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Valquíria CamposCláudio A. Oller do NascimentoJoão Paulo Burini Robles Arine

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The Coastal Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest or Mata Atlântica holds a biodiversity comparable to the amazon forest; but despite the high potential for sustainable management of several species, this biome has been systematically devastated, a process that began shortly after the arrival of the first Europeans in the 16th century (Dean 1995). Nowadays, there is increasing pressure for implementation of so-called sustainable management in protected reserves in the Atlantic Rainforest. Palm heart exploitation is still very lucrative in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest and several reserves have been harvested illegally (Galetti and Fernandez 1998). The species produces the heart of palm, locally called palmito, which is an important source of income for forest inhabitants. Because of its high market value, its short-term demands of the forest environment, and its important interactions with animal species, this palm is suitable for sustainable management and conservation purposes. Euterpeedulis is a single-stemmed palm and it is necessary to sacrifice the plant for the extraction of the heart (apical meristem or cabbage). Given that most of the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest remnants are forest inhabitants, we believe that the conservation of this biome should contemplate alternative management systems that combine species conservation and use (Reis eta al. 2000). Vale do Ribeira, for example, hosts the biggest continuous fragment of Brazil Atlantic Rainforest, a biome that has been more and more pointed as a high importance conservation one, considering its enormous biodiversity. In the other hand, Vale do Ribeira also hosts high levels of poverty and inequity in terms of job positions and income. The region has the worst social indicators of the whole Sao Paulo state. The environmental restrictions make the situation worse and the urgent need to protect these remaining fragments indicate the need of a new way of thinking for the region requiring the development of alternatives to allow the integration between social, environmental and economic issues. The same way, some premises need to be in place, although, especially due to the emblematic aspect of Euterpeedulis(Martius) poached all over the tropical rainforest.

THE OVER HARVESTING OF EUTERPEEDULIS

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1) Epiphytes are commonly seen in the forest, using other trees trunks to reach a higher height, and better luminosity2) Indigenous land of the Boracéia

The Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest consists of a typical tropical rainforest on mountain slopes, and stands out as a biodiversity hotspot for its high species richness and high level of species endemism. Perhaps more importantly than endemism, the rainforest has a pool of highly environmentally plastic species which have the capacity to colonize habitats distinctly different from their own, such as restingas and swamps. This ecological plasticity expressed in plants at these marginal habitats may be of key relevance in a global change scenario and must not be treated as a lower conservation priority. The importance of the Atlantic Rainforest is linked to its biological diversity and it is on the coastal plain that we can more easily observe the nuances of the tropical rainforest, restinga1, and mangrove swamps.

1A Restinga is a distinct type of coastal tropical and subtropical moist broad leaf forest found in Brazil. Restingas form on sandy, acidic, and nutrient-poor soils, and are characterized by medium sized trees and shrubs adapted to the drier and nutrient-poor conditions.

1. Tropical Ecosystems

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The Dense Ombrophile Forest is a typical occurrence and is characteristic of the Atlantic Rainforest, which has, over the years, passed through successive stages from primary to secondary forest, with different degrees of regeneration. The Tropical Rainforest is primarily situated on the mountain ranges close to the sea, and characterized by a bioma that grows in regions with at least 2000 mm of annual rainfall. These conditions favor the growth of broad-leaf perennial trees. This dense and heterogeneous forest is arranged in several strata, from high domed trees, at some 30 meters in height, to medium-level trees, intertwined with low-lying bushes. In this environment we find the creepers, vines and lianas wrapped around the trunks of trees, contributing to the cycle of maturation of the tropical pluvial forest.

1.1. Tropical Rain Forest 3) Alto Ribeira, PETAR4) Cotia-Pará Ecological Park, Cubatão

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In areas with remaining primary forest, the original forestry composition with uniform upper canopies can still be observed. It is vegetation with maximum structural and forestry expression, with great biological diversity and exuberance, in which the effects of anthropic activities are minimal. On the other hand, secondary forest involves different degrees of forestry regeneration; it is a representation of the bush in its initial stages, with sparse growth and heterogeneous forestry composition, and a physiognomy that indicates a constitution of low-lying herbaceous-shrubs, where epiphytes and forest-floor vegetation are practically absent. In a more advanced stage of regeneration, the arboreal physiognomy superimposes itself on the rest, forming a closed and relatively uniform canopy for its size, featuring new trees in different degrees of intensity, thus composing strata of different heights. There is a large quantity of epiphytes, and the forest-floor vegetation is abundant.

