the economic impact of asian migrants under …

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ASIAN MIGRANTS

UNDER AUSTRALIAN MIGRATION POLICY

By

DAVID T. LAM (Student Number: 10033698)

A Thesis submitted in full fulfilment of

the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Economics and Finance

University of Western Sydney

Parramatta Campus

Australia

June 2006 (revised)

Abstract

For many years, migration has been intensively politicised in Australia. Political parties

have different stands about migration and the government has rai sed its transparency to

such a high level that the public is aware of developments and policy directions in

migration for the present and future years. What happens in the past about migration was

its motivation by population and labour needs and family re union. It was later realized that

well-educated migrants with skills and experience are able to accomplish better

employment prospects and settlement outcomes. Skilled migration has therefore been

emphasized. From time to time, governments have e xamined and re-focused the objectives

of migration so as to plan and decide for changes to migration policy. Changes to the

requirements and categories will affect the skills and quality of future migrants and hence

the future economic developments.

This thesis consists of literature review on some of the motivations that support the

objectives of migration over past years , outcomes brought b y migration and overview of

the migration program and main categories under skilled migration . As skilled migration

has been placed with more emphasis since the 1990s and a larger quota has been allocated

to facilitate younger migrants with the skills and expertise that are of use to Australia, it has

become necessary to assess the economic impact brought by some of these skill ed

migrants.

Coinciding with the emphasis of skilled migration, the trend of settler arrivals has changed

so that Asians have increase d their presence in Australia and the focus of this thesis is

narrowed down to assess the economic impact of A sian groups. A description of general

Asian culture and characteristics is also included in the literature review.

Although Asian s in Australia maintain their own cultures and some common

characteristics, I have chosen the two biggest groups, namely Chinese and V ietnamese, to

explore and identify their differences and economic contributions. The comparison of

human attributes between Asians and Australia ns at any po int of time is never intended to

put forward a theory about any outstanding race or races. Using the 1996 Census data and

quantitative analysis namely regression and probit analysis, this study attempts to assess the

economic impact of Chinese and Vie tnamese in Australia. Apart from ethnicity factor,

other elements specifically educational attainment, oc cupational achievements, labour force

status in which they have participated, age, English language proficiency, years of arrival

and hours worked are tested for significance in enabling Chinese and Vietnamese migrants

to earn income.

This study also exa mines whether higher qualifications would increase the prospects of

employability and hence higher income as this has been a common belief for Asians .

However, while Chinese are generally motivated towards higher qualifications, Vietnamese

would be less en thusiastic. Nevertheless, t he test results should point out that this factor

alone would not enable a person to be richer, as other factors including work experience

and English proficiency are predominantly significant in earning income.

One incentive for Asian migrants to study for higher qualifications could be the

advancement to occupations of managers and professionals. This study examines if it is

significant to Australian economy for Asians participation in these occupations. Also,

statistics indicated that the source of business migrants over past years was from Asia .

However, the number of business migrants ha s continuously been dropping over the last

few years and the future directions of this sector will be another topic for research.

Acknowledgements I wish to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor

Tom Valentine. His support and guidance at every stage of this thesis, especially on the

developments and testing of econometric models have always been helpful and

encouraging. Without his assistance, I would not have completed this thesis. I also like to

thank Professor Mike Wallace for his reference to enable me to apply for the scholarship.

Another lecturer I thank is Professor Kevin Daly who hel ps me in the revision before final

submission. I extend my thanks to the staff in Library and Student Services of University of

Western Sydney for their support services. Finally, I would like to say great thanks to my

beloved wife, Grace, for her enduring understanding and support throughout the study, and

to my daughter, Venus, for her allocation of time out of night shifts in assisting with final

proof-reading.

………………………. David Taiwan LAM

Statement of Authentication

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work. All such work presented in this thesis is, to the best o f my knowledge and belief, original and contains no material

previously published or written by another person nor material which, to a substantial extent, has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text.

………………………. David Taiwan LAM

Ja-bez prayer:

‘Oh that thou wouldest bless me indeed,

and enlarge my territory, and that thine hand might be with me,

and that thou wouldest keep me from evil, that it may not grieve me!

And God granted him that which he requested.’

(I Chronicles, 4:10)

i

CONTENTS List of Figures List of Tables Definitions PART I INTRODUCTION 1 PART II LITERATURE REVIEW – OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES OF MIGRATION 4 2.0 Introduction 4 2.1 Concept of Migration 4 2.2 Policy Objectives 5 2.2.1 First Years of Settlement 1770–1850 5 2.2.2 The Golden Years 1850–1910 6 2.2.3 From Federation to Depression 1910–45 7 2.2.4 Post-War Years of Prosperity 1945–79 8 2.2.5 Awakening 1979–86 13 2.2.6 The New Era 1986–2003 14 2.3 Outcomes of Migration 24 2.3.1 The Influence of the Ethnic Groups 24

2.3.1.1 Italian 25

2.3.1.2 Greek 27

2.3.1.3 Yugoslavian 29

2.3.1.4 Asian 29

2.3.1.5 The Characteristics of Ethnic Groups 31 2.3.2 Australian Population and Economy 34

ii

2.3.3 A Highly Urbanised Nation 36 2.3.4 Employment and Unemployment 39 2.3.5 Immigration, Trade and Economy 44 2.3.6 International Education as Part of Migration Policy 52 2.4 Conclusion 56

PART III LITERATURE REVIEW – MIGRATION PRINCIPLES AND

POLICY 58

3.0 Introduction 58

3.1 Migration Policy 58

3.2 The Migration Program 59

3.3 Migrant Categories 63

3.3.1 Family Stream 63

3.3.2 Skill Stream 64

3.3.2.1 Independent Migrants 64

3.3.2.2 Skilled–Australian Sponsored 67

3.3.2.3 Employer Nomination 67

3.3.2.4 Business Migration 69

3.3.2.5 Distinguished Talent 72

3.3.3 Refugee and Special Humanitarian Program 74

3.3.4 Temporary Residence 75

3.3.5 Overstayers and Illegal Entrants 81

iii

3.4 Conclusion 82

PART IV LITERATURE REVIEW – ASIAN CULTURE, IMPACT AND

CHALLENGES 83

4.0 Introduction 83

4.1 Attitude of Asia towards Australia 84

4.2 Nature and Dynamics of Culture 85

4.3 Characteristics and Attributes of Asian Culture 86

4.3.1 Human Culture 86

4.3.2 Economic Strategy 93

4.4 The Significance of Overseas Chinese 94

4.4.1 South-East Asia 94

4.4.2 The Chinese in the United States 96

4.4.3 The Chinese in Canada 97

4.4.4 The Chinese in New Zealand 99

4.4.5 The Chinese in Australia 101

4.5 Conclusion 103

PART V RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 105

5.0 Research Background 105

5.1 Trends 106

iv

5.2 Objectives 110

5.3 Methodology 112

5.3.1 Introduction 112

5.3.2 Explanation of the Theory 112

5.3.3 Statement of Hypotheses 118

5.3.4 Obtaining the Data 121

5.3.5 Development of the Econometric Models and Hypotheses Testing 127

5.4 Analysis of Results and Discussion of Findings 171

5.4.1 Equation 1 171

5.4.1.1 Results of Equation 1 171

5.4.1.2 Findings on Ethnicity Factors 172

5.4.1.3 Findings on Qualifications Factors 175

5.4.1.4 Findings on Occupation Factors 177

5.4.1.5 Findings on Labour Force Status 180

5.4.1.6 Findings when combining Factors of Qualifications,

Types of Occupation and Labour Force Status 182

5.4.1.7 Findings on Hours Worked 183

5.4.1.8 Findings on English Language Factor 183

5.4.1.9 Results of Equation 1A 184

5.4.1.10 Findings on Age Factor 184

v

5.4.1.11 Findings on Years of Arrival 187

5.4.1.12 Findings on Sex Factor 188

5.4.1.13 General Findings of Equation 1 188


5.4.2.1 Results of Equation 2 190

5.4.2.2 Interactions between Ethnicity and Qualifications 191

5.4.2.2.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and

Qualifications 191

5.4.2.2.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and

Qualifications 196

5.4.2.3 Interactions between Ethnicity and Occupations 199


Occupations 199


Occupations 203

5.4.2.4 Interaction between Ethnicity and Labour Force Status 211


Labour Force Status 211


Labour Force Status 213

vi

5.4.2.5 General Findings of Equation 2 216



5.4.3.2 Results of Equation 3B 222

5.4.3.3 General Findings of Equations 3A and 3B 224




5.4.4.3 Results of Equation 4C 229

5.4.4.4 Results of Equation 4D 230

5.4.4.5 Results of Equation 4E 232

5.4.4.6 General Findings of Equations 4A to 4E 234




5.4.5.3 Results of Equation 5C 241

5.4.5.4 Results of Equation 5D 243

5.4.5.5 General Findings of Equations 5A to 5D 244


5.5 Conclusion 250

vii

PART VI CONCLUSION 251

6.0 Conclusion 251

6.1 Qualifications to the Analysis 256

6.2 Further Areas for Research 257

BIBLIOGRAPHY 259

APPENDICES

ABBREVIATIONS

ABS CATEGORY NUMBERS

viii

List of Figures 1 Trend in the Fertility Rate

2 Labour Force Estimates and Projections

3 Percentage of Overseas-Born by Country of Origin, 2000

4 Labour Force Participation and Employment Status

5 Australia–China Two-Way Investment

6 International Students Enrolled in Australia, Top Source Countries, 1999

7 Migration Program outcomes, total persons by stream, 1983–84 to 2002–03

8 Migration Program from 1995 to 2002

9 Trends in Intake of Family Stream Settlers, 1977–1999

10 Trends in Intake of Skilled Stream Settlers, 1977–1999

11 Trends in Intake of Humanitarian Stream Settlers, 1977–1999

12 Top 10 Countries of Birth for Settlers arriving in Australia, 2000

13 Total and Taxable Income, Various Age Groups, 2001

ix

List of Tables 1 Regional Population after the Gold Rush

2A Population by Country of Birth

2B Increase of Total Overseas-Born and Australian-Born Population

3 Net Overseas Migration as at 30 June 2003

4 Settler Arrival Figures

5 Components of Resident Population Change

6 Comparison of Types and Numbers of Migrants admitted in 1998

7 Population by Country of Origin (per cent)

8 Occupation of European Migrants on Arrival, 1967–68

9 Australian Population

10 Housing Costs in Sydney, 1976–96

11 Distribution of Occupations by Place of Birth, 1986, per cent

12 Percentage of degree holders employed in their appropriate professional field by

selected country of origin pre-1981 arrivals and 1986–1991 arrivals

13 Australia’s Trade with Asia and Europe

14 Country of Birth of Settler Arrivals

15 Australia’s Export Markets, 1991–92 to 2000–01

16 Planning Level for 2003–2004

17 Performance of Family Stream Migration

18 Performance of Skilled Stream Migration

19 Refugee and Special Humanitarian Program

20 Temporary Business Entrants from 1987–99

21 Temporary Resident Visa Grants

22 Average Annual Workload of Industrialised Countries, 1990

29 Degree of Unionisation

30 Share of the Overseas Chinese in East Asia

26 Distribution of Chinese in the World, 2002

27 Chinese Share of New Zealand Population, 1991–2001

23 Overseas-Born Population

24 Number of Asian Migrants in Australia, 2000

25 Ancestry Responses, 2001

25 Most Commonly Spoken Languages other than English

35 Cross-Classification of Income Distribution

x

36 Number of People in the Labour Force

37 Occupations of Primary and Secondary Applicants under Skilled Stream

Migration, 1999–2000

38 Comparison of Employability of Skilled Migrants and Other People, 2001

39 Labour Force Participation, 2001

xi

Definitions

Chinese

In broad terms, ‘Chinese’ refers to those who are born in China or those ancestors who

originate in China irrespective of their whereabouts. The research centre of Australian

National University indicated that it is a very complex issue to define Chinese identity

or ethnicity. One problem is their scattering in several regions and countries and another

problem is their sub-ethnicity and network (http://rspas.anu.edu.au/cscsd/about.php).

It was found that there had been migration of Chinese people to various parts of Asia

such as Vietnam, Malaysia, Cambodia and Taiwan in the 1970s and 1980s. There were

also movements of Chinese immigrants from Singapore, Hong Kong and Mainland

China from the mid 1980s onwards to other countries such as Australia

(http://abcasiapacific.com/nexus/stories/ s1134683.htm). Smaller numbers of Chinese

migrants came to Fiji, The Philippines, New Zealand, Britain, Burma, Christmas Island,

Mauritius, South Africa, India and Japan. Second generations of Chinese migrants in

Australia are the Australian born Chinese and those of mixed race

(www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/martinj.html). Further complexity arises in the

case of inter-marriage between Chinese settlers and Australians. Owing to the diversity

in country of origin and socio-economic status of Chinese migrants, it is not possible to

limit Chinese according to their whereabouts or to just one or more groups of Chinese.

Vietnamese

Vietnam has a border with China and Chinese is one of the most common minority

groups in Vietnam (http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Vietnam). There have been

several waves of exodus of Vietnamese refugees since the 1970s

(www.huongduong.com.au/article_88.html). These outflows have enabled them to

settle in the US, Canada, Europe and Australia. For the purposes of this research,

Vietnamese means those who have Vietnam as their country of origin and these include

Chinese who had migrated to Vietnam and re-migrated to Australia.

For the same reasons as in the case of Chinese, it is not possible to define ‘Vietnamese’

according to their country of residence.

www.huongduong.com.au/article_88.html

The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part II Literature Review – Objectives and Outcomes of Migrati on ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

43

43

Figure 4: Labour Force Par ticipation and Employment Status

Note: ‘LSIA’ is the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia, a systematic study of settlement outcomes for new arrivals over time. It analyses and compares the experiences of two cohorts of migrants


44

44

who arrived r espectively between September 1993 and August 1995 (LSIA1) and between September 1999 and August 2000 (LSIA2). The cohorts were interviewed in ‘waves’ at set intervals of around six months (wave 1) and 18 months (wave 2) on arrival. The cohorts were inter viewed again at 42 months (wave 3) after arrival.

(www.immi.gov.au/settle/settle_review/pdfs/chap04 web.pdf)

2.3.5 Immigration, Trade and Economy

An economist has produced a publication with a heading of ‘Immigration m eans

business’,7 meaning there has been a positive correlation between migration and trade .

During the gold rush when the population was tripled to 237,000 by 1854

(www.sbs.com.au/gold/story.html?storyid =49), Victoria contributed more than one third

of the world’s gold output in the 1830s, r esulting in a hu ge increase in business

investment, thereby stimulating loc al production activities (www.cultureandrecreation.

gov.au/articles/goldrush/). In the 1890s, when Australia predominantly accepted migrants

from Britain and Ireland, trade activiti es were largely based on farming and mining .

During this period, about 70 % of Australian exports went to the UK, and Britain

remained one of Australia’s largest trading partners and largest source of investment

capital until 1961 (Tavan 2005:111). In Table 2A, the UK was the top source country of

birth of the population and Australia’s export to the UK has remained cons istent at

approximately $2 billion from 1992 to 1997, rising to $4 bil lion since 1999. Export

growth to the UK amounted to 140% over the nin e-year period from 1992 to 2001 (Table

11). In 2004, the UK was still Aust ralia’s fifth largest source of imports and total two -

way trade reached A$17.5 billio n (http://uktradeinvest.britaus.net/news/

newsdefault.asp?id=298). When New Zealand ha d become Australia’s second largest

source country of migrants since 1991 (Table 2A), exports to New Zealand grew steadily

7 Tim Harcourt, Chief Economist, Australian Trade Commission, 26 March 2003 (www.austrade.gov.au/ corporate/layout/0,,0_S1 -

1_CORPXID0029-2_3_PWB11006346-4_-5_-6_-7_,00.html)

www.sbs.com.au/


45

45

from the 1990s to 2001 and the overall change in export growth was also about 140%

over the same period (T able 14).

One important role played by the government in exploiting migration in further

development of Australia’s trade and economy is the introduction of business migration

and temporary business entry regime. It has been realised that migrants are more readily

able to utilise their knowl edge and connections with the ir home countries to bring

Australia into international trade. Since the 1980s, Australia has accepted business

migrants, temporary business entrants and foreign investors (2.2.6). The top five source

countries for business mig ration are all located in Asia (Burns 19 98:41). With business

migration dominated by North-East Asians, Australia has reaped benefits from having a

group of people with business and language skills that are relevant to the development of

international trade with Asia (Garnaut 1989:287). One immediate benefit has been fast

and growing trade with Asian countries. Coinciding with the Asian economic boom 8 and

increasing migrants from Asia in the 1980s (Table 2A), Australia took advantage of its

proximity to Asia to participate in foreign tr ade in the Asia–Pacific region. In a report

submitted by Dr Vincent FitzGerald , he anticipated that there were immense trading

opportunities for Australia in the Asia–Pacific region and immigration policy has pl ayed

a part in enabling Australia to exploit this potential (Fitzge rald 1991). He argued that

migration has a p ivotal role to play in helping Australia to maximise economic benefits

from the growth of East Asia, and migrants have played a role similar to an economic,

political and cultural bridge between Australia and North-East Asia9 (Garnaut 1989:300 –

301). This has become a continued process of interaction among Australians, migrants,

visitors and temporary settlers and has urged Australia to move towards globali sation.

8 http://users.cyberone.com.au/myers/terry. html

9 North-East Asia was defined to include C hina (including Hong Kong and Taiwan), Japan and Korea (Garnaut 1989:3) .


46

46

In conjunction with the policy was the entry of temporary residents to encourage

international trade and investment ( DIEA FORM 147). Japan is the country that has

become Australia's most influential Asian partner in terms of tourism, transportation,

rural and mining markets, and real estate investment in the 1980s and 1990s, but was not

listed as one of the major source countries of origin of migra nts (Table 2A). However,

there is a relatively high representation of Japanese temporary entrants who have ma de

investments and developed business links with Australia (Brooks 1994). As of 1998,

Japanese visitors remained Australia’s largest source of overseas visitors, totalling

751,100 arrivals, constituting 18 % of the country’s inbound market ( ABS 1301.0

2000:50). Also, it has been estimated that the Japanese short -term visits accounted for an

average of 740,000 visitors per year (www.atc.net .au).

One of the most noticeable result s since the turn of the century is the development of

China being Australia’s im portant trading partner and source of migrants since the 1980s .

Early in 1973, exports to China amounted to only 1 % of Australia’s total exports

(Pinkstone and Meredith 1992). By 1978, China was the eighth most important trading

partner when measured by Australia’s exports to China (Burn s 1998:25). Starting from

the early 1980s, China has eme rged as a close economic partner of Australia (Department

of Foreign Affairs and T rade 1995:42). Between 1982 and 1983, the number of Chinese

settlers was about 1.3 % of all settle r arrivals, as can be seen from Table 14. On a

progressive bas is, the number of settlers from China has increased fr om 1983 to 2003.

The table shows that Chinese -born settlers exceeded 6,000 for the years 2002 and 2003,

accounting for more than 7% of total arrivals, and ranking third highest after the United

Kingdom and New Zealand. Alon gside the increasing presence of Chinese settlers is the

increase in two-way investments between the two countries. Figure 5 below indicates that

in the year 1999 bilateral trade between China and Australia increased dramatically.


47

47

Figure 5: Australia–China Two -Way Investment

(www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/proc_bilat_fs.html)

As forecasted by Dr FitzGerald (1991), Australia has moved towards tr ading with China,

the ‘great growth pole of the twenty-first century’ (Chai et al. 1997:337). In 2000, China

became the fifth largest source country of origin of the overseas -born population (Table

2A). In the same year, 47 % of Australian exports went to C hina and the ir value e xceeded

A$6 million (www.dfat.gov.au/geo/ china/). This is consistent with statistics compiled by

the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, as p resented in Table 13. The value of

exports from Australia to China was reported to be A$ 7.5 million in 2001

(www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/). Imports also rose on an annual basis from 1996 to 2000,

and in 2000 reached a record of A$9 million (www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/). Overall trade

with the Asia–Pacific countries accounted for 71.8% o f the total value of imports and

exports for 2000–2001. Table 15 shows that export value to China h as exceeded that to

the UK since 1994–95, and from 1992 to 2001 Australia experienced 370% growth in

exports to China. This is the highest rate of change in export gr owth over the years. By

2002, China had become the third largest trading partner w ith Australia, and the fourth

largest export market accounting for merchandise trade. Analysts predict that in the next

20 years China will e xperience an extraordinary pace of change and has the potential to

www.dfat.gov.au/geo/


48

48

become the second largest economy in the world (www.dfat.gov.au/geo/chin a/). In 2004,

China became Australia’s second largest merchandise export market as well as the

second largest source of merchandise imports. In the d ecade leading up to 2004,

merchandise trade between Australia and China more than quadrupled to $29 billion

(www.trademinister.gov.au/releases/2005/mvt040_05.html).

Table 13: Australia’s Trade with Asia and Europe

Trading Partners Exports Imports 2000–01 2000–01 $m $m Japan 23,479 15,371 Korea 9,209 4,710 China 6,846 9,881 Hong Kong 3,904 1,367 Taiwan 5,871 3,327 Singapore 5,997 3,898 Indonesia 3,119 3,277 Malaysia 2,506 4,177 Philippines 14,954 513 Thailand 2,219 2,780 Vietnam 499 2,431 Other Asian countries 8,750 31,808 Total Exports and Imports with APEC * 87,353 83,540 Europe 13,963 25,509 Other countries 18,286 9,215

Total Exports and Imports with Europe and other countries 32,249 34,724 Total Trade with all Countr ies 119,602 118,264

* APEC (Asia–Pacific Economic Co-operation) comprising members of Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong SAR, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Gui nea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taipei, Thailand, United States and Vietnam (www.apec.org.au/docs/oxley2004.pdf )

(ABS 1301.0 2002:837)


49

49

Table 14: Country of Birth of Settler Arrivals

Number %

1982–83 China (excl. SARs & Taiwan) 1,167 1.3India 1,673 1.8New Zealand 6,867 7.4South A frica 2,758 3.0United Kingdom 26,444 28.4Vietnam 8,690 9.3All settler arrivals 93,011 100.0




(ABS 3412.0)

Apart from China , Australian’s trading relations with other Asian countries are also of

considerable significance. Table 15 shows Australia’s export markets from 1992 to

2001. The top of the list remains Japan , accounting for 19.6% of total exports. Although

the US ranked the second, the value of exports to the US has been consistent in the


50

50

1990s with increases at the turn of the century. The third is Korea followed by New

Zealand and China. The trend has shown that Asian countries have played an

increasingly important rol e as export markets for Australia. Later reports showed that

from 1999 to 2004, positive growth trends for two -way trade with ASEAN were

recorded and , in 2004, ASEAN10 countries consumed 11.7 % of Australia’s total

merchandise exports, worth $13.7 billion. A SEAN has become Australia’s second most

important export market after Japan, taking over 15 % of total merchandise exports and

becoming the third largest trading partner, after the United States and the European

Union (www.dfat.gov.au/media/speeches/trade/ 1997/asean29aug97.html).

10 ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) was established in 1967, and comprises Burma, Brunei, Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailan d and Vietnam (www.dfat.gov.au/asean/).

www.dfat.gov.au/media/speeches/trade/


51

51

Table 15: Australia’s Export Markets, 1991 –92 to 2000–01

Country 91–92 $m

92–93 $m

93–94 $m

94–95 $m

95–96 $m

96–97 $m

97–98 $m

98–99 $m

99–00 $m

00–01 $m

% Change from 92–01

Japan 14,574 15,206 15,924 16,282 16,429 15,377 17,580 16,566 18,822 23,479 19.6 61

USA 5,220 4,940 5,075 4,643 4,619 5,526 7,794 7,984 9,602 11654 9.7 123

Korea 3,365 3,970 4,706 5,250 6,615 7,134 6,397 6,320 7,615 9,209 7.7 174

NZ 2,830 3,365 4,009 4,791 5,609 6,214 5,662 5,838 6,739 6,872 5.7 143

China 1,458 2,268 2,590 2,964 3,781 3,584 3,872 3,948 4,966 6,846 5.7 370

Singapore 3,189 3,787 3,197 3,643 3,556 3,410 3,697 3,417 4,855 5,997 5 88

Taiwan 2,519 2,680 2,757 3,102 3,452 3,620 4,180 4,203 4,696 5,871 4.9 133

UK 1,930 2,394 2,901 2,275 2,829 2,357 3,040 4,473 4,158 4,639 3.9 140

Hong Kong 2,106 2,597 2,797 2,632 3,052 3,105 4,138 3,071 3,211 3,904 3.3 85

Indonesia 1,627 1,715 1,906 2,113 2,716 3,305 2,751 2,199 2,408 3,119 2.6 92

Malaysia 1,103 1,311 1,759 2,033 2,289 2,332 2,097 1,859 2,141 2,506 2.1 127

Thailand 816 1,205 1,278 1,560 1,779 1,693 1,390 1,306 1,703 2,219 1.9 172

Saudi Arabia 266 329 344 277 452 448 545 1,060 1,334 2,196 1.8 726

Italy 979 872 1,052 1,250 1,282 1,354 1,752 1,564 1,575 2,100 1.8 115

India 754 889 865 979 1,185 1,493 1,852 1,837 1,588 2,086 1.7 177

Canada 845 1,158 1,149 1,150 1,267 1,178 1,276 1,274 1,175 1,768 1.5 109

Netherlands 856 876 703 707 695 584 829 866 1,378 1,738 1.5 103

Philippines 513 598 699 839 1,075 1,226 1,163 1,207 1,304 1,495 1.2 191

Germany 1,092 991 1,006 1,083 1,152 1,058 1,243 1,409 1,245 1,490 1.2 36

South Africa 226 334 350 566 776 1,014 1,093 944 1,039 1,296 1.1 473

UAE 329 408 417 338 542 665 1,006 835 872 1,162 1 253

Others 8,430 8,809 9,064 8,575 10,853 12,255 14,411 13,811 14,860 17,956 15 113 TOTAL 55,027 60,702 64,548 67,052 76,005 78,932 87,768 85,991 97,286 119,602 100 117

(ABS 5422.0 2001)

Migration has not only contributed to the economy by bringing Australia into trade with

other countries, it has also played a p art in stimulating international travel for visiting

family members , friends and relatives . Tourism is a key growth industry that contributes

significantly to job c reation, export earnings, regional development, and stimulation of

international trade and i nvestment prospects. Australia's Tourism Forecasting Council

predicted in 1996 that overall visitor numbers to Australia would double within the

subsequent 10 years with significant changes in the composition of tourists and family

visitors, for holidays, sports, recreation and entertainment. It is expected that more than

60% of tourists will come from Asia ( www.aph.gov.au/ library/Pubs/bp/1996-97/

97bp9.htm).

www.aph.gov.au/


52

52

The interaction between increasing migrants, visitors and international trade has

influenced the Australian economy and trade in various ways. Firstly, alongside business

migrants, temporary business executives and investors developed successful businesses

in their home countries and aim to do so in Australia. Research shows that the arrivals of

business migrants over the three years from 1996 to 1999 created 7,700 jobs and

generated $348 million in exports. The report also showed that 75 % of business

migrants engaged in business and that each new business employed an average of 5.4

staff within two yea rs of arrival (Boccabella 2000). In addition, 62 % of these businesses

earned export income and 10 % of the export businesses had earnings worth over $1

million (Boccabella 2000). Secondly, increasing numbers of migrants, especially

business entrants, contin ue to influence Australia’s international linkages in the Asia

Pacific economies and composition of trade. Over the decade from 1985 to 1995,

manufacturing and services have been the fastest growing industries. Manufactured

exports have grown at an average rate of 17 .8% per annum, constituting 29 % of

merchandise exports (Department of Foreign Affairs and T rade 1995:120).

Migration embracing the concept of multiculturalism together with increasing economi c

focus on APEC has enabled Australia to improve its competitive edge. The Minister for

Citizenship and Multicultural Affairs, Peter McGauran, emphasised that cultural

diversity has resulted in economic benefits for Australia in the global market and

provides a significant business advantage in internationa l trade. He added that migrants

have helped Australia to gain and maintain a competitive edge in its export markets. At

present, among the top 15 Australian export markets, 12 are non-English speaking

(www.minister.immi.gov.au/cam/media/media -releases/medrel05/05064.htm).

www.minister.immi.gov.au/cam/media/media


53

53

2.3.6 International Education as Part of Migration Policy

One relatively new yet significant aspect of migration policy since the 1980s is the

acceptance of overseas students to study in Australia, generating revenue for the

Australian economy through the international education industry. Before 1979, this

industry was operated on a ‘low key’ basis, and overseas students were not required to

pay fees (Marginson 1993:184). In the 1980s, following the US and Canada, Australia

revised its migration policy to include the category of overseas students and

incorporating tuition fees as one of the requirements of the visa application. It has been

estimated that Canada earned revenue from international education to the value of C$2.8

billion from its 100,000 foreign students up to 1995, of whom 60 % came from Asia

(Stockley 1997:115). Education has therefore been promoted in overseas countries to

attract international students to Australia and , as a result, education has become a

marketed economic commodity.

Year Number of international students

1986 4,503 1987 7,131 1988 21,128 1989 32,198 1990 47,065 1991 47,882 1995 63,073 1996 68,611 1998 102,700 1999 162,865 2000 188,277

(Marginson 1993:172 ; Migration Institute of Australia, Student and Other Visas 1999 ;

Department of Education , Science and Training 2001)

Over the 10 years from 1985 to 1995, Asians represented the largest group of

international students, partly because of the ratio of students to universities in their home


54

54

countries and par tly also because of the status of western education and more

opportunities for graduates in their career path on return (Lloyd and Williams 1996:215).

Between 1998 and 1999 , there was a 58% increase in arrivals of Asian international

students despite the Asian economic downturn. This growth appears to be a long -term

trend. By 1999, Asian countries accounted for nearly two-thirds (62%) of all visitors

arriving in Australia for education purposes (www.abs.gov.au).

Figure 6: International Students Enrolled in Australia, Top Source Countries, 1999

(Department of Education, Science and Training 2001) (www.idp.edu.au /research))

As Figure 6 demonstrates, the top 10 source countries for overseas students are all

located in Asia. In the 1990s, the greatest num ber of international students came from

www.idp.edu.au


55

55

Indonesia, Malaysia and Hong Kong. Since 1999, s trong increases in enrolments

occurred among students from China, Thailand and South Korea. Statistics show that in

2000, Singapore was the top ranking country with 20, 866 students (Department of

Education, Science and Training 2001:13) and the number of students from China rose

by 69% to 14,948, representing 7.9 % of total overseas students. Students from Th ailand

have also risen by 22 % to 8,179 and South Korea by 19 % to 11,485 (www.dest.gov.au).

A direct consequence of the export of education services was a significance increase in

earnings of foreign currency. By 1998 –99, education was the eighth largest export and

the income stream from international education totalle d $3.2 billion (www.idp.edu.au).

By 2000, enrolments from the international sector had grown by 19 % to 107,622 and

income was estimated to be $3 .7 billion (www.dest.gov.au). Professor Garnaut indicated

that international education has become Australia’s th ird largest service export industry

after tourism and transportatio n (www.immi.gov.au/statistics/publications/

popflows2003_4/ch6_pt3 .pdf). It was predicted that 215 ,000 international students

would be studying in Australia by 2010. This prediction is mad e in the context of an

international student market in which 2.8 million students study outside their home

country, over half originating from Asia (Poole 1999). Income from international

education was estimated as follows:

1988 $100 million 1989 $174 million 1990 $392 million 1998 $3 billion 1999 $3.2 billion 2000 $3.7 billion

(Marginson 1993:185; Department of Immigration and Multicultura l Affairs, Population Flows : Immigration Aspects 1999:42 ; www.idp.edu.au)

According to the DIMIA statistics, a total of 171,616 visas were granted to overseas

students in 2003–04, representing a 5.6 % increase as compared with 162,575 for 2002 –


56

56

03 (www.immi.gov.au/facts/50students.htm#stats). On average, it has been estimated

that the overseas student sector contributes s ome $1.3 billion per annum while the

students spend $1.7 billion in Australia for living expenses (Poole 1999). Other indirect

results of the export of education include the creation of 19,000 jobs in the education

sector in teaching and support positions and the growth of research studies. An added

benefit of the growing numbers of overseas students is the increased level of skilled

migration. Prior to 2000, overseas students had to return to their own countries at the

conclusion of their studies. From 20 00, the migration policy allows for these students to

apply for permanent residence with the privilege of exemption of work experience

(www.immi.gov.au/migration/skilled/rqmnts_doc/br_recentwork_1.htm#rw e)

(Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, Immigration: Federation to

Century’s End 1901 -2000 October 2001 ). This has the positive impact of increasing the

young and educ ated component of skilled migrants.

2.4 Conclusion

‘Australia is a country with too much geography and too little history.’ 11 Yet Australia ’s

migration history has undergone many important changes. The original basis of

migration has been tied up with population and labour needs and was then extended to

uniting family members from other countries . As time goes on, concerns of po licy

makers have not only been on the number of people arriving or which country Australia

has been accepting, but characteristics of migrants that intermingle with the future of the

Australian population including the build -up of the Aus tralian-born component for the

future generation. Whilst t he objectives underlying migration policy have focuses on

nation building in the economic sense , concerns have been raised as to the falling growth

11 Former Canadian Prime Minister, Mackenzie King (Foster 1997:41).

www.immi.gov.au/migration/skilled/rqmnts_doc/br_recentwork_1.htm#rw


57

57

rate of the population together due to the downward trend in the rat e of natural increase,

the reduction in net migration gains, the threat of a rapidly ageing society, and the need

for a skilled work force to be internationally competiti ve. This process awakened

Australians to the importance of an open po licy for migration as absorbing young

migrants has the advantages of helping to slow down the effect of ageing, and competing

with the rest of the world for those skills that enable labour force participation. Another

motivation of migration has become the di version of migrants to areas with low

population growth.

Such an open policy on migration has led to the contribution of ethnic groups in terms of

labour and cultural di versity, stimulation of international trade, i nspiration of industries

such as tourism, and the deve lopment of international education. The arrival of ethnic

groups has contributed to the population build -up, labour force participation and also

laying the foundation of multiculturalism. These groups have significant impact on the

society as they generally retain their culture and continue into the second generation in

Australia. However, it was found that these groups mainly contribute to non -professional

occupations and one possible reason was the non -recognition of overseas qualifications

and the English language proficiency (2.3.4). In addition to their labour and skills

brought to this country, their presence contributes to local consumption being increased.

They also have the advantages or potential of linking their home countries with Australia

for trade involvements. One clear trend is the decline in the number of European arrivals

and this gap has been filled by increasing Asian participation since the 1960s (2.3.1.4).

These Asian groups have sho wn their interest in Australia and by way of migration have

increased their presence in international trade and exploiting Australian education

resources for stud y.

Following on from this discussion of the importance of the role of regulated migration,

the next Part examines the principles of migration and t he main components of the

migration program with a view to exploring how policy can influence the quality of

future migrants and hence the economic benefits to Australia. Part III presents the

principles of migration policy, quota and categories of the mig ration program.

The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy

Part III Literature Review – Migration Principles and Policy

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

79 79

(ii) Social and Cultural Exchange

This stream facilitates the entry of those with specialist skills such as academics and

film staff who contribute to the skill base and understanding between cultures

(DIMA Fact Sheet No. 46, April 2005).

(iii) International Relations

This stream seeks to foster international relations and cultural understanding between

countries (DIMA Fact Sheet No. 46, April 2005).

