People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Larbi Ben M’hidi University-Oum El Bouaghi

Faculty of Letters and Foreign Languages

Department of English

A Dissertation Submitted Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts in Language Sciences and Teaching English as a Foreign Language

By: Supervisor:

Kharkhache Soumia Mr. Merabet Mohamed Hamza

Examiner:

Mrs. Senoussi Nadjet

2016-2017

The effect of context on translation accuracy: from foreign language to

native language

The case of third-year EFL students at Larbi Ben M’hidi University,

Oum El Bouaghi

I

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to

The memory of my mother who I will never forget

To the soul of my Grandfather

To my Grandmother: Tita

To my Aunts: Leila,Wissam, Manel, Awatef, Zeineb

To my uncles: Mohamed Es-Saleh, Chawki, Aissa, Ibrahim, and Salah

To the one who gave me encouragement and full support: Ramzy

To the cute: Israa

To my sister: Marwa

To my best friend: Nour El Houda

To all my classmates and friends

II

Acknowledgment

I thank ALLAH THE ALMIGHTY for giving me the power and the

determination to conduct this work and face all the obstacles.

My sincere words of gratitude for my supervisor MR. MERABET

MOHAMMED HAMZA for his guidance, direction, and wisdom.

I would thank MRS. SENOUSSI NADJET for giving me the honor and

accepting to examine this work.

I would thank MR. CHAIRA FARID and MR.KHAMMAR ZEDIRA for

their appreciated effort and help.

Special salute to 3rd YEAR LMD STUDENTS GROUP ONE for their

cooperation.

III

ABSTRACT

This present study is conducted to investigate the effect of context on translation

accuracy: from a foreign language to a native language of third- year EFL students at Larbi

Ben M’Hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi. To fulfil the purpose of this study, a quasi-

experimental design was conducted. Two pre-existing groups of learners were randomly

assigned as experimental and control groups. Taking expressions and cultural words as

target structures of the study, the two groups were pre-tested on translation of a list of

decontextualized words. Then the experimental group learned the three types of context:

co-text, context of situation, and context of culture with their sub-elements within

translation through the Dynamic Equivalence Method, while the control group had no

treatment. After the treatment period, a post-test that consists of words and expressions in

their context was administered for both groups to measure their translation accuracy. The

data analysis indicated two results. On one hand, the paired-sample t-test showed that the

treatment of context within its strategies highly affected the translation accuracy of the

students. On the other hand, the independent-samples t-test indicated that the integration of

context strategies within translation is more effective than the written context accompanied

with the expressions which need translation alone. The hypothesis of the study was

accepted because the context teaching and its strategies were proved to be significantly

effective in raising students’ translation accuracy.

IV

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

- FL: foreign language.

- NL: native language

- SL: source language

- SLT: source language text

- TL: target language

- TLT: target language text

- CBT: culture-bound terms

V

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Schedule of the Experimental Group Treatment Sessions.....................................38

Table 2: The results of the Experimental and Control groups.............................................42

Table 3: Control group pre and post tests paired sample statistics .....................................44

Table 4: Experimental Group Paired Sample Statistics…………………………………...45

Table 5: Experimental and control groups’ post-test independent-sample statistics…..…46

VI

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual Layering of Context of a Word in a Piece of Text............................10

VII

Content

Dedication ...........................................................................................................................I

Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................II

Abstract...............................................................................................................................III

List of Abbreviation.............................................................................................................IV

List of Tables........................................................................................................................V

List of figures.......................................................................................................................VI

Contents ..........................................................................................................................VII

Introduction............................................................................................................................1

1. Statement of the problem.................................................................................................2

2. Aim of the study...............................................................................................................2

3. Research Questions and Hypothesis.................................................................................2

4. Research Methodology.....................................................................................................3

5. Structure of the study.......................................................................................................3

Chapter one: Theoretical part: ..........................................................................................4

Section one: The importance of context in translation studies

Introduction............................................................................................................................6

1. What is context?.........................................................................................................6

2. Types of context.........................................................................................................9

2.1. Linguistic context (co-text)...............................................................................10

VIII

2.2. Context of situation...........................................................................................10

2.3. Context of culture..............................................................................................12

3. The role of context in defining meaning..........................................................................12

4. The importance of context in translation..........................................................................13

5. Context use in translation.................................................................................................14

6. The role of context in translating from a foreign language to a native language.............16

Section two: Translation and Accuracy issues.................................................................17

A. Translation..............................................................................................................17

1. Definition of Translation.........................................................................................17

2. Translation studies....................................................................................................18

3. Translation Theories.................................................................................................19

3.1. What is a Translation Theory?..........................................................................19

3.2. Classification of Translation Theories..............................................................19

3.2.1. Philological Theories of translating.......................................................19

3.2.2. Linguistic Theories of translating...........................................................20

3.2.3. Sociolinguistic Theories of Translating.................................................20

4. Models of translating................................................................................................21

4.1. Grammatical model...........................................................................................21

4.1.1. The Traditional Grammar Method.........................................................22

4.1.2. The formal Linguistic Method...............................................................22

4.2. Cultural Model..................................................................................................22

4.2.1. The Ethnographical-Semantic Method...................................................23

4.2.2. The Dynamic Equivalence Method........................................................24

4.3. Interpretive Model.............................................................................................24

4.3.1. The Text Analysis Method.....................................................................26

IX

4.3.2. The Hermeneutic Method ......................................................................26

5. The role of translation as a language teaching strategy............................................26

B. Accuracy..................................................................................................................28

1. Definition of accuracy..............................................................................................28

2. The importance of accuracy in translation activity..................................................29

Conclusion......................................................................................................................30

Chapter two: Teaching context within translation activities in the Algerian

University context: Larbi Ben M’Hidi

1. Introduction...........................................................................................................33

2. Methodology........................................................................................................33

2.1. Choice of the Method...........................................................................................33

2.2. The Sample............................................................................................................34

2.3.The Target Structures.............................................................................................34

2.4.The Research Design...............................................................................................34

2.5.Procedures...............................................................................................................36

2.5.1. Pre-test..............................................................................................................36

2.5.2. Treatment..........................................................................................................36

2.5.2.1.Experimental group treatment...........................................................................37

2.5.2.2.Control group treatment...................................................................................39

2.5.3. Post-test.............................................................................................................40

2.6.Instrument: test used in the pre and post-tests........................................................40

2.6.1. Description of the tests.....................................................................................40

2.6.2. Scoring..............................................................................................................40

X

2.7.Statistical tools......................................................................................................40

3. Data Analysis........................................................................................................41

3.1. Results..................................................................................................................41

3.1.1. Pre-test Experimental Group versus Control Group scores.............................41

3.1.2. Control Group post-test versus Control Group pre-test scores.......................43

3.1.3. Experimental Group post-test versus Experimental Group Pre-test scores (The

Paired-Sample t-test).......................................................................................44

3.1.4. Post-test Experimental Group versus Control Group Scores (the Independent-

Samples t-test)..................................................................................................45

3.2.Discussion..............................................................................................................46

3.3. Summary of the Results........................................................................................49

Conclusion.........................................................................................................................50

GENERAL CONCLUSION.............................................................................................51

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................53

APPENDICES..................................................................................................................57

1

INTRODUCTION

1. Statement of the Problem

2. Purpose of the Study

3. Research Question and Hypothesis

4. Research Methodology

5. Structure of the Study

.

2

INTRODUCTION

1. Statement of the problem

The process of translation involves a set of negotiations and possibilities related to form

and meaning. According to Fish (1980, 2003) translation helps learners to interpret,

negotiate, and express meaning from different perspectives according to the context and its

different interpretive communities. Context is an extralinguistic feature that helps EFL

learners to determine meaning in use. Therefore, pragmatics and semantics are inseparable.

EFL learners practicing translation activities from a foreign language to the native one are

asked to accomplish it accurately and successfully. The effect of using context on the

accuracy of translation words from L2 to L1 is still unclear, at least after a period of

treatment as well as in our learning setting.

2. Aim of the study

This study aims at investigating the effectiveness of using context in translation

activities from L2 to L1 in order to achieve a more accurate meaning and a successful

translation.

3. Research questions and hypothesis

This study aims at answering the research questions below:

- Does teaching context affect the translation accuracy from FL to our native language?

- To what extent does the use of context help EFL learners translate accurately?

To answer these questions, we set the following hypothesis:

- There would be a significant difference in translation accuracy between the

students who learned context use strategies and those who did not.

3

4. Research methodology:

In order to achieve the aims of the study, a quasi-experimental method will be adopted.

Pre-test and post-test will be used as data collection tools. A pre-test, a period of treatment,

and a post-test will be administered to third year LMD students at the English department of

Larbi Ben M'hidi University. A sample of students will be randomly assigned out of the

study population of third year LMD students and will be divided to an experimental group

and a control group. They will be exposed to the experiment (pre-test, treatment, and post-

test) to check the effectiveness of using context to translate accurately from FL to the native

language and test its effectiveness.