5) Alto Ribeira, PETAR6) Alto Ribeira, Santana Division

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In the state of São Paulo, the Atlantic Rainforest reigns supreme along the Atlantic coastline, especially in the southern part of the state, where it penetrates far into the hinterland. Surviving areas of forest are essentially reduced to scattered tracts, whose conservation is due largely to the difficulty of access imposed by the terrain. Most of the remaining fragments of the Atlantic Rainforest have suffered some form of anthropic interference, and the few exceptions are tracts located in areas with hilly topography, which are difficult to access (Viana, 1990). Along the São Paulo state coastline, edaphoclimatic and morphoclimatic conditions have given rise to a series of factors that have led to a rich and exuberant forest. The location of the Atlantic Rainforest is linked to topography, humidity and atmospheric precipitation, resulting in the formation of tall trees, with a dark and humid understory, where several species of grass and epiphytes thrive (Joly et al., 1991). The composition of the forest varies continuously from north to south, in accordance with the pluviometric rate, as well as drainage and topographical characteristics. Factors like the slope of the mountains facing the ocean is also important, as these receive more rain with increasing altitude. Scientists consider the fragmentation and isolation of the remaining areas of forest to be one of the greatest challenges that will need to be overcome by future generations. Over recent decades, conservation units have become an important tool for the protection and maintenance of biodiversity in the Atlantic Rainforest.

7) Indigenous land of the Boracéia8) The leaf litter forms a rich layer of organic matter in the forest soil. Cotia-Pará Ecological Park, Cubatão9) Rio Monjolinho, Onça Parda Park, São Miguel Arcanjo10) The entrance of a cave in Intervales State Park, Ribeirão Grande

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Restingas are small verdant formations growing on recent marine sediments. They are characterized by a herbaceous strip close to beaches that reach, on average, 150 meters in width. The area of vegetation containing shrub and arboreal species appears soon after the herbaceous area, and it is generally sparse, featuring trees with twisted trunks. The generic name restinga includes varieties of plant communities which grow on substrates of quartzose sand, heavily influenced by the sea. This ecosystem can be observed in its sub-sectors, such as the beach and the restinga. In the beach sub-sector, vegetation is comprised of herbaceous species, mostly stoloniferous plants, highly adaptable to the quartzose marine sand and to the saltiness of seawater. In areas further from the sea, species of shrubs appear, also with a high level of adaptation to the influence of salty winds. The sub-sector restinga contains woody, arboreal and shrubby formations, from the sandy Quaternary plains, constituting the Slerophyllous Forest, or of the restinga itself. The phytophysionmomical and structural difference amongst these different plant communities is due to the diversity of ecological environments, variables of micro-terrain, distinctive herbaceous, herbaceous-epiphyte, sub-shrub, subshrub-epiphyte and arboreal communities, which may be either terrestrial or aquatic.

1.2. Restinga

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The areas of restinga consisting of large open spaces that have a water table very close to the surface, makes the subsurface humid and suitable for the formation of this complex vegetation. The restinga covers not only the beach area, but also sand dunes. The wind is responsible for the formation of dunes. Part of the material swept or torn up by the wind over its trajectory is deposited at random, but it is the vegetation that sets these wind deposits in place. Consequently, any destruction of the restinga leads to the advancement of sand dunes, and thus, the desertification of the environment. Due to its sandy soil, the restinga is highly vulnerable to anthropic action. It is already a fragile ecosystem, especially because it consists of vegetation typical to coastal regions, which suffer heavily from the negative impacts of the alarming growth of predatory resort tourism. Contrary to what happens in most terrestrial ecosystems, the soil in the restinga is not its only source of nutrients. Given the proximity of the sea, another source are the marine particles present in the atmosphere. Thus, restinga vegetation undergoes several different morphophsiological adaptations. The restinga ecosystem offers a habitat and source of food for various species of animals that make exclusive use of the plants and physical conditions found there, like limited territoriality, direct incidence of heat and low-lying places of shelter. Examples of these species include lizards and amphibians of the anuran order, that shelter inside bromeliads.