Table 20: Temporary Business Entrants from 1987–99 (a)



----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

80 80

Before 1996, relatively little attention has been paid to the economic benefits of

temporary residence. During 1992–93, total number of temporary residence visas

was 73,400, of which 10,450 were granted to fill skilled shortages in the labour

market (Brooks 1994). Ten years later, more than 170,392 temporary resident visas

were issued. Table 21 shows that the number of temporary residents under the

economic stream has increased dramatically between 2000 and 2001, whereas the

number under the social and cultural stream remains rather stable over these years

(DIMIA Fact Sheet No. 47, November 2005).

Table 21: Temporary Resident Visa Grants a

Temporary Streams 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 Economic/Skilled Stream 37,024 39,180 45,669 43,303 47,382 Social/Cultural Stream 20,054 23,465 23,036 20,817 19,312 International Relations Stream 79,230 88,929 91,452 14,350 103,698

Total 136,308 151,574 160,157 78,470 170,392 a Combined onshore and offshore.

(www.immi.gov.au/facts/pdf/47temporary_residence.pdf)

On the whole, the economic stream of the Temporary Residence Program has an

important impact on society. Researchers have estimated the benefits of

employment-based residents. Firstly, highly qualified temporary entrants promote an

efficient labour market. Secondly, these skilled workers tend to reduce government

outlays because their jobs are under contract and fixed wages. Thirdly, these workers

tend to solve skill bottleneck problems when new workers are not able to perform

efficiently until they undergo training or accumulate experience. Fourthly, as the

workers have the skills already developed, the cost of skill acquisition is saved. They

also provide externalities to the firm and employees as they introduce to Australia

new methods, processes and the development of new products (Victoria University

of Technology 1999:17). In addition, these temporary workers have gained relevant

work experience during the time in Australia. In other words, should they be able to

change their status to permanent residents, they become more readily able to utilise

their occupational skills. This in turn contributes to reducing the likelihood of

unemployment in migrants.



----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

81 81

3.3.5 Overstayers and Illegal Entrants

Migration law provides that anyone in Australia who is not a citizen and does not

have a current visa is an unlawful non-citizen, people commonly known as ‘illegal

immigrants’ or ‘illegal entrants’. Any person who overstays their temporary visa is

an unlawful non-citizen. Overstayers in Australia are people whose visa terms have

expired, and illegal entrants are generally people who arrive without a valid visa.

Illegal travel to and people smuggling into Australia pose a major threat to the

international protection framework, national sovereignty and political stability

causing significant fiscal and social costs to the government

(www.minister.immi.gov.au).

It is estimated that an average of 20,000 people overstay their visa in Australia every

year (Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999:25, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance). 1990 was a peak period when there were about

90,000 people in Australia had no valid visa. This figure has decreased to 80,000 in

1993 and to 69,000 in 1994 (Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs

1999, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance). As at 30 June 1999,

approximately 53,000 were illegal. Statistics in 1999 indicate that the largest number

of overstayers were from the United Kingdom (10.8% of all overstayers), followed

by the United States (8.7%), China (6.6%), Indonesia (6.3%), the Philippines (5.5%)

and Japan (5.0%). In addition to the overstayers, a total of 3,032 people attempted to

enter Australia illegally, 2,106 by air and 926 by boat in 1998–99 (Department of

Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999:48, Population Flows: Immigration Aspects). Most unauthorised air and boat arrivals were aged between 20 and 34 years

and they were found to be working in the sex industry, restaurants, factories and

hotels. In response to the continued unauthorised air and boat arrivals to Australia,

coastal surveillance procedures and systems on borders have been strengthened

(Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999:25, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance).

www.minister.immi.gov.au



----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

82 82

3.4 Conclusion

Over the years, Migration Policy has been carefully planned, with significant

transformation under the influence of economic strategies and, as a result, the

meaning and scope of migration have been enlarged. Under the post-war regime,

migration encompassed family reunion and refugee settlement. The system was later

revised and greater emphasis has been placed on skilled migration. Operating on the

basis of a points test, skilled migration sets out a list of criteria to be met, requiring

the support of government authorities and professional bodies in the assessment

process to ensure that only those people of the right calibre, with suitable skills or

training, are eligible for migration.

On the other hand, a number of pathways have been available to settlers by changing

from temporary status to permanent residence. One notable phenomenon occurring

since 1999 is the ability of overseas students to apply for permanent residence under

the category of skilled migration at the completion of their studies (3.3.2.1). The

majority of these students are from Asia (2.3.6). Another option for changing status

has been offered to temporary workers as their contribution to the economy by filling

specific occupational vacancies in demand has been recognised. An additional

benefit is the reduction in unemployment of this group of migrants, due to the local

experience they gain during the period of temporary residence. Another pathway is

open to temporary business executives as they have the opportunity of establishing

and maintaining business operations in remote or low growth regions for a specified

period of time with the support of state or territory government before permanent

residence is granted. However, this strategy may require reconsideration as there has

been a decline in the number of business visas issued since its introduction in 2003.

With the increasing numbers of Asian entrants as migrants, students and business

persons since the 1990s, the Asian population in Australia is likely to continue to

increase. The next part explores Asian culture in general with a view to an

assessment of the economic impact of this ethnic group in Australia.

The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part IV Literature Review – Asian Culture, Impact and Challenges ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

83

PART IV LITERATURE REVIEW – ASIAN CULTURE, IMPACT AND CHALLENGES

4.0 Introduction

Australia is a nation of immigrants. Over 40% of Australia’s total population of

about 19 million in 2000 was born or had one parent born overseas. This large

representation of overseas-born people has contributed to maintaining a linguistic

and cultural base in the Asia–Pacific region (Sexton 2001:5). One of the most

noticeable changes in the history of migration is the fall in importance of the

European segment. In addition, significant change has occurred in the migration

policy, to adopting a non-discriminatory and multicultural approach (2.2.6). Parallel

to this development was the involvement of Australia with Asian nations through the

settlers’ activities of business, studies and tourism (2.3.5). The group of Asian

migrants, once a minority, later offers immense potential as a source of migrants for

Australia.

FitzGerald (1997:140) predicted that the Australian population of Asian descent will

be between 7% and 10% by 2020. In fact, this may be an underestimate, as it does

not allow for the possibility of temporary residents such as students and business

entrants who may become permanent residents. A conservative projection made in

2001 was that Asians would make up more than 10% of the Australian population in

the next 10 years (ABS 1301.0 2002).

In response to the growing involvement of Asian people and the likely trend of

increasing numbers of Asians in Australia, this part investigates their culture,

behaviour and characteristics. In this part, an attempt is made to clarify Asian

traditions, customs and beliefs to form a generalised understanding of Asians

irrespective of their specific country of origin. Therefore, references are made to

cover not only those Asians in Australia but also in their own or other countries.

Since Chinese beliefs and customs have played a significant role in influencing


84

Asian culture, a study of some of the achievements of overseas Chinese is also

included. In this part, the reference to Chinese, Vietnamese and those of other Asian

nations is general in nature and covers those who were either born in those countries

or had ancestors born in those countries irrespective of whether they are in or outside

Australia.

4.1 Attitude of Asia towards Australia

Asia is defined as consisting of the countries listed in Appendix 14. Australia lies in

the southern hemisphere. Since the awakening period from 1986, Australia has

developed closer ties with the Asia–Pacific region. In the eyes of Asians, Australia is

one of the most favoured destinations both for tourism and for habitation. Research

undertaken to survey the way Australia and Australians are viewed in China and

Hong Kong in 1995 shows that Australia ranks third behind the United States and

Canada (Yu 1998:34). One major reason for the high esteem in which Australia is

held is its proximity to Asia. In terms of flying time, there is little difference between

the distance from Tokyo to Honolulu (7 hours) and the distance from Tokyo to

Cairns (7 hours 35 minutes) or Tokyo to Brisbane (8 hours 35 minutes). There is a

climatic variation from the cool temperate climate in Tasmania to tropical weather in

the north (PRD Realty 1989). Another attraction is the natural coastal beauty on the

east coast with its vast land and sparse population that suggest opportunities and

potential (Burns 1998:1).

Political stability, together with the welfare system, adds to Australia’s attraction. Yu

(1998:17) notes that Australia’s generous welfare system impresses the Chinese,

comparing this system to the ‘iron rice bowl’ in China. Furthermore, it is believed

that Australia is no longer a racist country but one which represents multiculturalism

and tolerance, together with a good human rights record. The image is one of a new

nation that has, in the contemporary world of multiculturalism, moved towards

globalisation. In addition, Australia is seen as prosperous with cosmopolitan cities

such as Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. Strong preference for urban life is another

reason for Asians to concentrate in middle class suburbs such as the upper North


85

Shore and Hills districts in Sydney, and Doncaster and Waverley in Melbourne

(Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research 1995).

4.2 Nature and Dynamics of Culture

‘Culture’ is defined as personal refinement, establishing a person’s ideals, values,

formation and uses of categories, assumptions about life and goal-directed activities

(Burns 1998:6). Kershen (1998:15) describes ‘culture’ as human experience of

language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, rituals, ceremonies, religion and laws with

the option of being learnt and transferable geographically. Scholars studying the

competitiveness between the East and West have hypothesised that Confucian ethics

has had a positive influence on Asian leadership, education, the work ethic,

entrepreneurial spirit and management style. Adler presented a Cycle to point out

that personal culture influenced through its values will affect attitude which in turns

affects behaviour.

Culture

Behaviour Values

Attitudes

(Chen 1995:19)

Cross-cultural management transfer involves not only the technical dimension of

management implied in general principles, concepts and theories, but also a

behavioural dimension of management (Chen 1995:19). Over the years, Australia has

accommodated diverse nations and developed its own identity and culture which was

initially largely influenced by Britain and later by other ethnic groups. By 2000,

Asians in Australia accounted for 23% of overseas-born population (2.3.1.4). For this

reason, it is important to gain an understanding of Asian culture, its characteristics

and the challenges it offers to the mainstream Australian population.


86

4.3 Characteristics and Attributes of Asian Culture

4.3.1 Human Culture

Diversity in Languages

Asian countries possess many languages and dialects, religions, customs and beliefs.

China, because of its many provinces, has maintained its customs and dialects.

Indonesia has more than 300 languages and dialects (Faulkner 1995:xv). Because of

the common customs and languages spoken, it is customary for the Chinese to group

themselves by family alliances, clan connections and other relations such as the same

province of birth. Appendix 15 lists the provincial origins of former Chinese

students, each speaking a different dialect (Backman 1995:115). The Malaysian

population consists of 60% Malays, mostly Muslims, 30% Chinese and 9% Indians

(Burns 1998:84). Singapore consists of 77% Chinese residents, 14% Malays, 7%

Indians and 1% persons of other ethnic groups (Boyd 1998:196) and the official

languages are Malay, Chinese (Mandarin), Tamil and English. Malay is the national

language and English the language used in business. Both Malaysians and

Singaporeans speak different dialects, such as Cantonese, Hokkien, Hakka,

Hainanese, Teochiu and Malay (Backman 1995:112). In Indonesia, 80% are Muslims

and the major groups of the population are Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Batak and

those from East Java. In Vietnam, the popular languages are Vietnamese, French,

English, Chinese and Khmer (Faulkner 1995:7).


87

Influence of Confucianism

Like other migrants, Asians bring not only languages, but also the intellectual

contribution of their history, geography, literature, religion, philosophy, music,

painting, theatre, science, medicine and mathematics. Owing to the diversity of Asian

societies, their languages and customs, way of thinking, etiquette and religion are

very different. In China, much respect is placed on Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism

and ancestor worship. Confucianism advocates family rules under which the male,

being the head of the family, is responsible for decision making on all family

matters. This traditional approach applies not only in China, but also in Vietnam,

Japan, Korea, Singapore and Taiwan (Nish et al. 1996:90). In Vietnam, the family

unit is the centre of society and any failure of one person means failure for the whole

family (MDAA Fact Sheet No. 15: www.mdaa.org.au/publications/ethnicity/

vietnamese/vietnamese.practices.doc). In Indonesia, rules laid down by the bapak

(father) must be followed. Such customs have built up a tradition of favouring male

offspring over female. The Chinese also believe in the analects of Confucius, which

state that ‘man is good by nature’ and therefore a person has strong responsibility to

fulfil all promises and to demonstrate trust for all person-to-person dealings,

commercial engagements and political encounters. The belief is that if a person’s

character is generous, he will be well respected and be able to perform well in terms

of leadership. Subjectively, ritual and person-to-person relationships are a vital part

of the smooth functioning of society (Nish et al. 1996:90).

Social Relationships

In general, the Chinese place much importance on person-to-person relationships. It

is said that ‘having a good relationship network in China is the single most important

factor for business success’ as they prefer ‘relationships first, business later’ (Burns

1998:29). In this way, the Chinese have a highly structured style of negotiation that

goes well beyond the usual Western practices (De Mente 1994:237). These guanxi-based12 affiliations cut the cost and time involved in transactions. It is not only the

12 Guanxi, or ‘connections’, is a favoured mechanism whereby personal relationships can be traded on in exchange for work or other benefits.


88

Chinese who adopt this special attitude of nurturing relationships; the Indonesians

also have a culture of waiting for ‘the smoke to curl to the ceiling and the body to

relax’ before coming to business terms. Similarly, the Japanese also have a practice

of cultivating connections and friendly relationships which can be useful in

protracted bargaining and negotiations (Faulkner 1995:105).

Another element of this person-to-person relationship is the sense of social prestige.

One cannot understand Chinese behaviour without an understanding of the concept

and role of this subjective feeling. An intangible respect exists in the family,

language group, neighbourhood, business circles and in society. Known as the ‘face’

of a person, this can be of overriding importance in the society that bestows it and it

is a grave matter if this standing is lost as this will destroy all an individual’s

personal and business relationships and future engagements (De Mente 1994:61).

This attitude is shared by Indonesians, who regard it to be the highest insult to cause

an Indonesian loss of face (Faulkner 1995:105). Japanese and Koreans also treat face

as an important obligation for a man and any damage of a person’s face shames the

whole group behind him (Burns 1998:156).

Materialistic Instinct

It is a strong desire commonly shared by Asians to be prosperous. Among Asians,

the Chinese are highly motivated towards the accumulation of wealth. A former

Prime Minister of China commented ‘To get rich is glorious’, although this was not

followed by a philosophy of how to get rich (Nish et al. 1996:132). It is a Chinese

traditional value to judge people’s wealth and power by assessing the value of their

land and property. Indonesians, too, see their wealth as being a priority so that they

work hard and persevere towards this underlying motive or goal (FitzGerald

1997:147). Because of this motive, the principle that ‘money can buy everything’ can

become a common official and unofficial means of getting through procedures and

systems. This ‘back door’ channel, also called the ‘Asian way’, refers to the

unofficial economy similar to the black market where one can get things done that

are not available or not possible in the official economy (De Mente 1994:234). A


89

high level of corruption exists not only in China, but also in many other Asian

countries such as Indonesia under Suharto’s regime (Daly and Logan 1998:14).

Since property is seen by many Asians as being a tangible asset, it is widely used as a

way of accumulating wealth and is therefore readily used as security to raise

additional capital. Through speculation in a property portfolio and its rising value

over time, there can be an accumulation of wealth. It is believed that investment in

real estate is a quick way of gaining wealth. Asian investors are particularly

interested in this market and this is one of the reasons why residential booms have

turned to busts in both Tokyo and Hong Kong from 1993 to 2003

(www.plt.law.uts.edu.au/~jwan/market_predictions.html).

High Expectations for the Second Generation

Traditionally, Chinese society separates its people into four classes. The highest

grade consists of scholars as it is thought that this group of people are able to achieve

rapid access to positions of wealth, high ranking and respect. The second class

consists of farmers, followed by the class of labourers and the lowest class of

merchants. When the Communist Party gained control of China, labourers were

glorified at the expense of scholars. In the twentieth century, however, class

distinctions have become blurred as merchants and farmers have strived for business

success (Chu 1995:226). Similar to the Chinese, the traditional Korean class system

was comprised of scholars, professionals, farmers and manual workers (Chu

1995:277). This has led to strong competition for places in universities for higher

education.

There is a maxim among Chinese parents that they put all their hope in the next

generation and strongly impress upon the young the importance of higher education

(Chu 1995:278; Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1995:29), so that they are

motivated to become high achievers. This axiom has been planted in their mindset


90

from generation to generation, stimulating a strong competitive spirit. Most Asian

countries are densely populated and places are limited in well-known colleges and

universities. It is these limited places for higher educational opportunities that yield

education and advancement. The accepted norm is to train students from a very

young age to adapt to heavy schedules of assignments, tests and examinations. This

value for higher qualifications has a strong influence on second generation migrants,

especially when the first generation has a low literacy level (Godement 1999:121).

US research investigated the time spent on homework and found that Indochinese

high school students spent an average of three hours and 10 minutes per day whereas

American students about one and a half hours (Caplan et al. 1992:21). The general

belief is that by studying hard and achieving academically, young Asians will

increase their opportunities of gaining wealth and respect, whereas without academic

achievement they will be disregarded in society. Appendix 16 shows the proportion

of the population with university qualifications by birthplace in 1990.

Working Culture

The hard-working and conscientious attitude among Asians is a well-known

characteristic. Working hard, for long hours and for lower than standard pay, was

observed among the early Asian coolies, particularly the Chinese, in the Gold Rush

period. The people of Hong Kong are possibly the most renowned for their culture of

‘workaholism’. A survey conducted in 1967 revealed that 52% of Hong Kong people

worked 10 hours a day. In a work attitude survey conducted in 1977, 51.4% of Hong

Kong people agreed that the harder they work, the more money they expect to earn

(Backman 1995:140). Korean workers have also demonstrated weekly average

working hours of 53, or 2,800 hours per year, as compared to 1,934 for a US

industrial worker (Burns 1998:188). On average, Koreans take 4.5 days for vacation

in a year whereas the average for Western countries exceeds 20.

Table 22: Average Annual Workload of Industrialised Countries, 1990

Working Days Working Hours Paid Vacation Days Japan 253 2,102 9 United States 231 1,924 19 Britain/Europe 230 1,600 23

(Terpstra and David 1991:115)


91

This hard-working attitude comes from a desire for success as they seek promotion

and positions of authority. Among Asians, the Japanese and Koreans have a unique

attitude towards work. One Japanese management approach is to incorporate a sense

of commitment in the working environment. Within the management hierarchy,

workers share the responsibility for the benefits and fate of the employer so that

employee motivation is developed through constant learning and working. Nish et al.

(1996:135) describe this as the mainstream Confucian cultural heritage. This concept

emphasises a sense of belonging, building up loyalty and demonstrating a strong

national culture. It also indicates originality and in some ways the superiority of a

unique culture (Denoon et al. 1996:245).

Another feature of the Asian work culture is the longer working cycle among Asians.

Surveys that measure annual hours worked per person in 1979 reveal that Japan tops

the list with 2,129 hours, followed by 1,877 in Switzerland, 1,790 in Denmark, 1,619

in Australia and 1,607 in the US. Other research carried out in 1985 indicates that the

highest rate of working overtime of 8.4% was found in Japan, with the lowest

absenteeism of 35 when compared with industrialised countries in Europe and the

US (Bosch et al. 1994:9).

Degree of Unionisation

Overall, Asians place such importance on corporate culture and hard work that an

attitude of ‘the harder one works, the better personal achievements will be reaped’ is

developed. Benefits of this work ethic include promotion, gaining experience and

acquiring better skills. Because of the sociocultural milieu, industrial relations

between employers and employees is less problematic in Asia than in Western

societies. In Asian societies, the concept of trade unions differs significantly from

that in Western culture. In Hong Kong, the government takes the role of protecting

labour rights and wages. Similarly, the Singapore Government has legislated to

improve employee benefits, working conditions and real wages since 1986. The


92

military manipulates unions in Thailand and South Korea. In 1949, strikes were

forbidden in Taiwan (David and Wheelwright 1989:226). Instead of protecting the

wages and rights of union workers, some trade unions in Japan and Singapore are

integrated into institutions that increase workers’ co-operation, participation and

productivity (Nish et al. 1996:135). Unions in Japan emphasise the length of service

and loyalty of employees to the organisation, and advocate lifetime employment

(Terpstra and David 1991:179). In general terms, South-East Asia does not have a

reputation for strong trade unions.

Table 23: Degree of Unionisation

Country Percentage of workers unionised

Total workforce (millions)

Australia 42.00 7.13 New Zealand 53.00 1.37 Japan 21.06 57.06 Taiwan 17.03 7.50 Singapore 16.00 1.19 China 15.00 530.00 Hong Kong 14.02 2.52 South Korea 7.00 14.42 Malaysia 8.07 5.09 India 4.05 222.05 Indonesia 4.08 63 Thailand 1.01 26.06

(David and Wheelwright, 1989:223)


93

4.3.2 Economic Strategy

Apart from the generally harmonious and hardworking culture, Asian nations have

been described as aggressive in maintaining high savings and investment ratios

(Haley et al. 1998:22). A survey was conducted in 1996 in order to explore what the

people of Hong Kong do with their savings and the results were as follows:

Save as much as possible 51.1% Spend half and save the rest 37.3% Immediately spent 10.2%

(Nish et al. 1996:135)

Not only do Asians save carefully, they are usually quick, flexible and responsive to

economic adversity. One important factor in the 1990s was the Asian emphasis on

export-oriented manufacturing industries, keeping wages at a low level and the rates

of productivity high (Nish et al. 1996:135). Korea is a good example of an economy

that turned from a labour-intensive nation into an export nation with a focus on

heavy industry (Kirk 2000:32). As in the case of other countries which face relatively

high labour and other production costs, Hong Kong’s manufacturing base has been

moved to southern China to make use of the low labour and material costs. This has

enabled it to focus more on technological developments (Tan 1995:21–33). Another

strategy is the encouragement of foreign investment in order to attract foreign capital

and technology. Singapore actively encourages foreign investment, especially in high

technology and high value-added industries in order to develop its industrial base.

Malaysia welcomes foreign investment in the manufacturing sector so as to become

export oriented although it imposes a maximum level of foreign participation in

terms of technology transfer and investment size. Foreign investors have built a city

of high technology near Kuala Lumpur and call it ‘Silicon Valley of South-East

Asia’ (Burns 1998:84). Both Thailand and Indonesia direct foreign investment

towards export-oriented manufacturing by way of joint ventures to facilitate skill and

technology transfer. The Philippines and Vietnam seek foreign investment so as to

make use of local labour, raw material and to generate foreign currency earnings for

the development of infrastructure (Fynmore and Hill 1992:287).


94

4.4 The Significance of Overseas Chinese

In Asia, China has the longest history and also the strongest influence on social and

economic developments because a relatively high proportion of the Asian population

is of Chinese ancestry. For many years, these people have been called ‘overseas

Chinese’, reputed for their aggressive, vibrant and influential roles in Asia–Pacific

profiles. Distinctive characteristics include being hard working, pioneering,

progressive, and acquisitive. Further descriptions include that they are fond of

accumulating land as the traditional form of wealth with the rest of their capital being

held in liquid form, but lacking interest in participating in politics (Fitzgerald

1997:107). It is of interest to explore how the overseas Chinese have performed in

South-East Asia, the US, Canada, New Zealand and Australia.

4.4.1 South-East Asia

Statistics indicate a very high representation of Chinese living in South-East Asia.

About 78% of Singaporeans are of Chinese origin and the Malaysian population

consists of about 30% Chinese (Table 24).

Table 24: Share of the Overseas Chinese in East Asia

Share of population %

Share of market capitalisation%

Singapore 78 81 Malaysia 30 69 Thailand 14 81 Indonesia 3–4 73 Philippines 2 50–60

(The Economist March 2001:5)

In terms of economic development, overseas Chinese have achieved significant

penetration and control. As indicated in Table 24, the ethnic Chinese population in

Indonesia is about 3% to 4%, yet they control more than 70% of the country’s

business interests. In Malaysia, the Chinese and Indian communities are most

successful in their commercial interests and, in particular, the Chinese have been

strongly represented in the transport truck industry and rubber trade since 1969. It


95

was reported that 80% of business interests in Singapore are held by Chinese and

their business success has helped to build this nation into the ‘premier hub of

commerce for South-East Asia’ (Burns 1998:129). Furthermore, in the Philippines,

the Chinese minority of only 2% of the population contributes to over half of the

capital market (The Economist March 2001:5).

The Chinese have been sometimes been called ‘born traders’ and the enterprise

culture is a key feature, prioritising the strengthening of the organisation before

competing successfully with the outside world. Trust amongst businesses is built on

the foundation of undertakings, loyalty and commitment and is a culture

distinguishable from other ethnic groups. Another feature of Chinese business culture

is highly centralised decision-making. Businesses tend to adopt low profit margins

but with high volume stock, as a means of penetrating markets, with rigorous control

of inventory to achieve low capital investment and high rates of stock turnover

(Backman 1995:3). By keeping transaction costs to a minimum within ethnic

Chinese networks, there is a tendency to be involved in the cash economy to avoid

tax, and a tendency to take risks. For example, the Chinese often favour informal

internal financing in order to save banking charges and legal costs. In addition, a

popular method of raising finance is sometimes adopted, called the ‘Cash Generation

Cycle’, whereby the organisation operates on a thin margin in order to obtain a faster

turnover and to reduce the slumber period. This strategy is known as the ‘fast in fast

out’ mentality (Chen 1995:109). There is also a common tendency to undervalue

services and other intangibles such as goodwill and research and development costs.

The marginal utility of capital, labour and skills is emphasised in response to

circumstances such as changing size or structure, diversifying and transformations

(Backman 1995:3).

Haley et al. (1998:24) described the role played by the overseas Chinese in South-

East Asia as being ‘a large and ever-widening role in the international arena’. The

Chinese make use of their networks and contacts to bring Western companies into

businesses with the ‘liberalising’ countries, such as Vietnam. Other overseas Chinese


96

use their flexibility and adaptive ability to work through family businesses where all

members of the family are involved in a share of management, funds and investment

so as to guard against poverty during old age (FitzGerald 1997:64). Typical examples

are found in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia where the traditional firms are either

family owned or owned by groups of close friends and relatives (Burns 1998:84).

The advantages include team effort, group loyalty, shared funding, resolution carried

out by harmonised negotiation, and group morale.

4.4.2 The Chinese in the United States

Apart from South-East Asia, the United States is a favoured destination for the

Chinese. Since the arrival of Chinese migrants, there have been dramatic changes in

the US migration history as well as the local labour market. The early Chinese who

arrived in the 1800s tended to live in geographical clusters called Chinatowns, where

many opened and maintained stores, restaurants and other businesses. Research

found that 40% of the Chinese workers worked in the apparel manufacturing

industry, mostly women who worked in garment factories. The second industry that

accommodated most early Chinese migrants was Chinese restaurants in metropolitan

cities and states such as New York, California, Washington, Hawaii and Illinois

(www.interplan.org). These first and second generation Chinese migrants were

highly concentrated, and motivated to participate in the ownership of restaurants and

retail businesses while maintaining their traditional culture.

The Chinese population multiplied over the years and in the 1900s most of this

increase was by way of migration via the family stream (Iredale 1997:32). One

characteristic found among these more recent migrants was their high motivation to

study. In the late 1970s and 1980s, the number of Asian descendants in the leading

universities soared (Perlman and Waldinger 2000). As a comparison, Chinese

immigrants in the US had an average of 13.2 years of education during the 1970s

whereas those in Canada had 12.7 and Australia 11.3. In the 1990s, however, almost

one-fifth of Chinese migrants had college degrees (Jong 1994). The 2000 Census

pointed out that the average education level of Chinese migrants was higher than that

www.interplan.org


97

of US-born persons (http://dailynews.creaders.net/oversea/newsPool/3F170773.

html).

With the increasing population in the US in the 1990s, the Chinese have been

described as having education and family income levels far exceeding national norms

(http://www.easc.indiana.edu). One of their characteristics was their comparatively

easier adaptation to the labour market (Reitz 1997:87). They moved out of the

restaurants and manufacturing industries. The younger generation and the newer

migrants developed skills in various other industries. From 1995 to 1998, 29% of the

jobs in Silicon Valley were occupied by Chinese or Indian migrants. In 1998, Indians

or Chinese headed 2,775 Silicon Valley high-tech firms, employing 58,000 people,

with total sales of $16.8 billion (http://huaren.org/diaspora/n_americausa/

news/092199-02.html). Another characteristic shown by Chinese migrants in the US

is their high motivation to set up businesses. Between 1977 and 1980, the

participation rate as entrepreneurs for all Asian Americans was 28.6 per 1,000. By

1980, the participation rate for Chinese migrants involved in small business firms

was 60.2 per 1,000 as compared to 48.9 for Americans (Bolaria and Bolaria

1997:141). The 1997 Census indicated that businesses owned by Asians and Pacific

Islanders made up 4% of the nation’s 20.8 million businesses and generated 2% of all

income in the US. These businesses employed more than 2.2 million people and

generated $306.9 billion in revenues in 1997. Four states, California (316,000), New

York (123,300), Texas (60,200) and Hawaii (50,600), accounted for 60% of the firms

owned by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Six out of 10 Asians and Pacific Islanders

live in these states (www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/cb01-88.html).

By way of chain migration, the Chinese population continued to multiply, accounting

for 4% of the total US population in 2002 (www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0778584

.html). As a result, they have been identified as the fastest-growing ethnic minority in

America. Table 25 indicates that South East Asia accommodates 28 million Chinese

in 2002 and the US is the next place to find the largest portion of overseas Chinese.

http://dailynews.creaders.net/oversea/newsPool/3F170773

http://www.easc.indiana.edu

http://huaren.org/diaspora/n_americausa/

www.infoplease.com/ipa/A07785


98

Table 25: Distribution of Chinese in the World, 2002

New Zealand 35,000 Australia 454,000 Canada 910,000 America 3,570,750 South East Asia 28,175,752 Europe 1,618,640 Total Chinese population overseas 34,764,142

(http://www.library.ohiou.edu/subjects/shao/databases_popdis.htm)

4.4.3 The Chinese in Canada

The history of the very early Chinese Canadians was one of struggle and

determination. Migration policy was largely family based until the introduction of

the points system in 1967, much earlier than in Australia, and this brought in many

more immigrants. Several developments in the late 1970s and 1980s had led to the

growth of Chinese migration to Canada. The first was the large-scale movement of

the ethnic Chinese people from Vietnam to Canada. Another event was the migration

of Hong Kong Chinese prompted by the fear of handover of Hong Kong back to

China in 1997 (Skeldon 1994:94).

Research has been undertaken to explore the impact of Chinese Canadians on society

and the economy. A comparison of the occupational profiles of the Chinese in

Canada in 1971 and 1981 discovered that Chinese Canadians were underrepresented

in administrative and managerial occupations but overrepresented in professional and

technical categories and clerical occupations (Skeldon 1994:94). Later studies found

that the Chinese population had expanded, with significant increases in the number

of overseas students of Chinese origin. Census data recorded the arrival of some

300,000 Chinese immigrants over the 10 years from 1990 to 2000, bringing ten

thousand million Canadian dollars to the country for investment and settlement

(www.interlog.com/~fccs/slides4.htm). As reported by the 1991 Census, there were

some 587,000 Chinese living in Canada. Other studies discovered that the earlier


99

Chinese communities in Chinatown, their traditionally designated area, declined after

the influx of Hong Kong Chinese. In the 2000s, unlike the pattern of the early settlers

who remained in restaurants and laundries, Chinese Canadians have overcome

numerous obstacles, moving into a wide variety of professions and achieving

political awareness. The 2001 Census showed that the Chinese-born population in

Canada has risen to 1.2 million, accounting for 3.5% of the total Canadian

population, and that the Chinese language ranked in third place after English and

French (http://dailynews.creaders.net/overseas/newsPool/22F157791.html).

The growth of Chinese migrants has resulted in increased activity in the Canadian

economy and has also been marked by flows of investment funds from Asia to

Canada. This has stimulated interest in surveys contrasting the wealth of Chinese

Canadians and local Canadians. Despite the increasing importance of the Chinese

population in Canada, the 1999 survey did not show that the Chinese are wealthier. It

reported the average income of the Chinese as C$19,848 compared to the Canadian

average of C$29,638 and the median income for the ethnic Chinese was C$13,955

compared with C$23,596 for Canadians (www.interlog.com/~fccs/slides4.htm).

4.4.4 The Chinese in New Zealand

Over the last hundred years, New Zealand has had an influx of small communities of

Asian citizens (primarily of Chinese and Indian descent). Like Australia, New

Zealand began to realise the importance of Asia in the 1990s and, thereafter, Asian

communities expanded, with inflows in particular of people from Korea, China,

Taiwan, Hong Kong and India. The New Zealand government is concerned about its

expectations of migrants – what they bring and what they leave behind. The Chinese

communities are considered to have brought money, skills, motivation, an ethic of

hard work, a commitment to education and cultural diversity. What the Chinese

migrants have left behind is also of great value. These are their ties with their home

countries that may be put to use for business, cultural and political purposes, and

have enabled New Zealand to interact more closely with Asia. The realisation of the

www.interlog.com/~fccs/slides4.htm


100

importance of the Chinese to New Zealand can be illustrated internally and

externally by trade. In a 2002 conference paper presented by Tim Beal, it was

pointed out that New Zealand’s fourth largest trading partner is the Chinese

economies (comprising Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and the

‘overseas Chinese’).13 However, he also estimated that if this trend of increasing

trading activities with Asia continues, overseas Chinese will soon dominate the New

Zealand economy (www.vuw.ac.nz/~caplabtb/shadows2.doc). This is not surprising

by looking at Table 26. It shows that the total population for New Zealand has

barely increased over the ten year period from 1991 to 2001 whereas the portion of

Chinese population has more than doubled from 1.3% to 2.9% of total population.

Table 26: Chinese Share of New Zealand Population, 1991–2001

1991 1996 2001 Total population 3,345,813 3,466,587 3,586,731 Chinese (not further defined) 44,136 78,663 100,203 Taiwanese Chinese 471 2721 3,768 Total Chinese 44,607 81,384 103,971 Asian 99,756 173,505 237,459 Chinese as % of total population 1.3 2.3 2.9 Chinese as % of Asian population 44.7 46.9 43.8

(http://www.asia2000.org.nz/about/issues/participation120802.shtml#Importance of Chinese

community to New Zealand)

The Chinese in New Zealand has not only increased in numbers, but also in social

and political participation for positions on community councils, school boards and

other voluntary organisations. It is suggested that Chinese in New Zealand are

‘coming out of the shadows’ and New Zealand is no longer a ‘Britain in the South

Pacific’ but a small, multicultural country engaged with the Chinese world in the

Asia–Pacific region (www.asia2000.org.nz/about/issues/participation120802.shtml#

Out of the shadows).

13 In this context, Chinese has been broadly defined to comprise those in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan and overseas Chinese in South-East Asia.

www.vuw.ac.nz/~caplabtb/shadows2.doc


101

4.4.5 The Chinese in Australia

Chinese migration to Australia has a long history. The earliest group of Chinese

workers arrived in 1848 to replace convict labour. Later in 1851 and 1856, more

Chinese came to work in gold mines. The early Chinese formed the first major group

of Asian settlers. By 1856 there were about 27,000 Chinese in Australia. Owing to

the 1901 federal Immigration Restriction Act against Chinese arrivals, the Chinese

population declined to about 20,000 in 1921. It was not until between 1947 and 1973

when some Chinese business people and professionals came, so that the Chinese-

born population rose to about 23,000 in the mid 1960s (www.mdaa.org.au/

publications/ethnicity/chinese/general.html). Research carried out in 1996 found that

80% of Chinese migrants arrived after 1981 (Reitz 1997:108). This means that

although Chinese migration started early, the majority came after the 1980s. One of

the impetuses for the rapid increase followed the events of Tiananmen Square in

1989, when some 40,000 Chinese students were granted permanent residence, with a

further 40,000 given residence through the family stream (www.mdaa.org.au/

publications/ethnicity/chinese/general.html). Also, more emphasis has been placed

on skill-based migration since the 1990s and Chinese were amongst other Asians to

offer their skills and qualifications as candidates for migration to Australia. This is

more apparent when overseas students have been allowed to change their status to

permanent residents since 1999 (3.3.2.1). Appendix 17 shows the arrival from and

departure to Asia by occupation showing a net gain of between 60% to 70% for

professionals (Lloyd and Williams 1996:225).