5. Structure of the dissertation:

The dissertation will be divided into two main parts. The first chapter will be

devoted to the theoretical part of the study which consists of two sections. On one hand,

the first section is a theoretical framework to highlight the concept of translation accuracy

and its application in EFL classes (different perspectives, theories related to it, and

literature that addresses it). On the other hand, we shall tackle the concept of context

generally and in translation as a foreign language teaching strategy in particular. The

second section will serve as a literature review of the previous studies conducted on the

issue of using context in translation activities along with an indication of the research gap

in this area. The second chapter will be devoted to the practical part of the study. It is

mainly concerned with the research design and methodology adopted (the setting,

population, sample and data collection tools, etc.) we shall perform the analysis and along

with the interpretation of the findings and give the general conclusion to our study.

4

Chapter one: Theoretical part:

Section one: The importance of context in translation studies

1. What is context?

2. Types of context

2.1. Linguistic context (co-text)

2.2. Context of situation

2.3. Context of culture

3. The role of context in defining meaning

4. The importance of context in translation

5. Context use in translation

6. The role of context in translating from a foreign language to a native language

Section two: Translation and Accuracy issues

C. Translation

1. Definition of Translation

2. Translation studies

3. Translation Theories

3.1. What is a Translation Theory?

3.2. Classification of Translation Theories

3.2.1. Philological Theories of translating

3.2.2. Linguistic Theories of translating

3.2.3. Sociolinguistic Theories of Translating

4. Models of translating

4.1. Grammatical model

5

4.1.1. The Traditional Grammar Method

4.1.2. The formal Linguistic Method

4.2. Cultural Model

4.2.1. The Ethnographical-Semantic Method

4.2.2. The Dynamic Equivalence Method

4.3. Interpretive Model

4.3.1. The Text Analysis Method

4.3.2. The Hermeneutic Method

5. The role of translation as a language teaching strategy

A. Accuracy

1. Definition of accuracy

2. The importance of accuracy in translation activity

6

Introduction

The importance of translation in EFL classes is still controvertional.Yet, it still used in

the basis that it helps students in participating and communicating accurately,

meaningfully, and appropriately. According to Ellis, 1992; Harmer, 1991; Widdowson,

1974, translation is a pedagogical tool in EFL environment and it should be rehabited.

Going back through methods of teaching-learning foreign languages, translation was a pure

exercice of translating word by word without any context as referred to by Luke Prodomou

(2002) as “a skelton in the cupboard”. As long as translation may help students to

communicate accurately, it cannot be separated from context. According to Newmark

(1988), context is an essential factor in translation and cannot be neglected. This first

chapter is a literature review that attempts to cover the notion of “context” in general and

its importance in translation teaching in specific. It consists of two sections as follows: The

first section deals with the importance of context in translation including its definition,

types, role, and use in translation; The second section deals with translation issues

including its definition, theories, models, and application, in addition to accuracy issues

including its definition and importance in translation.

I. Section one: The importance of context in translation studies

1. What is context?

The notion of context was first coined by the anthropologist Bornslaw Malinowski in

1923 when he attempted to translate primitive languages. By context, Malinoskwski meant

situational context that will be defined later. J.R. Firth later in the 1930’s has worked on

the linguistic corpora and related the meaning to the context.

7

While viewing the literature, the term “context” is rarely defined but rather

functionary. Starting with standard dictionary definition, in Merriam-Webster’s online

dictionary (11th ed.), there are two different senses of the word “context”:

1. The parts of a discourse that surround a word or a passage and can throw light on

its meaning.

2. The interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs.

These definitions are related to linguistic entities, environment and the situation of

a performed utterance. The notion of context is very important in linguistics, yet there

is no clear standard definition of it. According to Christiansen and Dahl (2005:100):

The word “context” is used by different authors and

communities for different but often interrelated and

dependent notions. Linguists often refer to the context of

phrase or word as the text that surrounds it. Another

everyday usage of “context” refers to a section of the real

world in which some events or the discourse takes place, and

is often intertwined and confused with another meaning,

namely knowledge about the same thing.

As such, context is a set of information that helps to provide an exact meaning of a

produced utterance. Similarly, Halliday (1991:271) stated that: “Originally, the context

meant the accompanying text, the wording that came before and after whatever was

under attention.” The surrounding text and accompanying words are the co-text.

Furthermore, the notion of “context” is interrelated with sub-disciplines of linguistics

and other disciplines. These latters pave the way to know what context real is from

8

different angles. In pragmatics, context is a core notion because it deals with aspects

that rely on context to convey meaning i.e. context-dependent. Wharton (2010:75)

pointed: “In pragmatics, context is everything” Pragmatics depends on context to

determine meaning and interpret the utterances. That is what distinguishes pragmatics

from semantics and highly relate context to meaning construction. In addition to

concrete environment i.e. the external context, the notion of context from the cognitive

view tackles the mental and psychological constructs i.e. internal context. From this

angle, Sperber and Wilson (1986:15) defined context as “the set of premises used in

interpreting an utterance” emphasizing that “context is a psychological construct”

The notion of “context” is also important in communication in the sense that it

provides information for more accurate and effective exchange and it does not

overcome the scope of meaning. As Johnson (1974) argued in Cognitive aspects of

communication, information provided by the context and linguistic utterance are

exchangeable; the more information that is provided by context, the less information is

required in the utterance. Thus, information from both context and the words

themselves simultaneously produce meaning (cited in Nouraldeen, 2015, p14) thus,

context draw boundaries for further possible interpretations.

Pedagogically, Context is a reflection to language and its understanding is affected by

contextual assumptions. (Ervin-Tripp, 1994) Language learning activities such as

vocabulary, grammar, and reading can be better done within a context. In this sense, on

the role of context in first- and second-language vocabulary learning, Nagy (1995:2)

argued that:

The importance of context in vocabulary learning is evident from two

common-sense observations: what a word means often depends on the

9

context in which it is used, and people pick up much of their

vocabulary knowledge from context, apart from explicit instruction.

Undoubtedly, the existence of context facilitates both determining meaning and

increasing vocabulary knowledge. In addition grammar plays an important role in language

learning as long as it facilitates organizing a meaningful piece of writing or a speech i.e.

facilitates accurate communication at all. The notion of “context” has a lot to add to

grammar teaching and learning. In this respect, Wajnryb (1990:6) claimed that: “Context

gives a more precise understanding of how to use grammar, and provides accuracy in the

studied language both in oral and written skills.” Similarly, Thornbury (1999:72) stressed

“if learners are going to be able to make sense of grammar, they will need to be exposed to

its contexts of use, and, at the very least this means in text.” Thus, grammar cannot be

taught in isolation, but in contexts for the reason that it better help in using correct and

authentic grammatical structures. Also, the existence of context in deriving meaning from a

piece of text while reading. Nagy, Anderson, and Herman (1985:266) deduced that:

How easily a reader learns a new word depends in part on the degree to

which the context immediately surrounding a new word gives information

about that word; but far more important is the degree to which that

concept requires the student to go beyond his or her current level of

knowledge, to integrate new factual information with prior knowledge,

and learn new conceptual distinctions.

2. Types of Context:

Generally, there are 3 types of context: situational context, linguistic context, and

culture context. These types are, according to Halliday (1976), relevant to language

education, and they serve our study aim and settings.

10

2.1. Linguistic context (co-text):

Linguistic context (co-text) refers to the surrounding words of the lexical

item. These words, by turn, help in defining the exact meaning of the intended

item. In this sense, Dash (2005) classified context into four types:

a. Local context: refers to the immediate circle of the Key Word.

b. Sentential context: refers to the next circle immediately beyond the local

context.

c. Topical context: refers to the wider circle immediately beyond the local

context.

d. Global context: refers to the world at large.

Figure1. Conceptual Layering of Context of a Word in a Piece of Text.

2.2. Context of situation :

As mentioned above, the term of situational context was first coined by the

anthropologist Bornslaw Malinowski in 1923. Then it was developed by J.R. Firth

(1957) to refer to pragmatic aspects of meaning. Nöth (1990:100) listed the

comprising factors of Firth’s context of situation:

A. The relevant features of participants: persons, personalities.

11

(i) The verbal action of the participants.

(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.

B. The relevant objects.

C. The effect of the verbal action.

Then, Halliday (1976) defined context of situation in terms of register. The latter is

defined as the specific lexical and grammatical choices as made by speakers

depending on the situational context, the participants of a conversation and the

function of the language in the discourse (Halliday, 1989,p44) and developed it in

these three parameters:

1. Field of the discourse: refers to “the total event, in which the text is

functioning, together with the purposive activity of the speaker or writer;

thus, it includes the subject-matter as one element in it” (Halliday, 1976, p

22).