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We also find mangrove swamps on the coastal strip, more particularly in estuary regions—areas of transition between the marine and dry-land environments, locations where rivers flow into the sea. Mangrove swamps are environments directly influenced by tides, and they contain flora adapted to variations of salinity, physical and chemical parameters and permanent inundation. Although this vegetation contains little variety of species, it protects dry-land systems from the effects of erosion, reduces the pollution of beaches and ensures the continuity of the oceanic food chain. This system is fed by high tides, which flood the swamps and bring organic material and suspended granulometric particles, such as clay and silt, thus creating a favorable environment for the development of various marine species, especially during reproductive periods. In mangrove swamps, the presence of halophyte plants is common. These are adapted to conditions of intense salinity, and hydromorphism, called swamps. These are comprised of some principal species, such as Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove), Avicennia sp. (black mangrove) and Conocarpus erectus (button mangrove). Mangrove soil is halomorphic, and was created from marine and fluvial sediments containing organic material, and it occurs in regions on the coastal strip with flat topography that are constantly influenced by the sea. Because they are in low-energy environments, these soils normally are composed of a high degree of finer particles, high quantities of organic material and soluble salts, due to their constant contact with the

1.3. Mangrove

11) Manguezal de Cubatão12) Cananéia, Mandira community

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sea. Because of the decomposition of forest-floor vegetation and water saturation, these soils are weakly consolidated with colors varying from grayish to black, with the presence of H2S. The features of the terrain are characterized by low-lying areas, close to sea level, with low density and meandering drainage. Despite the limited number of species, one cubic centimeter of mangrove swamp can shelter approximately 200 thousand micro-algae that are the beginning of the entire food chain, from the oysters, blue mussels, shrimp larvae and charru mussels, which are all filter feeding species, right up to the plethora of bird species that make their nests in mangrove swamp trees and feed off marine fish and invertebrates. The biological wealth of the coastal ecosystems also makes these areas large natural nurseries, both for the species typical to this environment, as well as other species that migrate to the coastal zones during at least one of the phases of their lifecycles. It is in the mangrove swamps that fish, mollusks, crustaceans and several other species of aquatic and dry-land fauna encounter the ideal conditions for reproduction, breeding and shelter, which in turn intensifies fishing activity in these areas. In fact, mangrove swamps have been suffering continuous aggression, especially from irregular occupation and land use, with the establishment of stilt houses and the consequent pollution caused by domestic sewage from these dwellings. Trash dumps, landfills and several other elements of predatory use can also be found within the mangrove swamps themselves.

13 to 16) Manguezal de Cananéia

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Climate change mitigation through the sequestration of carbon and the protection of biodiversity have both been high priorities in the scientific, governmental, and civil-society agendas of the last few years, but they have rarely been considered in conjunction. In international mechanisms aimed at mitigating the ecological impacts of climate change, biodiversity considerations have received only marginal attention, often as “ancillary benefits”; that is they are seen as desirable but not instrumental in achieving the main goals. The best example of this is the United Nations’ Kyoto Protocol, intended to slow down the human contribution to emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse-effect gases to the atmosphere. This mechanism promotes net carbon sequestration in the biosphere as one way to stabilize carbon dioxide and methane levels in the atmosphere. Biodiversity concerns, scarcely present in its original formulation, have gradually been incorporated into the frameworks and guidelines related to the subsequent implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. As such, explicitly mention that carbon sequestration activities should be compatible with the preservation of biodiversity. This represents a significant advancement, but biodiversity is still considered as a rather general “side benefit” at best (Díaz et al., 2009). In this context, we refer to biodiversity as the number, abundance, composition, spatial distribution, and inter- actions of genotypes, populations, species, functional types and traits, and landscape units in a given system (Díaz et al., 2006). It is known that large fragment sizes and high connectivity levels are key components for maintaining species in fragments; however, their relative effects are poorly understood, especially in tropical areas. Understanding how habitat alteration affects biodiversity is a main challenge for ecologists and conservation biologists. Biodiversity has been mostly assessed by simply counting the number of species within an assemblage of organisms; however, this measure assumes that all species contribute equally to the habitat’s biodiversity (Harper and Wawkswort, 1994). It is increasingly recognized that biodiversity assessments should include information on the phylogenetic relatedness of species and individuals within assemblages (May, 1990; Purvis and Hector, 2000; Cadotte et al., 2010). Although the relationship between species extinction and evolutionary diversity is well understood theoretically (Nee and May, 1997), there is little empirical information about the phylogenetic diversity of fragmented tropical forests (Santos et al., 2010).