Like the Chinese in the US and Canada, early migrants in Australia concentrated in

Chinatown areas or owned restaurants, small-scale businesses, laundries and

groceries (Reitz 1997:108). However, later migrants extend their presence beyond

the Chinatown areas and become assimilated in the work force (Reitz 1997:108).

Chinese immigrant families like to retain their original cultural beliefs

(www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/martinj.html). The most noticeable character-

istic retained of Chinese-born migrants is their interest in pursuing higher education.

www.mdaa.org.au/

www.mdaa.org.au/


102

A survey was carried out in 1995 showing that Chinese immigrants in Australia have

acquired 2.6 years more education than native-born people (Reitz 1997:108). On the

other hand, Chinese migrants commonly experience problems such as low levels of

English proficiency and difficulties with local recognition of qualifications

(www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/martinj.html). Some researchers compared

the occupation characteristics between Chinese and other Asian groups in Melbourne

in 1998. It was found that the most common occupations of the Cambodian and

Chinese groups were labourers and factory workers, whereas the Hong Kong group

was mostly engaged in business and the Malaysian group in professional and semi-

professional positions. On the other hand, a high representation in terms of

professional qualifications was found among the Chinese and Malaysian groups.

The report observed that the overseas qualifications of the Chinese group were not

accepted for employment on arrival (www.aifs.gov.au/institute/afrc6papers/

martinj.html). Facing this difficulty, some families practised a phenomenon known

as ‘astronauts’ (a phenomenon whereby families live in a foreign country while the

male breadwinners continue to work or carry out business in the source country)

(www.centrea.org/ESC/Artists/RoselinaH/index.html).

It is estimated that over 550,000 people of Chinese ancestry are in Australia,

according to the 2001 Census. In addition, there are about 30,000 new migrants from

China who are going to settle in the country and some 70,000 Chinese students are in

Australia (www.quadrant.org.au/php/article_view.php?article_id=1482). What is of

concern is the potential of Australians of Chinese background. Some researchers

forecasted that China will be the most important economic partner in Australia’s

history in the next decade or two, and this vision will be realised and strengthened by

education and immigration (http://ceda.com.au/public/media/release_china

_launch_20050517.html). According to Professor Garnaut, it is likely that China will

become the largest market for Australian exports over the next decade (Garnaut

August 2004:1). Looking to the future and on a long-term basis, the role played by

Chinese migrants will be of significance.

www.aifs.gov.au/institute/

www.centrea.org/ESC/Artists/RoselinaH/index.ht

http://ceda.com.au/public/media/release


103

4.5 Conclusion

Australia has made use of the advantage of close proximity to Asian countries to reap

economic benefits such as opening its door to Asia for business, studies and tourism.

Part of the reason is the increasing presence of Asians in Australia. In order to

estimate their influence, this part attempts to investigate Asian traditions, customs

and beliefs to form a generalised understanding of Asians.

One feature of Asian culture is their diversity in languages, dialects, religions,

customs and beliefs. On the other hand, Chinese heritage and characteristics are

affected by Confucianism, which emphasises harmony, positive attitudes to learning,

hard work, wealth accumulation through savings and entrepreneurial approaches.

Generally speaking, Asians tend to emphasise person-to-person relationships to form

a trust before advancing to further relationships. They have high motivation for

wealth and are fond of acquiring real estate, believing that property will increase in

value over time.

One common Asian characteristic is their high expectation of the second generation,

as they believe higher education will help their children to gain positions that bring

wealth and respect. Some Asians are reputed for their attitude to work hard and for

long hours. Among the Asian nations, China is said to have the greatest potential

given its sizeable sources of labour, skills, wealth, connections to world trade and

competitiveness. When comparing the achievements of overseas Chinese in South-

East Asia, the United States, Canada, New Zealand and Australia, it is clear that they

contribute significantly to various social and economic developments in the

destination countries.

The majority of Chinese migrants in Australia came after the 1980s and after skill-

based migration was introduced. Considering the increasing Chinese overseas

students, visitors and business people, together with existing Chinese migrants in


104

Australia, a new generation of Australians is growing up with close relations with

China. This will be of significant impact to Australian economy. The next part

presents research methodology used to assess the economic impact of the two largest

groups of Asians in Australia, namely the Chinese and Vietnamese populations.

The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part V Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

152

Table 33: Occupations of Primary and Secondary App licants under Skilled Stream Migration,

1999–2000

Skilled Stream Migrants 1999–2000 Primary Secondary applicants applicants % % Managers and administrators 14.0 4.2 Professionals 57.3 11.9 Associate professionals 9.0 2.7 Tradespersons 14.8 1.8 Advanced clerical and service workers 0.8 1.9 Intermediate clerical, sales and service workers 1.5 2.9 Intermediate production and transport workers 0.1 0.3 Elementary clerical, sales and service workers 0.4 0.7 Labourers and related workers 0.1 0.1 Total employed 98.1 26.5 Total unemplo yed 1.7 0.6 Not in labour force 1.7 70.9

Total 100 100

(ABS 3412 .0, 11)

Another research study carried out by the ABS grouped managers with professionals and

found that an overall 27 .6% of recent migrants were in th is group in 2001.


153

Table 34: Comparison of Employability of Skilled Migrants and Other People, 2001

Employability of Skilled Migrants 2001 Recent Other

migrants

%* people %**

Skill Level 1: Management, administration, professional 27.6 0.3 Skill Level 2: Associate professional 10.9 0.1 Skill Level 3: Tradesperson/advanced clerical 18.1 0.2 Skill Level 4: Sales/service/intermediate 23.3 0.3 Skill Level 5: Clerical and labourers 20.0 0.2

* Recent migrants in the survey are those born outside Aus tralia and arriving after 1980 ** Other people are people other than recent migrants

(ABS 3412.0 )

Owing to the difference in participation as managers among Australian -born people

versus Chinese and Vietnamese migrants, Equation 4A includes the du mmy variables

for Chinese and Vietnamese origin to test whether these origins contribute positively

towards the respondent being a manager. Based on the findings of DIMIA and the ABS

and the assumption that both Chinese and Vietnamese migrants are not highly

represented as managers and administrators, the coefficients b2 and b3 would be

negative.

Included also in Equation 4A are dummy variables for the two levels of qualifications.

One of the ma in purposes for studying for higher qualif ications is to obtain employ ment

in high status jobs and b4 and b5 are expected to be positive. Managers are expected to

work for long and non -standard hours and b6 would be posit ive. The factor of English

language proficiency is considered of significance to Chinese and Vietnamese m igrants

in their employment as managers and b7 would be pos itive. Assuming that a manager is

of mature age after obtaining qualifications and work experience, and that the age

correlates with the probability of being a manager up to a certain level, b8 should be

positive and b9 negative. With respect to the years since arrival, two possibilities exist.

The longer a person stays, the more likely it is that they obtain relevant work experience

to be managers, so b10 would be pos itive. The other possibility is that recently arrived


154

skilled migrants, especially business migrants, are more likely to be engaged as

managers. It is a long -established expectation for males to have more education, more

exposure to work expe rience and better opportunities f or senior positions than females

and b11 should be po sitive.

The second type of occupation is professional and a similar model is developed as

Equation 4B, as follows:

DOCCP2 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4QALLP1 + b5QALLP2 + b6HRSP + b7ENGP + b8AGEP + b9AGEP*AGEP + b10YARP + b11SEXP

(Equation 4B)

where DOCCP2 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable OCCP2 is 1.

Although Budd and Madden (1999) found that the coefficients for the variables of

managers and professionals are very similar, the ABS classified the occupations into two

separate categories as a difference in income is expected between the two occupations.

There are many explanations for the differences in income. Firstly, the Budd & Madden

research is based on data from the 1990s. During the period from 1990 to 1996,

improved economic circumstances may have given rise to greater access to education

and training so that the nature of work performed became more specialised, thereby

increasing the importance of professionals since the 1990s. Secondly, more employment

opportunities have been available for women as a result of the trend towards better

education and training. Their contributions to the p rofessions have become increasingly

significant. Thirdly, prospects exist for professionals to advance their careers to become

managers. Based on these assumptions, the occupation of professionals is considered to

be different from that of managers.


155

Recent studies indicate a high percentage of migrants participating as professionals as a

result of the skills -based migration policy. ABS s tatistics show that the percentage of

principal and secondary applicants in the occupation of professionals is the highest for

the 1999 to 2000 sk illed stream migrants and that 57.3 % of principal migrants and

11.9% of secondary migrants have particip ated as professionals. DIMIA reported that

31% of migrants work as professionals during the first and second years of arriva l.

Related to this high rate of participation is the belief that the Chinese have largely been

employed as professionals, but this i s not supported by DIMIA statistics. It has been

reported that in 1996, only 1.1 % of employed computer p rofessionals and 0.7% of

accountants were Chinese -born (www.immi.gov.au/publications/ skilled_labour.html).

This would indicate that the Chinese in fact were not strongly represented in these

occupations prior to 1996. As a result, b2 would be insignificant. There is i nsufficient

evidence to support a high participation rate for Vietnamese as professionals and

therefore b3 is likely to be negative.

The other factors contributing to the decision to work as a professional are the same as

those in Equation 4A. One of the pre -requisites for occupations such as medical

practitioners, solicitors, accountants and engineers is sound academic qualifications.

This implies that postgraduate and bachelor qualifications add to the probability of being

a professional and therefore b2 and b3 are positive and significant. Hours worked is

another important factor in working as a professional and b6 is expected to be positive.

Being a professional implies very good English language ability and b7 would be

positive. As with the oc cupation of managers, age will have a non -linear effect and

therefore b8 is expected to be positive and b9 negative. For the variable of years since

arrival, it is expected that the longer a person lives in the country, the higher the

probability that they will obtain the necessary qualifications to become a professional, so

b10 would be pos itive. An alternative theory is that skilled migration attracts recent

migrants in the occupation of professionals, so b10 would be negative.

www.immi.gov.au/publications/


156

Gender equity in professional oc cupations could be a research topic. Based on the

assumption that males generally have a higher level of education, they are more likely to

be professionals than females. It is estimated that b11 would be po sitive.

The third occupational category is assoc iate professionals and Equation 4C is as follows:


(Equation 4C)


This category has been established more recently due to i ts increasing significance in the

labour market. Under current migration regulations, para -professionals are awarded

lower marks than managers and professionals. Studies found an overall 9 % of migrants

working as para-professionals in the year of arrival, rising to 12 % in 2000. About 6 .5%

of Asians are employed as para -professionals (Coughlan and McNamara 1997:105).

This representation is higher than the proportion in the rest of the population and

therefore b2 and b3 are expected to be positive. Most of the work of associate

professionals requires less than bachelor degree qualifications and therefore the

variables of bachelor and basic qualifications are included. It is expected that b4 and b5

will be positive. It is estimated that the nature of the work is similar to that of

professionals but less technical and requires non -standard working hours. The

coefficient (b6) is expected to be positive. Regarding the level of English language

ability, this occupation also requires a functional standard and b7 would be positive.

As with the previous two categories of occupation, the age effect will be of a composite

nature and it is expected that b8 would be positive and b9 negative. Since the work of

associate professionals is classified as intermediary and does not necessarily require the


157

extensive experience required in high status jobs, the coefficient of the variable for years

of arrival b10 may be negative. It is believed that females are more likely to work in

occupations that are of a supportive or a less technical nature and that b10 would be

negative.

Equation 4D models the relationship amongst the same human capital variables as in the

above three equations with the dummy variables for postgraduat e and bachelor degree

qualifications being replaced by the variable for having no qualifications. The model is

as follows:

DOCCP4 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4QALLP3 + b5HRSP + b6ENGP + b7AGEP + b8AGEP*AGEP + b9YARP + b10SEXP

(Equation 4D)


The work of a tradesperson or clerical wo rker involves physical ability or general skills

and the score for the points test varies. Higher points are awarded to tradesmen with

skills identified as being in short supply or supervisory skills but no po ints are awarded

for general clerical workers. Statistics reporting the participation rate of migrants in this

occupation are not consistent. One ABS report indicated about 15 % of migrants worked

as tradespeople and clerks in 2000 and 18 % in 2001 (ABS 3412.0 , 11). This

participation rate is higher than for associate professionals. On the other hand, DIMIA

found that 38% of family stream migrants were tradespeople and intermediate clerical

workers during the first year of arrival and 18 % of independent migrants were

tradespeople and clerks in the first year of arrival. The percentage of independent

migrants working in this occupation dropped to 14 % during the second year after arrival.

Overall, the perc entage of all migrants working as tradespeople and clerks dropped from

13% in 1999 to 10% in 2000 (www.immi.gov.au/research/publications1sia/

settle_exp.pdf). One reason for the decreasing percentage of migrants working in this

category may be the emphasis on higher levels of education and aspirations to more

prestigious jobs.

www.immi.gov.au/research/publications1sia/


158

According to community profiles, Chinese and Vietnamese migrants who arrived e arlier

are more inclined to work as tradespeople and clerks. This is consistent with DIMIA’s

findings tha t large numbers of migrants under the family stream are tradespeople, and

therefore b2 and b3 would be positive. This occupation group has no emphasis on

qualifications, meaning that only the dummy variable for basic education or no

qualifications will be relevant (QALLP3) and b4 would be positive. It is estimated that

the working hours of tradespeople and clerks are standard, which correlates with the

probability of being in this type of occupation. This leads to an expectation of a positive

b5. English language ability is expected to be significant in the work of tradespeople

and clerks, so b6 would be positive. As in other occupations, the age effect is composite

and it is expected that b7 is positive and b8 is negative. Considering that those who

arrived earlier are more inclined to work as tradespeople and clerks, b9 would be

negative. Estimates on gender participation for this occupation are difficult because this

type of occupation includes a wide variety of work nature and industries. Some jobs or

industries such as building and construction requiring physical ability would be more

suitable for male tradespeople whereas clerical work may be mutually shared by males

and females. It is anticipated that there are more clerical workers than tradespeople

grouped in this category and therefore females contri bute to the prob ability of a person

being employed in this profession and b10 would be negative.

Using the same regressors as in Equation 4D, Equation 4E is as follows:


(Equation 4E)



159

The last occupational group is that of labourers and machine operators. These workers

do not require spec ial skills, training, qualifications and work experience. There is no

score for this type of occupatio n under the points test as such work is not identified as a

skilled occupation. However, labourers’ jobs have been said to be of greatest

significance to Asian migrants, particularly those who arrived earlier through family and

humanitarian migration. This is reflected in the relatively large proportion of the first

generation Asians in this category. The 1991 occupational profile indicated that over

half of Chinese -born workers were employed in blue -collar occupations and were

concentrated in labouring and factory jobs (Coughlan and McNamara 1997:154).

DIMIA reported that 27.4 % of employed Chinese -born people are labourers and 22.3 %

of Vietnamese-born men are classified as labourers or related workers in 1991

(www.immi.gov.au/statistics/publications/communi ty-profiles). The ove rall participation

rate of Asians as labourers is relatively higher than those who are Australian -born. The

1996 statistics indicated that 14.5 % of Asians are labourers, compared with 12.4 % of

Australian-born people in this category ( Coughlan and McNamara 1997:105). More

recent migrants who came largely under skilled migration as a result of a reduced

emphasis on family migration may alter this trend. In addition, the children of these

migrants have had more opportunities for education and may also alter this career

imbalance. However, this research is based on 1996 Census data and does not include

recently arrived migrants. Therefore, b2 and b3 would be positive.

The nature of the work in this category is largely manual and does not r equire

educational qualifications. It follows that b4 is negative and b5 is positive. Compared

with the previous four types of occupation, this last group of labourers do not work

longer hours than the other jobs and therefore b6 will b e negative. English language

ability is required for all jobs but the requirement is less significant than other

occupations and therefore b7 is negative. The assumption is that these jobs are occupied

by either young people seek ing work experience or old people with outdated skills to

supplement their income. As the young people improve their education level, they are

more likely to leave to seek better jobs. Age therefore has a negative effect in


160

contributing to the likelihood of being a labourer and b8 is expected to be neg ative.

Older people are expected to work for these lowly paid jobs after retirement, so the

composite effect of age on this occupation will be different from that on the other

occupations in that a U -shaped relationship is expected and b9 will be positive. Earlier

migrants are more likely to participate in this occupation and b10 is negative. Work

involving more physical ability might lead to a higher participation rate of males and

b11 is expected to be positive.

Equation 5: Probit Analysis of Labour Fo rce Participation

Equation 5 attempts to compare behaviour across labour market groups and is sub -

divided into four models to address the four categories of labour force status. The first

category to examine is the employee status and Equation 5A addresses the influences on

employment status comprising ethnicity, age, hours worked, qualifications, types of

occupation and sex. This equation uses the variable for employee status as the

dependent variable as follows:

DLFSP1 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6HRSP + b7QALLP1 + b8QALLP2 + b9OCCP1 + b10OCCP2 + b11OCCP3 + b12OCCP4 + b13SEXP + b14YARP

(Equation 5A)

where DLFSP1 is the probability that the value of the dummy variable LFSP1 is 1.

Entering the Au stralian labour market is critical to migrants as well as to the economy as

they offer themselves to the labour market to earn a living and in turn pay tax towards

government revenue. Statistics have shown that some migrants arriving between 1986

and 1991 have deg ree qualifications but were not able to obtain employment in

managerial or professional positions (2.3.4). In general, research has found that migrants

in the 2001 Census have participation rates similar to those of the Australian -born.


161

Many studies compare occupational performance and acceptability in the labour market

between ethnic migrants and the mainstream population. In Britain, Blackaby et al.

(2002) found significant differences in employment probabilities between the native

British population and ethnic minorities, including the second generation. In Australia,

more recent analysis has shown that 9.9 million people were in the Aust ralian labour

force in 2001, but the rates of employment are different for Australians and the overseas -

born. Specific studies have been carried out to explore the influences of the ethnicity

factor. The ABS report pointed out that the labour force participation rate for Australian -

born was higher than for all overseas -born, the employment rate for Australians was

67% whereas for the overseas -born it was 58 .1%, and the rate for South -East Asian

migrants was 61.2 %, higher than that for Europeans at 53.3 % (Table 35). Generally, a

higher participation rate is expected from migrants from English -speaking countries than

from non-English-speaking countries ( ABS 1301.0 2003 ). Another study investigated

whether Asians are disadvantaged in the labour market (Junankar et al. 2002). The

research indicated there is a higher probability of labour market success of Asian

migrants over non-Asian migrants over time.

Table 35: Labour Force Participation, 2001

CONTRIBUTION OF MIGRANTS’ LABOUR

Total employed

’000

Unemployed %

Labour force ’000

Unemployment rate%

Participation rate %

N E Asia 142.8 9.60 152.4 6.3 54.80 S E Asia 263.5 30.10 293.50 10.20 61.20 Europe 1121.1 0.73 1194.00 6.10 53.30 Oceania 283.2 0.23 306.20 7.50 74.00 English-speaking countries 94.82 0.06 10.07 5.90 64.60 Other countries 291.19 133.18 414.33

Total born outside Australia 2196.61 173.90 2370.50 7.30 58.10

Total Australian-born 6720 487.50 72.07 6.80 67.00

TOTAL 8916.6 661.40 95.78 6.90 64.60

(ABS 1301.0 2002:218)


162

It follows that there is a difference in employability for different ethnic groups , and in

Equation 5A the variabl es for Chinese and Vietnamese origin are included. Owing to the

envisaged inequality in employability amongst ethnic groups and based on the analysis

of the ABS of labour force p articipation, both Chinese and Vietnamese groups were

disadvantaged in partici pating in the labour market and b2 and b3 are expected to be

negative.

Another controversial factor contributing to being employed in the labour market is age.

The ABS divided the working age population into three groups. The first is the youth

group, between 15 and 24. Next is the prim e working age group between 25 and 44, and

the last is the older working group between 45 and 64. Both the youth and prime

working groups are projected to decline over the next 50 years despite a continued

growing population. This is because the older grou p will have the highest growth rate for

the period (ABS 4102.0 1995 ; ABS 3222.0) . This ageing factor is of inc reasing concern.

Consistent with the assumptions in Equation 1, it is ant icipated that the youth and prime

working groups correlate with employmen t opportunities , and b4 is expected to be

positive. The effect of age on employment will be non -linear and b5 will be negative.

As an employee, the number of working hours is specified in the employment

conditions, although the employee works full time o r part time. Therefore b6 is

expected to be positive. The qualification factors, b7 and b8, are expected to be

positive. However, this hypothesis may overlook the risks of over -qualification in some

jobs or job dissatisfaction leading to limited choice for high-status careers. Equation 5A

also includes the four levels of occupation as di fferent occupations have different

demands for labour skills. It is expected that all four occupation regressors have positive

coefficients.


163

Gender differences give rise t o different labour force participation rates due to the

differences in occupational concentration between men and women. Statistics have

reported a declining overall participation rate for men from 81 % to 71% from 1971 to

2001. In contrast, the participati on rate for women increased from 37 % to 55 % during

the same period. This shows general acceptance of women in the workforce and greater

opportunities for them for paid work ( ABS 4102.0 2003). However, the traditional view

of men as breadwinners is not like ly to change dramatically and b13 is posit ive.

Consistent with the assumptions in Equation 1, the longer a person settles in Aus tralia,

the higher the probability that they obtain employment and b14 is expected to be

positive.

Using the same variables in Equation 5A, the next equation examines the factors

affecting self-employed status. Equation 5B is as follows:

DLFSP2 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6HRSP + b7QALLP1 + b8QALLP2 + b9OCCP1 + b10OCCP2 + b11OCCP3 + b12OCCP4 + b13SEXP + b14YARP

(Equation 5B)


There are many reasons for choosing self -employment. Some establish a business to take

advantage of flexibility and control over decisions while accepting the associated risks,

including failure. For a migrant, this decision can occur as a result of over -qualification,

non-acceptance of qualifications or overseas experience, or as an alternative to

unsatisfactory employment conditions. Others may conduct business ventures by virtue

of their business experience, managerial skills, cultural and other business connections,

links with associated industries in their home countries and the support of family

members. Another factor contributing to this decision is the mandatory requirement of

the migration laws for business migrants to continue in business. It has therefore been


164

assumed that there is a higher probability of a migrant being a business owner than an

Australian-born person.

One research study investigated the roles of migrant entrepren eurs and found that first -

generation entrepreneurs were motivated by economic necessity and unemployment.

Second generation business owners made use of the links to countries of origin and the

third generation saw and made use of business opportunities ( www.sbaer.uca.edu).

About 30% of all owner–managers are migrants and of the immigrant self -employed,

58.7% were born outside the main Eng lish-speaking countries ( www.cbs.curtin/edu /

research/wepau/ ). Many analysts have been interested in examining wage diffe rences,

occupational expectations, labour conditions and job satisfaction and their relationship to

ethnicity. Less attention is paid to the analysis and interpretation of the effect of ethnic

origins on earnings of en trepreneurs and small businesspeople. DIMIA carried out

studies on the economic impact of business migrants , but the scope was limited to visa

applicants under their monitoring system, and did not include migrant owners who had

arrived earlier. Also, their reports focused on compliance issues of business migrants

without relating country of origin to achievements.

Based on the assumption that a migrant has a higher probability of bein g a business

owner than an Australian, it is expected that Chinese migrants contribute positively to

the sector of self-employment and that b2 is positive. As for Vietnamese migrants, the

1991 Census reported th at the Vietnamese-born self-employed made up only 9.6 % of

business owners while 83.7 % of them are in employment. Therefore b3 will be

negative.

There are other factors that are conside red relevant to the decision to become self -

employed. Age is an important factor in self -employment but there are two extreme

views. According to one perspective, an increase in age entails a mature attitude,

experience and accumulation of capital which en ables a person to run a business. The

www.cbs.curtin/edu


165

coefficient of the variable for age (b4) should therefore be positive. On the other hand,

in the business migration regime, people under 45 years of age are more preferred.

Those over 55 years of age are required to prove they can contribute exceptional benefits

to Australia (3.3.2.4). This i ndicates that age is expected to be an important and positive

factor in the probability that a person is self -employed, but this factor will gradually

decline in importance after a certain age. As a result, a non -linear relationship is

expected between age and the probability of being a self -employed person and it is

likely that b5 is negative.

As for hours worked, decisions about operating hours are entirely at the employers’

discretion and it is expected that entrepreneurs work longer hours than employees. The

coefficient of the variable for hours worked (b6) would therefore be positive. In

considering the variable of educational attainment, a business owner is not necessarily

expected to hold higher qualifications, with the exception of professionals such as

doctors, dentists, solicitors and engineers. Therefore, b7 and b8 might be negative.

Self-employed people are commonly found in the four levels of occupation and it is

expected that each type contributes positively towards the probability of being a self -

employed person and b9, b10, b11 and b12 are positive. Consistent with the belief that

males are more likely to be b readwinners, they have a higher probability of being

proprietors, and b13 is posit ive. The longer a person has been in Australia, the greater

the accumulation of experience and capital to run a business, and b14 is likely to be

positive.

The next model considers those who are unemployed and looking for full - or part-time

work. Amongst many other factors, unemployment is expected to be affected by

ethnicity, age, literacy skills, level of English ability and the length of time in Australia.

In Equation 5C, the variable for the unemployed (LFSP3) is the dependent variable with


166

regressors on ethnicity, basic or no qualifications, those with no En glish language

ability, age and years of arrival. The equation is as f ollows:

DLFSP3 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6QALLP3 + b7ENGP2 + b8YARP + b9SEXP

(Equation 5C)


Statistics indicate that there is a wide difference in the un employment rates of ethnic

groups. The unemployment rate in 2001 –02 for migrants from mainly English -speaking

countries (5.5 %) was lower than that for people born in Australia (6.5 %) (ABS 1301.0

2003). Some studies have revealed significant differences in unemployment rates

between Asians and non -Asian groups. Table 3 5 shows that the unemployment rate for

those who come from South -East Asia is 10.2%, higher than the unemployment rate for

the Australian-born and migrants from other countries. Coughlan and McNamara

(1997:287) used 1991 Census data to sho w that Vietnamese-born males have an

unemployment rate of 36.1 % and women 44.9 % with a median year of arrival of 1985.

Based on these assumptions, it is expected that b2 and b3 are positive.

Age is likely to be an important influence on labour force participation. Youth

unemployment is often considered more serious than unemployment for other ages, and

older age should theoretically reduce the probability of being unemployed. It follows

that b4 would be e xpected to be negative. The non -linear effect of age should also apply

in estimating the probability of unemployment and b5 would be negative. Literac y skills

are linked to the duration of unemployment and the lack of qualifications would

normally be expected t o add to the p robability of being unemployed , and therefore b6 is

likely to be positive. As the variable of English language ability is anticipated to be

significant for unemployed migrants, Equation 5C is re -tested using the segregated

sample without the Australian-born people. The intention is to assess whether the


167

language factor contributes to the probability of migrant unemployment. It is expected

that b7 is posit ive. The variable for years of arrival is included to test whether earlier

arrived migrants are less likely to be unemployed. If this is the case, then b7 would be

negative. The last variable is that for sex. If males are more likely to be breadwinners

and females are not in the labour force, there is a higher probability of males being

unemployed and b9 is positive.

Equation 5D uses the variable for those not in the labour force as the dependent variable.

Using the same regressors as in Equation 5C, this model examines the factors

contributing to the probability of not being in the labour forc e. The equation is:

DLFSP4 = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6QALLP3 + b7SEXP + b8YARP

(Equation 5D)


This group includes mostly family members such as wives, ch ildren and retired persons

who do not participate in the labour force. It is typical to find the main migration

applicant in the labour force and secondary members undertaking home -based duties.

Under migration regulations, additional points are awarded if both primary and

secondary migrants have qualifications and occupational skills. The policy encourages

participation of secondary migrants in the labour force. However, with the recent arrival

of Chinese and other Asian migrants, the so -called ‘astronaut’ phenomenon (4.4.5) has

developed where wives and children remain in Australia while husbands continue their

work or business engagements in home countries. This phenomenon is thought to occur

in Chinese migrants and b2 is positive. Vietnamese migrants arr ive predominantly via

family and humanitarian streams and thus the ‘astronaut’ situation may not apply.

However, some findings show that early Vietnamese migrants largely came as refugees

or family members and are not in the labour force. The refore b3 is likely to be positive.

Normally, age (b4) has a negative effect and a reverse U -shape is expected when age is

squared. Older retirees have a higher probability of being in this category and therefore


168

b5 is likely to be positive. Assuming that this group gen erally has only basic education

or no qualifications, b6 will be posit ive. The majority of this group is expected to be

female and this means that b7 will be negative. With respect to migrants, non -

participation in the labour force is more likely to occur in the first year of arrival than in

subsequent years , and b8 is expected to be negative.

Equation 6: Equation for Hours Worked

The subject of working hours has interested researchers in recent years. Although

sophisticated technology ha s led to improved efficiency and higher quality goods and

services, statist ics indicate a trend towards increased working h ours for full-time

workers. As defined by the ABS, hours of work is the number of hours worked in all

jobs held by employed people over 15 years of a ge (Australian Bureau of Statistics

1996). There are many interpretations of standard working hours, depending on

occupation, the nature of the work and personal choice. These vary widely on the basis

of sex, full- and part-time employment. Under migration policy, 35 hours a week

constitutes full -time employment with an exception for some highly sp ecialised

occupations that allow for a 35 –40 hour week (LBC Immigration Lawbook 2003,

Migration Regulation 1.20G). In general, average weekly hours for f ull-time adult non-

managerial employees are 40.4 for males and 38.0 for females ( ABS 6305.0 ). A study

reported that an increase in the proportion of the full -time workforce involved an

extension of working hours to more than 48 hours in the late 1990s. 15 Another study

found that the average increased from 42 to 45 hours per week when working hours

were measured from 1982 to 1994. This was reduced to 44 hours in 2002 ( ABS 4102

2003). Owing to the wide variation in working hours, a regression model is developed to

explore the factors contributing to the actual input of hours worked. However, the data

15 The Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Resea rch and Training (ACIRRT), 1999.


169

consist of the working hours of full - and part-time workers and the actual effect may not

be measured. Equation 6 seeks to assess the factors affecting hours of work.

The equation is:

HRSP = b1 + b2CHN + b3VTNM + b4AGEP + b5AGEP*AGEP + b6QALLP1 + b7QALLP2 + b8OCCP1 + b9OCCP2 + b10OCCP3 + b11OCCP4 + b12LFSP1 + b13LFSP2 + b14SEXP

(Equation 6)

Part IV of this thesis illustrated the hard-working characterist ics of many Asian

migrants, which is demonstrated in their tendency to work excessive hours (4.3.1). The

general philosophy is that by working more, they gain more experience and hence earn

higher levels of income. Some Asians are described as wo rkaholics and, in particular, it

is thought that Chinese proprietors work seven days a week (4.3.1). To test the

assumption that Asians work longer hours, the variables for Chinese and Vietnamese

origin are included in the model and it is expected that b2 and b3 are positive.

In addition to racial factors, other explanatory variables that are thou ght to influence

hours worked are age, qualifications, occupation, labour force status and sex. In

addressing the age factor in the model, as age increases mo re work experience is

expected and therefore b4 has a positive rel ationship with hours worked. However, once

a certain age is reached, working hours will fall, and b5 is negative. Another attempt to

estimate the influence on working hours is to incorporate the variables for higher

qualifications. According to the traditional Asian belief, improvement in career path is

achieved by higher qualifications. This leads to the hypothesis that higher levels of

qualifications will help holders to advance to higher s tatus jobs, and as a result an

increased input of working hours is required. It is expected that b6 and b7 are positive.

Like Equations 1, 2 and 3, the four types of occupation are included in the model


170

because each occupation should have a different impact on hours worked. For example,

for the year 2001–02, the ABS recorded the highest average weekly hours of 51 for

people employed as managers and administrators and 47 for associate professionals. The

lowest recorded is 40 for labourers and related workers ( ABS 1301.0 2003 ). It is

estimated that the coefficients b8, b9, b10 and b11 are positive relative to the omitted

category.

With regard to labour force status, Equation 6 incorporates the dummy variables for

employees and self -employed status because these variables would ca use differences in

hours worked. Employees are usually required to work for a specified number of hours

per week. The coefficient of employee status ( b12) should therefore correlate with the

hours worked related to the omitted group and is expected to be positive. It is common

for self-employed people to wo rk very long hours. The ABS compared the working

hours of employees and self -employed workers using 2001 statistics. It r eported that

57% of self-employed workers worked 50 hours or more per week whereas 23 % of

employees stated their working hours exceed 50. Furthermore, 14 % of self-employed

workers worked for more than 70 hours per week while only 3 % of employees worked

more than 70 hours ( ABS 4102 .0 2003). It is expected that b13 will be positive.

In comparing the hours of work between males and females, the traditional belief is that

males have a highe r participation rate in full -time work than females and should work

for more hours. For example, in the occupation of managers, it was found that the males

worked for 5.3 hours per week more than the females (ABS 4102.0 2003). When there is

no segregation by type of occupation, females are generally more inclined to participate

in part-time work or home du ties and the coefficient (b14) is expected to be positive.


171

5.4 Analysis of Results and Discussion of Findings

Although there is no direct evidence that a particular ethnic group has made Australia

wealthier or raised Australian living standards, the results of the models appear to show

some of the effects of the s kill-based migration program.

5.4.1 Equation 1

Equation 1 is developed from an earnings function to examine factors that are

considered as human capital factors that influence income.

5.4.1.1 Results of Equation 1 (using a sample of 91,751 )

Dependent Va riable: INCP Method: Least Squares Date: 01/24/04 Time: 11:18 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints INCP=C(1)+C(2)*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*QALLP1+C(5)*QALLP2+C(6)

*OCCP1+C(7)*OCCP2+C(8)*OCCP3+C(9)*OCCP4+C(10)*LFS P1 +C(11)*LFSP2+C(12)*LFSP3+C(13)*HRSP+C(14)*ENGP+C(15) *AGEP+C(16)*AGEP*AGEP+C(17)*YARP+C(18)*SEXP

Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –139.1972 5.401164 –25.77171 0.0000 C(2) –61.97311 7.055380 –8.783809 0.0000 C(3) –46.38887 8.521921 –5.443476 0.0000 C(4) 223.5986 5.171525 43.23648 0.0000 C(5) 115.1709 2.653855 43.39760 0.0000 C(6) 234.6874 4.013296 58.47746 0.0000 C(7) 194.5062 3.538201 54.97319 0.0000 C(8) 139.8899 3.629232 38.54532 0.0000 C(9) 54.65247 2.655134 20.58369 0.0000

C(10) 9.919839 3.273922 3.029956 0.0024 C(11) –114.1450 4.660392 –24.49256 0.0000 C(12) –12.01668 3.968881 –3.027724 0.0025 C(13) 6.707176 0.072733 92.21586 0.0000 C(14) –7.697150 3.809137 –2.020707 0.0433 C(15) 12.13408 0.243794 49.77177 0.0000 C(16) –0.102860 0.002531 –40.63892 0.0000 C(17) 1.317424 0.469829 2.804050 0.0050 C(18) 101.7617 1.705788 59.65673 0.0000

R-squared 0.484880 Mean dependent var 423.3301 Adjusted R -squared 0.484785 S.D. dependent var 341.5926 S.E. of regression 245.1900 Akaike info criterion 13.84214 Sum squared resid 5.51E+09 Schwarz criterion 13.84399 Log likelihood –634997.1


172

5.4.1.2 Findings on Ethnicity Factors

As the results of Equation 1 show, all the estimated regression coefficients are

statistically significant relative to the omitted groups. The constant term (C(1) ) measures

the average earnings of an individual when all other variables are at their average values.