2. Mode of discourse: refers to “the function of the text in the event,

including therefore both the channel taken by the language – spoken or

written, extempore or prepared – and its [genre], or rhetorical mode, as

narrative, didactic, persuasive, ‘phatic communion’ and so on” (Halliday

,1976, p22).

Tenor of discourse: refers to “the type of role interaction, the set of relevant

social relations, permanent and temporary, among the participants involved”

(Halliday, 1976, p22.).

These three parameters are what identify the context of situation used in the

discourse or a piece of text. Therefore, Halliday (1991) emphasized that the context

12

of situation is not only a matter of setting but more precisely a matter of what is

going on.

2.3. Context of culture:

Malinowski (1935) extended the notion of context of situation to what we call

“context of culture”. Halliday (1991:273) argued from “Sapir–Whorf hypothesis”:

Language evolved as part – moreover the most unconscious part – of

every human culture, it functioned as the primary means whereby the

deepest perception of the members, their joint construction of shared

experience into social reality, were constantly reaffirmed and

transmitted. Thus in this sense the culture provided the context within

which words and, more generally, grammatical systems were interpreted.

Context of culture is considered to be an essential feature in identifying

the meaning because of the shared information in a community of people.

In addition, Halliday (1991:276) bound the context of situation to the context of

culture and explains it as follow:

A situation, as we are envisaging it, is simply an instance of culture;

or, to put it the other way round, a culture is the potential behind all

the different types of situation that occur. We can perhaps use an

analogy from the physical world; the difference between “culture”

and “situation” is rather like that between the “climate” and the

“weather”. Climate and weather are not two different things; they

are the same thing, which we call weather when we are looking at it

close up, and climate when we are looking at it from a distance.

13

3. The role of context in defining meaning:

On this aspect, around the 1930’s, Firth emphasized the importance of context in

deciphering the meaning of a word and argued that “the complete meaning of a word is

always contextual, and no study of meaning apart from a complete context can be taken

seriously” (Firth, 1935, p37) Then, context became a trend in linguistics and context solve

anything in need for interpretation. Later on, Werth (1999:78-79) pointed out that: “The

context of a piece of language (..) is its surrounding environment. But this can include as

little as the articulatory movements immediately before and after it, or as much as the

whole universe, with its past and future” So, we notice that the three types of context are

important to a piece of language in order to define its meaning.

4. The importance of context in translation

The context is a main concept in translation since it facilitates determining the exact

accurate meaning. Newmark (1988:9) highlighted the importance of context in translation

as follows: “The context is the overriding factor in all translations, and has primacy over

any rule, theory, or primary meaning.” Halliday determined the notion of “context” in

terms of three strata: the co-text which is inside the language itself, context of situation,

and context of culture which are outside the language. As mentioned above, according to

Halliday the context of situation can be defined in terms of register and its components:

field, tenor, and mode. These elements are of a high importance in translation process in

that register analysis provides the translator with a framework for a successful translation.

Hu (2010:324) argued:

In translation process, first, through the analysis of the linguistic

feature of the SLT, its register can be identified and thus the

determination of its context of situation is possible. Second, in the

production of the TLT, the proper words and expressions in the TL

14

should be chosen so that the corresponding context of situation can

be re-established in the TLT.

In addition, the context of culture has a great importance in defining meaning in

translation. This view goes back to the hypothesis ‘language relativity’ of Sapir and

Whorf who related successful communication to intercultural knowledge. In terms of

translation regarding cultural components Casagrande (1954:338) argued: “The

attitudes and values, the experience and tradition of a people inevitably become

involved in the freight of meaning carried by a language. In effect, one does not

translate languages, one translates cultures.” This argument implies on translator to

review the cultural differences and similarities of both source language and target

language. Any culture has its culture-specific terms that cannot be translated only if

there is a mastery of target culture aspects. So, Nida (1998:308) emphasized that

biculturalism is more important than bilingualism for a successful translation.

5. Context use in translation

Halliday’s context of situation or register is very useful for translator in that it

encompasses the three parameters that help in finding corresponding elements in the

target language:

1. Field: the translator will have to take decisions about what terminology to use ,

to what extent the writer’s context is familiar to the target language reader, the

type of grammatical structures to adopt (active/passive);

2. Tenor: this variable will allow the translator to frame the right choice of

register (formal/informal, modern/archaic, technical/non-technical);

3. Mode: it’s the way the text should be organized (where the information focus

lies, what is given and what new information is provided, etc.)

15

Reviewing the situational of both SLT and TLT helps the translator to be specific

and accurate. In this respect, Hu (2010) concluded: “The translator has to analyze the

specific situational context of both SLT and the TLT. Only by doing this can s/he

strikes a balance between these dual concepts and make proper decisions on her/his

specific strategies.”

Additionally, the context of culture is also important as long as there is a cultural

gap between the source culture and the target culture. Translating according to cultural

aspects keeps the translator away from literary translation. Thus, each culture has what

is called culture-specific terms that cannot be translated unless the translator is

integrated within the TC. In addition to the background that the translator should have

about the target culture, there are procedures that help in translating these culture-

bound expressions. Harvey (2000:2) defined these terms as the terms which “refer to

concepts, institutions and personnel which are specific to the SL culture.” Then, he put

some techniques to translate CBT:

1. Functional Equivalence: it means using a referent in the TL culture whose

function is similar to that of the source language (SL) referent.

2. Formal Equivalence or ‘linguistic equivalence’: it means a ‘word-for-word’

translation.

3. Transcription or ‘borrowing’: it stands at the far end of SL-oriented

strategies. If the term is formally transparent or is explained in the context, it

may be used alone. In other cases, particularly where no knowledge of the SL

by the reader is presumed, transcription is accompanied by an explanation or

translation note.

4. Descriptive or self-explanatory translation: it is appropriate in a wide variety

of contexts where formal equivalence is considered insufficiently clear. In a text

16

aimed at a specialized reader, it can be helpful to add the original SL term to

avoid ambiguity. (Harvey ,2000,pp 2-6)

6. The role of context in translating from a foreign language to a native language

Translating into the native language seems to be easier because of the pre-existed

knowledge and background as well the mastery of linguistic elements and cultural aspects

of the language. Dickins (2005:2) pointed out: “Translator training normally focuses on

translation into the mother tongue, because higher quality is achieved in that direction than

in translating into a foreign language.” The native speaker while translating into his or her

native language is more equipped with all types of context especially the context of

culture. Since the linguistic context has to deal with the grammatical items, unlike the non-

native speaker, the native speaker has more knowledge about these items. Reiss (2000:60)

argued:

Due to the fact that differences between the grammatical systems of

languages are frequently quite great, it is the morphology and syntax of

the target language that clearly deserve priority unless there is some

overriding factor either in the nature of the text or some special

circumstance.

In addition, the context of culture has to deal with the cultural elements which are of a high

importance in the translation process. So, the native speaker will be more successful

translating cultural elements because of his in-depth knowledge. The cultural elements are

concerned with: idioms, collocations, metaphors, and so on. So, the translation should be

accurate as long as the native audience can judge it. Reiss (2000:79) pointed out:

17

The audience factor is apparent in the common idiomatic

expressions, quotations, proverbial allusions and metaphors, etc., of

the source language… The translator should make it possible for the

reader in the target language to see and understand the text in the

terms of his own cultural context.

In conclusion, translating into the native language depends on the translator’s knowledge

about both lexical and cultural concepts which are by nature help in using the types of

context.

Section two: translation and accuracy issues

A. Translation:

1. Definition of translation

There are a variety of translation definitions, but the most significant ones are those of

J.C Catford, E.A Nida, and P. Newmark.

J.C Catford (1965:1) primarily defined translation in his work A Linguistic Theory of

Translation as follows: “Translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of

substituting a text in one language for a text in another. Clearly, then, any theory of

translation must draw upon a theory of language a general linguistic theory.” He tackled

the notion of translation from the angle of linguistics, i.e. applying the linguistic approach

to the translation. In addition, from a functional linguistics perspective, Catford (1965:20)

defined translation as “The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by

equivalent textual material in another language (TL)” so, he arouse the notion of

18

‘equivalence’ in that the TT is a replacement of ST by TL equivalents and kept it away

from a complete translation.

In 1964, E.A Nida came with the concept of “Dynamic equivalence” i.e. shifting the focus

on translation process to the response of the receptor rather than the form of the message.

In this respect, he defined translation as “The closest natural equivalent of the source-

language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida, 1964, p.

