the effect of imagery on 1rm scores of college students

The Effect of Imagery on 1RM Scores of College Students

Lucy Wilkes

201401331

ContentsAbstract ………………………………………………………………... 1

1.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………….. 1

2.0 Methods ……………………………………………………………

2.1 Subjects ………………………………………………………………... 2.2 Equipment …………………………………………………………….... 2.3 1RM testing …………………………………………………………...... 2.4 Data collection ………………………………………………………… 2.5 Statistical analysis ……………………………………………………..

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3.0 Results ……………………………………………………………... 5

4.0 Discussion ………………………………………………………… 5 – 8

5.0 Conclusion ………………………………………………………… 8 – 9

6.0 Reference List …………………………………………………….. 10 – 11

7.0 Appendix …………………………………………………………...

7.1 Imagery script ………………………………………………………..... 7.2 Deadlift correlations …………………………………………………... 7.3 Deadlift significance …………………………………………………... 7.4 Deadlift correlation without anomalies ……………………………… 7.5 Deadlift significance without anomalies …………………………….. 7.6 Bench press correlation SSPS ……………………………................. 7.7 Bench press significance SSPS ……………………………………... 7.8 Bench press correlation and significance MS Excel ………………. 7.9 Post testing questionnaires …………………………………………... 7.10 Testing Protocol ……………………………………………………… 7.11 Participant packs ……………………………………………………..

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Unit 5 – Lucy Wilkes

Abstract

Imagery can be used as a tool to increase performance as it has the ability to control anxiety and arousal levels (Silbernagel et al, 2007). Research into imagery and resistance training is limited; this study explores if imagery has an effect on one repetition maximum (1RM) scores of college students (Richter et al, 2012). 7 male, 19-21 years old college students completed the 1RM testing. The participants were required to complete health screening questionnaires, food/drink/sleep diaries, vividness of visual imagery questionnaire (VVIQ) and post-testing questionnaires (Marks, 1973). When completing the imagery testing the participants followed an imagery script. Paired t-tests were used to analyse the results; for the deadlift when taking out anomalous results there was a strong positive correlation (0.697, p<0.05) with significance of imagery values compared to control being p=0.010. The bench press results had a stronger correlation of 0.913 (p<0.05) when comparing imagery results to control test; significance of p=0.024 which again suggests benefits for the use of imagery. These results showed that imagery has a positive effect on performance. Further testing on a larger sample size would further confirm effectiveness of imagery on resistance training.

1.0 Introduction

The 1RM test is a standardised maximal test which can be completed in a non-laboratory environment (Levinger et al, 2009). Past research has provided information that shows imagery has a positive effect on an individual’s performance (Silbernagel et al, 2007; Avila et al, 2015). The study by Avila et al (2015) showed that peak ground force reaction during an isometric mid-thigh pull (deadlift) was statistically greater (p<0.05) with the use of imagery. Further research into imagery ability by Silbernagel et al (2007) found that imagery had a statistically positive correlation within energy levels (0.51, p<0.05) and confidence within the weights room (0.29, p<0.05). Research in regards to imagery and resistance training is limited (Richter et al, 2012). If imagery positively impacts 1RM it could be incorporated into strength training programmes which could prevent athletes experiencing a plateau in performance (Sheikh and Korn, 1994). Participants were required to complete food/drink/sleep diaries to control external factors for testing. Post testing questionnaires were also completed to highlight individual preferences. Prior to imagery testing VVIQ forms were completed, this showed how well participants were able to perform imagery (appendix 12 participant packs).

2.0 Methods

2.1 Subjects Participants were selected from a group of healthy amateur college students. Subjects were required to be aged 19-21years old, male and free from injury within the last 2 months. 8 participants were selected with an average age of 20 years (±0.58). One participant was unable to take part in the testing due to injury. The subjects volunteered for the study and completed written consent forms (appendix 10).

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2.2 Equipment The equipment required to complete the study included bench press and deadlift free weights machines in a gym scenario.