The coefficient of the v ariable for Chinese origin (C(2) ) is negative, as suggested by the

cross-classification of income and a comparison of the average income of Chinese and

Australian-born people. The partial effect of the Chinese variable on income is a

decrease of $62 per week, holding constant the effect of the other variables in the

equation. The first hypothesis, as expressed in the null hypothesis that there is no

significant difference in the mean income between Chinese and Australians, is tested as

follows:

H0 : b2 = 0 H1 : b2 • 0

The t-value of the coefficient of the variable for Chines e origin indicated in the above

results is –8.78, which differs significantly from zero. According to the decision rule,

this t-value does not fall between the critical value o f –1.96 and +1.96 and therefore the

null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion is that the variable for Chinese origin is

significant in explaining income in this equation.

Neither does the assumption of higher income apply to the Vietnamese. According to

Equation 1, this group , (C(3)) earns on average $46 less than benchmark earnin gs, after

allowing for other variables. This result is consistent with the findings of the 1991

community profile and those of Budd and Madden (1999). The Bureau of Immigration

and Population Research reported that 60% of Vietnam -born migrants have annual

incomes less than $16,000 whereas only 49% of the total Australian population are in

this income bracket (Bureau of Immigration and Popu lation Research 1994:28). The

results imply that from 1990 to 1996, the income levels of the Vietnamese groups were


173

still lower than those of the Australian born. The next null hypothesis states that there is

no significant difference in the mean income between Vietnamese and Australians:

H0 : b3 = 0 H1 : b3 • 0.

The t-value of b3 from the results is –5.44, which does not fall between the critical

value of –1.96 and +1.96 and, as a result, this null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion

is that the variable for Vietnamese origin is significant in being one of the factors

influencing income.

Another hypothesis tests wheth er the effect of the variables for Chinese and Vietnamese

origin is the same on income:

H0 : b2 = b3 H1 : H0 is not true.

The F-test checks that the relationship between the dependent variable (I NCP) and the

two independent variables (CHN and VTNM) is significant. As a general rule, if the F-

value is greater than the critical value Fa

, the null hypothesis is rejected ; otherwise it is

accepted. At the significance level of 95 %, the critical value of F0.05 is obtained from the

statistical tables by locating the value corresponding to numerator degree of freedom

equal to k – 1 = 1 (where k is the number of coefficients) and denominator degree of

freedom equal to n – k = 91,749 (where n is the number of samples). At the significance

level of 95%, the critical value with one degree of freedom is 3.84. In considering

whether the effect of the variables for Chinese origin (C(2)) equals that for Vietnamese

origin (C(3)), the following test shows that the F-value of 2.609 is smaller than the

critical value of 3.84. The test also shows that the effect on income of the variable for

Chinese origin differs from that for Vietnamese origin by only $15. As a result, the null


174

hypothesis cannot be rejected. This implies that the effect of the variable for Chinese

origin is similar to the effect of that of Vietnamese origin.

Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 2.609058 (1, 91733) 0.1063 Chi-square 2.609058 1 0.1063

Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(3) –15.58424 9.648142

The next hypothesis tests whether none of the ethnic origin s is statistically significant in

explaining differences in income. The null hypothesis is that there is no effect on income

for those of either Chinese or Vietnamese origin. If the null hypothesis is true, it implies

that the Chinese and Vietnamese variab les cannot explain any change in income. The

hypotheses are follows:

H0 : b2 = b3 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

In this case, there are two degrees of freedom and the critical value F0.05 = 3.00. The F-

value produced by the following Wald Test gives a value of 44.37, which is greater than

3.00. It follows that C(2) does not equal C(3) and does not equal zero. Therefore, the

null hypothesis is rejected, indicating that at least one ethnicity variable explains the

variation in income.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) –61.97311 7.055380 C(3) –46.38887 8.521921


175

5.4.1.3 Findings on Quali fications Factors

When looking at income -earning capacity, education level is considered to be one of the

most important determinants. The coefficients of the variables for the two levels of

education (QALLP1 and QALLP2) are positive and show significance relative to the

group omitted. As expected, the parameter for postgraduate qualifications (C(4)) shows

that this level of education is positively related to income after adjusting for all other

variables. With a unit increase in postgraduate holders, incom e is increased by $223 per

week on average, when other variables are controlled. This is consistent with the

migration criteria where postgraduate qualifications are more desirable and the general

belief that if an individual has unde rtaken more study, it follows that he or she should

have a higher income. In order to test for significance, the null hypothesis is that the

coefficient of the variable for postgraduate qualifications has no effect on income:

H0 : b4 = 0 H1 : b4 • 0

The t-value of this coefficient is 43.23 which is greater than the critical value of 1.96.

The above null hypothesis is rejected with the conclusion that the effect of pos tgraduate

qualifications on income is significant.

The coefficient of the variable for bachelor qualifications (C(5)) is also positive and

indicates that being a bachelor degree holder adds $115 per week to income earned

when other variables are held constant. The null hypothesis is that the coefficient of the

variable for bachelor qualifications has no effect on income:

H0 : b5 = 0 H1 : b5 • 0


176

Its t-value of 43.39 is greater than the critical value of 1.96 and the above null

hypothesis is rejected. This indicates that a bachelor level of education is significant in

explaining the increase in income.

The next hypothesis test s whether the two levels of education have the same impact on

income:

H0 : b4 = b5 H1 : H0 is not true

The critical value F0.05 is 3.84 with one degree of freedom. The following Wald Test

shows that the F-value is 432 which is greater than 3.84 and that C(4) is different from

C(5) by 108 relative to the excluded group . The null hypothesis is rejecte d as the result

indicates that the effect of the two levels of education on income is not the same.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(4) – C(5) 108.4276 5.216019

Another hypothesis tests whether both levels of education have no effec t or cannot

explain any change in income:

H0 : b4 = b5 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.


177

The critical value for F0.05 is 3.00 with two degrees of freedom. The F-value obtained

from the Wald Test is 1,513, which is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.00 and the

above null hypothesis is rejected with the conclusion that at least one of the education

variables explains the differences in income.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(4) 223.5986 5.171525 C(5) 115.1709 2.653855

5.4.1.4 Findings on Occupation Factors

Statistically, all parameters for the four groups of occupations are positi ve and the

coefficients for the variables for all occupations are significant relative to the group of

labourers, clerical workers and machinery operators. Consistent with the expectation that

the first group of managers are the highest income earners amon g all occupations, the

coefficient (C(6)) shows that being a manager increases income by $234 per week, with

other variables held constant. The result is also consistent with the ABS findings that

average earnings for managers are the highest and are recorded as $1,229 per week for

2002 (ABS 6305 .0). Considering the t-value of 58.47, this variable is significant in

affecting income.

The coefficient of the second type of occupation (C(7)) of 194 ranks p rofessionals as the

second category of highest income e arners. This is also consistent with the 2001 Census

which reported an average income of $1,035 per week and this is the largest group in the

labour market, being 1,514,096 persons or 18 .2% of the labour force (ABS 2017.0).


178

Having a t-value of 54.97, the c oefficient of the variable for professional employment is

significant in explaining income.

As expected, the coefficient of the variable for the occupation of para -professionals

(C(8)) is positive, producing an increase in income of $140 per week when o ther factors

remain the same. The t-value of 38.54 indicates the significance of this variable.

However, this is different to the findings of Budd and Madden (1999) which report that

the profession of associate professional does not have a significant impact on earnings.

This difference may be explained by the fact that Budd and Madden used 1991 Census

data and important variations in the earnings of para -professionals have occurred in

recent years.

With regard to the occupation of tradespeople, clerks and salespeople, the coefficient

(C(9)) indicates an increase in income of $54 per week, while holding all other variables

constant. In contrast, Budd and Madden find that this type of occupation has a negative

impact on earnings. With a t-value of 20.58, the coefficient for this occupation in

Equation 1 is significant.

A commonly asked question is whether the four types of occupation have no significant

effect on income. The next hypothesis tests whether the effect of the four types of

occupation have the sa me effect:

H0 : b6 = b7 = b8 = b9 H1 : H0 is not true

There are three degrees of freedom and the critical value F0.05 is 2.60. The F-value

obtained from the Wald Test of 871 is greater than 2.60 and the test shows that there are

differences in the average income of the four types of occupation relative to the omitted


179

group. As anticipated, there are differences in earnings among the four groups of

occupation. The income differential between a manager and a tradesperson could be as

high as $180 per week. Relative to the group of labourers, a professional earns $140

more than a tradesperson and a para -professional’s income is $85 more than that of a

tradesperson. Since the effect of the variables for four types of occupation on income is

significantly different, the null hypothesis is rejected.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(6) – C(9) 180.0349 4.038214 C(7) – C(9) 139.8537 3.616731 C(8) – C(9) 85.23746 3.693443

The next hypothesis is developed to test that the four types of occupation have no impact

on income:

H0 : b6 = b7 = b8 = b9 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

With four degrees of freedom, the critical value of F0.05 obtained from the statistical

tables is 2.37. Since the F-value of 1,296 shown in the Wald Test is greater than the

critical value of F0.05 = 2.37, the nu ll hypothesis is rejected, meaning that at least one of

the four types of occupation explains the increase in income.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(6) 234.6874 4.013296 C(7) 194.5062 3.538201 C(8) 139.8899 3.629232 C(9) 54.65247 2.655134


180

5.4.1.5 Findings on Labour Force Status

The relationship between income and labour forc e status is not consistent with

expectations. The coefficient of the variable for employee status (C(10)) is positive,

confirming that employees increase income by about $10 per week. Having a t-statistic

of 3.03, the variable for employee status is signif icant in explaining earnings. The

variable for self -employed s tatus has a negative coefficient (C(11)) of –114.14,

indicating that business owners and contributing family workers do not have a positive

effect in increasing income. Contrary to the bel ief that entrepreneurs earn more than

employees, the results show that although self -employed people bear the risks of

operating a business, they earn less than employees. One possible reason to explain the

relatively lower e arnings of entrepreneurs is the diffe rent calculation in reaching

assessable income between employees and self -employed people from a taxation

perspective. For employees, gross wages and other income must be reported to the

Australian Taxation Office, with some deductions. In the case of busi ness owners and

contributing family workers, their salaries may represent the residual profit from the

business after deducting all relevant expenses incurred in running the business.

However, the effect of the self -employed sector on income is relatively unsatisfactory.

The coefficient of the variable for those who are looking for work (C(12)) is –12 with a

t-statistic of –3.03 when other factors are held constant. Although the unemployed

persons would still be expected to h ave income such as social benefi ts or other

investment income, their effect on Australian income is negative.

The next hypothesis tests whether the effect of status on income is the same for

employees, self -employed and unemployed:

H0 : b10 = b11 = b12 H1 : H0 is not true.

The critical value of F0.05 is 3.00 with two degrees of freedom. When compared with the

F-value obtained from the Wald Test, the F-value of 571 is greater than the critical value


181

F0.05 = 3.00. It also shows that the effect of the three labour force status variables is

significantly different. An employee has a higher average income than an unemployed

person by $22 per week. However, an unemployed income is higher than a self -

employed by $102. It follows that the null hypothesis is rejected and that the three

labour force status variables have a different effect on income.

Wald Test: Test Statistic Value Df Probability F-statistic 571.3947 (2, 91733) 0.0000 Chi-square 1142.789 2 0.0000

Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(10) – C(12) 21.93652 4.394758 C(11) – C(12) –102.1283 5.569986

Another hypothesis is developed to test whether none of the three labour force status

variables explains the change in income:

H0 : b10 = b11 =b12 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

The critical value to determine the significance of the three variables with three degrees

of freedom obtained from the statistical tables is 2.60. Since the Wald Test shows an F-

value of 382.83 which is greater tha n F0.05 = 2.60, the above null hypothesis is rejected.

The conclusion is that at least one of the variables for labour force status explain s

variations in income.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(10) 9.919839 3.273922 C(11) –114.1450 4.660392 C(12) –12.01668 3.968881


182

5.4.1.6 Findings when combining Factors of Qualifications, Typ es of

Occupation and Labour Force Status

The data are further analysed to compare whether a self -employed person earns more

than an employee, given the same category of occupation. The st atus of unemployed is

not included in the above analysis for comparis on because it is thought that the income

of the unemployed comes from sources other than employment, such as social security

benefits. By combining the attributes of qualifications, occupations and labour force

status, the following matrix explains the imp ortance of the contribution of the work

force to the economy.

QALLP1 QALLP2 OCCP1 OCCP2 OCCP3 OCCP4 LFSP1 234 125 244 204 150 64 LFSP2 110 1 120 80 26 –60

The matrix shows a distinctive difference in earnings between an employee and a person

with self-employed status. On average an employee earns $124 per week more than self-

employed people for all occupations, irrespective of the qualifications held. For an

employee–manager, average earnings would be $244 (C(6)+C(10)) and this is the

highest amongst all other groups, but these earnings are very close to that of an

employee who has postgraduate qualifications of $234 (C(4)+C(10)). Assuming an

associate professional has a diploma or a bachelor degree, given that they are an

employee, their income of $15 0 (C(8)+C(10)) is higher than that of a postgraduate self -

employed person of $110 (C(4)+C(11)).

These results indicate that educational achievements are not as c ritical a factor as

occupational achievements in enabling a person to be richer , and that business owners

are disadvantaged as their income is much less than that of an employee in all four types

of occupation.


183

5.4.1.7 Findings on Hours Worked

Hours worked is relevant to labour force participation. In the main sample 54,409

respondents supplied va lid hours. The estim ated coefficient, C(13), shows that with each

increase in working hours, income goes up by $6.70, while other factors are not

considered. This is consistent with the Asian belief that working harder and for longer

hours is likely to res ult in a higher income. The t-value of 92.2 is the highest in this

earnings function, indicating that this factor is highly significant.

5.4.1.8 Findings on English Language Factor

Contrary to the expectation that English proficiency has a positive effect on income, the

coefficient (C(16)) shows a negative figure of –7.697. In the sample, the total number of

respondents who answered functional English ability is only 5,226, although their

answers to other questions are valid. This implies many invalid answ ers to the Census

question and will affect the validity of testing. In an English-speaking country like

Australia, it is essential to have not only conversational English , but also wo rking

English, and the gradual improvement is through a combination of pr actice and study

(www.latrobe.edu.au/language/toeic/). Because of this importance, the sample is further

manipulated to exclude all Australians. Leaving only Chinese and Vietnamese in the

new sample as Equation 1A, the sample is reduced to 3,763. The resul ts of Equation 1A

show that the coefficient of the variable for English language facility (C(14)) is positive.

This supports the assumption that the language factor has a positive effect of $31.62 per

week on the income of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants. With a t-value of 4.133, this

variable is significant for the income of these migrants.


184

5.4.1.9 Results of Equation 1A (using a sample of 3,763)

Dependent Variable: INCP Method: Least Squa7res Date: 01/24/04 Time: 14:03 Sample(adjusted): 1 3763 Included observations: 3763 after adjusting endpoints INCP=C(1)+C(2)*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*QALLP1+C(5)*QALLP2+C(6)

*OCCP1+C(7)*OCCP2+C(8)*OCCP3+C(9)*OCCP4+C(10)*LFSP1 +C(11)*LFSP2+C(12)*LFSP3+C(13)*HRSP+C(14)*ENGP+C(15) *AGEP+C(16)*AGEP*AGEP+C(17)*YARP+C(18)*SEX P

Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –50.44640 29.78621 –1.693616 0.0904 C(2) –9.731754 17.92700 –0.542854 0.5873 C(3) –23.61610 17.98936 –1.312782 0.1893 C(4) 108.4697 18.42791 5.886163 0.0000 C(5) 41.44150 9.528537 4.349199 0.0000 C(6) 254.0060 22.68317 11.19800 0.0000 C(7) 286.4753 13.62862 21.02012 0.0000 C(8) 92.39378 16.48151 5.605906 0.0000 C(9) 39.68508 12.12451 3.273128 0.0011 C(10) 27.93231 13.63147 2.049104 0.0405 C(11) –122.5612 19.87834 –6.165564 0.0000 C(12) –16.00517 11.94657 –1.339730 0.1804 C(13) 5.442635 0.321069 16.95163 0.0000 C(14) 31.62424 7.650094 4.133837 0.0000 C(15) 8.136631 1.146092 70.99456 0.0000 C(16) –0.072833 0.012078 –6.030432 0.0000 C(17) 2.386764 0.720806 3.311244 0.0009 C(18) 43.75049 6.757245 6.474604 0.0000

R-squared 0.532234 Mean dependent var 356.1307 Adjusted R -squared 0.530110 S.D. dependent var 293.3177 S.E. of regression 201.0649 Akaike info criterion 13.44990 Sum squared resid 1.51E+08 Schwarz criterion 13.47972

5.4.1.10 Findings on Age Factor

Age is another criterion used to assess eligibility for migration. The average age in

Equation 1 is 42.8 years whereas in Equation 1A it is 40. Th is indicates the effectiveness

of the skilled migration policy in attracting younger migran ts in addition to attracting

skills. The age factor in Equation 1 shows a positive coeff icient (C(15)) of 12.13408

with a standard error of 0.243 when other variables are held constant. This is consistent

with the assumption that age implies work experienc e and therefore is directly related to

income. As explained, the age factor has a composite effect attached to the coefficients

of other variables and this variable is squared to highlight the non -linear effect of age.


185

The coefficient (C(16)) is negative, as expected, confirming that age correlates with

income to a certain degree. The following computation attempts to measure at what age

that income will drop.

Let ‘AE’ stand for total age effect and ‘A’ for the linear effect of age. The total age

effect will be the combination of line ar and non-linear effects and gives the following

equation:

AE = 12.13408A + ( –0.10286)A2

According to the results of Equation 1, A is positive unti l retirement. To determine at

what age the effect of A starts to fall, we can use the following equation:

d AE = 0 d A Þ d AE = 12.13408 – (2 x 0.10286) = 0

d A Þ A = 58.98

This result shows that at the age of 59, income will fall. This confirms the assumption of

an inverse U-shaped relationship where income drops after ret irement. The significance

of the total effect of the age factor is confirmed by the t-values of –40.638 and –2.02,

both of which are greater than 1.96. It is interesting to find a different age effect of 55.85

in Equation 1A. In the case of Chinese and Vie tnamese migrants, their income drops at

an earlier age than Australians. This is not consistent with the hard -working attitude of

Asians where delayed retirement is expected.

The following null hypothesis is developed so that both the linear and non -linear effects

of age on income will be the same in Equation 1:


186


The critical value obtained from the statistical tables with one degree of freedom is 3.84.

Since the Wald Test shows an F-value of 2469 which is greater than F0.05 = 3.84, the

above null hypothesis is rejected. The test also shows that the linear effect of the

variable for age is different from the non -linear effect by $12 per week.



The next hypothesis tests whether neither the linear and non -linear effects of income

explain the variations in income:

H0 : b15 = b16 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

In this case, the critical value F0.05 is 3.00 with two degrees of freedom. The F-value

from the following Wald Test of 1,932 is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.00 and

leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The conclusion is that either the linear or the

non-linear effect of age explains the variations in earnings.


187


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(15) 12.13408 0.243794 C(16) –0.102860 0.002531

5.4.1.11 Findings on Years of Arrival

The length of time migrants have been in Australia may have a n impact on the

Australian economy. However, 48,134 respondents entered a zero value to the question

of how long they have stayed in Australia, although their answers to other questions are

valid. This reduces the validity of the testing. For the segregate d sample, 735

respondents answered ‘less than 5 years after arrival’ and these could be identified as

recent migrants, for the purpose of this research. Most migrants (3,028) who have been

resident for eight years and over are considered as earlier migrant s. In Equation 1, the

coefficient of the variable for years of arrival (C(17 )) is 1.317. This indicates that the

longer a migrant stays in Australia, the higher their income. The coefficient of this

variable in Equation 1A is 2.38 and is consistent with Eq uation 1. The sample consists of

data up to 1996 and the effect on income of those arriving after this year is not

considered in this equation. The coefficient of the variable for years of arrival has a t-

value of 2.804 in Equation 1 and 3.311 in Equation 1A. In both cases, the value does not

fall between ±1.96 and therefore this variable is significant in e xplaining earnings.


188

5.4.1.12 Findings on Sex Factor

The last variable in Equation 1 tests whether sex makes a difference to earnings. In the

main sample there are more females (46,484) than males (45,267) whereas in the

segregated sample the number of males (1,960) exceeds that of females (1,803).

However, gender is relatively balanced in the samples. In both Equations 1 and 1A,

being male contributes pos itively to income. In Equation 1, the coefficient for the male

sex (C(18)) is 101.76. This supports the expectation that be ing a male contributes

positively to income. Its t-value of 59.656 indicates that the variable f or sex is

significant in explaining i ncome. The coefficient of this variable in Equation 1A is 43.75

and it is consistent with the assumption that males are the breadwinners, irrespective of

ethnicity.

5.4.1.13 General Findings of Equation 1

In general, the results of Equation 1 have con formed to expectations, with the exception

of the impact of self -employed status, possibly due in part to the tax effect in arri ving at

their income. In assessing how well the variables fit in the model, the multiple

coefficient of determination R2 measures the strength of the relationship between the

dependent variable and all independent variables jointly. In Equation 1, the computed R2

is 0.48488, meaning that 48 % of the variation is explained by the regression. In the case

of 91,751 observations, this perce ntage is not expected to be very high. On this basis, the

results of Equation 1 indicate that the average income of the Chinese group is not higher

than that of the Au stralian-born group. The results support the belief that higher

education credentials hav e a positive impact on income. The equations also show that

the occupations of managers and p rofessionals generally lead to higher earnings than

those of tradesmen and labour . In the same type of occupation, employees earn more

than self-employed persons. The results are also consistent with the belief that working

for longer hours generates more income as this attribute is highly significant when the

effect of other factors is held constant. Age implies work experience and has a quadratic

relationship with income. Good English language proficiency including everyday


189

business English and conversational English is significant in the case of Chinese and

Vietnamese migrants . Their relatively low English standard partly explains why their

average income is lower than that of the Australian -born. The longer the period of time

in Australia, the greater the likelihood a migrant has of earning a higher income. A

common feature for Australians, Chinese and Vietnamese is the higher income of the

male population. The ne xt equation examines whether a combination of ethnicity and

other attributes affects income.

5.4.2 Equation 2

As noted earlier, Equation 1 explores the relationship between income and each of the

attributes when other factors are held constant. Equ ation 2 focuses on the differential

effect on income between migrants and Australians by examining variables in

interaction with the dummy variable for national origin. The variables for English

language proficiency and those who are not in the labour force have been omitted as the

results show that they are ins ignificant.


190

5.4.2.1 Results of Equation 2 (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: INCP Method: Least Squares Date: 03/30/04 Time: 20:06 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 a fter adjusting endpoints INCP=C(1)+C(2)*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*QALLP1+C(5)*QALLP2+C(6)

*CHN*QALLP1+C(7)*CHN*QALLP2+C(8)*VTNM*QALLP1+C(9) *VTNM*QALLP2+C(10)*OCCP1+C(11)*OCCP2+C(12)*OCCP3 +C(13)*OCCP4+C(14)*CHN*OCCP1+C(15)*CHN*OCCP2+C(16) *CHN*OCCP3+C(17)* CHN*OCCP4+C(18)*VTNM*OCCP1+C(19) *VTNM*OCCP2+C(20)*VTNM*OCCP3+C(21)*VTNM*OCCP4 +C(22)*LFSP1+C(23)*LFSP2+C(24)*CHN*LFSP1+C(25)*CHN *LFSP2+C(26)*VTNM*LFSP1+C(27)*VTNM*LFSP2+C(28)*SEXP +C(29)*AGEP+C(30)*AGEP*AGEP+C(31)*HRSP+C(32 )*YARP

Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –144.3379 5.301223 –27.22728 0.0000 C(2) –27.34619 10.30391 –2.653962 0.0080 C(3) –37.50913 10.63044 –3.528465 0.0004 C(4) 227.9849 5.285937 43.13047 0.0000 C(5) 118.2380 2.709804 43.63341 0.0000 C(6) –127.2496 26.72208 –4.761962 0.0000 C(7) –69.79259 14.54861 –4.797200 0.0000 C(8) 46.05289 74.67145 0.616740 0.5374 C(9) –50.09329 26.77249 –1.871073 0.0613 C(10) 233.6748 4.048576 57.71779 0.0000 C(11) 190.1761 3.600690 52.81657 0.0000 C(12) 141.0534 3.672537 38.40761 0.0000 C(13) 54.49394 2.688259 20.27109 0.0000 C(14) 55.98268 35.25657 1.587865 0.1123 C(15) 124.8244 21.52153 5.799977 0.0000 C(16) –52.18229 26.77060 –1.949239 0.0513 C(17) 11.64008 20.11183 0.578768 0.5627 C(18) –199.1757 57.47500 –3.465432 0.0005 C(19) 28.56786 39.47746 0.723650 0.4693 C(20) –78.18636 43.31213 –1.805184 0.0710 C(21) –40.09392 28.57017 –1.403349 0.1605 C(22) 13.93292 3.174035 4.389656 0.0000 C(23) –109.7462 4.640024 –23.65208 0.0000 C(24) –44.15038 15.21440 –2.901880 0.0037 C(25) –78.38543 31.26987 –2.506740 0.0122 C(26) –5.068003 17.43527 –0.290675 0.7713 C(27) 12.50033 38.74203 0.322655 0.7470 C(28) 101.0872 1.691762 59.75261 0.0000 C(29) 12.14061 0.242853 49.99162 0.0000 C(30) –0.102205 0.002511 –40.70081 0.0000 C(31) 6.715219 0.072685 92.38757 0.0000 C(32) 1.302733 0.471428 2.763379 0.0057

R-squared 0.485399 Mean dependent var 423.3301 Adjusted R -squared 0.485225 S.D. dependent var 341.5926 S.E. of regression 245.0852 Akaike info criterion 13.84144 Sum squared resid 5.51E+09 Schwarz criterion 13.84473


191

5.4.2.2 Interactions between Ethnicity and Qualifications

5.4.2.2.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and Qualifications

The first group of interactions to consider is the eff ect on income with the combination

of variables for Chinese origin and qualifications. As the results indicate, the estimated

coefficient of the variable for postgraduate qualifications (C(4)) is 228 and that for the

cross product (CHN*QALLP1) (C(6)) is –127 when the effects of other variabl es are

held constant. Holding the effect of all other variables constant, the expected effect on

income of a Chinese who h as postgraduate qualifications is C(1) + C(2) + C(4) + C(6) =

(–144) + (–27) + 228 + (–127) = –$70; the expected effect on income of a non-Chinese

who has postgraduate qualifications is C(1) + C(4) = –144 + 228 = $84; and the

expected income of a non -Chinese with no such qualifications is C(1) = –$144. With the

same level of education, Chinese migrants suffer a reduction of $151 per wee k in

income. This result implies there are other weaknesses among Chinese postgraduates

which explain such a high income differential.

Possible reasons for the lower income of Chinese postgraduates relate to the recognition

of qualifications, relevant loca l work experience and level of English language

proficiency. Stringent processes exist to grant recognition of overseas qualifications,

especially those acquired in non -English-speaking countries. This problem may be

alleviated with the requirement of asse ssment of qualifications and occupation prior to

applying for migration. The increasing number of independent applications from

students who have completed studies in Australia will also reduce the problem of non -

recognition. Frequently, work experience ga ined overseas is discounted or overlooked as

irrelevant, resulting in new migrants having to re -accumulate experience after arrival.

Common examples are found in overseas trained doctors, lecturers and other

professions. A 2004 report from the New South Wales Government raised concerns that

some migrant professionals were not able to practise in their fields of expertise

(www.eeo.nsw.gov.au/reermg/recognising -skills.doc). As a result, they are required to

work in less senior positions for local experience o r in jobs that are not equivalent to


192

their educational achievements. The concept of having temporary workers to fill labour

shortages enable them to gain local work experience and will be vital for them to

increase their employability if they change to per manent residence status. Another

obstacle facing Chinese postgraduates is an apparent lack of proficiency in English

language. Although a functional standard of English language ability is expected from

Chinese migrants, they are still disadvantaged in not having mother tongue language

skills or in applying conversational and business English when competing with the

Australian-born. It may also mean that Chinese postgraduates have to compensate for

this deficiency in other ways, such as working longer hours or seeking positions where

the language factor is less critical.

In order to test whether post graduate qualifications have a different impact on income

for Chinese migrants compared with non -Chinese, a null h ypothesis is developed that

there is no d ifference in income between a Chinese postgraduate and a non -Chinese

postgraduate:

H0 : b2 – b4 + b6 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

The results of the Wald Test show that the differential does not equal zero. With one

degree of freedom, the critical value is F0.05 = 3.84. The F-value computed from the test

shows a value of 184.91, which is greater than 3.84, and therefore the above null

hypothesis is rejected. It leads to the conclusion that the differential effect between the

Chinese postgraduates and other groups w ith the same level of qualifications is

significant.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(4) + C(6) –381.2955 28.03991


193

Comparing a Chinese postgraduate to a non -Chinese without such qualifications gives a

differential effect on income of $74 per week. With the time and effort spent on studying

for postgraduate qual ifications, the extra benefit for Chinese migrants of having such

qualifications is only $74. The following null hypothesis is that there is no difference in

income between a Chinese postgraduate and any other person:

H0 : b2 + b6 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

A Wald Test is performed to show that there is a difference in income. The F-value as

shown is 32.27 which is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a result, the above

null hypothesis is rejected and the conclus ion is that the extra income of a Chinese

postgraduate holder is significant.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restri ction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) + C(6) –150.8864 26.55880

The interaction of the variables for Chinese origin and bachelor degree qualifications

also shows that the effect on income of such qua lifications on Chinese migrants is

different from that on non-Chinese groups, holding other variables constant. The

estimated coefficient of the variable for bachelor qualifications (C(5)) is 118 and that of

the cross product (CHN*QALLP2) is –70. The expected income of a Chinese who has

bachelor qualifications i s –$123 (C(1) + C(2) + C(5) + C(7) = (–144) + (–27) + 118 +

(–70)). The expected income of a non -Chinese who has the same level of qualifications

is –$26 (C(1) + C(5) = (–144) + 118). Therefore, the differential effect between Chinese

migrants with bachel or qualifications and a non -Chinese person with the same level of


194

qualifications is –$96 on average per week. For the reasons explained above, a person of

Chinese origin who has a bachelor degree or advanced dip loma qualifications earns less

than the other groups who have the same level of education.

In order to test that the effect of having b achelor qualifications on income for a Chinese

person is different to that for a person of different origin, the following null hypothesis is

set up to assume that there is no significant difference between the income of a Chinese

and non-Chinese bachelor degree holder:


The Wald Test shows that the differential is not equal to zero. The F-value produces a

value of 216.42, wh ich is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84, leading to a

rejection of the above null h ypothesis and the conclusion that this differential effect is

significant.

Wald Test: Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 216.4249 (1, 91750 ) 0.0000 Chi-square 216.4249 1 0.0000

Null Hypothesis Summary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(5) + C(7) –219.6014 14.92730

After studying for a bachelor degree or an advanced diploma, Chinese migrants earn an

income of only $21 on average per week more than other persons who do not have these

qualifications. Another null hypothesis is that there is no difference in income between a

Chinese bachelor degree holder and any other person:


195

H0 : b2 + b7 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

The results of the Wald Test show that the income between these two groups is not the

same. The F-value of 47.91 is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. The above null

hypothesis is therefore rejected and the conclusion is that the diff erential effect between

a Chinese and non -Chinese bachelor degree holder is significant in Equation 2.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) + C(7) –98.60643 14.24552


196

5.4.2.2.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and Qualifications

After considering the effect of the interaction between the variables of Chinese origin

and qualifications, the next pair to consider is between the variables of Vietnamese

origin and qualifications. The t-value of the coefficient of this cross product (C(8)) is

0.6167, when the effects of other variables are not considered. This value is lower than

the critical value of 1.96, suggesting that this interaction is not significant. By

calculation, there is a difference in income between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese

postgraduate of $9 per week. The next test is on the significance of this d ifferential. The

following null hypothesis assumes that there is no such difference:


After performing a Wald Test, it shows that the F-value is 8.40 , which is greater than the

critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a resul t, the above null hypothesis is rejected. Although the

effect of Vietnamese postgraduat e on income is not significant, the differential effect

between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese postgraduate on income is significant.




197

Another interaction is between the variables of Vietnamese origin and b achelor

qualifications (C(9)). The p-value of this coefficient is 0.0613, which is below 0.05 and

its t-statistic o f –1.87 is less than –1.96. This interaction is also not significant. However,

there is a difference between the income of a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese bachelor

degree holder of –$87 per week. The following hypothesis tests if this difference is

significant by assuming firstly that there is no such difference:


The following Wald Test shows that the F-value is 55.20, which is greater than the

critical value F0.05 = 3.84 and the above null hypothesis is rejected. Although t he effect

of Vietnamese bachelor degree holders on in come is not significant, the differential is

significant.



It follows that both levels of qualification have the same implications for Vietnamese as

the general population. As an assessment of the effect of qualifications, a null hypothesis

is stated that postgradu ate qualifications have no significant effect:

H0 : b4 = b6 = b8 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

The Wald Test is performed and the results indicate that the three coefficients relating to

postgraduate qualifications are not equal to zero. With three degrees o f freedom, the


198

critical value is 3.00. Since the F-value of 629.28 is greater than F0.05 = 3.00, the

conclusion is that the variable for postgraduate qualifications is significant in predicting

income.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(4) 227.9849 5.285937 C(6) –127.2496 26.72208 C(8) 46.05289 74.67145

Similarly, another null hypoth esis is that bachelor qualifications have no significant

effect:


The Wald Test is performed and the results indicate that the three coefficients relating to

bachelor qualifications are not equal to zero. The F-value of 639.6 is greater than the

critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00 and the above null hypothesis is

rejected. The conclusion is that the variable for bachelor qualifications is significant in

this equation.

Wald Test: Test Statisti c Value df Probability F-statistic 639.6079 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 1918.824 3 0.0000



199

In summary, the two levels of qualifications of postgraduate and bachelor degrees have a

significant impact on the income of Chinese migrants, but not for the Vietnamese.

Although the results of Equation 1 indicate the positive effect of both levels of h igher

qualifications on income, this does not hold true for Chinese migrants. Further, the

results of Equation 2 have shown that Chinese degree holders h ave some disadvantages

when their earnings are compared to those of their Australian counterparts. Diff iculties

may relate to their lack of local e xperience, proficiency in English language and non -

recognition of overseas academic standards. Several initiatives have been introduced in

DIMIA so as to tac kle the problem of non-recognition. One such initiative is the

mandatory assessment of occupation by Australian professional bodies starting from

2000 ensuring that the qualifications are acceptable in Australia (3.3.2.1). Also, by

allowing temporary workers to fill job shortages in Australia before granting p ermanent

residence, these settlers have been able to obt ain relevant work experience and increase

their employability. However, as the data used are based on the 1996 Census, the

effectiveness of those initiatives in overcoming the previous non -recognition problems

would be a topic for further research.