12)

Moving to contemporary theorists, we shall mention P. Newmark who shifted the focus to

the analysis of the text and the author’s intention. Newmark (1988:5) argued: “Often,

though not by any means always, it is rendering the meaning of a text into another

language in the way that the author intended the text”

2. Translation studies :

This term was first coined by the American scholar James S. Holmes in The name

and the nature of translation studies. A translation study is defined as:

An academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the

theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and

localization. As an interdiscipline, Translation Studies borrows much from

the various fields of study that support translation. These include

comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology,

philosophy, semiotics, and terminology (“translation studies”, 2017,

para.1)

19

Lefevere (1978:234) defined translation studies as the “discipline which concerns itself

with the problems raised by the production and description of translation”

3. Translation theories

3.1. What is a translation theory

Traditionally, a theory of translation has the role of telling the translators how

to translate in a syntagmatic way: word-for-word or sense-for-sense. However,

linguistic view still limits translation theories with the textual notion but within a

systematic and scientific way. Newmark (1981:19) asserted: “translation theory is

neither a theory nor a science, but the body of knowledge that we have and have

still to have about the process of translating” emphasizing that translation is

mainly concerned with determining “appropriate translation methods for the

widest possible range of text or text-categories” providing “a framework of

principles, restricted rules, and hints for translating texts and criticizing

translations, a background for problem solving” This definition includes a variety

of aspects that pave the way for the development of a more flourishing translation

theory.

3.2.Classification of translation theories:

According to Nida (1976), theories of translation can be classified into three

categories:

3.2.1. Philological Theories of Translating

Philological theories are called ‘pre-linguistic’ theories in that they were

established before the development of modern linguistics. These theories have

20

as main concern the literal texts dealing with the problems of equivalence

between the SL and the TL. Nida (1976:67-68) argued:

The philological theories of translation are, of course

based on a philological approach to literary analysis.

They simply go one step further; in place of treating the

form in which the text was first composed, they deal with

corresponding structures in the source and receptor

languages and attempt to evaluate their

equivalences…Philological theories of translation are

normally concerned with all kinds of stylistics features

and rhetorical devices.

3.2.2. Linguistic Theories of Translating

These theories were developed due to the evolution of modern linguistics that

affected many fields as translation. Accordingly, Nida (1976:69) stated: “Linguistic

theories of translation are based on a comparison of linguistic structures of source

and receptor texts rather than on a comparison of literary genres and stylistics

features” These theories were limited to only construction and far away from

meaning.

3.2.3. Sociolinguistic Theories of Translating

Because of the shortage of linguistic theories within the translation process,

sociolinguistic theories exhibited taking receptor role and communication into

consideration. By nature, sociolinguistic theories are built on linguistic theories in

21

that they take linguistic structures to the level of communicative competence and

function i.e. how the speaker responds to the translated message.

Nida’s classification is too general and not practical to translation process.

Thus, the translator has the role of choosing the theory and method which are

appropriate to the situation and text-type.

4. Models of Translating

According to Chau’s classification, Models of translating are more specific than

Nida’s theories. He used the term Model to mean “an approach”. Crystal

(1971:114) defined the term “model” as follow:

A detailed and systematic analogy constructed in order to visualize

some aspects or function of language that is not directly

observable, and whose significance might otherwise be missed. In

other words, it is intermediate between the very general concept of

‘theory’ and the highly specific concept of ‘hypothesis’. (Cited in

Chau, 1984)

Chau (1984) divided models of translation to three areas: Grammatical model,

Cultural model, and interpretive model.

4.1.Grammatical Model

According to Chau (1984:121-22), this approach relies on translation as an

interlingual process i.e. depends on a linguistic theory of translation. Accordingly,

translation is set to be just a substitution of grammatical items from the SL to TL.

Also, this approach denies meaning and cultural context and focuses only on the

22

grammatical side. Due to the modern language studies, Chau identifies two

common methods:

4.1.1. The Traditional Grammar Method

According to Chau (1984:122-27), this method is a pure adaptation and

application of the ‘Traditional grammar’ method. Accordingly, Chau (1984:122)

summarised: “translating is the search for the correct TL equivalent

lexicon/sentence via grammar.” This method sounds to be beneficial for beginners

in translating learning because words substitution may seem easier and secure for

them. This method believes in the universality of meaning of parts of speech.

4.1.2. The Formal Linguistic Method

According to Chau( 1984:127-30), what differentiate the formal method from the

traditional one is that the former is scientific and descriptive. While traditional

grammar subjectively defines classes and assigns rules for language based on

meaning, formal grammar does so objectively based on a structural analysis of the

phonology, morphology, and syntax of a language (Dinneen, 1967, p166-67) Both

traditional grammar translators and formal linguists are concerned with grammar,

but only formal linguists emphasized on the structural differences between

language and rejected the universality of the meanings of parts of speech.

4.2. Cultural Model

According to Chau (1984:130-31), this approach underlines translation as

intercultural operation and meaning in terms of cultural fields and contexts. On this

basis, Despatie (1967:63) argued: “real semantic content of language is the

23

ethnography of the culture in which that language is spoken” According to Rabin’s

statement (1972:11), language and culture are two tied sides of translation i.e.

culture and language are interrelated and inseparable in that speakers are in need to

intercultural competence rather than the mastery of language alone. Sapir (1956:69)

clarified the previous statement as follows: “No two languages are ever sufficiently

similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in

which different societies live are distinct worlds not merely the same world with

different labels attached” (cited in Chau 1984,136). The cultural approach

emphasizes on the semantic side of verbal communication and the intercultural

contrasts. Chau (1984) categorized this model into two main methods:

4.2.1. The Ethnographical-Semantic Method

According to Chau (1984:133-38), Ethnographical semanticists, unlike

grammarians, focused on meaning and related it to culture but still inseparable from

language. In terms of practice, E-S teachers raise students’ awareness toward

culture-bound items in a way they can compare and contrast between the Target

culture and the Source culture emphasizing on cultural variation within meaning.

Reyburn (1969:163-65) clarified variation in cultural meaning in these points:

1. Different cultures often assign very different meanings in the same forms

and activities.

2. Different cultures assign similar meanings in very different forms and

activities.

3. There are some activities whose communicative intent in the SL culture is

different from that understood is the TL culture.(Cited in Chau,1984)

24

Adapting Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of ‘language relativity’, Ethnographic

Semanticists focused on turn students’ attention to cultural gaps between languages.

For example comparing between colour systems or kinship in two languages. In

addition, Ethnographic semanticists devised many techniques to assess meaning in

individual words. One technique is componential analysis which helps translators to

uncover features to contrast between equivalents and meaning in two languages.

4.2.2. The Dynamic Equivalence Method

According to Chau (1984:138-42), this method was known through history with

different labels: ‘the Principle of Equivalent Effect’ (Koller 1972), ‘Communicative

Translation’ (Newmark 1981), and ‘Cultural Translation’ (Catford 1985), etc.

According to Newmark (1981:132), this term was primarily stated by P.Cauer in

1896 in that the TLT should produce the same effect on the TLT readers as the SLT

did on the original readers. Unlike the ethnographic semanticists who believe that

languages have little in common, the Dynamic Equivalence proponents believe that

languages have much in common. In this respect, Nida and Taber (1969:1) argued:

“Anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form

is an essential element of the message”(Cited in Chau,1984) Accordingly, this

method gives more attention to the message and the readers’ response in that their

response to TLT should be the same to SLT. So, the D-E translation end-product is

not another message but “the closest natural equivalent” Finally, unlike the

previous stated methods, D-E focuses on the level of parole rather than langue and

it makes analysis at the level of sentences and lexical items.

4.3. Interpretive Model

25

According to Chau (1984-144-45), in the late sixties, translation studies were

affected by the shifting of focus of attention from “langue” to “parole”. This was

what makes co-text and context demanded to determine meaning. Accordingly,

Toury (1980:23) clarified that translating is a text-to-text operation rather than an

interlingual or intercultural operation. Then, Nida (1968) was the first to emphasize

the importance of interpretation of the text to its translation i.e. the text

interpretation and translation are inseparable. R. de Beaugrande (1978:13)

highlighted the focus on interpreting the SLT:

Most translation studies are limited to a confrontation of the text

alone, that is, without regard how the texts were produced and

how they affect the readers. This procedure would no longer be

valid. Furthermore, the focus of translation studies would be

shifted away from the incidental incompatibilities among

languages toward the systematic communicative factors shared by

languages. Only on the light of this new focus can such issues as

equivalence and translation evaluation be satisfactorily clarified.

(Cited in Chau, 1984)

Thus, the translator as an interpreter has the role of reconstructing the SLT and

recreating its past. Accordingly, Steiner (1975:24) argued: “A text is embedded in

specific historical time; it has what linguists call a diachronic structure. To read

fully is to restore all that one can of the immediacies of values and intent in which

speech actually occurs” Emphasizing on the translator and his role as a reader, R.

Barthes considered the reader as producer rather than a consumer in that he uses all

the previous experiences to interpret the wanted text.

26

Chau (1984) identified two modern methods within this model: The Text Analysis

Method and the Hermeneutic Method.