2. Rainforest Dynamics

17 and 18) Indigenous land of the Boracéia17

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Natural changes in the Earth’s climate have occurred, but they have been gradual. In the human timeline, climate change is slow, barely perceptible, and its potential impacts are understood by few. However, in the not too distant future, it will be impossible to deny the impacts as the changes reach a crisis level. Human-induced climate change is now a recognized phenomenon. Over the past 100 years, as a result of burning coal, oil, gas, and clearing forests, humans have greatly changed the chemical composition of the atmosphere (Hardy, 2003). To understand climate and how it might change in the future (over decades to centuries), we need to understand human activities and our heavy dependence on fossil fuel. As a consequence, by most estimates, the planet will rapidly warm to a level never experienced by human beings. Also the impact of climate change on population distribution and mobility is attracting growing interest. Frequently cited figures estimate that by 2050, the number of people forced to move, primarily because of climate change, will range between 200 million and 1 billion. It is likely that both extreme weather events (storms, floods, heat waves) and changes in mean temperatures, precipitation and sea-levels will, in many cases, contribute to increasing levels of mobility. However, there are inherent difficulties in predicting with any precision how climate change will impact on population distribution and movement. Underlying these predictions is the view that migration reflects a failure to adapt to changes in the physical environment, and that migrants are a relatively undifferentiated group all making similar emergency responses and moving to unspecified destinations, including international ones. This is somehow at odds with more nuanced views of migration as a key adaptive response to socio-economic, cultural and environmental change. From this perspective, the specific characteristics of migrant flows—duration, destination and composition—are essential to understand their impact on destination areas, and to develop appropriate policies (Tacoli, 2009). Global climate change induced by anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, is perceived by some as one of the greatest environmental challenges the world faces today. The specter of possible deleterious effects of climate change on agricultural and forest productivity has been raised. A significant amount of international discussion on how to reduce and mitigate the greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere by industrial emissions and land management practices has proposed sequestration of CO2 in the biomass of forests as one of the options. Climate, primarily temperature and precipitation, determine the geographic distribution of major terrestrial ecosystems from deserts to rain forests. Terrestrial ecosystems are an integral part of the global carbon cycle. Similarly, forests and other terrestrial biomes provide habitats for a diversity of plants and animals. Finally, climate change presents a challenge to managers—both those who regulate timber harvesting and those charged with protecting and conserving terrestrial ecosystems. Studies using sensor net research and biogeography models suggest that the geographical distribution of native trees may be substantially affected as a result (Hardy, 2003).

3. Climate Change

19) Indigenous land of the Boracéia20) Onça Parda Park, São Miguel Arcanjo

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The Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest has been recognized as one of the top priorities for conservation in South America due to the high degree of endemism that occurs within several groups of organisms. The Atlantic Rainforest, an ecosystem that occupies most of the east coast of Brazil, is a biogeographic region of extreme importance for birds and other organisms, including a great number of endemic and threatened species. It was considered a priority for conservation and it is the second most threatened forest on the planet. It has been devastated since colonization and only 7% of the original forest still remains, almost all concentrated in a mountain range called Serra do Mar. Climate change may also have a significant impact on the Atlantic Rainforest. Wood, palm hart and epiphytes extraction, extensive agriculture and the expansion of large cities still remain the main threats to the Atlantic Rainforest. Aggravated by human activities global warming, changes in rainfall patterns, among other changes may substantially affect the geographical distribution of native trees. As a result of these activities there may be a further reduction in the area for specific occurring species, which could ultimately contribute to their extinction. Investigators have simulated climate change effects on the distribution and productivity of forests using three different types of models, namely biogeochemistry models, biogeographic models and a dynamic global vegetation model. A study conducted at UNICAMP used predictive modeling techniques to determine present and future geographical distribution of some species of trees that are typical of the Atlantic Forest. The study considered two global warming scenarios. The optimistic scenario, based on a 0.5% increase in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, predicted an increase of up to 2˚C in Earth’s average temperature; in the pessimistic scenarios, based on a 1% increase in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, the temperature increase may reach 4˚C. Using these parameters and the Genetic Algorithm for Ruse-set Predictions/GARP, three models were produced: one with the present distribution of the species based on occurrence points registered in literature, the other two were based on changes of the Earth’s mean temperature by 2050 using the optimistic and the pessimistic scenarios of CO2 emission. The results obtained show an alarming reduction in the area of possible occurrence of the species studied (Colombo, 2007). The scientific certainty about climate changes that have resulted as a consequence of human activities is now so strong, that it must be taken into consideration by those who can influence actions including political, economic and academic influences. Although predictive models are not yet as precise as we would like and need them to be, the consistency of patterns of shifts and reductions in areas of potential occurrence of tropical plant species strengthen the importance of incorporating them in planning and implementing native biodiversity policies.

