280,280–81tarnishedplantbugs,281,281tentcaterpillars/webworms,281,281thrips,281,281yellowjackets,115

integratedpestmanagement(IPM),287

JJapaneseapricot(Prunusmume),194,194

jostaberries.Seeribes/elderberries/bushfruitsjuicingfruit,45

KKilmer,Joyce,233kiwi,hardy(Actinidaarguta),120,120–21Koreanmountainash(Sorbusalnifolia),193,193

Llingonberry(Vacciniumvitis-idaea),98,98–99locationrequirements/tips,18,26,26,47loganberry,66loquat(Eriobotryajaponica),195,195“low-chill”varieties,28,28

MMalusspp.Seeapplesandcrabapplesmaypop(Passifloraincarnata),121,121medlar(Mespilusgermanica),195,195Mespilusgermanica.Seemedlarmodified-leadertraining,245,246–47Morusspp.Seemulberrymulberry(Morusspp.),196,196mulch(es)aslabor-savers,226,226–228materialsfor,227forprotection,238,238soilqualityand,217,218,218forweedcontrol,68

N

nectarines.Seepeaches/nectarines/apricotsnematodes,solarizingsoiland,274,274–75,275nutrientsources,organic,225nuts,198,198–211,211almonds(Prunusdulcis),28,28,202badhabitsoftrees,202blackwalnuts(Juglansnigra),205,205butternuts(Juglanscinerea),205,205chestnuts(Castaneaspp.),199,202,202cultivars,210factson,201fertilizingtrees,208filberts(Corylusspp.),200growing,tipsfor,200harvesting,209,209hazelnuts(Corylusspp.),122,122,200,201,201hickories(Caryaspp.),203–4nutpines(Pinusspp.),203,203pecans(Caryaillinoinenses),203–4,204plantingtrees,207–8,208pollination,207problems/possiblecauses,207pruningtrees,208siteselection,207startingfromscratch,206,206walnuts(Juglansspp.),198,198,204,204–5yields,spacerequirementsand,32

Oopen-center(vase)training,245,247,247–48organicnutrientsources,225

organicsprays,284,284–86,285Bt(Bacillusthuringiensis),284clay-basedproducts,284,284dormantoil,283,284–85garlic,285–86insecticidalsoap,286neem,286rotenoneandpyrethrum,286sabadilla,286sulfur,286

Oriental/Asianpersimmon(Diospyroskaki),197,197

Ppatentedplant,35pawpaw(Asiminatriloba),196,196peaches/nectarines/apricots,156,156–67,158,166apricotcultivars(Prunusarmeniaca),158,166‘Moongold’,160‘Sungold’,160

climateand,159cultivars,choosing,164–67diseasesandinsects,162–63,163donutpeaches,165factson,159growing,tipsfor,161harvesting,164,164nectarinecultivars(Prunuspersica),165peachcultivars(Prunuspersica),167‘IndianBlood’,165‘J.H.Hale’,160‘Peento’,158,158

pillarpeaches,160‘RedHaven’,158,158

planting,161pruning,162,162ripeness,determining,43rootstocks,160–61selectingplants,160,160–61

pears(Pyrusspp.),144,144–53,149Asian,145,146,146,148,148branchesof,training,150,150Callerypear(P.calleryana),148cooking/preserving,152,152cultivars,153diseasesandinsects,151,151espaliered,255,255European,146,146–47,148‘Anjou’,152‘Bartlett’,146,146,148,149,152‘Bosc’,146,152‘Clapp’sFavorite’,152‘Colette’,152‘Comice’,147,152‘D’Anjou’,147‘FlemishBeauty’,148‘Kieffer’,152‘Magness’,148‘RedD’Anjou’,147‘Seckel’,148,149,152

factson,147growing,tipsfor,149harvesting,152

planting,148–49pollinationmatters,148pruning,149–51ripeness,determining,43,43standardordwarf,148

pergolas.Seearbors/pergolas/trellisespestcontrol,nonchemical,262–65,263predators,natural,264,264–65,265sanitationand,262,262–63traps,263