4.3.1. The Text Analysis Method

According to Chau (1984:145-48), this method is based on Linguistic Theories

adapting insights from other adjacent disciplines such as: pragmatics, semiotics, socio-

linguistics, literary criticism, stylistics, and communication theory. The main concept

in this method is context, in that the translator through analysing the co-text can arrive

to a full reading of the text. Thus, the translator will be able to recreate the text in its

original situation. Newmark (1988:9) highlighted the importance of context in

translation: “Context is the overriding factor in all translation, and has primacy over

any rule, theory, or primary meaning.” One important feature of this method is that it

takes the text as a unit of examination and the reader should take the whole

communicative event into consideration.

4.3.2. The Hermeneutic Method:

According to Chau (1984-148-55), unlike the previous methods, The Hermeneutic

Method is related to the German school of philosophy named ‘Existential

Hermeneutic’. This method is an ‘ontological’ method in that the interpretation of the

SLT is conducted on a metaphysical plane. The text in the Hermeneutic method,

instead of being an ‘object’, is considered as a ‘co-subject’ i.e. the translator has the

role of an interpreter who has to create a new meaning in a dialogue. So, the idea of

objectivity held by Text Analysts is rejected. This method offers the translator other

insights and intersubjectivity that makes him honest and careful.

5. The use of translation as a language teaching strategy in EFL class

27

The use of translation in EFL class is still controversial because of the arguments

for and against its integration in EFL curriculum. On one hand, Duff (1989:6) defended:

“translation happens everywhere, all the time, so why not in the classroom?” Translation

was a victim of grammar-translation method because of its separation from real

communicative settings. An educational questionnaire was administered by Carreres

(2006) to investigate students’ attitudes toward using translation in language learning came

to the conclusion that students support and perceive the idea of using translation.

Furthermore, Carreres (2006:18) deduced that:

There is enough evidence to suggest that translation has an important role

to play in language teaching, but more empirical research is needed. In

particular, we need to gain further insight into its effectiveness relative to

other language learning activities.

Using translation after the development of its models and theories allowed its access to

communicative, cultural, and interpretive aspects of language. Accordingly, Carreres

(2006:18) concluded:

A number of highly innovative and creative approaches to the teaching of

translation have emerged in recent years. Once again, these approaches

highlight the need for flexibility and adaptability to the needs of learners,

as well as the need to build bridges between language teaching and

translation pedagogy.

On the other hand, Carreres (2006:5) put forward five arguments against using translation

as language teaching tool:

28

1. Translation is an artificial exercise that has no place in a communicative

methodology. Also, it is restrictive in that it confines language practice to two

skills only: reading and writing.

2. Translation into L2 is counterproductive in that it forces learners always to view

the foreign language through their mother tongue; this causes interferences and a

dependence on L1 that inhibits free expression in L2.

3. Translation into L2 is a purposeless exercise that has no application in the real

world, since translators normally operate into and not out of their mother tongue.

4. Translation, particularly into L2, is a frustrating and de-motivating exercise in

that the student can never attain the level of accuracy or stylistic polish of the

version presented to them by their teacher. It seems to be an exercise designed to

elicit mistakes, rather than accurate use of language.

5. Translation is a method that may well work with literary-oriented learners who

enjoy probing the intricacies of grammar and lexis, but it is unsuited to the

average learner.

B. Accuracy

1. Definition of accuracy

Accuracy is defined by the Oxford dictionary as the quality or state of being correct or

precise. It is also defined in British Council’s website as “Accuracy refers to how correct

learners' use of the language system is, including their use of grammar, pronunciation and

vocabulary. Accuracy is often compared to fluency when we talk about a learner's level of

speaking or writing."

29

Accuracy in translation is the concept of “faithfulness” or “fidelity”. Guralnik (1979), in

Webster’s English Dictionary, defined “faithfulness/fidelity” as: “the quality of being

accurate, reliable, and exact.” In this respect, Newmark (1988:46) stated that the method of

faithful translation tries to recreate the same accurate contextual meaning of the original

text preserving the same grammatical and lexical ‘Abnormality’ i.e. to be faithful to the

intentions of the source text.

2. The importance of accuracy in translation activity

Since accuracy is the same as fidelity/faithfulness, Amparo Hurtado-Albir

(1990:118) accordingly related fidelity to the author’s intention, to the target language,

and to the target culture. Thus, the translator being faithful has to take all the above into

consideration without neglecting fidelity to sense. In addition, translation quality

assessment includes the assessment of faithfulness. House (1977:5) argued that

adopting the criteria of faithfulness to the original, the retention of the SL flavor, local

colour or spirit, and the pleasure of the reader is largely a subjective manner. Savory

(1957:49) listed high quality criteria:

1. A translation must give the words of the original

2. A translation must give the idea of the original

3. A translation should read like an original work

4. A translation should read like a translation

5. A translation should reflect the style of the original

6. A translation should possess the style of the translator

7. A translator should read as a contemporary of the original

8. A translation should read as a contemporary of the translator

9. A translation may add to or omit from the original

30

10. A translation may never add to or omit from the original

11. A translation of verse should be in prose

12. A translation of verse should be in verse

Conclusion

As been explained in this chapter, a brief literature review about context and its

importance in translation as well as translation and accuracy issues was provided. Context

seems to prove its importance in translation activity and process in the sense that it

provides clarity to the words, expression, or text being translated. In the next chapter, we

shall try to prove the effectiveness of context use at the department of English in Larbi Ben

M’Hidi University in order to see at what extent our hypothesis proves its correctness.

31

Chapter two: Teaching context within translation activities in the Algerian University

context: Larbi Ben M’Hidi University as a sample

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

2.1.Choice of the Method

2.2.The Sample

2.3.The Target Structures

2.4.The Research Design

2.5.Procedures

2.5.1. Pre-test

2.5.2. Treatment

2.5.2.1.Experimental group treatment

2.5.2.2.Control group treatment

2.5.3. Post-test

2.5.4. Description of the test

2.5.5. Scoring

2.6.Instrument: test used in the pre and post-test

2.7.Statistical tools

3. Data Analysis

3.1. Results

3.1.1. Experimental and control group pre and post tests scores

3.1.2. Control Group post-test versus Control Group pre-test scores

3.1.3. Experimental Group post-test versus Experimental Group Pre-test

scores (The Paired-Sample t-test)

32

3.1.4. Post-test Experimental Group versus Control Group Scores (the

Independent-Samples t-test)

3.2.Discussion

3.3. Summary of the Results

Conclusion

33

1. Introduction

According to Halliday (1976), there are three types of context in language education

which are: linguistic context (co-text), context of situation, and context of culture.

Respectively, the first serves to identify the meaning of the word in its linguistic

environment; the second serves to identify the situation in terms of field, tenor, and mode;

and the third serves to fill the cultural gap between the SLT and the TLT. These three

elements affect translation activity in that they provide the help for the translator in order

to be precise, correct, and accurate in his translation.

The aim of the current study lies within the last point of the effectiveness of context in

the translation activity. It is an attempt to determine whether providing context for third-

year EFL LMD students would significantly improve their translation accuracy.

This chapter consists of a quasi-experimental study that we have conducted to test the

hypothesis. It includes: first, the description of the methodology; second, presentation and

discussion of the results; and last, the conclusion of the study accompanied with the

limitations and the pedagogical implications.

2. Methodology

In the beginning, a description of methodology of this work will be provided: the

method chosen, the sample, the target structures, the research design, the procedure, the

research instruments and the statistical tools.

2.1. Choice of the Method

To achieve the research aims, a quasi-experimental research method is used. It permits

the valuation of the target treatment within the experimental group comparing it with the

34

absence of treatment with the control group to improve the validity of the results. Two

third-year EFL groups from the English Department at Larbi Ben M’Hidi University were

selected as the experimental and the control groups. The quasi-experimental design is

adopted in which two pre-exisiting classes were randomly assigned as the experimental

and control groups.

2.2. Sample

The target population of the present study is 155 third-year EFL students at Larbi Ben

M’Hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi in the academic year 2016/2017. This sample is

chosen in the basis of their awareness of translation activity (theories and practices). A

sample of two groups is used to represent the entire population. Originally, the number of

students in each group was 32 for the control and 35 for the experimental. Because of the

absences and attendance inconsistencies the number is reduced to 21 for the control and 28

students for the experimental.

2.3.Target Structures

The structures selected for this study were: English words and utterances. They are

chosen on the basis of three aspects:

They are difficult to translate without Co-text.

Their meanings vary with situation in which they have been uttered.

They are bound to a specific culture and need a cultural background to be

translated.

2.4. Research Design

This study aims to answer the following questions:

35

- Does Context with its three types affect the translation accuracy using

Dynamic Equivalence Method within a group of third-year Algerian

EFL learners?

Statistically, this question will be reformulated as follows:

- Is there a significant difference in translation accuracy between students

who learned context use strategies and those who did not learn them?