2.3 ProcedurePrior to testing, subjects were required to complete health screening questionnaires as well as informed consent (see appendix 10 for all participant information). Participants followed the same warm up procedure, this included 5mins pulse raiser on the treadmill, dynamic stretches and familiarisation with the equipment (appendix 11). After the warm up, 2 mins rest was allowed prior to completing 1RM testing (Ashok, 2008). A control 1RM test was completed prior to both imagery and non-imagery testing to determine a baseline for the day. On day 1, non-imagery testing was completed; these tests were completed first to prevent imagery being unintentionally used during the non-imagery testing. Imagery testing was completed 3 days later to allow for participant recovery time. An imagery script was given to the participants prior to completing the final 1RM; the script guided the participants as to what they should be imagining (appendix 1) (Richter et al, 2012). Prior to both testing sessions’ participants were required to complete a food/drink/sleep diary for the day. Before the imagery testing participants completed VVIQ forms to highlight imagery ability. After testing was complete questionnaires were completed by the participants.

2.4 1RM testingBoth tests were completed in pairs, this allowed one person to have a short rest whilst the other completed their rep. Bench Press: After the warm up was completed, weight was added from roughly 80% of the individuals self-predicted 1RM. With each successful attempt weight was added. For a rep to be successful; the back must be flat against the bench, feet must be flat against the floor and the bar should be held shoulder width apart with thumbs wrapped around the bar (LeCuyer, 2001). One rep counts when the bar is lowered to the chest and returned to full extension. Deadlift: as with the bench press, weight was added with every successful lift. The bar was lifted from the floor to the midpoint between the knee and the hip; feet should be shoulder width apart and the back should remain straight (Bishop et al, 2014; BPU, 2012).

2.5 Data collectionBoth qualitative and quantitative data was collected throughout the testing. Qualitative data was collected in the form of food/drink/sleep diary, VVIQ and post-testing participant questionnaire (Marks, 1973). Quantitative data includes the 1RM scores from the deadlift and bench press, with imagery and without.

2.6 Statistical AnalysisThe results will be analysed using the paired t-test as this statistical test is designed to make a comparison between two groups; this statistical model assists with the analysis of results from the control sample and the sample who have been treated differently (Selvin, 2004). The p value was set to 0.05 therefore results below 0.05 will be considered significant. The statistical analysis packages used for analysis were SPSS 22 and MS Excel.

3.0 Results

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The results for the 1RM deadlift showed a positive conclusion for the use of imagery as the correlation was positive, 0.292 (p<0.05). However, these results between the average imagery test and the average control test were insignificant (p=0.152) this was due to one individuals results dropping post imagery. When removing this individuals results, the statistical analysis (t-test) showed that the remaining results had a stronger positive correlation of 0.697 and the results were significant between the imagery test and non-imagery test, p=0.010 (appendix 2-5). When analysing the bench press results using the same method as the deadlift (comparing the difference between the baseline for the day and the actual test) the results showed a negative correlation of -0.665 (p<0.05) (appendix 6-7). This negative correlation is due to the results with the actual test with no imagery having 4 results lower than the baseline with no imagery. When comparing the no imagery actual test and the test using imagery, the paired T-test showed a strong positive correlation of 0.913 and a significance of 0.024 (appendix 8). This shows that imagery does have a positive impact on 1RM.

Post testing the participants were asked to complete a feedback questionnaire (appendix 9). In terms of participant feedback, 5 out of 7 participants felt the imagery test was better than not using imagery. One of the participants who preferred not using imagery had a poor VVIQ score; however despite this the participants score did increase when using imagery. Despite 2 people preferring not using imagery, all participants said they felt the imagery test was effective and they all would consider using imagery again.

4.0 Discussion

The main findings from this study show that there is a positive correlation between the use of imagery and the increase in 1RM scores. However, some results in both the deadlift and bench press had a dramatic effect on the overall results. The change in correlation and significance in the deadlift 1RM results suggest that the sample used was too small. Using a larger sample size would prevent anomalous results having such an impact on the data overall. Difficulties due to the sample size was also apparent when looking into the bench press results; the analysis of the data that took into account the baseline tests for the day had a negative correlation (-0.665, p<0.05) with significance (0.035, p<0.05). This was due to 4 participants getting lower results in the actual test to the baseline test for the day. These reductions could have been a result of fatigue as the participants had to undertake another study shortly before testing. Participants undertaking another study was not expected when completing the research proposal and therefore was not taken into account. Due to time limitations the testing had to run as planned. However, with more time the testing would have been postponed. When analysing just the control test and the actual imagery test for the Bench Press (appendix 8) there is a strong positive correlation (0.913) with a significance when comparing the imagery and control results (0.02). The results from the study were in line with the VVIQ scores; all participants stated they felt imagery was effective and would use it again. Participants wanting to use imagery again shows that the study was successful.