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4. Habitat Fragmentation Research on fragmented ecosystems has focused mostly on the biogeographic consequences of the creation of habitat “islands” of different sizes, and is important to conservation purposes since they represent the biggest areas of native vegetation in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest. Fragmentation generally results in a landscape that consists of remnant areas of native vegetation surrounded by a matrix of agricultural or other developed land. As a result, fluxes of radiation, momentum (i.e., wind), water, and nutrients across the landscape are altered significantly. These in turn can have important influences on the biota within remnant areas, especially at or near the edge between the remnant and the surrounding matrix. The isolation of remnant areas by clearing also has important consequences for the biota. These consequences vary with the time since isolation, distance from other remnants, and degree of connectivity with other remnants. The dynamics of remnant areas are predominantly driven by factors arising in the surrounding landscape (Saunders et al., 1991). Fragmentation of the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest can be understood as the degree of separation between individual forest landscape groups which were initially continuous (Metzger, 2000). The fragments are left after human activity devastates large portions of the forest cover, leaving odd shaped islands clearly visible from satellite such as Landsat, Spot or the Brazilian/Chinese CBERS (Sharp, 2010). This process of fragmentation also isolates fauna and flora, endangering species in the region. Many fragments are small and lack interconnection. A few fragments are large and in fact have been designated as protected areas. However, simply designating the area as protected is ineffective. The fragmented landscape is becoming one of the most widespread features of the modern world. Now here is habitat fragmentation occurring more rapidly than in the tropics, where several hundred million hectares of forest have been destroyed during the past few decades (Lanly, 1982; Achard et al., 2002). The correlated processes of habitat loss and fragmentation are probably the greatest single threat to tropical biodiversity (Laurance and Bierregaard, 1997) and alter many ecosystem functions such as carbon storage, biogeochemical cycling and regional hydrology (Lean and Warrilow, 1989; Kauffman et al., 1995; Fearnside, 2000). Understanding these interactions and their effects on forest functioning is essential both for interpreting the effects of global climate change on tropical ecosystems and for assessing the impacts of rapid forest conversion on the physical and biological environment. Obviously, the processes of deforestation and forest fragmentation are inextricably linked. One of the most critical consequences of habitat fragmentation is a drastic increase in the amount of abrupt, artificial forest edge (Laurence, 2004) . On a local scale (less than 1 km), deforestation reduces plant evapotranspiration, humidity, effective soil depth, water-table height and surface roughness, and increases soil erosion, soil temperatures and surface albedo (Wright et al., 1996; Gash and Nobre, 1997). Thus, the cleared lands that surround forest fragments differ greatly from forest in their physical and hydrological characteristics. The forest edge is the interface between fragments and their adjoining clearings, and the proliferation of edge has major impacts on many ecological processes. One of the main questions raised by the effects of forest fragmentation is concerned

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Biodiversity corridors comprise a mosaic of land uses connecting fragments of natural forest across a landscape. Associated with the effects of distance is the degree to which individual remnants are connected in some way to adjacent areas. Corridors are generally believed to provide benefits such as enhanced biotic movement, extra foraging areas, refuges during disturbances, and enhancement of the aesthetic appeal of the landscape. In some areas they significantly add to the area of native vegetation left following fragmentation. The relative merits of corridors and their required characteristics will vary from place to place and will depend on the target species (Saunders et al., 1991). The last few centuries are marked by a large conversion of tropical forests into a mosaic of habitats altered by human action, impelled mainly by world population growth and socioeconomic pressures (Gascon et al., 2002). These pressures acted in such manner in São Paulo State that, nowadays, only about 13.94% of the native vegetation cover still remains. Moreover, only half of this value (about 7%) represents primary forests, in a State that once had 82% of its area occupied by forests (Kronka et al., 2005; Zorzetto et al., 2003). Particularly the forests located in the interior of the state suffered the major deforestation rates, due to the region’s smooth