To answer this question, we formulate the following hypothesis:

- Hı: There would be a significant difference in translation accuracy

between the students who learned context use strategies and those who

did not.

We state the following Null hypotheses (Hₒ):

- Hₒ: There would be no significant difference in translation accuracy

between the students who learned Context use strategies and those who

did not.

The study consists of one independent variable (context) and one dependent

variable (translation accuracy).

To conduct the current study a quasi-experimental design will be adopted

with three phases: a pre-test, a treatment, a post-test.

Experimental group pre-test treatment1 post-test

Control group pre-test No treatment post-test

36

Experimental group: It consists of 28 participants.

Control group: It consists of 21 participants.

Pre-test: it was about the translation of a list of words and expressions into Arabic

without any context.

Treatment1: introduction to Dynamic equivalence method of translation, learning

contextual strategies, situational context and the notion of register, and strategies to

translate culture-bound expressions accompanied with a cultural background for a

list of cultural words.

No treatment: there would be any interference.

Post-test: it was about to translate words and expressions into Arabic in a sentence

or a piece of text.

2.5. Procedure

2.5.1. Pre-test

The experimental and control groups participants were pre-tested during the first

week by means of translating a list of words and expressions to judge their ability to

translate without any context and without learning any strategy.

Subjects were told to translate as accurate as they can and to translate each word as

they understand it. Throughout the administration of the test students are not allowed to

ask for any explanation or even a definition in English as well as to prevent them to use

dictionaries. Subjects finished the test in about 30 minutes.

2.5.2. Treatment

37

After the pre-test, the experimental group received three 90-minutes sessions over

the period of the study. The control group received no treatment session.

2.5.2.1. Experimental Group Treatment

The experimental group learned strategies of context use throughout 3 sessions. The

schedule of all the sessions of experimental group during the treatment period is

represented in table1.The treatment includes the following points:

- An introduction to the Dynamic equivalence method ( already included

in their natural curriculum)

- Linguistic Context:

1. Definition of linguistic context (co-text)

2. Types of Co-text

3. Contextual clues

4. Contextual clues strategies

- Situational context

1. Definition of situational context

2. Elements and factors comprising a situation

3. Halliday’s notion of register

- Context of culture

1. Definition of culture

2. Definition of context of culture

3. Definition of culture-bound expressions

38

4. Classification of culture-bound words

5. Newmark’s strategies to translate culture-bound words.

Table 1

Schedule of the Experimental Group Treatment Sessions

Session Lesson

I

Introduction to Dynamic Equivalence method

1- Linguistic context

a- Definition of co-text

b- Types of co-text

c- Contextual clues

d- Contextual clues strategies

+practice

II

2- Context of situation

a- Definition of situational context

b- Elements and factors of situation

c- Halliday’s notion of register

+ practice

III

3-Context of culture

a- Definition of culture

b- Definition of context of culture

39

c- Definition of culture-bound terms

d- Classification of culture-bound terms

e- Newmark’s Strategies of translating

culture-bound terms

+ practice

The first step in the treatment is reminding students of Dynamic Equivalence

Method of translation. Students are to think about the notion of “context” and try to define

it globally. They get introduced to the notion of context, its types, and its effect on

meaning generally and on context particularly. Then, they learn deeper the types of

context: co-text, context of situation, and context of culture respectively. Each session is

ended with a type of practice except for the context of culture it was accompanied with a

list of cultural words with their cultural explanations in English.

In the classroom, the lesson takes the form of discussion, asking questions, and

jotting down the correct answers. After discussion, students were provided with exercises

and given time to think about and answer collectively.

This treatment lasted for 3 sessions devoted to both the lesson and the practice. At the

end of the last session, students are asked to revise the given background and search for

further information about the given expressions.

2.5.2.2. Control Group Treatment

40

In the control group, students did not receive any treatment because of the context

that will be provided within the post-test. Students will lack the Strategies of contextual

clues, register variation, and strategies to translate CBTs.

2.5.3. Post-test

The post-test was administered in the fifth session. The post-test was about

translation words in a sentence, conversation, or a piece of text to Arabic. Some of the

words depend only on the contextual clue, others vary within the situation, and others

needs cultural background to be translated i.e. they are included in the background

given to the experimental group.

2.6. Instruments: test used in the pre-test and post-test

2.6.1. Description of the Tests

On one hand, the pre-test consists of a list of words and expressions that need

translation into Arabic. These words lack context (clues or cultural background).

On the other hand, the post-test consists of underlined words situated in a piece of

writing (provide contextual clues; understand their situation; and cultural words).

Students are asked to translate the underlined words and expressions accordingly

2.6.2. Scoring

Both tests were scored on 20 points with 1 point to each correct accurate translation.

2.7. Statistical tools

41

The statistical tools used to analyse the results of both tests are descriptive and

inferential statistics using the SPSS software. Entering the data (pre-test and post-test

scores) to the SPSS worksheet and calculate the following:

-Means

-T-test: It is used to test the significance of the difference between the tests scores. In that

basis we accept or we reject the hypothesis. In this study we used both:

The paired sample t-test

It is used to situations in which each participant contributes to test scores, and the

subjects belong to the same group. It is used to test the null hypothesis.

The independent-samples t-test

It is used to situation to see whether there is a statistically significant difference between

the mean scores of two groups (an experimental group and a control group).

3. Data Analysis

3.1. Results

3.1.1. Experimental and control group pre and post tests scores

Table 2 summarises the results of the experiment within their descriptive statistical

scores

42

Table 2

The results of the Experimental and Control groups

pre-test

control group

post test

control group

pre-test

experimental

group

post test

experimental

group

N Valid 21 21 28 28

Missing 7 7 0 0

Mean 6,1905 6,4762 4,9286 15,9643

Std. Error of

Mean ,68528 ,55899 ,42392 ,36905

Median 6,0000 7,0000 4,5000 16,0000

Mode 5,00 7,00 4,00 16,00a

Std. Deviation 3,14037 2,56162 2,24316 1,95282

Variance 9,862 6,562 5,032 3,813

Minimum ,00 2,00 ,00 13,00

Maximum 11,00 11,00 10,00 20,00

Sum 130,00 136,00 138,00 447,00

On one hand, Table2 shows that the Control group outscored the Experimental group

on the pre-test. The former with a mean of 6, 1905, and the latter with a mean of 4, 9286.

(Both groups did not exceed the average) On the other hand, The Experimental group

outscored the Control group on the post-test. The former with a mean of 15, 9643 and the

latter with a mean of 6, 4762 I.e. the experimental recorded a considerable difference but

the control group recorded a slight difference.

Scores are coded as follows:

Control group: From Table2, it could be noted that:

On the Pre-test:

The mean is: 6, 1905

The lowest score is :0.00

The highest score is :11.00

The most frequent score is: 5.00

43

On the Post-test:

The mean is: 6, 4762

The lowest score is:2.00

The highest score is:11.00

The most frequent score is:7.00

Experimental group:

On the pre-test:

The mean is: 4.9286

The lowest score is:0.00

The highest score is:10.00

The most frequent score is:4.00

On the post-test:

The mean is: 15.9643

The lowest score is: 13.00

The highest score is: 20.00

The most frequent score is: 16.00

3.1.2. Control Group post-test versus Control Group pre-test scores

Table3 provides the paired sample statistics for Control group pre and post tests

44

Table3

Control group pre and post tests paired sample statistics

Looking at Table3, we can notice that:

- The difference between the means of the pre-test and post-test is -

0.28571 i.e. a slight difference between them.

- The P value (Sig. (2-tailed)) is higher than 0.05 (P>.05)

This means that there is no significant difference between the control group’s pre-test

and post-test i.e. the context provided in the post-test without the treatment of contextual

and cultural strategies of translating did not mark a significant difference or improvement.

The slight difference between the means is due to the few help that the written context

provide for the control group subjects.

3.1.3. Experimental Group post-test versus Experimental group pre-test

Table4 provides the paired sample statistics for the Experimental Group pre and post-

tests:

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Std.

Deviatio

n

Std. Error

Mean

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

Pair 1

pre-test control

group - post test

control group

-

,2857

1

3,91335 ,85396

-2,06705

1,49562 -,335 20 ,741

45

Table 4

Experimental Group Paired Sample Statistics

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2-

tailed) Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

Pair

1

pre-test

experimental

group - post test

experimental

group

-

11,0357

1

2,98741 ,56457 -12,19411 -9,87732 -

19,547 27 ,000

Looking at Table4, we can notice that:

- The difference between the means of pre-test and post-test is: -11.03571 i.e. a

big difference between them.

- The P value (Sig. (2-tailed)) is less than 0.05 (P<.05)

This means that there is a significant difference between the Experimental Group pre-

test and post-test i.e. the treatment provided for the Experimental group showed a great

improvement in Experimental Group subject’s translation accuracy in addition to the

written context provided within the post-test.