An imagery script was given to the participants prior to completing the final 1RM (appendix 1); the script guided the participants as to what they should be imagining. The control limitations when the participants were using the imagery script was not very strict. The imagery was completed within the gym which had other external influences such as other people and loud music. Due to imagery being difficult to measure and control there is no guarantee that other influences had more of an effect. Other people caused distractions for some of the participants meaning they did not fully focus on the imagery (participant number 7); this means that it may not have been sufficiently

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effective. Others around the participants (e.g. other participants spotting) could help to motivate the individual which could impact their results. Another consideration when looking at personal motivation levels could be the individual’s primary sport. The 1RM scenario relies solely on individual performance; participants who compete in individual sports may be more self-motivated in situations such as 1RM testing (Burton and Raedeke, 2008). Further studies when exploring motivation and imagery should record the sports the participants predominantly play. It was also not determined whether the participants had to have their eyes open or closed; this could have impacted the effectiveness of the use of imagery. Research by Stewart (2005) suggested imagery when eyes are closed is more effective than eyes open. If the test was completed in the future it should be stipulated that the participants keep their eyes closed after reading the script. Participants should also complete the imagery on their own with no external influences like music and other distractions. Highly motivated individuals will have greater response to imagery than those with low motivation levels. As previously mentioned the true impact of imagery is difficult to measure and therefore could be due to external influences such as motivation. Participant may have different levels and types of motivation which could affect a person’s performance (Jarvis, 1999).

Time limitations resulted in less time available for resting between the bench press and the deadlift than initially planned. However, as the exercises worked different muscle groups it shouldn’t have a great effect (King and Schuler, 2004; Schuler and Cosgrove, 2005). A combination of this and participating in another study, individuals may have felt mentally fatigued. This could have caused reductions in controls for the day and actual scores. When completing this type of testing more sessions would have to be scheduled to spend longer with each participants, this would allow for more rest in between tests; which could enable a more comprehensive set of results. The time limitation and lack of assistants meant that often the participants would have to manage the weights themselves which could again have had an impact on fatigue.

Prior to testing the same warm up was used to prepare the participants for the testing, however, between the bench and deadlift, no additional warm up was completed despite the rest period. A stricter warm up protocol should be imposed in the future; this would help to ensure the tests are reliable and reduce the occurrence of injury. The warm up specification could also be stricter; cardiovascular exercise was completed on the treadmill for 5 mins. There was no specified speed on the treadmill. This could have resulted in some individuals being warmer than others. More specific timings or reps could also be outlined for the dynamic stretches which could also help increase reliability.

Many of the tests previously conducted use EMG machine; EMG was not accessible for this project (Bakker et al, 1996; Vieilledent et al, 2003). An EMG machine would help to see whether more muscular fibres are being stimulated during the imagery script. Further testing should include EMG activity machines in order to increase the reliability and the accuracy of the imagery testing. This would incur additional costs so funding would need to be found.

Results by Lebon et al (2010) suggested like the results in this study that imagery has a positive effect on strength performance. The results showed a marginal difference in the bench press (control group = 71.25kg, motor imagery group = 73.28kg; p<0.05) but a much greater increase in the leg press (control group = 239.5kg, motor imagery group = 287.23kg). These results reflect findings in this study as with deadlift scores presenting a strong positive correlation. The bench press results due to a marginal increase did not have any significance. The results from Lebon et al (2010) in comparison to this study also had mixed conclusions; this shows that imagery and the psychology in sport is a complex subject due to individual differences, making it difficult to come up with a one size