5. Connectivity

with understanding of the environmental aspects that can induce changes in biodiversity. Despite its importance, there are relatively few studies focusing on the micro-environmental status of fragments, especially fragments of tropical forest of less than 100 ha (Harrington et al., 1997; Turton and Freiburger, 1997; Viana et al., 1997). In Atlantic Rainforest, the largest forest fragments are within national parks and most biological aspects, and especially the microclimate status of these remnants, are practically unknown. No studies on microclimate alterations due to forest fragmentation in this ecosystem have been published. Forest fragmentation and edge effects from deforestation have been identified as one of the most pervasive and deleterious processes occurring in the tropics today (Gascon et al., 2000; Murcia, 1995; Skole and Tucker, 1993; Laurance, 2000). The detrimental effects of forest fragmentation from deforestation include increases in wildfire susceptibility (Alencar et al., 2004; Cochrane and Laurance, 2002) and tree mortality, changes in plant and animal species composition (Tabanez and Viana, 2000; Barlow et al., 2006; Cushman, 2006), and seed dispersion (Rodríguez-Cabal et al., 2007; Cramer et al., 2007) and predation (Herrerías-Diego et al., 2008) and easier access to interior forest, leading to increased hunting and resource extraction (Peres, 2001) or conversion to agroscape (Kaimowitz and Angelsen, 1998). Management of, and research on, fragmented ecosystems should be directed at understanding and controlling these external influences as much as at the biota of the remnants themselves. There is a strong need to develop an integrated approach to landscape management that places conservation reserves in the context of the overall landscape (Saunders et al., 1991).

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topography and fertile soils that stimulated human occupation and agricultural development. These interior woods, formally named seasonal semi-deciduous forests, collapsed mainly in the late 19th century giving place to the expansion of coffee plantation and, more recently, to other commercial cultures (sugar cane, orange and pastures) and non-native reforestations (Dean, 1995). As a consequence of this destruction, biodiversity has been reduced and the dynamics of many populations and communities were interrupted (Brown and Brown, 1992). In this context, one of the practices that have been proposed for biodiversity maintenance and increase of forested areas in the region is the implementation of habitat corridors connecting the remaining forest fragments. Theoretically, these habitat corridors would significantly accentuate the movement of organisms between spots in a landscape, thus reducing the extinction probability of populations in fragments (Wilson and Willis, 1975). Despite of the uncertainty about the efficiency of these corridors (Noss, 1987; Simberloff et al., 1992; Beier and Noss, 1998; Levey et al., 2005) their implementation to enlarge habitats connectivity has been widely employed in conservation efforts in Brazil (Furtado, 2005). In São Paulo, two such corridors have been established along the eastern coast of Brazil: the Serra do Mar and the Central da Mata Atlântica corridors, along which most of the coastal plains are restinga areas. The same way, is a State that has more than 3% (770.000 ha) of its area occupied by Eucalyptus and Pinus reforestations, the occurrence of remaining fragments of native forest nearby these non-native forests is common (Kronka et al., 2005). But, until present, the dynamic of movement of the biota between native Atlantic Forest remnants and non-native reforestations that occur in such close proximity has been poorly studied (Willis, 2003). The older reforestations generally possess a considerable number of native species, in view of the time that they have been in process of ecological succession (Moura, 1998). In some cases it makes them seem like a native forest, what can lead a non-experienced observer to judge being equal these two different kinds of vegetation (an old reforestation and a native forest remnant). One prudent mind would think that previous studies on the biota, or at least on the principal groups of organisms in the areas to be united by the corridors are of extreme importance. That is because one of the areas (or fragments) may hold exotic or tramp species that could threaten the communities of the other area, outcompeting native species (Williamson and Fitter, 1996; McGlynn, 1999; Schultz and McGlynn, 2000). Since the cited reforestation possesses non-native elements in its vegetation segment (Eucalyptus and Pinus), probably, in additional segments of the biota, it may also hold other species that are not present in the native forest fragments (Bierregaard et al., 1992; Willis, 2003). On the contrary, if the vegetation of the areas in the referred proposal is indeed similar, other segments of the biota are also expected to be similar, like birds, mammals or insects communities. With the advent of Kyoto Protocol, and consolidation of carbon trade market, we can expect an increase in areas of reforestation in the country (Brasil, 1997). This in turn can also increase the confusion in distinguishing a native forest remnant from a non-native reforestation, which is particularly worrying if this confusion comes from the decision-makers (Lapola and Fowler, 2008).