3.1.4. Post-test Experimental Group versus Control Group Scores

To examine the significance of the difference between the Experimental and Control

groups’ post-test mean scores, we have used SPSS to calculate the independent-sample t-

test. Table5 provides the independent-sample statistics for Experimental and Control

Group’s post-test.

46

Table 5

Experimental and control groups’ post-test independent-sample statistics

Levene's

Test for

Equality of

Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig.

(2-

tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

95% Confidence

Interval of the

Difference

Lower Upper

test

experimantal

Equal variances

assumed 1,664 ,203

-

14,724 47 ,000 -9,48810 ,64440

-

10,78446

-

8,19173

Equal variances

not assumed

-

14,165 36,147 ,000 -9,48810 ,66983

-

10,84637

-

8,12982

From Table5, we can notice that:

- In the Levene’s Test, the P value (Sig) is higher than 0.05 (P>0.05) i.e. there is a

much variability, so we read from the top row.

- In the top row, the P value is less than 0.05 (P<0.05),

This means there is a significant difference between the Experimental group post-test

scores and control group post-test scores. This difference is due to the manipulation of the

Independent variable i.e. the treatment of context use. We conclude that the Hₒ is rejected,

and the Hı is supported and accepted i.e. Using Context strategies is significantly affective

in the improving of translation accuracy.

3.2. Discussion

This study was conducted to examine the effect of context on translation

accuracy: From FL to NL. It tends to test the following hypothesis:

47

- The students who learned context with its types and strategies would show higher

improvement in their translation accuracy rather than students who did not.

The analysis mainly showed these results: First, Teaching context within its strategies

has led to a high significant improvement in the Experimental Group’s pre and post-test

scores. While conducting the paired sample t-test, it showed that context use strategies are

interestingly effective in raising and enhancing students’ translation accuracy. Second, the

difference between the Experimental and the Control groups achievement in the post-test,

indicated that the effectiveness of context strategies teaching is statistically significant than

the written context accompanied the post-test alone in enhancing translation accuracy. It

can be concluded that teaching context strategies is effective in raising translation accuracy

in this study (checked by using paired-sample and the independent-samples tests). The

discussion includes two points: the high effectiveness of teaching context strategies in

enhancing translation accuracy, and the non-significance of the written context

accompanying the post-test in enhancing translation accuracy.

The effectiveness of teaching context strategies in enhancing translation accuracy

The result that teaching context strategies proved to be effective in enhancing

translation accuracy can be explained in the following points:

- The dynamic Equivalence Method allowed students to search for the closest natural

equivalent and to stay away from literal translation that can be difficult in such

situation. We took the following example from the pre-test i.e. before the treatment:

Looking at the utterance Big brothers and sisters’ organization, most of the students

in both groups translate it literally into Arabic as: الكبار األخواتو اإلخوة ةمنظم . Introducing

the Dynamic Equivalence Method which focuses on the TL message and the reader’s

48

response and giving a type of cultural context that this organization is a special

organization of adults and experienced volunteers who spend time in helping children

to overcome difficulties, we can translate it according to dynamic Equivalence as: ةمنظم

.متبرعين

- The strategies taught to the Experimental Group in using contextual clues to define

meaning help them in finding a way out to translate the words accurately. Looking

at the following example from the post-test eccentric may seem difficult to

translate without a helpful context. Putting it in the following sentence: Our

baseball team’s pitcher has few eccentric habits, such as throwing exactly thirteen

warm-up pitches and never wearing socks. The strategy used in here is illustration

that clarifies the meaning and exemplifies the item wanted.

- Concerning the situational context, subjects of the Experimental Group were

exposed to the factors and elements of a certain situation, so the register varies

accordingly. Looking at the following example from the post-test No guys, no and

thousands no, the utterance needs a situation in which it was uttered translated

accurately. Analysing the piece of dialogue, it can be noticed that it was uttered

between friends in a casual speech. Accordingly, the register is non-formal and the

utterance can be translated as: ال ألفكال و

- The most important point is the cultural context, Experimental group subjects were

exposed to strategies to translate CBTs. In addition, they received a written form of

some words’ cultural information in English. Looking at the following example

from the post-test “Baptism”, through the provided background, it was explained

as “a religious act of purification by water usually associated with admission to

membership or fullness of membership of Christianity”. In addition to the use of

49

“cultural equivalent” strategy that permits the replacement of a cultural word in the

SL with a TL one, the word baptism can be translated as :تعميد

The non-significance of the written context accompanying the post-test in enhancing

translation accuracy

The context accompanied the words in the post-test did not prove to be effective in

enhancing students’ translation accuracy. This result can be turned to some factors:

- The lack of contextual clues strategies that help them to define meaning from

the written context.

- The Unconsciousness of register variation along with the situation factors.

- The lack of CBTs translation strategies that help them in translating the target

words accurately.

- Most importantly, the lack of cultural background that was considered to be the

main cause of failure in Control group post-test achievements.

This results led to prove the hypothesis set for this study and support the statement that

context is effective in enhancing learners translation accuracy.

3.3. Summary of results

Results from this study indicated that Experimental Group subjects learning

context along with its types and strategies outscored Control Group subjects who

did not. Statistical analysis of data using SPSS program particularly t-tests

demonstrated two main results. The paired-sample test shows a significant

improvement in the Experimental group achievements between the pre and post-

tests, which indicates the effectiveness of the treatment applied. That is to say,

teaching context along within its types and strategies is effective in enhancing

translation accuracy. In addition, the independent-samples test shows that the

50

difference between the Experimental and Control Group achievements in the post-

test is statistically significant, which indicates that teaching context use strategy is

more effective than just the written context accompanied the words in the post-test

in enhancing translation accuracy.

Conclusion

The current study is based on the hypothesis that teaching context use strategies

in enhancing translation accuracy from FL to NL. It is concerned with an attempt to

integrate context teaching within translation teaching. Importantly, it attempts to

investigate the effectiveness of context teaching on translation accuracy of a group of EFL

students in Larbi Ben M’hidi University. Hence, the results support and accept the

hypothesis set for the research in that context teaching has a positive effect on translation

accuracy from FL to NL.

51

General Conclusion

This research work aims at investigating the effect of context on translation

accuracy in the field of language teaching and learning. The work includes two chapters.

The first chapter deals with the literature review covering the notion of context in

translation and some translation and accuracy issues. The second deals with the

experimental study that investigates the effect of teaching context along with its types and

strategies within translation activity on translation accuracy. The literature review shows

that context has a great effect on defining meaning. The current experimental study

supports the previous idea in that context teaching is effective in enhancing students’

translation accuracy. The conclusion that we deduced is that teaching context along with

translation enhances translation accuracy. This conclusion implies that integrating context

in translation courses may be more effective for better results in terms of accuracy.

Limitations of the study

The limitations of the study can be summarized in the following points. First, this

study is limited to translating words and expressions from FL to NL. Second, the

participants are Algerian post-intermediate learners, so results cannot be generalized to

other different levels. Both the number of participants and period of treatment are

insufficient for more reliable results. Fourth, Translation accuracy can be best measured at

level of texts.

Pedagogical implications

In teaching translation, it is important to care about the end-product of the activity

i.e. the quality of the translation. Teaching context strategies in translation subject may be

52

more effective in enhancing the quality of the activity. Since, context strategies constitute a

part of cultural background which help students to translate CBTs accurately. The target

culture should be taught along with the translation subjects to enhance the quality of the

target text, word, or expression. In addition, raising students’ awareness to the situation in

which the target structure was uttered, can help them to be precise and accurate in defining

the right meaning and equivalent. All in all, context with its three types: linguistic,

situational, or cultural are important in translation activity for more accurate equivalent.

53

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57

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: Test used in the pre and the post tests and their answers

APPENDIX 2: Cultural background provided for Experimental group

APPENDIX 3: Students’ answers sample

58

Appendix1: Tests Used in the Pre-and Post-Tests with their answers

Pre-test:

Translate the following utterances into Arabic (as accurate as you can):

The Muslim nation : اإلسالمية األمة

One parent child :يتيم

Car boot sale: مزاد علني في صندوق السيارة

Mentors: مربيون

Big brothers and sisters organization:منظمة متبرعين

Pimp my ride :صلح سيارتي

Solemn promise :وعد سليمان

Set the tone: يحدد المزاج

Periphery:حافة خارجية

Barren:عقيم

Single out:يميز

Vivid:حيوي

Captivate: ياسر

Senior citizen: مواطن راشد

Single mother: عزباء أم

Boiler room:سوق سوداء

Palimony:نفقة مالية

Uncanny:خارق للطبيعة

59

Nonplussed :محتار

Bathtub: تحمام حوض اس

Post-test

Translate into Arabic the underlined expressions (as accurate as you can):

1. Our baseball team’s pitcher has few eccentric habits, such as throwing exactly

thirteen warm-up pitches and never wearing socks. األطوارغريب

2. The Debris on the stadium floor included numerous paper cups, and cigarette

butts.نفايات

3. The coach takes every opportunity to censure his players, yet he ignores every

opportunity to praise them.يوبخ

4. The father was so busy at work; he made his best to be present in his son’s

Baptism. تعميد

5. A researcher’s article “Genesis and the cross” was about the origin of the word

Easter, its significance, and how Christians celebrate it.عيد الفصح

6. Last night, a descriptive documentary about animals had chosen The Dartmoor

pony in particular to be illustrated. They emphasized its ability to handle work

because of its excellent stamina.الفرس القزم

7. Alice and Nicole were close friends who share some personal secrets for a long

time. After a problematic situation they passed through, they separate ways.