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fits all protocol. Similarly to Lebon et al (2010) results, a study by Vielledent et al (2003) also showed no significance; which again strengthens the idea that is very difficult to find connections as a result of imagery. Motivation was not factored into this study, future research should explore motivation alongside imagery. Research by Silbernagel et al (2007) showed that individuals who are highly motivated used imagery more frequently than those who have low motivation levels. Those with moderate levels of motivation also used imagery more than those with low motivation (Silbernagel et al, 2007). This suggests imagery should therefore only be used by individuals who are highly motivated. Which also hypothesises, if only people who are already highly motivated effectively use imagery, is it purely motivation not imagery that impacts performance. Due to psychology within sport being a complex subject further studies may wish to consider personality types. Personality is very specific to individuals which can effect thoughts and emotions (Jarvis, 1999). Some personality types may respond to motivation differently; type A personalities tend to be highly competitive which could motivate them to achieve. Type B personalities are characterised by low stress levels which could also assist with performance (Hayes, 2000). Type A and B personality testing could be completed prior to testing.

Participants could design their own imagery scripts, personalisation could help increase its effectiveness. This would also allow participants to be more involved with the exercises they will complete. As results showed most participants saw an increase in results and had good visual imagery ability. Participants could feel more engaged by designing their own script.

Participants in the study were amateurs with basic experience in weight training, this suggests that imagery would be useful to help beginners/intermediates, which could develop and increase their performance. Previous research by Lebon suggests neurological changes occur within the first stages of training. Other studies have also showed that the use of imagery is far superior to no practice at all (Grouios, 1992). Imagery could be implemented into training programmes which could encourage individuals to continue its use as they progress; this could then result in imagery being a routine part of training. How to use imagery and why; could be taught to individuals completing personal training or other fitness based courses. This could allow for new people coming into the industry to set imagery as a standard in training programmes which could increase its use becoming a norm technique within resistance training. However, as results above show not everybody will respond to imagery, however there were no statistical decrease found to suggest this in this study; therefore some form of motivation and imagery (VVIQ) screening to determine who would be suitable for imagery based training would need to be designed. Further research could determine the most effective form of screening for individuals appropriate for imagery resistance training. This could help when designing training programmes in the future, as research has suggested only highly motivated individuals benefit from the use of imagery.

Another potential factor to consider further would be diet. Although food/drink diaries were taken, they were used to determine potential factors that could dramatically effect results. What was not taken into account in this study was the time participants ate. Testing was completed at similar times to prevent diurnal factors; however time participants ate was not recorded. Due to food being fuel for the body, it is vital to consume the correct types of food at the correct time to enable an individual to perform to the best of their ability (Lang, 2007). Due to the testing taking place in the morning, it would be vital for the participants to eat breakfast after a period of fasting throughout the night. Breakfast is vital due to the body having the lowest levels of blood sugar therefore the body is in a deficit phase meaning this level needs to be rectified prior to completing physical activity (Lang, 2007). All participants consumed breakfast but all ate very different meals. Stipulating what participants ate prior to the study could minimise the effect diet has on results. Potentially, further

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studies could ask participants to eat the same meals on both testing days. It is recommended that individuals should eat 2hrs before they begin exercising due to testing being completed mid-morning, some participants may not have allowed that time (Wener and Hoeger, 2016).

Some participants openly admitted to not completing the exercises (bench press and deadlift) very often which could lead to ‘learnt effect’ playing a part in the increase in lifting. Familiarisation sessions could be scheduled to ensure learnt effect does not have an impact. Further familiarisation sessions would allow the participants to ensure they know and understand the technique required to complete the exercises. This could also increase the confidence of the participants which could also have an effect on results.

Studies completed in the future are required to help to offer more solid results. This would be obtained through gaining a larger sample size; larger sample sizes would allow results to represent the population better. Advertising for a greater sample size would have to be completed; this could be completed through contacting students and tutors. Contacting the college’s marketing team could also help gain a larger audience of potential participants. Offsite testing may be explored in order to gain a larger sample. Participants would have to be screened to determine whether they are appropriate to complete this study. New testing should also include the use of motivation and personality questionnaires, this could show how much effect motivation and personality has over the effectiveness of imagery. The use of EMG machines which would determine the impact of imagery on muscle stimulation could help rule out other external factors.