5.4.2.3 Interactions between Ethnicity and Occupations

As expected, the four leve ls of occupation show positive relationships with income in

Equation 2, but the interactions between ethnicity and occupati ons show some

inconsistencies.

5.4.2.3.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and Occupations

The first interaction pair is between the variables for Chinese origin and managers and

the estimated coefficient for this interaction (C(14)) has a pos itive sign with value of

$56, but its t-ratio of 1.587 is below the c ritical value of 1.96. Therefore, the interaction

is not significant. In order to test for the significance of the differential effect between a


200

Chinese and non-Chinese manager, the following null hypothesis states that there is no

such difference:


The F-statistic of the following Wald Test indicates a value of 29.51, which is greater

than the critical v alue F0.05 = 3.84 and the above null hypothesis is rejected. Although

the effect of Chinese managers on income is not significant, the differential effect

between a Chinese and non -Chinese manager is significant.

Wald Test: Equation: Untitled Test Statistic Value df Probability F-statistic 29.51964 (1, 91750) 0.0000 Chi-square 29.51964 1 0.0000


The second interaction is between the variables for Chinese origin and p rofessional

occupation. The coefficient (C(15)) shows a high level of significance when compared

with other interaction pairs. Holding other factors constant, the d ifferential effect

between a Chinese and non -Chinese professional is 98, meaning that within profess ional

occupations, a Chinese person would earn $98 per week on average more than a non -

Chinese. This result implies that there are some other attributes of Chinese professionals

that enable them to earn mo re than their peers. A Chinese professional is expe cted to

earn $260 per week more than a person who is neither of Chinese origin nor a

professional.

While it is reasonable to expect the same level of qualifications for professionals

irrespective of ethnicity and despite the possible shortfall in English language


201

proficiency as compared with Australians, one quality that enables Chinese professionals

to earn more income than other groups may relate to longer working hours. In order to

test for significance of the differential effect, a null hypothesis is e stablished to assume

that there is no difference in income between a Chinese and a non -Chinese professional:


According to the Wald Test, the income of a Chinese professional is different from that

of a non-Chinese. The F-statistic indicates a value of 13.04 and is greater than the

critical value of F0.05 = 3.84, which leads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis. The

conclusion is that the differential effect is significant.



Another null hypothesis is that there is no difference in income between a Chinese

professional and other people:

H0 : b2 + b15 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

The following Wald Test shows that the difference in income is not equal to zero. The

F-statistic of 15.319 is greater than the critical val ue F0.05 = 3.84 and it leads to a

rejection of the above null hypothesis with the conclusion that the differential is

significant.


202


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) + C(15) 97.47819 24.90471

Regarding the interaction between the variables for Chinese origin and the third group of

occupation (C(16)), the p-value of 0.0513 and the t-value of –1.949 are very close to the

critical value. Therefore, this interaction is not significant in this e arnings function. This

result means that the occupation of associate professionals has the same effect on

income for Chinese and the rest of the population. Considering the motivation to study

and educational achievements of Chinese migrants, as a generalisation, many Chinese

migrants have a tendency to work as p rofessionals or managers in preference to working

as para-professionals. Wi th respect to the difference in earnings between a Chinese and

non-Chinese associate professional, it is calculated to be –$79 per week and a null

hypothesis is established to assume that there is no such difference:


According to the Wald Test, the F-statistic indicating a value of 54.88 is greater than the

critical value of F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis and

the conclusion that the differential effect is s ignificant. Although the effe ct of Chinese

para-professionals may be insignificant, the differential effect is significant.




203

The last interaction is between the variables of Chinese origin and the occupation of

tradespeople and clerks. The coefficient (C(17) is positive but it has a t-value of 0.578

which is lower than the critical value of 1.96. This implies that the interaction is not

significant. The calculated differential is –$16, and a null hypothesis is established to

test whether there is no difference in income between a Chinese and a non-Chinese

tradesperson:


The F-statistic computed from the following Wald Test indicates a value of 9.20 which

is greater than the critical value of F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above null

hypothesis and the conclusion is that the differential effect is signi ficant. Although the

effect of Chinese tradespeople on income is not significant, the di fferential effect is

significant.



5.4.2.3.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and Occupations

Turning to the interactions between the dummy variables for Vietnamese origin and the

four groups of occupations, only the pair for the occupation of manager shows

significance. The differential effect between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese manager

is –$236, meaning that a Vietnamese manager suffers a reduced income, compared with

non-Vietnamese counterparts, if other variables are held constant.


204

Given that the occupation of managers has different implications for Vietnamese

migrants than for the rest of the population, it is necessary to investigate why a

Vietnamese manager earns much less income than managers of a different ethnic

background. The traditional view of Vietnamese migrants is that most arrived via a

refugee status and many have a very low standa rd of English language ability (Equation

1). The only type of occupation to which they show positive contribution is manual

labouring jobs. The large differential may be due in part to the Vietnamese entrepreneurs

who consider themselves managers. In fact, there are not many Vietnamese managers in

the sample. Another reason to explain the large differential relates to the small group of

those manager employees whose parents are Vietnamese -born and these employees may

be second generation Vietnamese. These young managers would not have more work

experience or better English standards than others and , in the short term, it would be

difficult to compensate for these deficiencies by factors such as working longer hours. In

future years, it is possible that secon d generation Vietnamese managers will become

more competitive when their English standards and work experience improve.

In order to test for the significance o f the differential income between a Vietnamese and

a non-Vietnamese manager, a null hypothesis i s established to test whether there is no

such difference:


According to the Wald Test performed, the income of a Vietnamese manager is different

from that of a non -Vietnamese. The F-statistic indicates a value of 63.626, which is

greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84 . As a result, the above null hypothesis is

rejected with the conclusion that the di fferential effect is significant.


205



Another null hypothesis is that there is no difference in income be tween a Vietnamese

manager and other people:

H0 : b3 + b10 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

According to the Wald Test, the F-statistic is 299.408, which is greater than the critical

value F0.05 = 3.84. This le ads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis a nd the

conclusion is that the income of a Vietnamese m anager is significant.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) + C(10) 196.1657 11.33682

The interaction between the variables for Vietnamese origin and professionals is positive

but not significant. The t-value of this coefficient (C(19)) is 0.723, which is lower than

the critical value of 1.96, suggesting that this interaction is no t significant. The

calculated differential is $98. The next null hypothesis tests if this d ifferential is

significant by assuming that there is no such difference:

H0 : b3 – b11 + b19 = 0


206

H1 : H0 is not true.

The Wald Test indicates that the value calcula ted from the F-statistic is 22.39, which is

greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a result, the above null hypothesis is

rejected. Although the effect of Vietnamese professionals on income is not significant,

the differential effect is si gnificant.



When the variable for Vietnamese origin interacts with that of the third type of

occupation, the coefficient (C(20)) is negative, but its t-value of –1.805 is lower than the

critical value of 1.96. This suggests that the interaction is not significant. The differential

income between a Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese associate professional is calculated

to be –$79. The next null hypothesis states that there is no such d ifference:


The F-statistic from the Wald Test is 31.87, which is greater than the critical value F0.05

= 3.84, leading to a rejection of the above null hypothesis and the conclusion is that the

differential is significant. Alt hough the effect of being a Vietnamese para -professional

on income is not s ignificant, the differential effect is significant.


207



The last inte raction is between the variables for Vietnamese origin and the occupation of

tradespeople and clerks. The coefficient C (21) is negative and has a t-value of –1.40,

which is lower than the critical value o f –1.96, implying that the interaction is not

significant. With the differential calculated as –$16, the following null hypothesis is set

up to state that there is no diff erence in income between a Vietnamese and a non -

Vietnamese tradesperson:


The F-statistic from the following Wald Test indicates a value of 18 .27, which is greater

than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above null hypothesis

and the conclusion is that the differential is significant. Although the effect of

Vietnamese tradespeople on income is not significant, the differential effect is

significant.




208

In order to test for the significance of the four types of occupation, this is examined by

performing a Wald Test in turn. The first null hypothesis assumes that the occup ation of

managers has no effect on income:


In the following Wald Test, the results show that there is an effect of the occupation of

managers. The F-statistic of 1130 is greater than the critical value with three degrees of

freedom F0.05 = 3.00 and therefore the above null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion

is that this occupation is significant in the equation.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(10) 233.6748 4.048576 C(14) 55.98268 35.25657 C(18) –199.1757 57.47500

The next step is to test the significance of the occupation of professionals and the null

hypothesis is that this occupation has no effect on income:


A Wald Test was performed and the following results show that the F-statistic is 1010,

which is greater than the critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00.

Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. The conclusion is that this occupation might

have a significant effect on income.


209


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(11) 190.1761 3.600690 C(15) 124.8244 21.52153 C(19) 28.56786 39.47746

When testing for the significance of the occupation of associ ate professionals, the null

hypothesis is that the occup ation of para-professionals has no effect on income:


As indicated by the following Wald Test , the F-statistic of 495 is greater than the critical

value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00. Therefore, the above null hypothesis is

rejected, with the conclusion that this occupation has a significant effect on income.

Wald Test: Test Statis tic Value df Probability F-statistic 495.0941 (3, 91748) 0.0000 Chi-square 1485.282 3 0.0000


The final null hypothesis concerns the occupation of tradesmen and clerical workers,

assuming that this occupation has no effect on income:


210


The results of the following Wald Test indicate that the F-statistic is 140, which is

greater than the critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00. It leads to a

rejection of the above null hypothesis and the conclusion reached is that this occupation

is significant in explaining income.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(13) 54.49394 2.688259 C(17) 11.64008 20.11183 C(21) –40.09392 28.57017

In the interactions between ethnicity and occupations, there are some inconsistencies.

Firstly, while all four groups of occupation s show significance in Equation 1, only one

type has a s ignificant effect when interacting with the variables fo r Chinese and

Vietnamese origins, although all differentials in income are significant. Secondly,

different types of occupation have different implications for migrants. The occupation of

professional demonstrated a high level of significance for Chinese m igrants and this is

consistent with the belief that there is a high participation rate of Chinese migrants in

this occupation. For Vietnamese migrants, however, only the occupation of managers

has a significant effect. Thirdly, the results show some contra sts between the

occupational achievements of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants. While Chinese

professionals outperform their Australian counterparts in earnings, the difference in

earnings between Vietnamese and Australian professionals is small. In addition ,

Vietnamese managers are disadvantaged in earnings when compared with those of

Australians; however, the d ifferential effect between Chinese and Australian managers is

not significant.


211

5.4.2.4 Interactions between Ethnicity and Labour Force Status

When the variable for ethnicity is combined with labour force status, all coefficients for

these interactions are consistent with estimations.

5.4.2.4.1 Interaction between Chinese Origin and Labour Force Status

The cross product of the variables of Chinese ori gin and employee status (C(24)) shows

a coefficient of –$44 when other effects are not considered and the coefficient is

significant. By calculation, the effect for Chinese employees is a reduction in income of

$201 and for non-Chinese workers a reduction of $130. The differential is –$71,

meaning that in the pool of emplo yees, Chinese workers earn less than non -Chinese

workers. Reasons for this may include non -recognition of ove rseas qualifications and

work experience, a lower level of English language abi lity and possibly a mismatch

between jobs and qualifications.

In order to test for significance in the differential income between a Chinese and non -

Chinese employee, a null hypothesis is developed to assume that there is no such

difference:


According to the following Wald Test, the income of a Chinese employee is not the

same as that of a non -Chinese. The F-statistic indicates a value of 39.16, which is

greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. It therefore leads to a rejection of the above

null hypothesis and the conclusion is that the differential effect is significant.


Null Hypothesis S ummary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(22) + C(24) –85.42949 13.65135


212

The cross product of the variables for Chinese origin and self -employed status (C(25)) is

negative, as expected. The coefficient of –$78 means that a Chinese business operator

has a negative effect on income by $78 when other variables are held constant, and the t-

value of –2.50 suggests that this interaction is significant. The differential effect on

income between Chinese and non -Chinese entrepreneurs is –$105. In spite of the hard -

working nature of Chinese bus iness owners, they experience disadvantages earning

income compared to Australians. For business migrants, their background, skills and

capital have been assessed as suitable and sufficient to operate an enterprise prior to

arriving in Australia. Clearly, there are problems which restrict their success. Factors

which may be responsible for this restriction such as culture, sales strategy and

marketing concepts need to be analysed, particularly those relating to regional business

migrants. In order to test whether the differential income between a Chinese and non -

Chinese self-employed person is significant, a null hypothesis is developed to assume

that there is no such difference:


In this case, the following Wald Test shows that the F-statistic is 0 .016, which is lower

than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. As a result, the null hypothesis is not rejected.

Although the t-value indicates that t he interaction is significant, the F-test results lead to

a conclusion that the differential income between a Chinese and a non -Chinese

entrepreneur is not significant.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) – C(23) + C(25) 4.014609 31.02494


213

5.4.2.4.2 Interaction between Vietnamese Origin and Labour Force Status

From the perspective o f a Vietnamese employee, the coefficient of the interaction of the

variables for Vietnamese origin and employee status (C(26)) is negative, as expected.

However, the t-value of –0.29 is lower than the critical value of –1.96, suggesting that

this interaction is not significant. The next test is on the significance of the differential

income between Vietnamese and non -Vietnamese employees. A null hypothesis is

formed to assume that there is no such difference:


According to the following Wald Test, the difference in income between a Vietnamese

and non-Vietnamese employee is not zero. The F-statistic indicates a value of 12.928,

which is greater than the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. This leads to a rejection of the above

null hypothesis. Although the t-value indicates that the interaction is not significant, the

F-test confirms the conclusion that the differential effect is significant.




214

With the interaction between the variables for Vietnamese origin and self -employed

status, the coefficient (C(27)) is positive, but the t-value shows 0.3226, which is lower

than the critical value of 1.96. This suggests that the interaction is not significant. The

differential effect between a Vie tnamese and a non-Vietnamese business operator is

–$25. Based on the small difference, a test is performed to check whether this difference

is significant. The null hypothesis assumes that there is no such difference:


According to the following Wald Test, the F-statistic is 4.879, which is still greater than

the critical value F0.05 = 3.84. Therefore, the above null hypothesis is rejected and it

leads to the conclusion that the d ifferential effect is significant.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) – C(23) + C(27) 84.73743 38.36120

In assessing the effect of labour force status on income, a test is performed regarding the

significance of employee status, and the null hypothesis states that employee status has

no effect on income:


From the following Wald Test, the effect of having employee status does not equal zero

and the F-statistic of 8.528 is greater than the critical value with three degrees of


215

freedom F0.05 = 3.00. Therefore, the test leads to a rejection of the null hypothesis and

the conclusion is that employee status is significant in explaining income variations.



Another test is performed on the significance of self -employed status. The null

hypothesis states that self-employed status has no effect on income:


The F-statistic as indicated in the following Wald Test of 196.78 is greater than the

critical value with three degrees of freedom F0.05 = 3.00. The null hypothesis that self -

employed status has no significant effect in explaining income is rejected.


Null Hypothesis S ummary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(23) –109.7462 4.640024 C(25) –78.38543 31.26987 C(27) 12.50033 38.74203


216

The overall interaction between ethnicity and labour force status has made clear the

significant contributions by the wor kforce irrespective of ethnicity ; however, those by

the self-employed sector need to be examined, as reflected in the relatively poor

performance of migrant entrepreneurs.

5.4.2.5 General Findings o f Equation 2

The coefficient of the other variables for s ex, age, hours worked and years of arrival in

Equation 2 have turned out to be consistent with e xpectations. The male sex correlates

positively with income and the calculated age effect of 59.468 is similar to that in

Equation 1. Hours worked also correlat es positively with income. A longer period spent

in Australia increases income.

In order to test if the variable for Chinese origin has a significant effect on income, the

following null hypothesis states that there is no such difference:

H0 : b2 = b6 = b7 = b14 = b15 = b16 = b17 = b24 = b25 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

From the results of the Wald Test, the effect of Chinese origin does not equal zero. The

F-statistic is 18.87. Under nine degrees of freedom, the critical value obtained is F0.05 =

1.98. Since the F-value is greater than 1.98, the nul l hypothesis is rejected and the

conclusion is that Chinese origin is significant in determining income.


217


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(2) –27.34619 10.30391 C(6) –127.2496 26.72208 C(7) –69.79259 14.54861 C(14) 55.98268 35.25657 C(15) 124.8244 21.52153 C(16) –52.18229 26.77060 C(17) 11.64008 20.11183 C(24) –44.15038 15.21440 C(25) –78.38543 31.26987

Regarding the significance of Vietnamese origin, the null hypothesis tests whether there

is a difference in having Vietnamese origin in the equation:

H0 : b3 = b8 = b9 = b18 = b19 = b20 = b21 = b26 = b27 = 0 H1 : H0 is not true.

As indicated by the following Wald Test results, the eff ect of Vietnamese origin does

not equal zero. With an F-statistic of 7.04, which is greater than the critical value of

F0.05 = 1.98, it leads to a re jection of the above null hypothesis. The conclusion is that

Vietnamese origin is significant in determining income.


Null Hypothesis S ummary: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(3) –37.50913 10.63044 C(8) 46.05289 74.67145 C(9) –50.09329 26.77249 C(18) –199.1757 57.47500 C(19) 28.56786 39.47746 C(20) –78.18636 43.31213 C(21) –40.09392 28.57017 C(26) –5.068003 17.43527 C(27) 12.50033 38.74203


218

The overall strength of Equation 2 is measured by the value of R2. This means that

48.5% of the variations are explained by the model. This equation has some important

implications and demonstrates some d iverse attributes between Chinese and Vietnamese

migrants. Firstly, the two le vels of qualifications, the occupation of professionals and

employee status have significant effects on the co mparisons of earnings between

Chinese migrants and Australians. Although Chine se migrants generally have higher

qualifications, this factor alone does not enable them to outperform Australians in

earnings. There is a possibility of non -recognition of overseas qualifications and

discounting or overlooking o verseas work experience. Al so, regarding English language

ability, proficiency in conversational and business English could be another factor that

explains why Chinese holders of higher qualifications do not earn more than their

Australian counterparts. On the other hand, Chinese professionals are shown to gain

more than Australians. This may be because the qualifications of professionals are

locally obtained or these qualifications have to be recognised before migration.

However, in other sectors, such as assoc iate professionals and tradesmen, Chinese

migrants have not been able to demonstrate higher earnings than Australians. There are

some barriers facing the Chinese workforce overall and their participation as business

owners reported relatively less earnings than other groups . Apart from the possible

disadvantage of the lack of proficiency in English language, further research and

exploration need to be undertaken to analyse their d ifficulties and obstacles.

Unlike Chinese migran ts, the levels of qualifications, the occupation s of professionals,

associate professionals and tradespeople and self -employed status have not made

Vietnamese earnings significantly different from those of Australians. The only

significant difference in earnings occurs in the occupation of managers. The re appear to

be characteristics that are found in Chinese managers that Vietnamese managers lack,

resulting in the significant Vietnamese –Australian differential, but an insignificant

Chinese–Australian differential. On the other hand, the Vietnamese –Australian

employee differential is smaller than the Chinese –Australian employee differential. One

possible explanation for this may be related to the fact that Vietnamese migrants have


219

not shown a high rate of particip ation in studying for tertiary qualifications and their

opportunity cost (or the cost of forgoing the opportunity of further studies

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost )) might be less than that for Chinese

migrants. In addition, the Vietnamese –Australian self-employed differential ( –$25) is

smaller than the Chinese –Australian self-employed d ifferential (–$105).

5.4.3 Equation 3

Equation 3 breaks down into two sub-equations using probit analysis to test the

significance of factors that contribute to the two levels of qualifications. The se equations

examine the factors affecting the decision to acquire educational achievements using

probit analysis.

5.4.3.1 Results of Equation 3A (using a sample of 91,751) Dependent Variable: QALLP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 01/27/04 Time: 09:28 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives

Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C –4.000249 0.077431 –51.66208 0.0000

CHN 0.160329 0.060125 2.666615 0.0077 VTNM –0.638983 0.116362 –5.491335 0.0000 AGEP 0.100754 0.003484 28.91653 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP –0.001064 3.73E-05 –28.48289 0.0000 YARP 0.017721 0.004293 4.127670 0.0000 SEXP –0.025292 0.017303 –1.461731 0.1438

Mean dependent var 0.029177 S.D. dependent var 0.168303 S.E. of regression 0.167267 Akaike info criterion 0.250462 Sum squared resid 2566.842 Schwarz criterion 0.251181 Log likelihood –11483.07 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.250681 Restr. log likelihood –12099.10 Avg. log likelihood -0.125155 LR statistic (6 d f) 1232.055 McFadden R -squared 0.050915 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 89074 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 2677

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost


220

With the dummy variable for p ostgraduate qualifications as the dependent variable,

Equation 3A aims at testing whether such f actors as ethnici ty, age, years of arrival and

sex will affect the choice of acqui ring qualifications at postgraduate level. The total

number of individuals who have this level of education in the sample is 2,677. The

results show that all variables are significant, exception that for sex.

Consistent with expectations, the results show a positive contribution by Chinese

migrants in acquiring the highest level of qualifications. With a positive slope of 0.16,

the variable for Chinese origin increases the p robability of having qualifications by

about 16%, holding other variables constant. However, there is a possibility that some

overseas students from China ha ve been included in the Census. Since the migration

policy awards more po ints for those having postgraduate qualificatio ns, it is p robable

that these students can make use of the completed qualifications to apply for permanent

residence. For this reason, there is a possibility that one of the purposes for Chinese

achieving for higher qualifications is to migrate. On the other hand, the coefficient of the

dummy variable for Vietnamese origin does not show a positive attitude towards

obtaining qualifications, as i ndicated by a negative slope. This is consistent to the 1991

Census findings of their qualifications factor that about 6.8 % among the Vietnam -born

have post-secondary qualifications (Bureau of Immigration 1994:18). About 9 % of the

second generation of the Vietnam-born have tertiary quali fications (Bureau of

Immigration and Population Research 1994:40).

As expected, the probit analysis shows a small impact of age on the probability of

gaining qualifications, but this factor is significant. By calculating t he linear and non -

linear age effect, at the age of 42 the probability of acquiring postgraduate qualifications

falls. In performing the test using the sample of 3,763 consisting of only Chinese and

Vietnamese migrants, the age e ffect calculated is 44.48. T his indicates that for these

migrants the age where the probability of having this level of qualifications falls is 44.

This result implies that these migrants spend more of their lifetime in studies.


221

Consistent with the assumption that the longer a perso n stays in Australia, the higher the

probability of obtaining postgraduate qualifications, the coefficient of the variable for

years of arrival is 0.0177. A negative and insignificant coefficient is found for this

variable when the regression is estimated using the samples of Chinese and Vietnamese

migrants only. This indicates that the level of qualifications attained by migrants is not

affected by the length of stay.

Results of Equation 3A (using a sample of 3,763)

Dependent Variable: QALLP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/08/04 Time: 11:34 Sample(adjusted): 1 3763 Included observations: 3763 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 37 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives

Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C 1.082415 12658.12 8.55E-05 0.9999

CHN –4.948961 12658.12 –0.000391 0.9997 VTNM –5.610679 12658.12 –0.000443 0.9996 AGEP 0.114664 0.021559 5.318598 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP –0.001289 0.000243 –5.297658 0.0000 YARP –0.012187 0.008304 –1.467633 0.1422 SEXP 0.170899 0.079966 2.137140 0.0326

Mean dependent var 0.040925 S.D. dependent var 0.198142 S.E. of regression 0.194610 Akaike info criterion 0.310224 Sum squared resid 142.2508 Schwarz criterion 0.321818 Log likelihood –576.6861 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.314347 Restr. log likelihood –642.9919 Avg. log likelihood –0.153252 LR statistic (6 d f) 132.6115 McFadden R -squared 0.103121 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 3609 Total obs 3763 Obs with Dep=1 154

The coefficient of the variable for sex turns out differently in the two samples. In the

main sample, this coefficient is negative and insignificant with a t-value of –1.46,

meaning that Australian postgraduate holders are balanced in sex. In the case of

migrants, however, males are more educated than females.


222

5.4.3.2 Results of Equation 3B (using a sample of 91,751)

Equation 3B examines the same variables as in Equation 3A with a view to test whether

these factors have a similar effect in affecting the decision to obtain bachelor

qualifications.

Dependent Variable: QALLP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/08/04 Time: 13:06 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives


CHN 0.317423 0.038301 8.287576 0.0000 VTNM –0.462643 0.055535 –8.330644 0.0000 AGEP 0.052361 0.001630 32.11652 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP –0.000623 1.72E–05 –36.24094 0.0000 YARP 0.019020 0.002714 7.008771 0.0000 SEXP –0.092150 0.010314 –8.934581 0.0000

Mean dependent var 0.148532 S.D. dependent var 0.355629 S.E. of regression 0.351390 Akaike info criterion 0.815909 Sum squared resid 11328.07 Schwarz criterion 0.816628 Log likelihood –37423.24 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.816128 Restr. log likelihood -38549.64 Avg. log likelihood -0.407878 LR statistic (6 d f) 2252.807 McFadden R -squared 0.029220 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 78123 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 13628

As in Equation 3A, the variable for Chinese origin correlates positively with the

probability of acquiring a bachelor degree and that for Vietnamese orig in has a negative

coefficient. Among Chinese migrants, a relatively high percentage (32 %) has a bachelor

degree or higher diploma. Once again, it is possible that so me Chinese international

students who have completed a bachelor degree or higher diploma ar e included. This

level of qualification helps them to satisfy the educational criteria in skill migration

applications. This effect supports the hypothesis that Chinese origin will increase the

probability of achieving bachelor or higher diploma qualificat ions.


223

The age effect is 42 .02, meaning that from the age of 42, the p robability of attaining this

educational level starts to fall. However, in the sample of Chinese and Vietnamese

migrants, the peak age is 32.79.

Results of Equation 3B (using a sample o f 3,763)

Dependent Variable: QALLP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/08/04 Time: 13:04 Sample(adjusted): 1 3763 Included observations: 3763 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance mat rix computed using second derivatives


CHN –0.154791 0.160204 –0.966215 0.3339 VTNM –0.971026 0.157291 –6.173435 0.0000 AGEP 0.046957 0.009291 5.054050 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP –0.000716 0.000104 –6.851106 0.0000 YARP 0.008510 0.005016 1.696527 0.0898 SEXP 0.016822 0.048037 0.350196 0.7262

Mean dependent var 0.219240 S.D. dependent var 0.413787 S.E. of regression 0.394752 Akaike info criterion 0.958513 Sum squared re sid 585.2951 Schwarz criterion 0.970108 Log likelihood –1796.443 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.962636 Restr. log likelihood –1979.129 Avg. log likelihood –0.477396 LR statistic (6 d f) 365.3714 McFadden R -squared 0.092306 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 2938 Total obs 3763 Obs with Dep=1 825

The coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is positive in both samples. Once

again, this factor is not important to migrants obtaining a bachelor level of

qualifications. Regarding the motiv ation to study, the results in the two samples indicate

that there are more female achievers with bachelor degrees in the main sample, whereas

for migrants, there is not a significant gender difference.


224

5.4.3.3 General Findings o f Equations 3A and 3B

On the whole, the results of Equations 3A and 3B show that the ethnicity factor is of

significance in assessing the probability of having postgraduate and bachelor

qualifications. Both the variables of Chinese and Vietnamese are of significance, but the

attitude towards acquiring higher education is different among these two groups. The

results support the belief that being Ch inese increases the probability of higher

educational qualifications. Vietnamese migrants who attain tertiary education do not

have as high a proportion as Chinese migrants. For the mainstream population, females

are more likely to be education achievers. Among Chinese and Vietnamese migrants,

more males are postgraduate holders but the proportion at the bachelor level is more

balanced across males and females.

5.4.4 Equation 4

Equation 4 has five sub-equations, 4A to 4E, to look at the employability of Chinese and

Vietnamese migrants and the impact of other human capital variables in the five types of

occupation. The first three types of occupation lead to higher earnings than the other two

(5.4.1.4) and are commonly regarded as white -collar high status jobs . The last two

occupations are regarded as blue -collar lower income jobs.


225

5.4.4.1 Results of Equation 4A (using a sample of 91,751 )

Dependent Variable: OCCP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 01/27/04 Time: 19:16 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix co mputed using second derivatives


CHN –0.317734 0.079204 –4.011613 0.0001 VTNM –0.278074 0.116960 –2.377524 0.0174

QALLP1 0.212558 0.034679 6.129348 0.0000 QALLP2 0.221387 0.018614 11.89379 0.0000

HRSP 0.031697 0.000552 57.41330 0.0000 ENGP 0.043284 0.038098 1.136127 0.2559 AGEP 0.058730 0.002912 20.16682 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP –0.000456 3.11E–05 –14.65813 0.0000 YARP –0.011793 0.004934 –2.390277 0.0168 SEXP 0.218058 0.016595 13.13996 0.0000

Mean dependent var 0.058288 S.D. dependent var 0.234289 S.E. of regression 0.220166 Akaike info criterion 0.354023 Sum squared resid 4446.925 Schwarz criterion 0.355153 Log likelihood –16229.99 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.354367 Restr. log likelihood –20389.94 Avg. log likelihood –0.176892 LR statistic (10 df) 8319.901 McFadden R -squared 0.204020 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 86403 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 5348

In the sample , there are 5,348 managers and administrators, representing 5 .8% of the

total. This number is the smallest group among the professions. The number of managers

who are of either Chinese or Vie tnamese origin in the segregate d sample is only 90,

which represents 2.4 % of total migrants in the segregated sample. The results of the

probit analysis of Equation 4A indicate that the coefficients of the dummy variables for

Chinese and Vietnamese origin are negative, as expected. This is consistent with the

findings of DIMIA and the ABS 1 991 Census.

Consistent with the belief that higher qualifications are of value in the achievement of

high status jobs, the coefficients of the variables for postgraduate and bachelor


226

qualifications (QALLP1 and QALLP2) in Equation 4A are positive relative to the group

with basic education or no qualifications. Both regressors show signif icance towards

advancement to a manager. The positive coefficient of the variable for hours worked

confirms the hypothes is that managers are required to work long and non -standard

hours. As explained previously, it was expected that the variable for English language

proficiency is important to non -English-speaking migrants in participating in all types of

occupation, including managerial positions. However, the results show that this factor is

not significant. This is because the majority of sample members are Australian-born who

are proficient in English language, irrespective of occupation.

The coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is negative . Although this fac tor is not

highly significant , it indicates that recent migrants are more likely to be managers. In

order words, new migrants might have a better chance of being managers than earlier

migrants. It also implies that skilled migration has been effective. Th e posi tive

coefficient of age suggests that work experience is essential in this profession. As

expected, age adds to the probability of being a manager and there is a reverse U -shaped

relationship. The calculated age when this probability falls is 64.39. Compared with the

age of 59 when income drops in Equation 1, a manager has a longer working lif e. The

positive coefficient of the variable for sex confirms the assumption of the domination of

this type of occupation by males.


227

5.4.4.2 Results of Equation 4 B (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: OCCP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 01/27/04 Time: 19:20 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 itera tions Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives


CHN –0.233662 0.057064 –4.094722 0.0000 VTNM –0.279011 0.088567 –3.150279 0.0016

QALLP1 1.893040 0.027105 69.84131 0.0000 QALLP2 1.570461 0.014761 106.3956 0.0000

HRSP 0.017929 0.000425 42.18475 0.0000 ENGP –0.061676 0.032372 –1.905251 0.0567 AGEP 0.054784 0.002884 18.99474 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP –0.000654 3.31E–05 –19.79958 0.0000 YARP 0.006411 0.003667 1.748427 0.0804 SEXP –0.231342 0.014692 –15.74662 0.0000


Equation 4B uses probit analysis to examine the factors affecting the occupation of

professionals. There are 9,802 professionals (10.68 % of total respondents) in the main

sample and 401 (10.65 %) in the segregated sample of only Chinese and Vietnamese

migrants. Once again, the coefficients of the variables for ethnicity are negative. Based

on the results of Equation 3, Chinese migrants generally have qualifications that enable

them to become professionals. However, Equation 4B does not support the assumption

of a high participation rate of Chinese migrants as pro fessionals. These results indicate

that being a Chinese migrant has a negative influence on the probability of being

employed as a professional. This is because the majority of those in the seg regated

samples are earlier migrants and it is believed th at more recent data should capture the


228

effect of higher participation of Chinese migrants in professional occupations as a result

of the increase in skill -based migration.

The coefficients of the variables for p ostgraduate and bachelor qualifications are positive

and have a hi ghly significant impact on involvement in this occupation. This is

consistent with the assumption that specialisation as a professional in fields such as

information technology, engineering and accounting require academic credentials.

As for managers, the number of hours worked influences income of professionals. The

results show that this factor is positive and significant. English language proficiency is

significant in conside ration for this job, but the coefficient of this variable is negative.

Since most individuals speak English, the effect of the lan guage factor for non-English-

speaking migrants on this occupation is not measured. Up to a certain level, the

probability of being a profes sional increases with age, as estimated. The age effect is

calculated as 42, meaning that the probability of being a professional starts to fall at this

age. This drop -off age is low compared with that of a manager (64 in Equation 4A), but

this may indicat e advancement to the managerial category rather than retirement.

Since the coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is not significant, work

opportunities are balanced between mainstream Australians and recent migrants.

Although there are more mal e managers, the proportion of females working as

professionals has increased more than that for males, as shown by the negative

coefficient of the variable for sex in this model.


229

5.4.4.3 Results of Equation 4C (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable : OCCP3 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/09/04 Time: 09:16 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second d erivatives


CHN –0.195058 0.062740 –3.108997 0.0019 VTNM –0.411009 0.089702 –4.581941 0.0000

QALLP2 0.351836 0.042157 8.345877 0.0000 QALLP3 0.328104 0.040217 8.158413 0.0000

AGEP 0.054817 0.002970 18.45682 0.0000 AGEP*AGEP –0.000653 3.52E–05 –18.56525 0.0000

SEXP –0.065082 0.014539 –4.476246 0.0000 HRSP 0.024071 0.000449 53.59573 0.0000 YARP 0.011460 0.003806 3.011372 0.0026 ENGP 0.008046 0.031866 0.252511 0.8006

Mean dependent var 0.069394 S.D. dependent var 0.254125 S.E. of regression 0.246488 Akaike info criterion 0.437719 Sum squared resid 5573.807 Schwarz criterion 0.438849 Log likelihood –20069.58 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.438063 Restr. log likelihoo d –23127.63 Avg. log likelihood –0.218740 LR statistic (10 df) 6116.093 McFadden R -squared 0.132225 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 85384 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 6367

Equation 4C examines the factors affecting those who work as associate professionals.

There are 6,367 such individuals (6.9 % of the total in the sample) and 196 (5.2 %) in the

segregated sample. The coefficients of the dummy variables for Chinese and Vietnamese

origin are negative.

The coefficients of the variabl es for bachelor and basic qualifications are positive and

significant , as expected. As for the other two white -collar jobs, hours worked is

important and contributes positively to the probability of being an associate professional.

The age effect in this t ype of occupation is similar to that of professional, as the age

when this probability reaches its highest value is c alculated to be 41.97. This probably

indicates advancement to occupations of professionals and managers after age 42. In this

equation, the coefficient of the variable for years of arrival is negative and significant.


230

This implies that earlier migrants have a higher probability of working in this

occupation. Consistent with the belief that the nature of the work is more suitable for

females, the coefficient of the variable for sex is negative.