Unfortunately, Alice discovered that all her colleagues knew about her secrets.

After that, she decided to stay alone in the school without any close friends, but that

was not the case when Julia came. Julia was the new classmate who gained Alice’s

trust easily. One day, Julia, by chance, said to Alice that Nicole is one of her

relatives. Alice became angry at first, but later she explained to Julia how she came

to discover that Nicole is a bad egg. خائنة

8. A: Can we meet at 16:00h?

B: Do you have plans?

A: yes, we will go to the cinema to see the new film.

B: I ‘am thrilled to beats, I only go to cinema Once in a blue moon.نادرا

A: Do you want us to go somewhere else after the cinema?

B: hmmmm, let’s go to eat Cheddar cheese Pizza?جبنة الشيدار

60

A: Deal, let’s go for it.

9. Anna was very busy in Advent season; she bought the charismas tree and some

goods to make her children happy and satisfied. قدوم المسيح

10. The store specializes in cutlery, such as forks and knives that has unique

designs.اواني المائدة

11. One brother is an erudite professor, the other brother, however, has never shown

any interest in books or learning.مثقف

12. Jack: Hey guys, I got an amazing idea!!

Justin: I ‘am excited, what is it?

Jack: we are going to do that Prank for Mr. James مقلب

John: No guys, no and thousands no!كال و ألف كال

13. Researchers have conducted research on altruism, which can be defined as “putting

the needs and welfare of others above one’s own needs and well-being.”اإليثار

14. When James could not afford to buy his mother’s medicines, he decided to sell

drugs and alcohol in Boiler room.السوق السوداء

15. After being sure that she is barren, Rita decided to adopt one of the foundling

children she saw in the street.عقيمة/لقطاء

16. Because there was a little precipitation this year, the crops dried up and died.امطار

17. Although I was unable to understand all the details of the presentation, I did get the

gist of it. لب

61

APPENDIX 2: Cultural Background Provided for Experimental Group

Cloud nine: it is used in a state of blissful happiness. A commonly heard explanation is

that the expression originated as one of the classifications of cloud which were defined by

the U.S Weather Bureau in the 1950’s, in which 'Cloud Nine' denotes the fluffy

cumulonimbus type that are considered so attractive. Another explanation is that the

phrase derives from Buddhism and that Cloud Nine is one of the stages of the progress to

enlightenment of a Bodhisattva (one destined to become a Buddha).

Baptism: is a religious act of purification by water usually associated with admission to

membership or fullness of membership of Christianity.

Advent: a season observed in many Western Christian churches, a time of expectant

waiting and preparation for the celebration of the Nativity of Jesus at Christmas.

Easter: Pascha, or Resurrection Day, is an important religious feast in the Christian

liturgical year. It celebrates the resurrection of Jesus, which Christians believe occurred

on the third day after his crucifixion sometime in the period AD 27 to 33. Easter also

refers to the season of the church year called Eastertide or the Easter Season.

Traditionally the Easter Season lasted for the forty days from Easter Day until Ascension

Day but now officially lasts for the fifty days until Pentecost. The first week of the Easter

Season is known as Easter Week or the Octave of Easter.

The Dartmoor pony: is a horse breed that has lived in south western England for

centuries and is used for a variety of disciplines. Because of the extreme weather

conditions experienced on the moors, the Dartmoor is a particularly hardy breed with

excellent stamina. Over the centuries it has been used as a working animal by local tin

miners and quarry workers. It is kept in a semi-feral state on Dartmoor.

Cheddar cheese: is a relatively hard, off-whit , sometimes sharp-tasting, natural cheese.

Originating in the British village of Cheddar in Somerset, cheeses of this style are

produced beyond this region and in several countries around the world.The term

"Cheddar cheese" is widely used, but has no Protected Designation of Origin within the

European Union. However in 2007, a Protected Designation of Origin, "West Country

Farmhouse Cheddar", was created and only Cheddar produced from local milk within

Somerset, Dorset, Devon and Cornwall and manufactured using traditional methods may

use the name. Outside of Europe, the style and quality of cheeses labelled as cheddar

may vary greatly; furthermore, cheeses that are more similar in taste and appearance to

Red Leicester are sometimes popularly marketed as "Red Cheddar".

A bad egg: Someone or something that disappoints expectations. The allusion is clearly to

the disappointment felt when cracking or shelling an egg, only to find that it is bad

62

Once in a blue moon: an event that happens infrequently.“I only go to the cinema once in

a blue moon.”

One parent child: the nearest notion in the Islamic culture is the child who has lost one or

both parents (an orphan) . in the case of a child who is found by himself without being

possible to find his/her parents by any means,we call laqqit

Car boot sale: A popular way of selling unwanted goods, similar to a garage sale in the US

A car boot is usually held in a large open area such as a field.

63

APPENDIX 3: Students’ answers sample

64

65

RESUME

La présente étude est menée afin d’évaluer l’effet du contexte sur l’exactitude de la

traduction de la langue Etrangère vers la langue maternelle des étudiants de troisième

année ALE à l’université Larbi Ben M’Hidi, Oum El Bouaghi. Pour réaliser cette étude, un

plan de recherche quasi-expérimental a été mené. Deux groupes préexistants d'apprenants

ont été répartis au hasard en groupe expérimental et groupe témoin. En prenant des

expressions et des mots culturels comme objectif visé de cette étude, les deux groupes ont

été testés au préalable en traduisant une liste de mots décontextualisés. Ensuite, le groupe

expérimental a été exposé à apprendre le contexte avec ses trois types : Co-texte, contexte

de situation, et contexte de culture en utilisant la méthode de l’Équivalence Dynamique,

tandis que les sujets du groupe témoin n’ont reçu aucun enseignement. Après la période de

traitement, un post-test a été administré aux deux groupes afin de mesurer la différence qui

pourrait exister dans l’exactitude de leurs traductions. L'analyse des données a conduit à

deux résultats principaux: D’une part, L’échantillon-apparié t-test a montré que

l'apprentissage du contexte avec ses stratégies influe positivement sur la précision de la

traduction des étudiants. D’autre part, les échantillons indépendants t-test ont montré que

l'intégration du contexte et ses stratégies est plus effective que le contexte écrit dans le test

préalable seulement. Par conséquent, l’hypothèse d’étude a été acceptée dans le sens où

l’apprentissage du contexte avec ses stratégies s’est montré significativement efficace pour

améliorer l’exactitude de la traduction.

66

صــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــملخ

اللغة السنة الثالثة لطالب األماللغة إىل األجنبيةسياق الكالم على دقة الرتمجة من اللغة تأثريهذه الدراسة لبحث أجريت

تصميم حبث مت إجراء ، الدراسةمن هذه املنشود لتحقيق الغرضو البواقي. أم ، جبامعة العريب بن مهيدي أجنبيةاالجنليزية كلغة

عبارات و كلمات ثقافية ومت اختيار . شاهد بصفة عشوائيةشبه جترييب حيث مت تعيني فوجني من الطلبة كفوج جترييب و فوج

الفوج وقد خضع ترمجة كلمات من دون سياق . من خالل الفوجني مث مت البدء يف اختبارليزية كهدف هلذه الدراسة. اجن

يف مل حيدث أي تدخل . يف حني الديناميكي نظرية التكافؤذلك وفقا ليف الرتمجة و تعلم سياق الكالم بأنواعهإىل التجرييب

:نتيجتني رئيستني إىلحتليل البيانات أدىلتقييم و مقارنة نتائج الفوجني.اختبار ثاين إجراءمت اجلةع.بعد فرتة املشاهدالفوج ال

تطوير دقة الرتمجة لدى الطلبة. يفأن تعلم طرق استخدام سياق الكالم فعال إىل درجة كبرية العينةنتائج اختبار أظهرتإذ

من سياق الكالم املكتوب ذات فاعلية كبريةكالم يف الرتمجة ن إدماج طرق استخدام سياق الأأيضا أظهرت نتائج العينة احلرة

ية دراسة سياق الكالم على الرتمجة من اللغة األجنبية إىل اعلأثبتت ف اأهناملرفق مع الكلمات.إذن مت قبول فرضية الدراسة على

اللغة األم.