5.0 Conclusion

This study has highlighted the potential imagery has to positively benefit physical performance in terms of resistance training. From the results given in this study, use of imagery would be recommended to beginners who have a base knowledge of the exercises. True beginners should naturally improve due to learnt effect, once they have gained that baseline knowledge of the exercises, imagery could be implemented. Results in this study have reflected that of previous research from Lebon et al (2010) and Vielledent et al (2005). As previously mentioned, greater research would be needed to offer more reliable solid conclusions. Further testing should follow a similar protocol and additional areas to research including motivation and EMG. This would offer more conclusive results as it will show the activity within the muscles when the participants were completing imagery. This could also determine whether external factors have a greater impact than the imagery. Other factors to consider when repeating this study would be to control external influences; this could mean making the test more laboratory style e.g. as little external influences as possible however this would not reflect a realistic exercise environment. It would be recommended that fitness professionals gain a good knowledge of imagery so they can implement it into personal training programme. This could be added to fitness based courses like personal training which could help fitness professionals to gain understanding and learn to implement imagery into training programmes. Overall, in order to gain a greater understanding of imagery more research with more data points should be completed.

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6.0 Reference List

Ashok, C. (2008). Test your physical fitness. Delhi: Singhal Print Media

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Avila, B.J., Brown, L.E., Coburn, J.W. and Statler, T.A. (2015). Effects of imagery on force production and jump performance. Official research journal of the American society of exercise physiologists. Vol. 18 No. 4

Bakker, F.C., Boschker, M.S.J. and Chung, T. (1996). Changes in muscular activity while imagining weight lifting using stimulus or response proposition. Journal of sport and exercise psychology. 18 313-324

Bishop, A., DeBeliso, M., Sevene, T.G. and Adams, K.J. (2014). Comparing one repetition maximum and three repetition maximum between conventional and eccentrically loaded deadlifts. Journal of strength and conditioning. Iss.28 Vol.7

British Powerlifting Union. (2012). The dead lift. Available: http://www.britishpowerliftingunion.co.uk/the-deadlift/ Accessed: 07/03/16

Burton, D. and Raedeke, T.D. (2008). Sport psychology for coaches. USA: Human Kinetics

Grouios, G. (1992). Mental practice: a review. Journal of sport behaviour. 15

Hayes, C. (2000). Foundations of psychology. 3rd ed. London: Thomson

Jarvis, M. (1999). Sport Psychology. USA and Canada: Routledge

King, I. and Schuler, L. (2004). Muscle: the world’s most complete guide to building your body. 1st ed. London: Rodale inc.

Lang, A. (2007). Morning strength workout. USA: Human Kinetics

Lebon, F., Collet, C. and Guillot, A. (2010). Benefits of motor imagery on muscle strength training. Journal of strength and conditioning research. 23(6) 1680-1687

LeCuyer, J. (2001). Designing the fitness program: a guide for public safety organisation. USA: PennWell Corporation.

Levinger, I., Goodman, C., Hare, D.L., Jerums, G., Toia, D. and Selig, S. (2009). The reliability of the 1RM strength test for untrained middle-aged individuals. Journal of science and medicine in sport. 12 (3) 310-316

Marks, D.F. (1973). Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. British journal of psychology. 64. 17-24

Richter, J., Gilbert, J.N and Baldis, M. (2012). Maximising strength training performance using mental imagery. Strength and conditioning journal. Vol.34 No.5Sheikh, A.A and Korn, K.R. (1994). Imagery in sports and physical performance. New York: Baywood Publishing Company, Inc.

Sheikh, A.A and Korn, K.R. (1994). Imagery in sports and physical performance. New York: Baywood Publishing Company, Inc.