5.4.4.4 Results of Equation 4D (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: OCCP4 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/09/04 Time: 10:50 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives


CHN –0.101166 0.050152 –2.017214 0.0437 VTNM –0.479167 0.066711 –7.182726 0.0000

QALLP2 0.455061 0.047149 9.651625 0.0000 QALLP3 1.212538 0.045039 26.92190 0.0000

AGEP 0.028483 0.002071 13.75283 0.0000 AGEP*AGEP –0.000490 2.46E–05 –19.88426 0.0000

SEXP –0.183083 0.011456 –15.98141 0.0000 HRSP 0.024915 0.000327 76.17375 0.0000 YARP 0.000292 0.003227 0.090456 0.9279 ENGP 0.095778 0.024069 3.979232 0.0001


The last two occupational groups are identified as blue-collar jobs as these jobs

emphasise manual or physical ability or training rather than education. The fourth group

comprises tradespersons, technicians, mechanical and construction workers, clerks and

salesmen. The number of respondents in this group is 15,359, representing 16.7 % of the

total and 404 (10.7 %) in the segregated sample. This indicates a reduced rate of

participation of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants in this occupation.


231

Contrary to reports of a high pa rticipation of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants in this

type of occupation, the coefficients are negative. If a person is of Vietnamese origin, the

probability of pursuing this career is reduced by 47.9 % whereas in the case of Chinese

migrants, the probability is reduced by 10 %. Contrary to the traditional belief of a high

rate of participation of Chinese migrants in this occupation, the results indicate a falling

participation or a possible movement to higher status jobs as a result of the increasing

emphasis on skilled migration.

With the inclusion of the regressors of bachelor and basic qualifications, the estimated

coefficients show positive signs with s ignificance, confirming that this occupation

requires less than a bachelor level of education. As with other occupations, hours

worked shows significance and increases the probability of being a tradesperson or

technician. English p roficiency is necessary for engagin g in this type of work and also

shows a positive effect in the development of a blue -collar career. The coefficient of the

variable for years after arrival is positive but not significant. Although age has a positive

effect on the participation in this typ e of occupation, it also has a non -linear effect. The

age when the probability d rops is calculated to be 29.06, however the age effect in this

equation is difficult to interpret. The range of work in this group of occupations is very

wide, covering tradesp eople and clerical workers across many industries. Workers in this

group may move to other types of occupation when better job opportunities arise in a

particular industry, not necessarily because of retirement. Also, the stability in the nature

of one job could be offset by another. Fo r example, a male technician is expected to

have a long working life, but this effect is offset by the instability of the clerical

workforce, largely occupied by females, for reasons such as childbirth or other family

responsibilities. Therefore, the age effect in this equation cannot be accurately estimated.

The coefficient of the variable for sex is neg ative, confirming the high participation by

females in intermediary jobs such as clerks and salespeople.


232

5.4.4.5 Results of Equation 4E (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: OCCP5 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/09/04 Time: 15:16 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 5 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives

Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C 1.266894 0.051945 24.38896 0.0000

CHN 0.470892 0.046482 10.13060 0.0000 VTNM 0.690549 0.062468 11.05438 0.0000 AGEP –0.060924 0.001796 –33.92286 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP 0.000732 2.03E–05 36.14362 0.0000 HRSP –0.043937 0.000304 –144.3327 0.0000

QALLP2 0.294419 0.037699 7.809682 0.0000 QALLP3 1.180854 0.035686 33.08999 0.0000

SEXP 0.167245 0.010969 15.24744 0.0000 ENGP –0.031057 0.023705 –1.310173 0.1901 YARP –0.005370 0.003075 –1.746476 0.0807

Mean dependent var 0.598086 S.D. dependent var 0.490287 S.E. of regression 0.367557 Akaike info criterion 0.827992 Sum squared resid 12393.91 Schwarz criterion 0.829122 Log likelihood –37973.53 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.828336 Restr. Log likelihood –61819.99 Avg. log likelihood –0.413876 LR statistic (10 df) 47692.92 McFadden R -squared 0.385740 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 36876 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 54875

The last group of occupations (OCCP5) includes labourers, junior clerical workers and

machine operators and those without an occupation. This is the largest group of all

occupational groups, amountin g to 54,875 of total records of 91,751 (59.8%). There are

2,672 Chinese and Vietnamese migran ts in this occupation (71% of the total in the

segregated sample). Equation 4E includes all human capital variables as in Equation 4D.

Consistent with the view that both the Chinese and Vietnamese migrants have remai ned

largely engaged in this category, the coefficients of these two variables are positive and

significant, showing that Chinese and Vietnamese migrants have a strong correlation


233

with working as labourers. Vietnamese migrants have a probability of 69 % of working

as labourers, higher than the 47 % probability for the Chinese.

Although the coefficient of the variable for hours worked is significant, it h as a negative

effect on the probability of working as a labourer. This is because the nature of the work

is often routine and standardised in nature and does not require extended working hours.

Like tradespeople, a basic qualification is relevant for a labourers’ job. With a positive

and significant coefficient of the variable for bachelor qualifications, this may indicate

that those holding these qualifications must work as labourers to earn income because of

non-recognition of overseas qualifications, over -qualification, discrimination on grounds

of age, lack of appropriate experience, or a low standard of Eng lish. The coefficient of

the variable for years after arrival has a negative impact on this job category and the

coefficient is not significant. The factor of English language facility is not as important

as in other types of occupation. As expected, the c oefficient of the variable for sex is

positive, confirming that males have a higher participation rate in labourers’ jobs.

Consistent with expectations, the age effect is different from that of other types of

occupation. Age has a negative impact on the p robability of working as a labourer but

has a positive composite effect. This confirms the assumption that this occupation has a

higher probability of being chosen by either young or old persons rather than the middle -

aged. As a young person becomes older, the probability reduces but rises again at the

calculated age of 41.6.


234

5.4.4.6 General Findings o f Equations 4A to 4E

The results of Equations 4 A to 4E demonstrate some important features of skilled

migration reflected in the five types of occupation. Fir stly, they reflect that one of the

results of a change in migration policy towards skilled migration is the trend of

increasing participation of Chinese migrants working for higher status occupations such

as professionals (5.4.2.3.1). This also occurs as a result of the motivation of Chinese

migrants to acquire higher qualifications (5.4.3.1) and preparedness to work long hours

(4.3.1). The trend is less apparent in Vietnamese migrants, as their concentration in the

labourers’ sector has remained high, from 1991 to 1996 (5.4.4.5). The barriers to high

status jobs may be related to the fact that the motivation to study for higher

qualifications among the Vietnamese may not be as high as among other ethnic groups,

or a lack of very high standard of English lan guage proficiency. However, one alternate

route is by way of self -employed status. Secondly, a phenomenon has developed as a

result of migration policy where recent migrants participate at the two extreme ends of

occupations, that is, managers and labourer s. It is also possible th at the qualifications

and work experience of earlier migrants have later been accepted and enabled them to

take up managerial positions. Recent migrants who take up labourer jobs are more likely

to come to Australia via the family stream. With skilled mi gration targeting middle -aged

settlers, it is less likely that future migrants will continue to work as labourers. However,

some of the e arlier migrants with higher education qualifications may have to work as

labourers, tradespeople and clerks.

Another development is a possible balancing of males and females in high status jobs.

The traditional concept of males dominating the first two types of occupation has

changed. This is supported by the pattern of significant contributions by females in the

second, third and fourth types of occupation, as a result of the increase in higher

qualifications among females. Males continue to dominate participation at the two

extreme ends of managers and labourers.


235

5.4.5 Equation 5

Equation 5 is broken down into four equations exploring the influence of human capital

variables on labour force status. Equation 5A compares the employability of Chinese

and Vietnamese migrants and analyses the contribution of human capital in the

employment sector. There are 52,275 employees in the main sample and 1,887 in the

segregated sample. The coefficients of all variables are significant except those of

Chinese origin, bachelor qualifications and years of arrival, and the coefficients of some

regressors are di fferent from expectations.

5.4.5.1 Results of Equation 5A (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: LFSP1 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/02/04 Time: 13:22 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adj usting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives


CHN –0.027750 0.047287 –0.586833 0.5573 VTNM –0.334044 0.056896 –5.871106 0.0000 AGEP –0.006181 0.001867 –3.311233 0.0009

AGEP*AGEP –0.000233 2.08E–05 –11.21461 0.0000 HRSP 0.048211 0.000369 130.6626 0.0000

QALLP1 0.150484 0.039804 3.780647 0.0002 QALLP2 0.025909 0.018911 1.370070 0.1707 OCCP1 –0.180180 0.024158 –7.458265 0.0000 OCCP2 0.803475 0.025525 31.47764 0.0000 OCCP3 0.351515 0.024541 14.32368 0.0000 OCCP4 0.764816 0.018551 41.22751 0.0000 SEXP –0.187511 0.012009 –15.61431 0.0000 YARP –0.001000 0.003258 –0.306762 0.7590

Mean dependent var 0.569749 S.D. dependent var 0.495114 S.E. of regression 0.304406 Akaike info criterion 0.660119 Sum squared resid 8500.617 Schwarz criterion 0.661558 Log likelihood –30269.30 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.660557 Restr. log likelihood –62701.32 Avg. log likel ihood –0.329907 LR statistic (13 df) 64864.03 McFadden R -squared 0.517246 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 39476 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 52275


236

Consistent with expectations, the coefficient of the variable for Chinese origin i s

negative. This is consistent with the results of Equation 2, which found that Chinese

migrants generally do not earn higher incomes than Australians. The t-value of –0.586

indicates that the influence of Chinese origin on the overall working sector is no t

significant. The coefficient of the variable for Vietnamese origin is also negative but it is

significant.

As expected, postgraduate and bachelor degree qualifications have a positive impact on

employment. The coefficient of the variable for postgraduat e qualifications is positive

and significant relative to the group with basic or no qualifications, suppo rting the Asian

belief that higher qualifications will increase the chance of employment. However, the

results are not significant at the bachelor degr ee level. The age effect in this equation is

different from that in other equations. Age is estimated to have a posit ive influence on

the working sector up to retirement, but the coefficient of this variable is negative and

the composite effect is also neg ative. In other words, the older a person becomes, the

less likely they are to be employees.

The coefficients of the v ariables for occupation are consistent with expectations, with

the exception of managers. The occupation of manager does not support a hi gher

opportunity of being employed than the category of labourers. As anticipated, business

migrants identify themselves as managers and administrators but they are not in the

employee secto r. The coefficient of the variable for the occupation of tradespeo ple is

greater than that for the occupation of associate professionals. Given that the person is a

tradesperson or a clerk, the probability of being an employee is 76 %. This probability is

very close to that for a p rofessional (80%). Hours worked is signif icant in the working

sector and it has a positive effect on the likelihood of being employed. The negative

coefficient of the variable for sex supports the growing importance of females in the

labour force despite the traditional role of women in family responsibilities. The variable

for years of arrival is not significant in this equation.


237

5.4.5.2 Results of Equation 5B (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: LFSP2 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/02/04 Time: 13:24 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 6 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives


CHN –0.123263 0.066204 –1.861869 0.0626 VTNM 0.033926 0.082492 0.411259 0.6809 AGEP 0.064947 0.002684 24.19422 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP –0.000572 2.80E–05 –20.43160 0.0000 HRSP 0.009393 0.000498 18.85102 0.0000

QALLP1 –0.390795 0.043876 –8.906776 0.0000 QALLP2 –0.175206 0.022713 –7.713866 0.0000 OCCP1 0.930948 0.026161 35.58576 0.0000 OCCP2 0.471466 0.028603 16.48303 0.0000 OCCP3 0.545688 0.027099 20.13696 0.0000 OCCP4 0.432010 0.021562 20.03556 0.0000 SEXP 0.119225 0.015693 7.597371 0.0000 YARP 0.006396 0.004212 1.518469 0.1289

Mean dependent var 0.055302 S.D. dependent var 0.228570 S.E. of regression 0.220231 Akaike info criterion 0.370072 Sum squared resid 4449.403 Schwarz criterion 0.371510 Log likelihood –16963.22 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.370510 Restr. log likelihood –19620.01 Avg. log likelihood –0.184883 LR statistic (13 df) 5313.575 McFadden R-squared 0.135412 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 86677 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 5074

Equation 5B studies the influences which determine whether people adopt a self -

employed status. From the main sample, there are 5,074 entrepreneurs and , from the

segregated sample, 168 Chinese or Vietnamese business owners. Significant outcomes

can be detected by comparing the r esults of Equations 5A and 5B.


238

The coefficient of the variable for Chinese origin is ne gative, whereas that for

Vietnamese origin is positive, and both coefficients are insignificant. Contrary to the

view that migrants generally have a hi gher tendency to be self-employed than

Australians, Chinese migrants do not positively and signi ficantly contribute to the sector

of business owners. Although business migration has been introduced requiring this

sector of migrants to establish and run businesses, the neg ative coefficient for the

variable for Chinese origin implies that the number of Chinese business migrants is not

substantial or that Chinese migrants do not have a high level of interest in self-

employment. Despite the potential for these migrants to make use of connections with

their home countries, the lack of interest to be entrepreneurs does not support

exploitation of further trade prospects.

For Vietnamese migrants, although the 1991 Census showed a low rate of participation

as business owners, the results in Equation 5B show a positive coefficient of the dummy

variable for Vietnamese origin. If a person is of Vietnamese o rigin, the probability of

being self-employed is 3.3%, although the coefficient is not significant. This may

indicate Vietnamese migrants have the potential to become entrepreneurs. Since

Vietnam is not listed as one of the top source countr ies of business migrants, it is likely

that there are few self -employed Vietnamese who are required to establish business es as

part of the manda tory policy. If business owners identify themselves as managers,

Vietnamese managers could in fact be ent repreneurs who have suffered disadvantages in

earning income when compared to Aus tralians (Equation 2). On the o ther hand, being

self-employed may be an alternative for work as self -employment does not necessarily

require qualifications and high level of English language ability. It might also be

expected that there is a concentration of labourers amongst earlier migrants, with the

possibility that their second generation becom e managers or business owners.


239

The coefficients of the variables for postgraduate and bachelor qualifications show

negative signs with significance. This is consistent with the belief that running a

business does not necessarily r equire higher qualifications. Those who acquire higher

levels of qualifications are more likely to be employees than willing to bear business

risks. Those who have lower qualifications are more likely to become ent repreneurs.

Since the emphasis of skilled migration is on qualifications and occupational skills, it is

more likely that future independent migrants will mostly be employees. Current

legislation may have been based on the assumption that entrepreneurs do not have higher

qualifications as this attr ibute does not provide any point score for business migration

applicants.

Each type of occup ation contributes positively and significantly towards self -employed

status when the fifth occupational group is considered. For managers and administrators,

the coefficient in Equation 5A is insignificant whereas in Equation 5B it is 0.93. This is

consistent with the view that migrants who are self -employed identify themselves as

managers. If an indi vidual is a manager, it is more likely that they ar e a proprietor rather

than an employee when other variables are not considered. Although an employee

manager earns the highest income, as indicated in Equation 2, this employment

opportunity is so scarce that many managers may have to work as self -employed people.

This phenomenon does not apply to professionals. There is an 80 % chance that a person

is an employee professional whereas the probability for a self -employed professional is

47%. For the third type of occupation, there is more than a 54 % chance that an associate

professional is a self-employed person, compared with a 35 % chance of working for an

employer. The probability that a tradesperson or clerk owns their own business is 43 %,

which is much higher than the probability of being an employee, at 76 %. In summary,

professionals and tradespeople tend to be employees, and managers and associate

professionals have greater incentives to run businesses.


240

Another attribute that has different effects among the two labour force groups is age.

The coefficient of this variab le in Equation 5B is positive and significant, supporting the

belief that age carries with it the experience and capital that are necessary to become

self-employed. Although age is signif icant for both the employee and self-employed

status, there does not appear to be a composite age effect for employee status. As age

increases, the probability of obtaining employment increases. For self -employed people,

the age ceiling is calculated to be 56.79, meaning that at the age of 57, the probability of

being self-employed falls. In 1998, men over 45 years of age made up 31 % of the male

labour force, compared with 27 % 10 years ago. For women, 28 % of the age group 15 to

64 were above 45 and this was accounted for 22% in 1988

(www.avetra.org.au/papers/%202000). A stud y comparing the working lives of migrants

with those of Australians would be useful to provide greater insight into their influence

on the economy. As the results in Equation 5B show, the older the individual, the more

likely that they are entrepreneurs ra ther than employees, when other factors are held

constant. A possible explanation is that the prospects of employability decrease along

with an increase in the risk of being retrenched with age, as well as the lack of ability to

keep up with modern technol ogy. While employability is driven by personal factors such

as age, occupation -specific skills and experience, the decision to run a business depends

more heavily on other factors such as the economy, trading opportunities and cultural

links, and age is of secondary relevance.

The coefficient of the variable for hours worked shows a positive influence, whether the

worker is an employee or self -employed. A positive coefficient of the sex variable

supports the view that males are more likely to be ent repreneurs. The coefficient of the

variable for years of arrival is positive, meaning that it is more likely for earlier migrants

to become self-employed than recent migrants. However, the t-value of th is coefficient

is 0.1289, suggesting that this factor is no t significant.


241

5.4.5.3 Results of Equation 5C (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: LFSP3 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/19/04 Time: 20:32 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 7 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives


CHN 0.219348 0.045392 4.832255 0.0000 VTNM 0.517003 0.044866 11.52321 0.0000 AGEP 0.001601 0.002424 0.660482 0.5089

AGEP*AGEP –0.000246 2.89E–05 –8.522757 0.0000 SEXP 0.215573 0.014251 15.12698 0.0000

QALLP1 –0.476972 0.056770 –8.401901 0.0000 QALLP2 –0.335150 0.022745 –14.73502 0.0000

Mean dependent var 0.055672 S.D. dependent var 0.229289 S.E. of regression 0.226298 Akaike info criterion 0.400457 Sum squared resid 4698.212 Schwarz criterion 0.401279 Log likelihood –18363.17 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.400708 Restr. log likelihood –19716.38 Avg. log likeliho od –0.200141 LR statistic (7 d f) 2706.427 McFadden R -squared 0.068634 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 86643 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 5108

Although unemployment rates relate to macroeconomic factors such as economic

growth, issues of employment may also occur which are usually associated with the

concentration of certain ethnic groups. Equation 5C explores the factors contributing to

unemployment and has 5,108 persons who are unemployed looking for f ull- or part-time

work. In the segregated sample there are 403 Chinese or Vietna mese unemployed

persons. The variable for English language proficiency has been omitted as its

coefficient is not signi ficant. Another insignificant variable that has been omitted is

years of arrival. Th is implies that the probability of being unemployed is not affected by

whether an individual is a recent migrant or an ea rlier migrant.


242

The results for Equation 5C indicate that both the coefficients of the dummy variables

for Chinese and Vietnamese origin are positive and si gnificant. Although Chinese

migrants have higher educational attainment, they do not contribute significantly to the

employee and self-employed sector, with a 22 % chance of unemployment. A pe rson of

Vietnamese origin has a 52 % probability of being unemployed. This high rate is

consistent with the finding that many Vietnamese -born persons who came as refugees

and on humanitarian grounds are unskilled and have been either welfare recipients or

work in labour-intensive industries.

Contrary to the expectation that age is an important factor in influencing the

unemployment rate, the results show that there is a positive correlation between age and

unemployment but the linear effect is insignificant. This means that other factors such as

qualifications are more important in affecting unemployment rate than age. Considering

that the coefficient of the variable for male sex is positive and significant in the equation

for self-employed sta tus, this variable is also positive. Males are more inclined to be

unemployed than females. With postgraduate qualifications, there is a p robability of

48% that the person is not unemployed. The probability that a bachelor degree holder is

not unemployed is 33 %. This leads to the conclusion that those wit hout qualifications

have a highe r chance of being unemployed.


243

5.4.5.4 Results of Equation 5D (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: LFSP4 Method: ML – Binary Probit (Quadratic hill climbing) Date: 02/02/04 Time: 13:30 Sample(adjusted): 1 9175 1 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints Convergence achieved after 5 iterations Covariance matrix computed using second derivatives

Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C 0.196999 0.036916 5.336372 0.0000

CHN 0.316252 0.041580 7.605786 0.0000 VTNM 0.584334 0.048242 12.11243 0.0000 AGEP –0.092448 0.001621 –57.02738 0.0000

AGEP*AGEP 0.001419 1.80E–05 78.72063 0.0000 QALLP3 0.572559 0.014936 38.33362 0.0000

SEXP –0.601217 0.010383 –57.90147 0.0000 YARP –0.009015 0.003001 –3.004509 0.0027

Mean dependent var 0.319277 S.D. dependent var 0.466199 S.E. of regression 0.367075 Akaike info criterion 0.854639 Sum squared resid 12361.85 Schwarz criterion 0.855461 Log likelihood –39198.99 Hannan-Quinn criter. 0.854889 Restr. log likelihood –57465.80 Avg. log likelihood –0.427232 LR statistic (7 d f) 36533.62 McFadden R -squared 0.317873 Probability(LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 62457 Total obs 91751 Obs with Dep=1 29294

Equation 5D uses the variable for those no t in the labour force as the dependent variable.

There are 29,294 persons in the main sample and 1,305 in the segregated sample. Both

coefficients of the variables for Chinese and Vietnamese origin are positive and

significant.

The existence of the astrona ut phenomenon (4.4.5) is supported by the positive

coefficient of the variable for Chinese origin, the negative coefficient of the variable for

sex and the negative coefficient of the variable for years of arrival. The coefficient of the

variable for Vietn amese origin is positive and significant, confirming that a higher

percentage of Vietnamese migrants are not in the labour force.

The negative age effect implies that as age increases, the probability of not being in the

labour force decreases, but there is a composite effect so that this probabilit y increases


244

after the calculated age of 32.57. This may represent the age at which women raise

children and are occupied in home duties.

5.4.5.5 General Findings o f Equations 5A to 5D

Equations 5A to 5D explore the factors affecting labour force status and the results show

some inconsistencies. Firstly, Chinese migrants experience similar difficulties as do

Vietnamese settlers in employment. In contrast to the objective of migration policy to

achieve a high leve l of employability, neither group shows positive and s ignificant

coefficients in contributing to the employee sector. Reasons for this include problems in

recognition of overseas qualifications, lack of local work experience and proficiency in

English language. Secondly, some hidden problems exist for those operators with self -

employed status. Equation 2 shows that Chinese and Vietnamese self-employed persons

do not earn a higher income than Australian counterparts relative to the group not in

work (5.4.2.4.1 & 5.4.2.4.2) . Reasons might relate to the business culture and strategies

adopted. Contrary to the statistics which list Asian countries as top -sourced countries for

business migrants and the enterprising culture of Asians ,17 participation in businesses

does not appear to be a favoured selection by Chinese settlers. Equation 5B shows that

being a Chinese migrant does not increase the probability of being a business owner or a

family worker. Vietnamese migrants may have a greater interest in becoming sel f-

employed (5.4.5.2).

The findings confirm that the skill -based migration policy developed in recent years is

achieving its desired goals. It has produced migrants with different employment, income

and qualifications characteristics from the earlier year s of the 1970s and 1980s. There

has also been a sign ificant positive change in the acceptance of the qualifications of

migrants, so that fewer migrants with bachelor degrees work as labourers, who are no w

mainly confined to earlier migrants. 17 Asians as a general referenced group.


245

However, there are two issues that the migration policy must take into account. Firstly,

the overall picture for operating businesses is not encouraging as can be seen by the

negative impact on income, the large differential in e arnings between Vietnamese an d

Australians, and the insignificant participation by Chinese settlers in the self -employed

sector. One reason for this may be the relatively small quota allocated for business

migrants in the annual migration program (3.3.2.5). The number of visas issued is within

the budgeted number assigned for business migrants . As the quota allowed for this

category is comparatively smaller than other categories in the skilled stream , the

migration policy would be held strict in granting the number of visas to business people

during the year.

Another possible reason is the int roduction of the policy to place business migrants in

regional areas . Although the government’s intention is to divert migrant skills, capital

and technology to low growth regions, a certain level of supp ort and facilities have to be

provided to assist entrepreneur s in their settlement and business research. Lack of

services such as language support and educational resources in regional areas could

reduce the incentive of intended entrepreneurs , especially non-English speaking

migrants. The alternative is to participate as employees and this could lead to an

increased disproportion between employees and the self -employed. This is reflected in

the imbalances between the numbers in the employee and self -employed sectors for the

two groups of migrants.

Thirdly, there is still a high proportion of migrants who are unemployed or not in the

labour market. In terms of employability, the migration policy has introduced temporary

residence (3.4) so as to encourage settlers to gain relevant work experience before

changing to permanent status. This channel , together with the emphasis on skilled

migration, has helped recent migrants to have more success in labour force participation

and to be less likely to require wel fare benefits.


246

5.4.6 Equation 6

Results of Equation 6 (using a sample of 91,751)

Dependent Variable: HRSP Method: Least Squares Date: 02/07/04 Time: 12:54 Sample(adjusted): 1 91751 Included observations: 91751 after adjusting endpoints HRSP=C(1)+C(2 )*CHN+C(3)*VTNM+C(4)*AGEP+C(5)*AGEP* AGEP

+C(6)*QALLP1+C(7)*QALLP2+C(8)*OCCP1+C(9)*OCCP2+C(10) *OCCP3+C(11)*OCCP4+C(12)*LFSP1+C(13)*LFSP2+C(15) *SEXP

Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob. C(1) –8.298129 0.238916 –34.73234 0.0000 C(2) 0.357114 0.265198 1.346593 0.1781 C(3) 0.367533 0.326906 1.124276 0.2609 C(4) 0.313991 0.010981 28.59493 0.0000 C(5) –0.003190 0.000114 –28.09574 0.0000 C(6) 1.308269 0.234773 5.572477 0.0000 C(7) 0.592650 0.120400 4.922333 0.0000 C(8) 11.84813 0.177989 66.56680 0.0000 C(9) 6.131478 0.159391 38.46818 0.0000 C(10) 9.143738 0.162030 56.43225 0.0000 C(11) 5.647504 0.119134 47.40467 0.0000 C(12) 27.84834 0.109446 254.4475 0.0000 C(13) 26.69060 0.188869 141.3182 0.0000 C(15) 5.212147 0.074899 69.58916 0.0000

R-squared 0.699771 Mean dependent var 21.19602 Adjusted R -squared 0.699728 S.D. dependent var 20.32217 S.E. of regression 11.13595 Akaike info criterion 7.658387 Sum squared resid 11376252 Schwarz criterion 7.659826 Log likelihood –351318.3

Equation 6 examines the factors affecting hours worked. Both the variables of Chinese

and Vietnamese origin correlate directly with hours worked, supporting the perceived

hard-working culture of Asians , but the coefficients are not si gnificant. Contrary to

expectations, these results suggest that the number of hours worked is dependent not on

ethnicity, but on other factors.

As expected, higher qualifications enable advancement to more senior positions and

therefore increased working hours, although the effect of having bachelor qualifications


247

on hours worked is minimal. The null hypothesis being tested is that the variables for

postgraduate and bachelor qualifications have the same effect on hours worked:


The critical value F0.05 is 3.84 with one degree of freedom. The Wald Test is performed

to show that the F-value is 9 .126, which is greater than 3.84 and , therefore, the null

hypothesis is rejected. The test also shows that a postgraduate degree holder works for

0.7 hours per week more than a person with bachelor qu alifications. The conclusion is

that the effect of the two le vels of qualifications is not the same.



The four types of occupation have positive correlations with working hours relative to

labourers’ jobs. The coefficient of the varia ble for a managerial occupation (C(7)) is

positive and highly significant. If an individual is a manager, their working hours

increase by 11.8 hours per week over and above the effect of other variables. In other

words, managers have the longest working ho urs. Coefficients of the variables for the

other three occupations are also positive and significant relative to the omitted group. It

is surprising to find that the coefficients of the variable for para -professional status

(C(10)) of 9.14 is greater than that for the professionals (C(9)) of 6.13. The results also

suggest that professionals work fewer hours while earning more income than para -

professionals and tradespeople.


248

The null hypothesis assumes that the effect of the four types of occupation on hour s

worked is the same:

H0 : b8 = b9 = b10 = b11

H1 : H0 is not true.

With three degrees of freedom, the critical value F0.05 is 2.60. By comparing the F-value

obtained from the Wald Test of 486, this value is greater than the critical value of 2.60.

The test also shows that managers work six hours per week more than tradespeople and

associate professionals work three hours more. There is only a small difference in

working hours for professionals and tradespeople. Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected and the conclusion is that there is a differential effect of the four types of

occupation on hours worked.


Null Hypothesis Summar y: Normalised Restriction (= 0) Value Std. Err. C(8) – C(11) 6.200626 0.182225 C(9) – C(11) 0.483973 0.164225 C(10) – C(11) 3.496234 0.167338

With respect to the effect of labour force status on hours worked, the results show

positive coeffic ients for both the dummies for employees and entrepreneurs relative to

unemployed status. This indicates that employees and business owners contribute

positively towards working hours. The null hypothesis assumes that the variables for

employees and busine ss owners have no effect on the hours worked:



249

The Wald Test shows an F-value of 47.9, which is greater than the c ritical value F0.05 =

3.84. The test also shows that employees work 1.157 hours per week more than

entrepreneurs. The null hypothesis is rejected and the conclusion is that there is a

difference in the effect of the two variables on the hours worked.



Age has a positive effect on hours worked, implying that when age increases, so do

working hours. There is also a non -linear relationship between age and the hours

worked, and the calculated age of 49.2 means that , after this age, working hours will

reduce. Finally, the coefficient of the variable for sex is positive, meaning that the males

work more hours than females and this is consistent with assumptions.

In general, the effect of place of origin on hours worked is not significant. Types of

occupation play a more vital role owing to work demands. Working as employees versus

entrepreneurs is a factor influencing working hour s. As indicated by the value of R2 of

0.699771, 70% of the variation in working hours is exp lained by the model.


250

5.5 Conclusion

The regression models and probit analysis presented in Equations 1 to 6 are in line with

the objective of examining the econom ic impact of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants.

The models have been tes ted at a 95% significance level , indicating the respective

significance of different attributes including educational achievements, occupational

performance and labour force participation. Other factors which may be relevant for the

testing of wealth effects, such as the value of saving s and assets, cannot be obtained

from the 1996 Census. The research process has identified some important economic

implications arising from migration policy. A summary of findings is presented in the

next chapter.

The Economic Impact of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy Part VI Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------

251

Part VI CONCLUSION

6.0 Conclusion

This research has explored the objectives and outcomes of migration . The literature has

revealed that , over the years, Australia has seen population growth in the Australian -

born and overseas born sectors and migration has played an important role . Migration is

also motivated by the requirement to slow down the process of ageing (2.2.5 and 2.2.6) ,

to maintain population growth against the increasing permanent departures of Australian

and migrants (2.2.6) and to compete for work force and skills with the rest of the world

(2.2.6).

While the objectives of migration have placed more emphasis on the development of

skilled migration rather than the previous family migration (2.3.2 & 3.2), the policy has

continued to be inspired by the aim of maintaining a young, growing and working

Australia (2.2.5 and 2.2.6). Skilled migration plays a significant role in regulating the

nature and quality of settlers and hence affects the future population of Australia.

Accounting for more than h alf of the annual quota of the migration program (3.2),

skilled migrants are admitted through recognition of their occupational expertise,

proficiency in the English language, through studying for higher qualifications in

Australian institutions, under spo nsorship by employers because of the demand for their

skills, or by in vesting in businesses or participating as business ow ners who have

established their ventures or business connections within Australia (3.3.2). It is as a

result of this policy that Aust ralia has reaped the benefits of achieving a culturally

diverse population that contributes positively towards labour force participation and

exposure to intern ational trade (2.3.5). In competition for human resources and

technology with the rest of the wo rld, Australia has continued to absorb skilled migrants

and settlers who contribute to the society in employment or other co mmitments (2.2.6).


252

This thesis explores the economic impact of Asian migrants under migration policy.

Findings from this research show that the previous problems affecting the employability

of migrants could be alleviated by means of the skilled migration program (2.3.4). Prior

to 1981, these earl ier migrants demonstrated a high er employability in engaging as

professionals than those arriving between 1986 and 1991 (2.3.4). It was also found that

some early Chinese migrants who have high academic credentials had worked at less

senior or sub -professional levels (5.4.2.2.1). This may be due in part to the non -

recognition of overseas qua lifications, and also due to a lower level of English language

proficiency including working and business English for non-English speaking migrants

(5.4.2.4.1). One significant achievement under skilled migration is that migrants’

qualifications have to be accredited by Australian professional bodies or other assessing

authorities (3.3.2.1), so that migrants with higher qualifications working as labourers are

confined mainly to the earlier influx. Since skill-based migration policy was introduced,

it is a pre-requisite that applicants undergo assessment of their English ability and

overseas qualifications and experience prior to applying for entry to Australia (3.3.2.1).

Also, international students ac quire Australian qualifications, work experience and

training which are readily accepted by professional and technical bodies and are able to

apply for permanent residenc e after their studies (2.3.6). In addition, with the

introduction of the economic stream of temporary workers, they have the oppo rtunity to

gain local experience prior to application for permanent status, which will also lead to

greater recognition and acceptance in the job market (3.3.4).

As compared with early migrants of the 1980s and early 1990s, recent migrants have

different employment, income and qualification characteristics. Prestigious occupations

such as managers and professionals ha ve been dominated mostly by Australian -born

people and English speaking migrants, but there are signs to indicate that a similar

proportion of Asians arr iving 1986–91 were able to undertake these tasks (2.3.4). Firstly,

this may be the result of the trend of the declining number of migrants from the UK,


253

Ireland and European and that of increasing entries of Asians since the 1900s (Table 2A,

2.2.6 and 5.1). Secondly, 1990 was the period when migration policy changed its focus

and began to address the skills stream (2.2.6) and was also the period when several

Asian countries became Australia’s major trading partners (2.3.5); and the beginning of

Australia’s tertiary educational export.

Asian culture has lon g been renowned for its emphasis on higher education and

qualifications both for migrants and for second generation migrants, on interpersonal

relationships, and on conscientiousness and a hardworking work ethic (4.3). These

characteristics make Asians a unique group of migrants who continue to contribut e to

the Australian economy. Amongst Asian migrants in Australia, two of the largest

groups, namely those from China and Vietnam, have been shown to be of s ignificance

for the Australian economy (5.4.2.2). There are some similarities and differences

between the characteristics of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants. A greater proportion of

Chinese migrants came following the 1990s when migration policy altered it s focus and

began to place greater emphasis on skilled migration (Table 2A & 4.4.5). Vietnamese

migrants came largely via the refugee and humanitarian stream in the 1970s prior to the

introduction of skill -based migration (2.2.4). Both groups have a high concentration in

engaging as labourers (5.4.4.5) and have a high probability of being unemployed

(5.4.5.3). The Chinese migrants in Australia have shown a strong motivation towards

studying for higher education (5.4.3.1) . There are se veral possibilities behind this

phenomenon. Since higher qualifications increase the point score during the migration

process and overseas students are able to apply for migration, it is possible that the

Chinese-born make use of this studying channel to obtain permanent resi dence (5.4.3.1).

Secondly, this strong desire for higher qualifications is consistent with the Asian norm

as they believe higher academic qualifications represent an important avenue for

Chinese migrants to gain access to professional occupations, such as I T executives,

engineers, accountants and solicitors ( 4.3.1 and 5.4.2.3.1) and to gain h igher income

(5.4.1.3). This philosophy is passed on to their second gene rations as well (4.3.1). This

strong incentive exists also in Chinese migrants in the US and Canada (4.4.2). However,


254

the results show that higher qualifications alone do not necessarily make Chinese or

Vietnamese richer (5.4.2.2.1 and 5.4.2.2.2).