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Some fungi species lives on a parasitic lifecycle, possible not only with plants as hosts but with invertebrates as well. The unusual sight of a dead insect attached to a leaf by its stuck mandibles with a firm grip, might show the work of an entomophagous fungi like the Cordyceps. Parasitic fungi can alter the host’s behavior to the point of triggering an almost suicidal action, where the parasited insect might climb to a plant up high on the way of an air current, hold on by its jaws and then keeps still, waiting on this position for further death due the internal proliferation of the fungi hyphae. After the host’s death, the Cordyceps starts erupting its fruiting bodies to the outside between the hardened plates of the insect exoskeleton, using so the dead host as an advantage to facilitate spore dispersion in the air currents. The high rate of humidity is one of the main factors responsible for the exuberance of the Atlantic Rainforest. As a result of this humidity, the bark of most trees is covered in thick layers of moss and ferns, as well as species of epiphytes and lianas. Light is also an important factor in the distribution of plants around the forest, since different species require different levels of light for their development.

FUNGI

21) Mushrooms, the most famous form of fungi are actually only their fruiting bodies, while their bigger and durable mass, lies hidden in the substrate22) White mushrooms23) Wood fungus

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In higher trees, some epiphytes, bromeliads and climbing plants require a lot of light when compared to species from the lower strata. In the lowest part, called the understory, bushes, bamboo, lichen and other species that tolerate lower levels of light, manage to germinate and grow (Cassino and Rodrigues, 2004). The forest-floor vegetation, where organic material decomposes, is a crucial factor in the stratification of vegetation. Leaves falling from trees and dry branches that fall from tree trunks and die, accumulate on the forest floor and create an environment that harbors a myriad of insects, fungi and bacteria. Forest-floor vegetation has a fundamental role in protecting the soil of the forest, by preventing erosion and maintaining humidity.

24) Some species without gills underneath, requires mechanical help like water or animals for spore dispersal25) Wood-degrading fungus26) The bracket fungi may display a hardened fruiting body, with a consistency almost like wood27) Fluorescence shown in a mushroom under an ultraviolet light28) Cryptothecia rubrocincta, a lichen species which has been already been used as a source of dye

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Fungi have great morphological variety and are very adaptive in dense forests, when favored by adequate conditions of temperature and humidity. Heredia et al. (1997) believe that, whenever there is a wide range of species inhabiting a tropical ecosystem, the existence of a great wealth of conidial fungi (conidia is the most common method of asexual reproduction), can be expected. Considering the role of fungi as decomposers and symbionts in forestry ecosystems, research on the micota must be considered in any inventory of biodiversity, which would thus assist biotechnological processes and the management of forests. An interesting characteristic present in a few recently discovered mushroom species in the Atlantic Rainforest is the capacity of emitting a dim light. So far there are around 70 bioluminescent species described worldwide, and little is known about what functions the bioluminescence could have, if not only a metabolism side product, it is suggested that it could attract an array of nocturnal invertebrates for possible spore dispersal (Sivinski, 1981).

29) Dead wasp parasited by the Cordyceps30) Chlorociboria species31) Slime mold, often mistaken as fungi, these organisms are actually classified as protists

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There are a number of genera which are endemic to the Rain Forest, such as: the palms Arecastrum and Bactris; Baccharis (Compositae), Cabralea and Cryptocaria (Lauracea), Sloanea and Schinus, Tibouchina. The Atlantic and the Amazonian Forest have 156 genera and 500 species in common (Rizzini, 1979; Bigarella and Andrade-Lima, 1982). Species level endemism in the Atlantic Forest is very high: 53.5%. particularly in the family of Chrysobalanaceae. Many of these species are used by local populations for house construction, tool making, construction of dug-out canoes, medicine, etc. The non-arboreous vegetation is as diversified as that of the threes: lianes, epiphytes, shrubs, arborescent ferns and bamboos, grasses and mosses and lichens. The epiphytic flora of Mata Atlantica is well known for its richness and among the main taxa are Bromeliacea, Gessneriaceae, Piperaceae, Orchidaceae, Araceae, Heliconaceae, Pteridophyta. The Serra do Mar in the southeastern Brazil is the main area of Bromeliacea in Brazil, beeing more diversified than in Amazonia. There are many endemic genera in Southeast Brazil, such as Dyckia, Cryptanthus and Nidularium (Diegues, 1994).

ENDEMISM