pestcontrol,timingof,282pHofsoil,218–19physiologicalproblemsoffruitplants,266–68animaldamage,266catfacing,267,267fruitingvariesyeartoyear,267mechanicaldamage,267oilburn,267over-orunder-fertilized,266over-orunder-limed,266pitburn,267roadsalt,267,267spring-frostinjury,266suckering,excessive,267sunand,266sunscald/barksplitting,267–68waterand,266watersprouts,267

pickingfruits,tipsfor,42,42“pillartrees,”253,254,254pineappleguava(Accasellowiana),99,99

planningfruitplantings,tipsfor,27plantingbushesandtrees,232,232–39.Seealsospecificplantbestsitesfor,235carepriorto,234,234–35documentation,239fertilizing,239harvestand,239,239mulching/protection,238,238pamperingafter,237–39plantingatree,236,236plantingwellpaysoff,235–37stakingtrees,238

plumcots,177,177plums(Prunusspp.),168,168–79American(Prunusamericana),171,173,173cherryplum‘Compass’,174

climateconsiderations,172–73cultivars,178diseasesandinsects,176European(Prunusdomestica),170–71,172,175‘AURoadside’,176Damson,171,173,173,174‘GreenGage’,170,170,171,174‘Mirabelle’,171,173,173‘President’,170,170,176‘ReineClaude’,171‘Stanley’,170,174

factson,171growing,tipsfor,174

harvesting,178Japanese(Prunussalicina),171,172,175‘Methley’,174‘SantaRosa’,174,175,176

plantingandcarefor,174–76pluotsandplumcots,177,177pollinationmatters,173–74pruning,habitatand,175–76pruning,typeand,175,175rootstocks,172shapes/colors/usesfor,170,170–72,173,173thinningfruit,176watersprouts,avoiding,176wild/native,179,179

pluots,177,177pollination,19–23cross-pollination,19,19–20helpingthebees,22,23,23protectionofpollinators,38,38singletreesand,19–21

preservingfruitcanninganddrying,45,45freezing,44,44juicing,45

primocane,70protectionforplants,19pruning,213,240,240–52,258–59.Seealsoespalieredtreesbushfruitsandgrapes,244,244cuts,makingthe,250,250–51,251headingvs.thinning,242,242alotvs.alittle,251

oldtrees,reviving,258,258–59,259reasonsfor,36,36,242–43thinningfruits,257,257timingof,243,243tipsforbetter,252tools,disinfecting,273toolsfor,256,256trainingsystems,common,245–46

pruningstyles,244–50centralleadertrainingsystem,244,245,246,247maturetrees,branchremoval,249,249modified-leadertraining,245,246–47open-center(vase)training,245,247,247–48whattocutontrees,248–50foryoungtrees,245,245–46

Prunusmume.SeeJapaneseapricotPrunusspp.Seecherries;peaches/nectarines/apricots;plumsPyrusspp.Seepears

Qquince(Cydoniaoblonga),154,154,155

Rraspberries.Seebramblesregionalplantrecommendations,33ribes/elderberries/bushfruits,12,88,89–99bushfruits,cultivarsof,97bushfruits,gettingtoknow,90bushfruits,harvesting,96,96–97bushfruits,unusual,98,98–99,99

currants(Ribesspp.)black(R.nigrum),90clove(R.aureumvar.villosum),91,92,92contraband,92red(R.rubrum),90,90strigsof,96,96white,88,88

elderberries(Sambucusspp.),93,93factson,91fertilizerapplication,223,223gooseberries(Ribesspp.),12,12,89,90,90American(R.hirtellum),92European(R.uva-crispa),92

growing,tipsfor,91insectsanddiseases,95,95jostaberries(Ribesxculverwellii),90,91,91,92planting,94pruning,94–95,95ribes,gettingtoknow,90,90–92,91

ripeness,determining,41,41,43,43ripeningtimes,31rootstocks,129–30Rubusspp.Seebrambles