Selvin, S. (2004). Statistical analysis of epidemiologic data. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press

Schuler, L. and Cosgrove, A. (2005). The new rules of lifting: six basic moves for maximum muscle. USA: Penguin Group

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http://www.britishpowerliftingunion.co.uk/the-deadlift/


Silbernagel, M.S., Short, S.E. and Ross-Stewart, L.C. (2007). Athletes’ use of exercise imagery during weight training. Journal of strength and conditioning research. 21 (4)

Stewart, W. (2005) Imagery and symbolism in counselling. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers

Vielledent, S., Kosslyn, S.M., Berthoz, A. and Giraudo, M.D. (2002). Does mental simulation of following a path improve navigation performance without vision? Cognitive brain research. 16

Wener, W.K. and Hoeger, S.A. (2016). Lifetime physical fitness and wellness: a personalised programme. 14th ed. USA: Cengage learning

7.0 Appendix

7.1 Appendix 1 – Imagery Script for 1RM testing

DEADLIFT PRE-WORKOUT PHASE – based on Richter et al (2012) script; before arriving at the gym, imagine the deadlift, be aware of your own body. Understand that the 1RM lift will be challenging. The lift will require you to push yourself mentally as well as physically. You will have to push yourself

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to your maximum ability. This is your opportunity to imagine lifting your target weight, it will be difficult but you can complete the lift successfully.

DEADLIFT PRE-LIFT PHASE – imagine what you will hear, what temperature the facilities are and the location of the weights. Thoroughly imagine the surroundings, imagine the bar and how much weight will be on the bar. You must accept it will be heavy but you know you are confident that you will successfully complete the deadlift. Reach down and grasp the bar, prepare for the deadlift, your grip will tighten; ensure you are familiarised the feeling of the bar. Take a breath in, you will now begin to start the lift. There is only one final movement that will finish the deadlift. You feel like you have achieved and you then return the bar to the floor. This should be imagined in real time.

BENCHPRESS PRE-WORKOUT PHASE – prior to arriving at the gym; imagine the bench press action, be aware of your own body. You will understand that the 1RM bench press will be challenging. You will push yourself mentally and physically. When completing the bench press you will push yourself to your maximum ability. This opportunity will allow you to prove your own ability. You need to imagine that you are lifting your target weight. You will find it difficult but you can successfully complete the lift. BENCHPRESS PRE-LIFT PHASE – When you are stepping up to the weights, imagine what you will hear, what temperature the facilities and where the weight are. Thoroughly imagine your surroundings, imagine the weights and how much weight will be on the bar. You must accept it will be heavy but you are confident in your own ability to complete the bench press successfully. Reach out and grasp the bar, familiarise the feeling of the bar; tighten the grasp on the bar. Take in a breath, the lift will being but you will control your breathing. Your muscles are tightening and the weight will be raised upwards; you have successfully completed the lift. The lift is complete and you return the weight to the stand.

7.2 Appendix 2 – Correlation between Deadlift Control test and Dead Imagery test differences.

7.3 Appendix 3 – Deadlift Control Difference and Deadlift Imagery Difference

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7.4 Appendix 4 – Correlation between Deadlift Control and Imagery Differences without Participant 5’s results.

7.5 Appendix 5 – Deadlift Control Difference and Deadlift Imagery Difference

7.6 Appendix 6 – Correlation for Bench Press Control and Imagery differences

7.7 Appendix 7 – Bench Press Control and Imagery difference

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7.8 Appendix 8 – Bench press control results compared to imagery results

7.9 Appendix 9 – Showing Post testing Questionnaire

7.10 Appendix 11 – protocol

Test Protocol for Bench Press and Deadlift 1RM

THIS MUST BE READ PRIOR TO COMPLETING 1RM TO ENSURE RELIABILITY

WARM UP – (follow this warm up prior to completing 1RM)

5 minute pulse raiser on treadmill

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Dynamic Stretches – high knees, heel flicks, lunges, squats, roll arms 10 reps of a light weight (10kg) for 1 sets 1 minute rest Increase weight by 5kg and complete 5 reps 2mins rest before completing 1RM

Bench Press

Back must be flat against the bench Feet must be planted on the floor Bar needs to be held at shoulder width apart Thumbs should be wrapped around the bar 1 rep = weight being lowered to chest height and then returned to full extension. (LeCuyer,

2001). If back or feet are raised the rep will not count.

Deadlift

Bar needs to be lifted from the floor up to the midpoint between the knee and hips (Bishop et al, 2014).

Feet shoulder width apart Back must always remain straight Finish in a natural upright position Avoid holding breath

7.11 Appendix 12 – Participant packs

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the effect of imagery on 1rm scores of college students

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