Results have shown increasing participation of Chinese migrants working for higher

status jobs such as professionals (5.4.2.3.1) and Chinese professionals are shown to have

higher earnings than Australian counterparts ( 5.4.2.3.1). However, Chinese migrants

with postgraduate qualifications have not pe rformed better in earnings than those

Australians holding the same level of qualifications (5.4.2.2.1). If Chinese migrants are

able to have qualifications and work experience recogni sed, or have improved

proficiency in English, this should increase their employability in professional or

managerial occupations an d income levels. The fact that this sector of Chinese migrants

has a lower income shows that the factor of qualification alone would not enable them to

outperform their counterparts. There are other factors , such as working English (5.4.1.8).

Concomitantly, there has been a decline in the propo rtion of Chinese migrants in the

labour force employed as tradespeople and clerks (5.4.4.4) and a change to the

occupation of professionals.

In contrast, Vietnamese migrants have not had a strong motivation towards studying for

higher education as Chinese migrants (5.4.3.1), but have shown a higher level of interest

towards being self-employed (5.4.5.2) although the number of Vietnamese entrepreneurs

in the test was not substantial. There is a possibility is that Vi etnamese business owners

have also identified themselves as employee managers or second generation Vietnamese

migrants have improved their qualifications and experience to achieve positions as

employee managers (5.4.5.2). However, results have found that the only significant

difference in earnings between Vietnamese and Australians occurs in the occupation of

managers, and the differential is negative , meaning that a Vietnamese manager does not

earn more than a non-Vietnamese manager (5.4.2.5). Reasons may include proficiency

in English language, business culture or strategies adopted (5.4.5.5).


255

Research undertaken in this thesis has also shown that the influence of Chinese origin on

the overall working sector was not significant, and Chinese migrants have not shown a

high level of participation in becoming self-employed (5.4.5.2). Although there has been

an increasing trend in the Chinese population in Australia from 1983 to 2003 (2.3.1.5,

4.4.5 and 5.1) and China became the fifth largest source country of origin of the

overseas-born population (5.1), Chinese migrants do not favour being entrepreneurs .

Several issues could have arisen and could have significant implications on the

economy. Firstly, for many years, the e mphasis of skilled migration policy has been on

skilled-independent and skilled Australian sponsored categories. Relatively little weight

has been placed on business migra tion (3.3.2.4). This can be seen from the annual quota

allowed for business skill migrants o f about 6,000 out of a total m igration scheme of

100,00018 or of a total skilled component of 60,000 (3.2). This could lead to a

phenomenon of an increased disproportion between employees and self -employed sector

among migrants. Secondly, there is a trend of increasing two-way trade between China

and Australia with the potential that China will become Australia’s most important

trading partner (2.3.5) . However, the continuous fall in the number of new business

migrants together with a relatively small number of Chinese migrants particip ating as

self-employed might mean the trade potentials between Australia and China will not be

further exploited .

More recent data have shown that the number of applications for business migration has

continued to decline. It was reported that in 2003 Australia experienced the lowest

intake of business migrants over ten years 19 as the actual number of visas issued was

18 http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/04fifty.htm#today – DIMIA Fact Sheet No. 4, revised 24 November 2003. 19 http://www.mia.org.au/secure/download/miadimia04 1203.pdf – minutes of meeting between members of DIMIA and MIA held on 4 December 2003.

http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/04fifty.htm#today

http://www.mia.org.au/secure/download/miadimia04


256

6,740, as opposed to a planned level of 8,000 (3.3.2.4). In 2004, the number of business

migrants fell even further to 5,670 (3.3.2.4). One reason might relate to the small

number allocated for business migrants . Another reason might be attributable to the

falling interest in business migration might relate to the introduction of diverting

business resources to low growth areas. Although some state governments have

advertised their preparedness to advise business persons or exp lorers, there seems to be a

need to provide specific support and services that are educational oriented or catered for

new settlers and migrants especially non-English speaking entrants (5.4.5.5).

6.1 Qualifications to the Analysis

In using the 1996 Census data and regression models to compare the difference in

economic impact of Chinese and Vietnamese migrants and Australians, the results were

subject to the limitations of the tests as well as limitations of the Census data. At the

time of commencement of this research, the latest Census data available were those from

1996, and, as a resul t, many qualities or outcomes that would be expected from more

recent migrants were not able to be me asured. In addition, our discussion of Asian

attributes presented only a broad overview of Asians as a group. It is not possible to

maintain absolute consistency in identifying Chinese and Vietnamese migrants

throughout this thesis . There may be an overlap between the two ethnic groups and the

test in this study covers those groups that are in Australia. Therefore, the distinction

between Chinese and Vietnamese migrants is not absolutely clear in the testing. Also,

the Census questions did not ask respondents to specify residence status ; hence it is

possible that international students may have been included. On the other hand , there

was a large number of void answe rs or no answers from respondents, although answers

to other questions we re valid. This not only affects the validity of the results, but also the

validity of the testing undertaken by this research, whereupon the variables of English

language proficiency, years of arrival and hours worked were not validly tested. Further,

although the results have shown significance for the labour force participation of male

migrants, the contributions from the female sector have not been extracted owing to the


257

large number of females not in the labour force. Finally, the data included both full- and

part-time workers and it was not possible to dist inguish only full-time workers.

6.2 Further Areas for Research

Due to the limitations of the data , which were only available as at 1996, more realistic

and updated findings regarding the impact on th e Australian economy may be found by

analysing the 2001 Census data on migrants and settlers. B y accessing more recent data,

the contribution made by the second generations of earlier migrants could also be

explored as they play an increasing role in the l abour force. Although Vietnamese

migrants have not shown considerable interest in obtaining higher qualifications (5.4.3.1

and 5.4.3.2), second generations of Vietnamese migrants might have improved their

qualifications and employability as shown in their positive contribution towards the

occupation of managers (5.4.5.2). It will be a research topic to assess the impact of these

second generations of Vietnamese migrants. In addition, research regarding the

occupational profiles of Chinese migrants , particularly in the professional occupations ,

would provide greater insight into contributions made by skills -based Chinese migrants

as well as second generation Chinese migrants.

Today, in an increasingly multicultural Australian society, Asian migrants from

backgrounds other than Chinese or Vietnamese , such as Indian, may have also made

contributions and providing resources and capital, which may have different effects on

the Australian economy. Under skilled migration, other Asian groups may offer a

different perspective to the society, and although these areas are beyond the scope of this

research, further study into other groups would assist in providing a b roader perspective

regarding Asian migrants and their economic impacts.


258

For many years, business migra tion has been included in the skilled migration program

(3.3.2.4). While this thesis has concentrated on skilled migrants, other area s of interest

are the performance of ethnic business migrants and their impact , the reasons for the

recent declining trend in the number of business migrants, and the effectiveness of

regional migration. This research found income differentials between Vietnamese

managers or business owners and Australian counterparts (5.4.2.3). Further study may

be undertaken to investigate whether ethnicity influences the success of business

owners. Asians are generally known to work long hours and possess enterprising

attitudes, and may have possible trading links with their home countries. Yet the falling

number of business migrants may mean these Asian attributes have not been further

utilised. Although the government has the vision to divert resources to remote areas ,

those migrants who do not have functional English language ability would be less

inclined to cope with both settlement and business developments . As business migrants

are expected to contribute to the Aust ralian economy, further research would be

desirable to identify what nature of support or measures should be implemented at

government level to support and hold regional migration.

Continuous research has helped the Australian Government to transform migration

policy in stages so as to regulate the quality of migrants, settlers and entrants. The

findings of this research highlight the importance of skilled migration as it br ings about

positive outcomes based on the contribution of human capital that Asian migrants offer

to the Australian economy. What is more important is the continuous research to

challenge policy makers of migration and state governments with practical approaches

and strategies to support areas such as business migration and regional migration.

Active support such as running educational courses on issues involving business

environment in regional areas, establishments, income tax concepts, employers

obligations and business finance could be practical incentives to those would -be and

existing entrepreneurs.

259

BIBLIOGRAPHY Access Economics 2001, Population Ageing and the Economy , Commonwealth of

Australia

Access Economics 2002, The Impact of Per manent Migrants on the Commonwealth Budget, Summary Report , 2001–2002, Enhancement , Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra

Alvarado, J. and Creedy, J. 1998, Population Ageing, Migration and Social Expenditure , Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham, UK

Australian Bureau of Statistics 1981, 1981 Census , ABS, Canberra

Australian Bureau of Statistics 1996 , Census Diction ary, ABS, Canberra

Australian Bureau of Statistics 1998 , Standard Australian Classification of Countries (SACC) , ABS, Canberra

Australian Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975, Welfare of Migrants , AGPS, Canberra

Australian Department of Immigration, Loc al Government and Ethnic Affairs 1991, Western Sydney Regional Information and Research Service, South Asian Migration and Settlement in Western Sydney , Westir Ltd, Sydney

Australian Ethnic Affairs Council 1977, Australia as a Multicultural Society , Submission to the Australian Population and Immigration Council on the Green Paper, Immigration Policies and Australia ’s Population, AGPS, Canberra

Australian Labor Party Policy Document 1993 , Federal Election, Paul Keating Prime Minister of Australia , 24 February 1993, Paragon Printers, Barton

Backman, M. 1995, Overseas Chinese Business Networks in Asia , Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, East Asia Analytical Unit, AGPS , Canberra

Beaton, L., Doughney, J.R. and Esposto, A. 1999, Temporary Business Entry to Australia, Views of Companies and Migration Agents , DIMA, Workplace Studies Centre, Victoria University of Technology and Committee for Economic Development of Australia, CEDA Information Paper No. 63

Berndt, E.R. 1991, The Practice of Econometrics: Classi c and Contemporary Reading , Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc ., Massachusetts

Binkowski, G.A. 1992, Guide for Migrants to Australia, New Zealand and Canada , Export and Commercial Research Services Pty Ltd, Canberra

Birrell, R. and Birrell, T. 1987, An Issue of People: Population and Australian Society , 2nd Edition, Longman Cheshire Pty Ltd, Melbourne

Birrell, R. and Hawthorne , L. 1996, Immigrants and the Professions in Australia , Centre for Population and Urban Research , Monash University, Melbourne

Black, K. 2001, Business Statistics: Contemporary Decision Making , 3rd Edition, South -Western College Publishing, Ohio

260

Boccabella, L. 2000, Applying for Business Skills Visa , Conference Proceeding o f Workshop for Migration Professional Education , 6–8 October 2000, Sydney

Bolaria, B.S. and Bolaria, R. 1997 , International Labour Migration , Oxford University Press, Oxford

Bosch, G., Dawkings, P. and Michon, F. 1994, Times are Changing: Working Time in 14 Industrialised Countries , International Institute for Labo ur Studies, Geneva

Boyd, A. 1998, An Atlas of World Affairs , 10th Edition, Routledge, London

Boyd, S. 1999, Australia’s Role and Interests in Hong Kong after the Handover , The Graduate School of Management, University of Wes tern Australia, ISSN 1320 -1980, Nedlands

Brawley, S. 1995, The White Peril : Foreign Relations and Asian Immigration to Australasia and North America , 1919–1978, UNSW Press Ltd, Sydney

Briggs, V.M. Jr. 1996, Mass Immigration and the National Interest , 2nd Edition, M .E. Sharpe Inc., New York

Broinowski, A. 2004, Double Vision : Asian Accounts of Australia, Pandanus Books, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra

Brooks, C. 1994, The Role of Sk illed Temporary Residents in the Australian Labour Market, Department of Employment, Education and Training, AGPS, Canberra

Brown, R. 1986, Milestones in Australian History : 1788 to the Present, Collins, Sydney

Budd, B. and Madden, G. 199 9, Determinants of Australian Full -Time Earnings , Murdoch University, Th e Centre for Labour Market Resea rch, School of Economics and Finance, CLMR Discussion Paper Series 99/7, ISSN 1329 -2676, Murdoch

Bulbeck, C. 1998, Social Sciences in Australia , 2nd Edition, Harcourt Brace & Co, Sydney

Bureau of Immigration and Population R esearch (BIMPR) May 1994, Community Profiles 1991 Census, Vietnam Born , AGPS, Canberra

Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research (BIMPR) 1995, Business Migration to Australia, Key Features , Enriching Australia through the entry and settlement of people , AGPS, Publication 204/95, Canberra

Burnett, R. 1989, Australian Immigration Law , Volumes 1 and 2 , Butterworths, Sydney

Burnley, I. and Mu rphy, P. 1994, Immigration, Housing Costs and Population Dynamics in Sydney , Bureau of Immigration and Population Research, AGPS, Canbe rra

Burnley, I., Murphy, P. and Fagan, B. 1997, Immigration and Australian Cities , The Federation Press, Leich hardt

Burns, R. 1998, Doing Business in Asia : A Cultural Perspective , Addison Wesley Longman Australia, South Mel bourne

261

Callan, V.J. 1986, Australian Minority Groups , Harcourt Brace Jovanich Group, Sydney

Campbell, C.P. 1995, Race, Myth and the News , SAGE Publications, California

Caplan, N., Choy, M.H. and Whitmore, J.K. 1992, ‘Indochinese Refugee Families and Academic Achievement ’. In: Scientific American , February

Carino-Abello, A., Pederson, D. and King, A. 2001, Occasional Paper: Dynamics of Earned Income in Australia – An Application Using the Survey of Employment and Unemployment Patterns , 1994 to 1997, National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling, University of Canberra, AGPS Embargo 22 February 2001, Canberra

Carmichael, G.A. 1993, Trans-Tasman Migration: Trends, Causes and Consequences , Bureau of Immigration Research, AGPS Canberra

Castles, F.G. 1988, Australian Public Policy and Economic Vulnerability: A Comparative and Historical Perspective , Allen & Unwin, Sydney

Castles, F.G. 1991, Australia Compared : People, Policies and Politics , Allen & Unwin, Sydney

Castles, S., Alcoreo, C., Rando, G. and Vasta, E. (eds) 1992, Australia’s Italians : Culture and Community in a Changing Society, Allen & Unwin, Sydney

Castles, S., Foster, W., Iredale, R. and Withers, G. 1998, Immigration and Australia : Myths and Realities , Allen & Unwin , Sydney

Chai, J.C.H., Kueh, Y.Y. and Tisdell, C.A. 1997, China and the Asia Pac ific Economy , Nova Science Publishers Inc ., New York

Charlesworth, A., Gilbert, D., Randall, A., Southall, H. and Wrigley, C. 1996, An Atlas of Industrial Protest in Britain 1750 –1990, Macmillan, Basingstoke

Chen, M. 1995, Asian Management Systems – Chinese, Japanese and Korean Styles of Management , International Thomson Publishing Inc ., New York

Chu, C. 1995, The Asian Mind Game : Unlocking the Hidden Agenda of the Asian Business Culture – A Westerner’s Survival Manual, Stealth Productions, Crows Nest

Clark, M. 1980, A Short History of Australia, 2nd Edition, Tudor Distributors, Sydney

Collins, J. 1992, Immigrant Families in Austra lia, University of Technology Sydney, School of Finance and Economics, Working Pape r Series No. 12, Sydney

Collins, J. and Henry, F. 1993, Racism, Ethnicity and Immig ration in Canada and Australia, University of Technology Sydney, School of Finance and Economics, Working Paper No. 25, Sydney

Collins, J. and Reid, C. 1995, Chinese in Aus tralia 1945–1994: Changing Patterns of Migration , Racialisation and Opportunity , University of Technology Sydney, Faculty of Business, Sydney

Commonwealth Record 1978, Volume 3, No. 24, 19 –25 June, AGPS, Canberra

— 1986, Volume 11 , No. 26, 7–13 July

262

— 1986, Volume 11 , No. 32, 18–24 August

— 1986, Volume 11 , No. 42, 27 Oc tober – 2 November

Cope, A. 1998, Visas: Employment Grounds , Migration Institute of Australia, Deakin University, Geelong

Cornelius, W.A., Martin, P.L. and Hollifield, J.F. 1994, Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective , Stanford University Press, Stanford

Coughlan, J.E. and McNamara, D.J. 1997, Asians in Australia : Patterns of Migration and Settlement, Macmillan Education Australia, Melbourne

Crock, M. 1998, Immigration and Refugee Law in Australia , The Federation Press, Leichhardt

Daly, M.T. and Logan, M.I. 1998, Reconstructing Asia – The Economic Miracle That Never Was, The Future That Is, RMIT University Press, Melbourne

David, A. and Wheelwright, T. 1989, The Third Wave: Australian and Asian Capitalism , Left Book Club Co -operative Ltd, Sydney

Davis, J. 1994, ‘Education – A Reluctant Industry’. In Marsh, I. (ed.), Australian Business in the Asia Pacific Region : The Case for Strategic Industry Policy , Longman Professional Publishing, Me lbourne

De Mente, B.L. 1994, Chinese Etiquette and Ethics in Business , 2nd Edition, NTC Business Books, Lincolnwood

Denoon, D., Hudson, M., McCormack, G. and Morris-Suzuki, T. 1996, Multicultural Japan: Palaeolithic to Postmodern , Cambridge University Pre ss, Melbourne

Department of Education, Science and Training 2001, Overseas Student Statistics 2000 , J.S. McMillan Printing Group, Australian Education International, Canberra

Department of Employment, Education and Training, Economic and Po licy Analysis Division, November 1995, Australia’s Workforce 2005 : Jobs in the Future , AGPS, Canberra

Department of Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Business 2000, Nation Skilling: Migration, Labour and the Law, Conference Proceedings of An International Symposiu m conducted jointly by the Faculty of Law, Unive rsity of Sydney and the Law Council of Australia , 23–24 November 2000, Sydney

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1992, Australia and North -East Asia in the 1990s: Accelerating Change , East Asia Analytica l Unit, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1995, Australia Through the Eyes of Asia : Adding Innovation , Marketing Australia Unit, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1998, Asia’s Infrastructure in the Cr isis: Harnessing Private Enterprise , East Asia Analytical Unit, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration 1988, Australia and Immigration 1788 to 1988 , Local Government and Ethnic Affairs, AGPS, Canberra

263

Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (DIEA) 1994, Business Skills Class Bulletin, Edition No. 5, November 1994

—1994, Business Skills Section, 17 November 1994

—1995, Business Skills Category Bulletin, Edition No. 6, August 1995

—1995, Breaking New Ground for Australian Business, Canberra, 9 May 1995

—1995, Fact Sheet No. 30 , Fifty Years of Post War Migration, Canberra, 13 April 1995

—2004, Fact Sheet No. 37, Processing Priorities, 29 September 2004

—2004, Fact Sheet No. 27, Business Skills Migration, 2 November 2004

—2005, Fact Sheet No. 20, Migration Program P lanning Levels, 21 January 2005

—2005, Fact Sheet No. 46, Temporary Entry: An Overview, 20 April 2005

—2005, Fact Sheet No. 3, The Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs, Canberra, 5 July 2005

—2005, Fact Sheet No. 34, Assurance of Support, 12 July 2005

—2005, Fact Sheet No. 24, Overview of Skilled Migration, 24 August 2005

—2005, Fact Sheet No. 47, Temporary Residence in Australia, 1 November 2005

—FORM 958I S

—FORM 147

Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, A New Agenda for Multicultural Australia , AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, Protecting the Border: Immigration Compliance , Border Control and Compliance Division, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra , December

Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, General Skilled Migration Booklet, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 1999, Population Flows : Immigration Aspects , Commonwealth of Australia, December, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 2000, Population Flows: Immigration Aspects , Statistics Section, Business Branch, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 200 4, Population Flows: Immigration Aspects , Statistics Sectio n, Business Branch, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs 2001, Immigration: Federation to Century’s End 1901 –2000, Statistics Section, Business Branch, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs 2001, Immigration Update 2002 , Statistics Section, Commonwealth of Australia, November, AGPS, Canberra

264

Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs 2002, Migration: Benefiting Australia , Conference Proceedings , Sydney 7 –8 May 2002, AGPS, Canberra

Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs 2003a, The People of Australia 2003, Statistics from 2001 Census , Statistics Section, Commonwealth of Australia

Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigeno us Affairs 2003b, Report of the Review of Settlement Services for Migrants and Humanitarian Entrants , Settlement Services Review, Settlement Branch, May 2003, Belconnen ACT

Department of Premier and Cabinet 2004, State Government of Victoria, Commonwealth–Victoria Working Party on Migration , Commonwealth of Australia

Dique, J.C.A. 1985, Immigration: The Quie t Invasion, Veritas Publishing Co Pty Ltd, Bullsbrook

Dobell, G. 2000, Australia Finds Home : The Choices and Chances of an Asia Pacific Journey , Australia Broadcasting Corporation, Sydney

Doran, H.E. 1989, Applied Regression Analysis in Econometrics , Marcel Dekkerr Inc ., New York

Douglas, D. 1982, The Economics of Australian Immig ration, Proceedings of the Conference on the Economics of Immigration, Febr uary 8–9 1982, Dep artment of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs and Department of Adult Educa tion, University of Sydney, Sydney

Drury, S. 1976, A Nation of Migrants Making Australian Society , Thomas Nelson (Australia) Ltd, West Melbourne

Easson, M. 1990, Australia and Immigration: Able to Grow, Pluto Press Australia Ltd, Melbourne

Faulkner, G. 1995, Business Indonesia , Business and Professional Publishing Ltd, Chatswood

FitzGerald, S . 1988, Immigration: A Commitment to Australia, The Report of the Committee to Advise on Australia’s Immigration Policies, AGPS, Canberra

FitzGerald, S. 1997, Is Australia an Asian Country? Can Australia Survive in an East Asian Future? Allen & Unwin, St Leonards

FitzGerald, V. 1991, ‘The Vision o f the Garnaut Report: Australia a s a Bridge to Asia ’. In: Public Policy Forum on the Garnaut and A.M.C . Reports at the Australian Graduate School of Management July 20 –21 1990, Internationalising Australia’s Economy, Australian Graduate School of Management, Sydney

Foster, J. 1994, ‘The E conomy’. In: Furze, B. and Stafford, C. (eds), Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary Australia, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne

Foster, L. and Stockley, D. 1984, Multiculturalism: The Changing Australian Par adigm, Multilingual Matters Ltd, Clevedon

265

Foster, L. and Stockley, D. 1988, Australian Multiculturalism : A Documentary History and Critique , Multilingual Matters Ltd, Clevedon

Foster, L. 1997, ‘Introduction: Globalisation – Implications for Australia and Canada’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Century of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa

Foster, W. 1996, Immigration and the Australian Economy , Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, Research and Statistics Branch, AGPS, Canberra

Freeman, G.P. and Jupp, J . (eds) 1992, Nations of Immigrants: Australia, the US and International Migration , Oxford University Press, Melbourne

Furze, B. and Stafford, C. 1994, Society and Change: A Sociological Introduction to Contemporary Australia , Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne

Fynmore, R. and Hill, H. 1992, Australia’s Business Challenge: South -East Asia in the 1990s, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Austrade, AGPS, Canberra

Garnaut, R. 1989, Australia and the Northeast Asian Ascendancy , Report to the Prime Minister and the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade , AGPS, Canberra

Garnaut, R., Ganguly, R. and Kang, J. Ma y 2003, Migration to Australia and Comparisons with the United States: Who Benefits? , Report prepared for DIMIA, Australian National University, Commonwealth of Australia, Belconnen

Garnaut, R. 2004, Australia and China: Risks in a Good Story, Paper presented to CEDA (Committee for Economic Development of Australia), 27 August 2004, Perth

Giblett, H. 1998, Visa: Business Skills , Migration Institute of Australia, Deakin Australia, Geelong

Goddard, J. 1995, The Immigration Kit: A practical Guide to Australia’s Immigration Law, 4th Edition, The Federation Press, Annandale

Godement, F. 1999, The Downsizing of Asia , Routledge, London

Goldberg, M.A. and Fullerton, H.R. 1994, ‘World Cities and Loc al Property Markets: Producers and Products of the New Global Eco nomy’. In: Joint Conference presented by the OECD and the Australian Government , Volume 1, Cities and the New Global Economy , 20–23 November 1994, Melbourne

Gray, A.H. 1994, Aotearoa and New Zealand: A Historical Geography , Canterbury University Press, Ch ristchurch

Gujarati, D. 2003, Basic Econometrics , 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston

Hage, G., Couch, R. and Martin, J. 1999, The Future of Australian Multiculturalism : Reflections on the Twentieth Anniversary of Jean Martin’s The Migrant Presence , University of Sydney, Research Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences, Sydney

Haley, G.T., Chin, T.T. and Haley, U.C.V. 1998, New Asian Emperors : The Overseas Chinese, Their Strategies and Competitive Advantages , Butterworth -Heinemann, Oxford

266

Hamilton, P. 1978, The Irish , Thomas Nelson (Australia), West Melbourne

Hawkins, F. 1989, Critical Years in Immigration: Canada and Australia Compared , McGill–Queen’s University Press, Kingston

Hitchcock, N.E. 1990, Migration to Australia : An Authoritative Guide to Seeking Migrant and Other Visas for Australia , Neil E. Hitchcock & Associ ates Pty Ltd, Sydney

Huttman, E.D. 1994, ‘Immigration from the Pacific Rim: US Policy on Economic Activities, Housing and Location’. In: Jong, S.J. (ed.), Development in the Asia Pacific, A Public Policy Perpsective, Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin

Immigration Advice and Rights Centre (IARC) 1999, Publication Issue No. 59/60 June ISSN 08196745

Immigration Law 1998, Legal Professional Development, Leo Cussen Institute, Melbourne, October

Immigration, Population and Citizenship Digest 2003, Migration Branch, DIMIA, Commonwealth of Australia , May

Inglis, C. 1997, ‘Globalisation and the Impact of Asian Migration on Australia and Canada’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Century of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa

Iredale, R.R. 1997, Skills Transfer , International Migration and Accreditation Issues , University of Wollongong Press, Wollongong

Ito, T. and Krueger, A.O. 1995, Growth Theories in Light of the East Asian Experience , The University of Chicago Press, London

Jayasuriya, L. 1987, ‘Immigration Policies and Ethnic Relations in Australia ’, Paper for the Conference Canada 2000 – Race Re lations, Carleton University, Ottawa, University of Western Australia, Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Perth

Joel, A.P. 1984, A Practical Guide to Obtaining Permanent Residence in Aus tralia, Legal Books Pty Ltd, Sydney

Jones Lang Wootton 1997, Asian Pacific Property

Jong, S.J. 1994, Development in the Asia Pacific : A Public Policy Perspective , Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin

Junankar, P.N., Pope, D., Kapuscinski, C., Ma, G. and Mudd, W. 1993, Recent Immigrants and Housing , The Australian National University, Bureau of Immigration and Population Research, AGPS, Canberra

Junankar, P.N., Paul , S. and Yasmeen , W. 2002, Are Asian Migrants Discriminated against in the Labour Market? A Case Study of Australia , School of Economics and Finance, University of Western Sydney, Campbelltown

Kershen, A. 1998, A Question of Identity , Ashgate Publishing Ltd, Aldershot

267

Keysar, A., Kosmin, B.A. and Scheckner, J. 2000, The Next Generation – Jewish Children and Adolescents , State University o f New York Press, Albany

Kirk, D. 2000, Korean Dynasty Hyundai and Chung Ju Yung , Asia 2000 Limited, Hong Kong and M.E. Sharpe Inc ., Armonk

Klintworth, G. 1994, Taiwan in the Asia–Pacific in the 1990s , Allen & Unwin in association with the Department of International Relations, Australian National University, St Leonards

Knight Frank 1998, ‘Asia Pacific Market Overview’ in Asia Pacific Property Review , Quarter 1, MITA(P) No. 202/01/98

Koutsoukis, A.J. 1975, Topics from Australian History , Whitcombe & To mbs Pty Ltd, Marrickville

Krooss, H.E. and Gilbert, C. 1972, American Business History , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs

Lall, S.1996, Learning from the Asian Tigers : Studies in Technology and Industrial Policy, Macmillan, Houndmills

LBC Immigration Lawbo ok 2003, Procedures Advice Manual (CD-ROM), Department of Immigration, Multicultural & Indigenous Affairs, A Thompson Company, Lawbook Co Immigration Service

Leipziger, D.M. and Thomas, V. 1993, ‘Common Foundations of East Asian Succe ss’. In: Lessons of East Asia: An Overview of Country Experience , The World Bank, Washington DC

Lever-Tracy, C., Ip, D., Kitay, J., Phillips, I. and Tracy, N. 1991, ‘ Asian Entrepreneurs in Australia’. In: Ethnic Small Business in the Chinese and Indian Communities of Brisbane and Sydney , A Report to the Office of Mult icultural Affairs, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, AGPS, Canberra

Lewins, F. and Ly, J. 1985, The First Wave: The Settlement of Australia’s First Vietnamese Refugees , George Allen & Unwin, Sydney

Lim, L.Y.C. and Gosling, L.A.P. 1983, The Chinese in South East Asia, Maruzen Asia, Singapore

Lincoln, J.R. and Kalleberg, A.L. 1990, Culture, Control and Commitment : A Study of Work Organization and Work Attitudes in the United States and Japan , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Lloyd, P.J. and Williams, L.S. 1996, International Trade and Migration in the APEC Region, Oxford University Press, Melbourne

Loundes, J. 1999, Household Saving Behaviour in Australia , The University of Melbourne, Melbourne Ins titute of Applied Economic and Social Research, Working Paper No. 17/99, Parkville V ic.

Lowe, I. 1992, ‘Social Impact Analysis of Information Technology’. In: Stevenson, T. and Lennie, J. (eds), Australia’s Communication Futures , Queensland University o f Technology, The Communications Centre, Brisbane

268

Mackerras, C. 1996, Australia and China – Partners in Asia , Key Centre for Asian Languages and Studies, Griffith University, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne

Maddala, G.S. 2001, Introduction to Econometrics , 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester

Maden, A.F. and Morris -Jones, W.H. 1980, Australia and Britain : Studies in a Changing Relationship , Sydney University Press, Sydney

Maher, C. 1999, Houses and Jobs in Cities and Regions, O’Connor, K.B. (ed.), The University of Queensland Press for The Australian Housing and Research Institute, Brisbane

Marginson, S. 1993, Education and Public Policy in Australia , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Marsh, I. (ed.) 1994, Australian Business in the Asia Pacific Region: The Case for Strategic Industry Policy , Longman Professional Publishing, Melbourne

Mason, R.D., Lind, D.A. and Marchal, W.G. 2000, Statistical Techniques in Business and Economics, 10 th Edition, Irwin/McGraw -Hill, Singapore

McDonald, P. and Kippen, R. 1999, The Impact of Immigration on the Ageing of Australia’s Population , Commonwealth of Australia

McTaggart, D., Findlay, C., and Parkin, M. 2003, Economics, 4th Edition, Pearson Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbo urne

Meredith, D. and Dyster , B. 1990, Australia in the International Economy in the Twentieth Century , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Meredith, D. and Dyster , B. 1999, Australia in the Global Economy : Continuity and Change , Cambridge University P ress, Cambridge

Migration Institute of Australia 1999, Student and Other V isas, 18 November

Migration Institute of Australia 1999, Business Visas: Temporary and Permanent, Conference Proceedings of NSW Twilight Seminar, 23 September

Milne, F. and Sherg old, P. 1984, The Great Immigration Debate , Federation of Ethnic Communities’ Councils of Australia, Sydney

Morris, G., Cook, C., Creyke, R., Geddes, R. and Holloway, I. 1996, Laying Down the Law: The Foundations of Legal Reasoning, Research and Writing in Australia and New Zealand , 4th Edition, Butterworths, Sydney

Murphy, B. 1993, The Other Australia: Experiences of M igration, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Neter, J., Kutner, M.H., Nachtsheim, C.J. and Wasserman, W. 1996, Applied Linear Statistical Models , 4th Edition, W.C.B. McGraw-Hill Companies Inc ., Homewood

Nieuwenhuysen, J.P. and Drake, P.J. 1977, Australian Economic Policy , Melbourne University Press, Melbourne

269

Nish, I., Redding, G. and Ng, S.H. 1996, Work and Society : Labour and Human Resources in East Asia , Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong

OECD Proceedings 1998, ‘Migration, Free Trade and Regional Integration in North America’. In: Migration Policy in North America: P olicies and Sectoral Economic Impact, Part II

O’Farrell, P. 198 8, The Irish in Australia , NSW University Press, Sydney

Perlmann, J. and Waldinger, R. 2000, ‘Are the Children of Today’s Immigrants Making It?’ In: Steinberg, S. (ed.), Race and Ethnicity in the US: Issues and Debates , Blackwell Publishers Inc .

Philips, D.J. and Houston, J. 1984, Australian Multicultural Society : Identity, Communication, Decision Making, Dove Communications , Blackburn Vic.