Ssafetyladdersand,42,42sprayingplants,285,287

Sambucusspp.Seeunderribes/elderberries/bushfruitssaskatoon(Amelanchieralnifolia),99,99scions,21,129,129

seasonalcare,fruits/nuts,36,36–45checklistofactivities,39harvesttime,40–42,41preservingfruit,44,44–45,45springcare,38–39summercare,40,40wintercare,38

semidwarfcultivars,34–35,129,130siteselectionbrambles,67fruittrees,bushes,vines,235nuts,207

soil,214,214–31acidity/alkalinity,218–19,219compostand,228,228–31,229,231driplineoftrees,222fertility,219–20fertilizerapplication,223,223fertilizerselection,222,222,224fertilizing,215,220,221–22,222layersof,216,216mulchesand,217,218,218,226,226–28,227,227N–P–K,basicsof,220,220,222,222organicallymanaged,217organicnutrientsources,225pHof,218–19,221,221preparation,fruitingplants,221–24quality,enhancing,215,217–18sand,silt,orclay,216–17subsoilsand,213

Sorbusalnifolia.SeeKoreanmountainash

space/spacingforplantsaverageyieldsand,32smallvs.largegarden,29–31

sprayingplants,213,283–87dormantoil,283,284–85equipmentfor,284,284insecticides/fungicides/herbicides,283organicsprays,284,284–86,285preventivespraying,283safetyfirst,285,287syntheticsprays,286–87

springcareforplants,38,38–39stakingtrees,238standardtrees,34–35,129storingfreshfruit,42,43,43strawberries(Fragariaxananassa),48,48–61alpine(Fragariavesca),61,61foranylandscape,17birds,insects,diseasesand,57–59,58,59catfacingon,267,267incontainers,17,17,57,57cultivarsof,60–61day-neutral,50factson,50growing,tipsfor,54harvesting,60,60hillsystem,51,52,52June-bearing,50,54,54mattedrowsystem,51,51plantingdepth,53,53removingfirstflowers,54,54

renovatingrowsof,55,55ripeness,determining,43soilpreparation,52–53weedcontrol,55winter/frostprotection,55–56,56

suckers/suckering,267summercareforplants,40,40sunlight,18syntheticsprays,286–87

Ttayberry,66,66terms,useful,35thinningfruits,40,40,257,257treefruits,unusual,193–97Americanpersimmon(Diospyrosvirginiana),197,197Chinesedate(Ziziphusjujuba),194,194Japaneseapricot(Prunusmume),194,194Koreanmountainash(Sorbusalnifolia),193,193loquat(Eriobotryajaponica),195,195medlar(Mespilusgermanica),195,195mulberry(Morusspp.),196,196Oriental/Asianpersimmon(Diospyroskaki),197,197pawpaw(Asiminatriloba),196,196

treefruitsandnuts,122,122,123.Seealsonuts;specificfruittreeguards,238,238“Trees”(Kilmer),233trellises.Seearbors/pergolas/trellises

Uunusualfruits.Seetreefruits,unusual;vinefruits,unusual

USDAPlantHardinessZoneMap,306,306

VVacciniumspp.Seeblueberriesvinefruits,unusual,120–21hardykiwi(Actinidaarguta),120,120–21maypop(Passifloraincarnata),121,121

Vitusspp.Seegrapes

Wwaterandnutrients,18,19,19watersprouts,176,267whattogrowwhere,24,24–35cultivars,choosing,33hardyfruits,choosing,27–28selectingplants,31space/spacingforplants,29–30,32standard/dwarf/semidwarf,34–35startingsmall,29,29–30thinkingbig,30,30–31

wildlife,292,292–99birds,298–99,299deer,295–98,297hazards,avoidingother,299mousedamage,preventing,294,294rabbits/porcupines/raccoons/squirrels,294–95,295

wintercareforplants,38

Yyields,spacerequirementsand,32

ZZiziphusjujuba.SeeChinesedatezonemap,27,306,306.Seealsoclimate;frost

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