Pinkstone, B. 1997, A Case for Ideological Determinism: Nation Building, Migration and Australian Economic Developme nt, University of Western Sydney, Faculty of Commerce Working Papers in Economics No. WP97/03, May 1997, Nepean

Pinkstone, B. and Meredith, D. 1992, Global Connections : A History of Exports and the Australian Economy , AGPS, Canberra

Poole, D. 1999, Managing International Entrepreneurialism in Australian Universities: A Case Study , University of Technology, Sydney, Working Paper Series 18/99

Poole, M.E., de Lacey, P.R. and Randhawa, B.S. 1985, Australia in Transition : Culture and Life Possibilities , Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Group (Australia) Pty Ltd, North Ryde

PRD Realty Newsletter 1989, Investing in Australian Real Estate 1989

Price, C.A. and Martin, J.I. 1976, Australian Immigration : The Education of Migrant Children in Australia , Parts 1 and 2, The Australian Nationa l University, Department of Demography, Institute of Advanced Studies, AGPS, Canberra

Productivity Commission 1999, Policy Implications of the Ageing of Australia’s Population , Conference Proceedings , Melbourne, 18–19 March 1998, Commonwealth of Australia

Reisinger, Y. and Lindsay, T. 2000, Cultural Differences between Mandarin Speaking Tourists and Australian Hosts and their Impact on Cross -Cultural Tourist–Host Interaction , Monash University, Faculty of Business and Economics, Working Paper 30/00, May 2000

Reitz, J.G. 1997, ‘Institutional Restructuring and the Impact of Non -European Immigration on the Urban Areas of the US, Canada and Australia’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Cent ury of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa

Richardson, A. 1974, British Immigrants and Australia : A Psychosocial Inquiry , Australian National University Press, Canberra

270

Robinson, R., Hewison, K. and Higgott, R. 1987, South East Asia in the 1980s: The Politics of Economic Crisis , Allen & Unwin, Sydney

Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J. and Tranter, P.J. 2000, Australia and New Zealand : Economy, Society and Environment , Arnold, Hodder Headline, London

Rod, T. and Webster, E. 1995, Immigration and Trade with East Asia in the Food Industry: The Contribution of Immigrants , Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research, AGPS Canbe rra

Romaine, S. 1991, Language in Australia , Cambridge University Press, Ca mbridge

Sassen, S. 1994, Immigration in Global Cities , Volume 3 in An International Conference presented by the OECD and the Australian Government, 20 –23 November, Melbourne

Scotton, R.B. and Ferber, H. 1980, Public Expenditures and Social Policy in Australia , Volumes 1 and 2, Longman Cheshire Pty Ltd, Melbourne

Sexton, J. 2001, The Australian Immigration Book, Made-To-Measure Publications Pty Ltd, Sydney

Sherington, G. 1990, Australia’s Immigrants 1788 –1988, Allen & Unwin, Sydney

Singer, R. 1984, The Immigration Deba te in the Press, Sunday Observer 27/5/84, The Clearing House on Migration Issues, Richmond

Skeldon, R. 1994, Reluctant Exciles ? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese , An East Gate Book, M .E. Sharpe Inc ., Armonk

Sloman, J. and Norris, K. 1999, Economics , 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, London

Soesastro, H. and Pangestu, M. 1990, Technological Challenge in the Asia –Pacific Economy, Allen & Unwin in association with Pacific Trade and Development Conference Secretariat, Sydney

Stockley, D. 1997, ‘Globalisation: Internationalising Education in the 1990s’. In: Burridge, K., Foster, L. and Turcotte, G. (eds), Canada–Australia: Towards a Second Century of Partnership , International Council for Canadian Studies, Carleton University Press, Ottawa

Studenmund, A.H. 2001, Using Econometrics: A Prac tical Guide, 4th Edition, Addison Wesley Longman Inc ., Boston

Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers , 2002, 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, revised by Snooks & Co, Milton

Sullivan, L., Maley, B., Buckingham, J. and Hughes, H. 1999, State of the Nation: Indicators of a Changing Australia , The Centre for Independence Studies Limited, St Leonards

Szalay, L.B., Strohl, J.B., Fu, L. and Lao, P.S. 1994, American and Chinese Percepti ons and Belief Systems : A People’s Republic of China – Taiwanese Comparison , Plenum Press, New York

271

Tacq, J. 1997, Multivariate Analysis Techniques in Social Science Research from Problems to Analysis , Sage Publications, London

Tan, G. 1995, The Newly Industrializing Countries of Asia , Times Academic Press, Singapore

Tavan, G. 2005, The Long, Slow Death of White Australia , Scribe Publications Pty Ltd, Melbourne

Terpstra, V. and David, K. 1991, The Cultural Environment of International Business , 3rd Edition, College Division, South-Western Publishing Co, Ohio

The Age Education Unit Vic . 1984, Reprint Booklet No. 39

The Economist 2001, March

Trood, R. and McNamara, D. 1994, The Asia–Australia Survey 1994 , Centre for the Study of Australia–Asia Relations, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Melbourne

Turner, B. 1999, The Statesman’s Yearbook : The Politics, Cultures and Economics of the World 2000 , Macmillan Reference Ltd, UK

Victoria University of Technology and Committee for Economic Development of Australia 1999, Temporary Business Entry to Australia, Views of Companies and Migration Agents , DIMA, Workplace Studies Centre, CEDA Information Paper No. 63, July 1999

Vicziany, M. 1993, Australia–India, the Economic Links: Past, Present and Future , Indian Ocean Centre for Peace Studies, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands

Ward, R. 1969, Australia: A Short History, URE Smith, Sydney

Ward, R. 1982, Australia Since the Coming of Men , Mead and Beckett Publishing, Sydney

Weller, S. 2004, Non-Regulatory Impediments to the Labour Market Participation of Mature Workers , Strategic Policy Research Project, School of Ant hropology, Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Melbourne

West, P.M.J. and Dwight, A. 1980, Australia – From Empire to Asia , Science Press, Sydney

Western Sydney’s Regional Information and Research Service 1991, South Asian Migration and Settlement in Western Sydney , Department of Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs, Westir Ltd, Sy dney

Wooden, M. 1998, Gender Pay Equity and Comparable Worth in Australia: A Reassessment , Working Paper Series May 1998 , No. 148, National Institute of Labour Studies Inc., Flinders University, South Australia

Yarwood, A.T. and Knowling, M.J. 1982, Race Relations in Australia: A History , Methuen Australia, North Ryde

272

York, B. 1996, ‘Studies in Australian Ethnic History No. 13 and Ethno -Historical Studies in a Multicultural Australia’ , No. 14. In: From Assimilation to Mu lticulturalism: Australian Experience 1945 –1989, Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, Research School of Soc ial Science, Australian National University, Canberra

Yu, O. 1998, Representations of Australia and Australians in China and Hong Kong 1985–1995, Asian Representations Monograph No. 2, Centre for the Study of Australia–Asia Relations, Faculty of International Business and Politics, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland

Zelinka, S. 1996, Understanding Racism in Australia , AGPS, Canberra

APPENDICES

I Components of Population Growth 1977-1999

2 Components of Net Overseas Migration 1983-2000

3 Median Age of Selected Birthplace Groups

4 Arrival of Migrants from ltaly, Greece and Yugoslavia, 1949-1971

5 Resolutions Passed by Trade Unions Against the Importation of Chinese

6 lJrban Concentration of Ethnic Migrants

7 Comparisons of Migration Programs for 1999 and 2003

8 Classes of Visas under Migration Regulations, lgg4

9 Extract from Procedures Advice Manual of Criteria for Parents Applications,2003

l0 Basic Requirements, Points Test and Skil led Migration Update,2003

I I Basic Requirements for Employer Sponsored Application, 2003

12 General Information and Points Test for Business Skills Application, 2003

l3 Business Skil ls Applications Lodged by Top Ten Countries

14 Def ini t ion of Asia

l 5 Provinces of China

l6 Proportion of population with univ6rsity qualif ications by birthplace, 1991

17 Immigration and Emigration to Asia by Regions, 1984-85 to 1993-94

i l).pa.lnNrl ol- lonni.rration Der :irrlrl,\p|cnilirei,{!\1r1 imnri !o\ auislarisrispuhli.alnDslx)t0ors app pdl)

t

5 0 :

5 a i

iS It za 1!ia

rir)ll rJ,lli ..n {1 : {rrnqr On: t({nrqrowrh 'n cr(ir sjJr:trd utr: sum ot In...mt{!nmr..r rh'r.lr.vnrr.nK.rroni rirr(\t'{r'u-.rlt45lrEc,:!let'rt ,n m.dr: iirr!J L'41l: r.mu\ l..liq,n1t. iny rntrrrin\rt dryniDarrt

06n!166Jr1o1o)

r 5 6 a

Pk:nv rrr: tn,n InlJx:\ I'n{ tr{:n ..d(trt Jl,..] rhar dF k, tuladnl l.rr.ts n'rv jor !r ltF (:rfll !ff .J rrnrp3x.nt!

rnr cdlrrrfy ,umr)'na '( rh(.n.! dl{j.l or p.rv,ns who\. lrJvrj! fi{flnrD\ {hnn.r trom !h.n ry

h lnrni.rnl or jons r{:ri

i ' j i i ] . g { l . j n t t q . l . n t nDu l i o ' \ . t l ' Jm lm fan . j knq l . . ' , : ' ; . , ' " . . ' . ' ' t ' ' L ' ] {Y j l i r | h ' ' r r |m 'q i I ' | n ' t . l ) : 1D . j { f | : J . | J \ t ] { : I:.r .rt.crrY :rrtBr.!

tilr h':e liguri\ nlr p4:!!4'!rn!y Nrr tv.'{4 qqrafton .'1d Ghlldf nlmpq\ dn '!or'rrl .vailrbh !ry 2nna

{Dcpartme, ! f I tnnr i : fa l ion I )e. : ( jn( r : \pp(ndi .c ! }a**{ itrnni so\ au,slalislirsrpubli.arionijpop o\}\ app pdi)

=,::.:-:ir :!:==,-ii;i:;:r,... .

I t r l

{ Dcparlrnenl ol-lmnrigration. l)cc 1000 ApF)ndiccs)(\!\l$ immi. gov au. slatistics'publ icalionsrpopfl o\vs.app. pdf i

. r-€i'E lir'�{:+#i.' *f?Ei rE€iIE-.r-: .

I hut in rhe ,ptnnn oi this ( irlgrvrs, tht t nc hus off^&lBltn innklret( st(ps should he krJian Lfi,nr tlla I' uluholtnn ol l hnc:e tnd ( (xtlia nntigrutkn h.:.ut^(: lirrl.th( (tnpctitrrn o/ .lst.ttic rtgaintt l.ur(tpctrn luhour ri urntltltiuir; su!"tut. it is u(11 knorn thut the prcscncc tl ( hrnasain dflr c.rnnuoitv lt ts hud u vart funl nutrul t,,ruIcnt.t'

Carricd unanimouslv-

Rcsolution ol'thc 4u'Intemational Tradc Urion Congerssl8L6- Adclaidc

J hul lh/\ ( \ tnt(t:s.\ r(Lltnls ils sol isldd t(tn .tt llt.I'urliun(nl in !lt.' r'itri(nt\.trl()niar h rastriLli4arnrnriqruin)n arkllurthcr tl il ir nd:$jl)rr tllulth, 'u lJ fu 1l* Jup'utul l ( | \JR IDI ' t ' t t t t th ' tL

Carricd unanimoush.

Resolutron ofthc (iL lntemational Tr.rde ljnion Congcrss1889. Hoban

r le l inka l9q6 l i )

Indexes of djssimilarily of birlhplace groups in Sydney. Adelaid. Canberra and Perth 1991

Birthplace

UK and kelandGermanyGreece

ItalyNelherlandsNewZealand

PolandFormer Yugoslavia

LebanonMaltaSpain

TurkeyFormer USSR

USASouth Africa

ChileEsvpt

Vietnamlndia

MalaysiaChina

PhilpprnesHong KongSingapore

Metropolitan areaSydney Adelaide Canberra

1 1 9 2 0 11 2 9 1 94 9 7 3 3 43 5 6 3 7 31 5 8 1 6 52 0 9 1 1 73 1 2 5 2

37 3 2695 2 2 1 9 73 9 8 2 4 13 6 9 1 6 543.9 33.835 3 24.3

3 6 1 2 4 7241 234 2 5 23 1 2 1 9 5

67 1 5323.2 13.929 5 33.243.6 2643 5 4 2 0 4404 344362 289

6 4 1 3 31 4 4 . 1

3 0 4 4 4 32 1 A 3 2 51 7 7 1 2 61 3 4 8 82 4 5 2 3 72 1 5 3 74 1 4 2 5 23 1 3 2 1 23 7 6 1 9 959.2 36.4293 265

2 3 t 1 7 71 2 5 9 1 0 SN/A 2965 5 2 1 4

3 3 1 4 A 12 0 1 2 0 5213 3023 1 1 3 1 7264 16230.5 31.2N/A 27 7

(Bumle) cr al 1997 15)

Comparisons of Mrgratr()n l \ogrdms ft 'r lggq and ltx).t

( l t Migration Prolram for l9g8,9q

'1998/99

Prqection1999/2000Planning

oa %Family StreamlndependenlSkilled Australian Sponsored,Business Skills:ENS/Labourlspecial Eligibrlity

:Others

31.400 . 32.00013.3008.4006.OO0

; 5.2O0

i 3.000

13.500I.OOO6.O005.0001.600I 500

$20

973

4 5 51 91 28 57 54 5

!tottnL

{ l l

6a,ooo

3 i 2 1 0 0 3

1OO | 70 O0O 10O

2U)2J20o3:Planning

(lnln)isration & Rishts Ccntre \o 59,'60.lune l9'rg)

lUigralion I'rogram for 2002r'01

:2U)1r2N2Estimaled

'TOTAL

37.90029.6006.8007.9009.OO01.6002o�0

93,000

%41

32

7, . 8

1 02

1 m

Famrly StreamlndependentSkilled Australian SponsoredBusiness SkillsENS/LabourSpecial EhgibilityOthers

%43,200 4132.200 3110.500 108.000 I9.800 91 .100 1

1o4.SO0 100

;

(l)epanme ollmmigration Ltisration BenefiringAusrralia :0O2)

MICRAI]ON RE(;IJI-A'fIONS I 99.1

t\t) l : \ ( ' t ASsES ot: \rtsr\s

Pl:Rtt.\\Ij\'t \jts{s

\Scd Parcrrr iResidencel {( hss BP)llu$nei\ skill\ [itahlished Business (Residcnce) (( lass BHillusiness Stills ltusirrcss lalent {Uig.anlt ((-la\\ l:11Ihtsiness Slilli {Rcsidence) (Class I)Fl( h ih l {v iqranr) { ( - las i . \ l l i(-hild {l(esidcnco {Clais u l,(-onlirnraro^ lRc\idc'rrcl tCldsr AK)(irrrribuhn I'are {\fiqra ) ((-lass (-.\)(-rnrrihul(tr! P!! cnr (Residenc.) {Class D(;tI)siqnared Parcit {\jiqran0 (Clas\ BYIDcsisnared I'arem (Residcncc) (Claj: ul)Distin,rui\bed lalenl {\I;S.a ) aclais {l )Disrinsuishcd laletrl (ltesidcncc) (Class Bx)Ilmplo"-cr \oninarion (\tigrami lClars ]\NlFntpl(iv$ \omination {Rc\idcncc} (Cl8s lllV)Indcpcndcnl iVig.anl) (('lass i]\TiI abou. .\{r cclDcnt {Visranr) {('lrs\ ttj)Lrh,'ur \.xcenr(nl t R$iJen((r {( lll\\ B\''\nrti,lk liland l,c.rnancnr Rcsident tResidence) t('liss ^tlt(Iher ral|)ih i\liqra ) i('lass Rolorher ranrih (Rcsid.nce) {(-lass Bt )I'arenr a\J;qranti rClais iXll,anner (\tiq.a i)i('lars llclPanner (Reiid.'n(c) {('lil!s llslR.{,lulion o,SraLui t Residence) t( lass BI-)Renr.n aRc\idc ce) {Class BBI5kill Urrch;rq (\i!r.ant) tClass llRlslilled {uslralian I inl.-d {\jisra i {CIaii A-l}SlilL{ \ustrulian SpoDsorcd (\.lisrant) (( lass l}Q)Sliilled Au\l.alian stbnsored Ovenea! Sludc {Rcsidcncc) (( lass l)l,lSlilldl !adependcnl t\lisranrr {Cla\s ll\)Slillcd lndependent Otcrscas srudcnr (Re\iden.e)Jclass I)DlSltillc{ \cq lcaland ( irizcn aRcsidcncc) {Cl.ss l)R)sprrial t:lisibih! {Residence) i( las\ i\O)\p(ial l:liqibilitv { Nl iqra ri t('lass 1R)| ('nit(rial .\\!ldn { Rcddencct (('la\s RII)

TI\ {PORNR\ ' \ ' IS{ \

llrtrder (Tcmp.rarlt (Cla\s lAiBtrsi.cs\ Slills it'ror'snnBl) {(-lass LR!(iinlirtnar,r^ { lenrpora\.n) i('lass lDi( cnlribur(n {sed I'a'eil i te'ruran) tclars t t )(irltrihut()N Parcnt ( lempo.ar!) (( lass t T)(-uh uralrSoiial {-l empora\) {Class TI])I)ipl()nralic tT.nrP(M^ I (Cla\\'l FlI)omc\lic \\ orkcr ( I emiora,\ ) { Clas\ IG il :ducarrnHl iTcnjF raN) (Cla is IHjl lectroric Tftrrl j\urho.ir\ i( lass t,D)I:mc.:enc! { lcmpora^i {('las\ Tl)Ii\frtriar. i Iem|bra*, (('lass TJr| \r.nded rl;uibilir\ ITcmporn^ ) (Class IKIli$th llcl.tionslup (T.nrporar]) i( las! II )(iraduarc Skilled ( l.yrporaNi iclasi t Q)I on:r Sla! {\'iiirort {( la\r T\lvcdical Pracrrioner ( I-enrporar\) (('lass I t:l\l.di{al lredrmenr t\jisiknl{('las\ | l}t\c\r Zeland C i/€n !Fa'nih Rrhn,nship) a IemporanI !(-las( I PtPa'urLr ll'i)\ iiioia') {('!ass t Iiil)a'lnc'r iTemporary) (Clari\ L KiItospGrne \la,ia8c i lcm|oran l {( la\\ l()il(csidenl Reltm i l-enrpora^) {Class Tl,!Reioluri( ol-Srarus i leDrpo.a,vl i('lass t II)Rerrrement i lc.rporan ) iclass lQiShon Slav Spo vrcd i\iiritor) iclass L't-)Shorr Sra! {Visitor) {('la\\ TRIS|E(ixl( a!c.ro'\ { Icmpra'-' i (( la\s tY)Sponiored I rainins (T.n)poraN ) (Cla\\ t \ir\tudcnr iTcn,pord^i icldss ll )\upporlcd l)epeidant { Ic'nB'ran ) i( la\r l\rlI(:arporar {ru\inecs l:nlN l('las\ I ( lTuiporafr Sale Halo lcla\s I lrlcn lP(naNi lLnrani lar iarConccrnl ic la \s I ' ( ) !I ransit {Tcmlx)raft) (Class T\)\ \ ' i I an ' l l l , , lJ r \ | tcnrFrr ! \ ' r t ( lass I S '

'

Wortin3 Holida\ (Tcmporan t {Clas\-IZi

BR )Ct \ ( ; \ tS lS

llridlin.r i\ {Class \\'1rllriJlrins R (( las\ $tJ)ll.id:in_q C {('la\\ lV{ )Bndsine l) {Clas\ \tD)Bridqinlr F l( lass Wtr)

PR() t I : ( -T|O\ Rl i t ; t ( iLF -1\DI I r \1 . \ \ t t . . \Rt{ \ \ i ts , \s

l'roleclion a(-lass \]\)Rclirsee and Ilumanirarian r(-la\s \B)Prctcction t(-lass \C)

PR( )CI:l)tJRLS AI)VICt: MANtIAL -

I:\tract ol-(;uidclincs lbr oflicers adrninistcring Milration l-cgislation

Schcdulc 1

Ir.rrr I l:io Comriburo! llar.nt (I,ligrant) LCIajsClt

lai ll lhc atplicafi ij thc holdcr ol a Subclass |7l {(b,rtriburon l,are iienpora^))\ila l7l}Iibr ln aN othcr case :l?PA

{l} \'isa applicalion charsc(a! Irirsl instelm€nr iparablc al thc rimcapplic ion is nradel

{i) hr an applicam Nho is rhe holder ofa Subclass |?'l (Conrrihuroh- I'are iIenrpo.ah'))lisa at lhc time ofapplication: $ 161

Iiir Fo. an applica \rho:I{) .radc a talid application lbr a Parcnt INligranl| (Class .1X) \isn t ctiirc lhc dav on \*hich

lh( ilem commcnc.\: andi A ) sil hdre$ rllat appli.rri()n al r hc samc linr ar making I he applical ion tir ll|c (ir|lribukrN

Parcnr (vigram){Clasi C\) !.isa \il( i i i ) In an! orhercase:Sl 210

(bl Srrond instrlmetrt ipaFble beforc srant ofr'sa):lrl lior an applicanl who is the holder ol a Sutrlaa\ l7i {Cool.ihulo^ Parenl ll-enrpora'!t)

\ i \a ar lhc r imc ( ' 'appl icat ion SI00O0{iii Fo. a applicanl sho is lhc holdLT of a Subclass |? j {(onl'ibuld"- Par$l tlempordq,|

\iia at rhc rime oiapplicatnn. and:ii\) ij rhc natural or adopt.rl child. or slep-child ol an applient tbr a Conlribmon Pn.enl

!14ig.anl) i('lass (-{l \ isa- andI B ) had not rurned | 8 al lhc limc ol_ applical i()n lbr a Conribut(ls Parc.r { I emfx,ras ) ialass

t I ) \ i \ a \ i liiii) For an applicam ehoi1, isadepende chitd ol an applicant lbra ('omriburorv ParcDr i\l'!rra ){Cla\s(:\)\isa_( I|, has nor rumcd 1li ar lhe timc ol-applicali(D: S 1 08{i{n i In an! orh..r case S25 O0O

(l ! Olhd!al Ifthe aDpli(ant is in {u$.al;a d i5llE holder ol_a Subclass t7i r(i,mribu$N Parcnl{TcmporaN)) visa al rhc timc ofapplicarion. appli.alion !nu$ bc made in ̂ usrralia L.ul not in inmiqralion

!b) Il rhe appli(ant is nor nrcnr;,'nca in paragriph tat. appli..arion musr bc made br.:ai) posringlhe application ilvirh the corefl prc-paid posragc) r() the posr otnce bo\ addrcss speciicdi,r a Gazdrc \otice for this subparagraph: or(iit haling rhe applicarid dcli\ered by a courier scnicc io rhc address specitied in a ca7€ne \oricelbr rbis subpamlrrrphic) ll'lhc appliranl har prelioush ade a valid application tir anorhe. parc.t visa(i) a decision to.{a,u or to rctuse ro grafi rhar \isa has bccr madc: or(iit thc application lbr that lishas been $ithdrasn{d} Applicationby a pq$tr clainingto bc a mcmbcr olthe familr unjt oia person $h(} is anapplica aora (-onrr;burorv l,arenr rluigram) i(-lass Cr\) visa mar be made ar the sanE rime and placc asaid.omhind wift lhe aptlicalion h\ thar perion{c, Applicarioo b,- a pcR,n:i i I holdins fl Sub.lass I l r iQlntributo} llarcm (TcmporaN) ) viv at rhe rime of applicfion. .nda ii ) claimins k' b( a memb€r ofthe liamil_,.� unn of a pervrn *.ho is an applicanl for a (-onrriburor r.�I'arcnt {Vi:lranl) (( lass CAi visma\ bc madc at the sanrc limc. aDd conbined rvith. lhc applicario b\ rhar perv,n(]ri Subclasscs l+l {Conrrihutor} Paerr)

PART 1

Basic requirements

tuglish language

Qualifications!\, !,.r ,r... posl.acondart '..!.!. -!! L r ..r-: lt .' lr.,:l!.' q@lifi@tioN ' :-r ':

r' .:.it.' 'il ,,(.r:rjl:.r\ subctantlal reldart yo* erp€.leoce n:r i)r. .,,, 'n.iirl{.' r.{l. : . i . - i t , : . . , . . r : : i j 1 r . . ie r :J .5 r .s - i .a r . . r : r i ree t r r t r . ! c ! f i : : j r : r .1 i ! i . . su l tabbnr. . , ! i , - r , : : r . t l .n , : r , r :dhr :

l{ominated occupation

Age

l : ' : ( i . f e - j : j l l r r l l ) . i : a : r l l i ] : r l r ! j . . : r : i : : , j r r ! : i . - j t : ! , r : - , '

f r i : , , a i r l t i ' : - . i , i I n r t r . . r .

1 . ' ' , r . ' - l n d e r 4 5 1 ' , r \ , r , . , . . i l a ' . , , . ' { . l

! r : : r : : r i r r , : . : . q f , | l . . : ! r r l i i r : r i r r i rE :9 .F , ! i r : ! : : ns f i . r * i r k - : a : . i ; 1 i . . r - ; : ! - : : . r

l:.,a : i: Itetioml E.glish r<\'riagf r{!

n :: ! r' ..c rl Lrqri.:r ij r.q.j:r',l n:i.c;rJ! , ij..Jrrr::i\ *r{ 1 Lr:( :,r: i.!: lt i irii

: : . , - ! . l r : . . : l i i . , , . e . - r e f l

il i. '*ci {r{ l {rf Li! s!: s rcqi!.cd !1

. r r ' sL i ! ' r ! l ) p \ ' € rn l pd i t i q r t r : r ( t h l , r l , e t r i ! \ r \ , \ ' : ne r . l ) €xcep t i om to bas i c

rcqdremerts for appli@nts ttr tlre Dcslgnated AE SpoMrcd @tegorlGl i:irl

.li:e]il \idtri r!,1\d rntFe.\ r:p t*lge lt) E(epdo.s to basic eqllEn.nts fo.

appli@rG h the Sldll Mat tirg vlsa @tegoiy,

\ : , : , r 1 . r - . 1 ' ' ! : - J ren r J . J r . I j o r . t rE r . : r ne r . rEa ; r ' . : : \ i i ' \ n . d l r . r i y . : : . r : i , r : 1 r l

r t ! ! . . : t . . , j ) i : . t : . : r ' j \ r . ' t i n i r r r , . : , - k i ! i . d , r . , . ! i i l i r ! . , . : t ! l . i t , n j - . i r r i r , , l

I !i ! I .i ti.$ r'rr. r\r1 :::rle.l .,:cr.rjtit. T L:t be c: t.r Slilled Occ{padons Listi s in ' !1 , ; - ro : . ( l t r ; . . ; i r J r ! r ; r rSOl r i { r rse r .nd hr . r l l l l ! . ! . ; i r : i J .e ra ' . | - i , r , r !a .l;lvrA *el.il. wysjmmi4o(au (-'. iri.rCed *iti B.Ilier6 C,.n.dlskii,,r trdrrnr

i,j.laec a.J:,:,Li f l.r ni-10 '.trm l)llillri olr..s ,l r-!ujrr!ri,r ar:jr o ]! Note lfyo!tromlrbted oc.lpador ls rot or tte sol Fu @nnot applt

Recent work ex9erience::::: -.rit- :er:erl : se|;j1le ;-. rre r.ai r. ::r.x. 1cr' ..k : .r.nr.-rIl ,+, ,,j{;;r) r: 1.. 1.'r r' . . ' i ' r l . . l i ( r . . : r . r 'n : : , . l ' n i ! , rL r - . ! r !' r . : , r : ' r .T : . : k 'd o r ( r ra r i l r \ ? , r rx 60 D. r r r ! : \e r r: :,ir. !rtrl e4 tr!:.r: r.I :tr r. l:{J: | | I I r r. .r.r :::ril D..ride .!i.ier.e r.ie employm..tre feen.c i , ; : [ . ] : r ln r l i l r : : j r .e Lepr i rn i l r . . ' rn . . ' i i r : r i l i i .d i r r . r : r . l , ' : !ri r:i ir.i:ti.r!:,'r: ' !it\l :-n: I:':ar I l:l l|l ror at l€st 12 ofthe la nonths Inmediately

l l i , ' J r r : ' rn : rd : id { . r . t2 l : ( '1 r i * (n l i 40 , r tO ro i ' .1 : ! , r j r ' r ' t ! r r . . i Je e , Je : ! : i i . i rerployhent [email protected] i),rq. jri l:rJt ji:tr i:tr!.- .eer |r F l .-)l.rrc|r : r l:,irl. ( : ; !a l io r r t r . t : c rcur3 l i r ' : : \ r ( io r t l .n l l l l i i i o ra t lds t2 o ' f rne l t ca6hmcdlately bef.1.Lor ;4rj v

i,'.if.l.:-r.ii:rir;l::r::s a r'::ger.-:t ct 1:re.iiic *.-k cr:trr.n:i.. i. tq:,1'd t:r,t.; r. . ' ; . r rh l \ . . : i ! l : i \ i e !14 ie . : t t . ! : N l . ! rag l r l

l. the Sllll Matchirg d Sldlled--Oesigrat€d Au Sponsorcd @t€gori6 yor my beelielble slth 16 woil erp€ne.e rsee Reent sork dperl.n.e .equlendt uii: -r,i

nee.t wo.t €rp€rien@ erenplton

. .:,,:: dc rct il'ed ta T(rt lr. \lrl q;!.acrac .<):i::i. eri :i ..r:: i-4et : re 2 tea6 stldyir Asstralia rc\lr. !.:r(r! rs(e J.s. r ie5liajf a! n o'1:r! Lrtt)re i..iEr::E:;orr r.:!r

. i !:rl r! ft'l tre l:r:ljiticr. arrjlq.n c:rt: is..;!.!!r ir.n:!: rl.::il Isi nr rr€t r:n.+irri !:r,!::cr.r: E.itr:ren;nl iJoL ;ret il. I y€r study h AGtElla 1\1,'i1{r. rr i-,'Drec i: le:: l::ri 6 ra)rll: isr,-.r ldig':€ t.ui,:.3 r..l:.:rn'l

Note l !!:\ e\em.tiLrf @nnot 5!: ':v{l L: ! sa:!.e if i !:{:. 1!. \i ':l .\rer,.-!.e ?Lttr iie:.sr tr ' : , i ! !51 i r \ n . , ! ; .<< : re l r , ( l r : , r i1 , , la ,k i l , i : : . - , r ,e r t

i' .;i!:- rl.:rlr;k:r:q rrlr.iritrEe i-'r rn'. ...1ccs-<.rr \.r: sh.: tl .dL. t!:al r|1.. rii::n ;, rc i : i \ lL r t ! r ! l : r r ' l i x . da te o , @id€dd ts . : r ree : t . l t : r qL t r . l i . r t i i l . r . . lno tl::!rr I i< d.Ii l::e ,ti,a i:tit:{{: sr\ ((,1lerr<l

!l .:.ru r-e Lc:':; +r: i er.'. 'crc.,Dr;t.red rr Au<r6!i. t. i e.: li!: 1.qr..'er..r :h.n.!i'l rr\l ::i.re :x pr rilqrile,: *ri!r lixi (rri: tri: r!.!.ld i!f i s!.Lr.ti:!:r:vc vil:; , : r l r : , r : ! : r :e t . r , t , ; { . t rk

Skills assessment

Iote:

Dr l , r : e . . r : . j ; i ' . . 1 j r L f l 6 t ! r : r r . . l zd l , i , r r k : : i : . ! ! e j \ e l I r r I e : e r . : : r : t nL j i i J i i J :

t r ! se ! . r e , r ' r I i r ' : l : , r r \ n ' , r , i r € i l . a l : i r r i ! : l ! ! r h r . ! . t r - r . n : . . r t ed€ iu i r i t . :

:::! :r. gr;;::led a sii;. !(-r'sL:.s r:}r !:Jve.@r ii::*!ji.ed trs sultable ror \.t;:

Note:\.:!e n::5ei: rC iutir.nr c! Jrc _L.rtx)::siLrle hri ndeil.li:.! slii.j ji i.!:T..:: h..

r - e r i j | : : ) : : r r :D ! .< r . anda : cNOT.n 'Do \ t r ( r r i : ae r {n : ! : 1e ; j : : ! ess i r e i i r r r l a l i e ! * i :

r , , ! a , : I r , i . e q r j c ! 1 ; f i i : c a p : n r r r e r l \ , ' . ; : : r ! n : . : r : r . . : r ' ( j v i : . r ! : ' i : e . r l a ; ! i i : . j l

lf tou are not able to satisfy these basic requi.ements, t/ou shouldOT co inue with a General Skilled igration application.

s l i l l . l H ) \ l l i , l { \ | I ( ) \ l ' ( ) l \ l S l \ l t l l :

I i ' i n 1 .

l i { } \ ! \ l t r } t \ . | \

Skilleci \ligration t,pdatc - \.larch l00l Pagc I ol'2

L

I Gen€!al S(lled Cate,oories I Skill t\rlatchrng Cateqcry I OverseasSiudeFt Categories I Graduate Skilled Temporar!, Vrsa I OnshoreN/ CitTen Caicgcfics I Frequent QJesticns | tulig:ation Costs IAd.iresses I

Skilled Migration Update

On 31 lvlarch 2003, the Minister for lmmigration and lvlulticulhrraland Indigenous Affairs, Philip Ruddock, announced changes totake effect on 'l July 2003 within thegeneral skilled rnigrationcategory

Mr Ruddock also announced on 14 May 2003 that overseasstudents undertaking studies in Auslralia on 31 March 2003 whoare able to apply for general skilled migration before 1 Apnl 2004.must meet the exisiing 1 yearAustralian study requirement ratherthan the 2 year study requirement being inkoduced fiom 1 July2003

Tlrese changes are subject to arnendrnents to the MigrationRegulations.

The changes in summary are:

(i) overseas students willbe requrred to havecompleted ai least 2 years study while physically inAusiralia be{ore they qualiry for additional points orthe work experience exemption (overseas studentsstudying towards a degree, d ploma or tradequalification in Australia on 31 March 2003 whoapply for'general skilled migration before 1 Aprit2004 wall be required to meetthe current provisionthat requires 1 year offull time study in Australia).

(ii) the award of 5 additional points for overseasstudents who study and reside in regional Australiaor a low population groMh metropolitan area toi arleast 2 years:

iiiii an increase in the points frorn 5 to '10 awardedfor a skilled occupation on the Migration Occupatonin Demand List (IMODL) and ftom 10 to 15 for havinga job offer in relation to an occupation on the MODL,

(iv) an increase in the points from 5 to 10 awardedfor completion ofan Australian upper second classHonours (crhigher degree) or Maste,s qualificaionfollowing completjon of an Australian bachelordegree. both obtained while studying in Australia.and

iv) an increase in the points awarded from 10 to 15for completion ofan Australian Doctorate with aminrmum of 2 consecutive years of fulltime stldy

D . A R C | | r o f l . . .

PANT 1

General information

Basic requirements

Categodes'ih.:. rre.1(3teE.rae5 i.- crpl.!r jBnrso?d mis.rt:or tc Atrstrii !.r

tmploy€r Xominalion 5.hem. (Et{S)

R€gional Sponso.ed Migration Schem€ (RSMS)

tabour Agrceme.ts (r-A)

hvest Australia Supponed Skills (rA55)

: rc re t i r i \C ! ! r :a r .e rDbyerdr iver ' ! \e l i s t - rc r . . le , i J l t ia , id remp:o ! . ' c r i to rG: rL i t!! qn l.' tki'led t{arldr drlxr l-or. ov€Fns cr iror pop,e tcirpoE:ili :. r\L sraiiil*:er ar cap:iYcr irr: :Fr Jr.ble l. tillthen rccnltrrcrt n.eds frorr thcArsl!.iiix:lrL\rdr rrr iket ,rr ti:ctch thc:rovn r.a,nias elkfl5 :he to rrtl! pi)a:nr ilASSr evblescn,Dioilr6 rlio l3le;n a prov.d L{ss 3rrcemsl|i lc rBrste. lev rarreeri .ri\ r . , " i ' I Hrn t . i , , rcc \ o l rhe . r .umpdnr tc AL | l r , ,n

V)re lrlorm.tiof ;.{,Lt t:rq."rreEories is ir! P<rrt :2 Categori4

l,abour maaket testingfJrt* I-:f,irn,ler N(:Tiratior s.hemc lE.\iSi r\e.lpl.ter rJ:,i:!'o* rirrr t:r}'la!ebccr rr;d,e to lin.l sr Atrslralirr cil:af or elidcrt $ro is suitabie fcr the rpNiatmert

,v1r r i rL rn !dL io l r i x ,J t l Jbour 1 ra lkd rc \ t i r : { ! in r : rp re l . rv rn t ( r te€ ! r : - , : r ! } r1 l

llomin.tion,1 : :p rosr .dvc3pp l i ( ; r rs ) t r5 t i :F t iEncr ina ted l ) ! ' ' t5 .cn .p ;J \c : i r : , l . J jna :d :he

r.T:rati(-\!: J:,:i,i be Eceiled bi 3 Deqartment of lmm!€?tica inil llrlr'.rlr;:Jl nril!:d ge('us Al{iti: iDlN,tli\r 8r:inei Ce1l.e :r ALst.riir iu!i.r.iee t!.. ..r {,r ijJ:,,\-,5Cer:l=-: cn re. :lni lt thc tr{) innricr is.plroued. tne er?ioie. $i:r jdrr,e tl.

lr !(r!- rralr.r ii,cs.is, rirer xrijt'udee tneir v:sr.pFlior:dr *ilr':. 6 \'tirli: tri$tlre daic txr: funirrL.or '{as appr$ed ir AJsLzlii lt ii ijnDo:r.nl r:r;r ri. r:.ilix;r.:n: i:r-'dAcd b€f@ oratthc snE dbe as trc ri!. r)F!:.ntlor

it r.ir;r rL,i .rE :\ i:i:Frr ! ir: Atr!tra i.:;rd irtend5 t.r;tlEit r{r em.io:... iD,,!::,r.edr:ci;ri.n *rti:rr ]\L;rl:Jl!:r r,!e n,n.ixrtir t\rL d LE i.{i€ed befoe or.ttne enet iMe;> l i r r i s . ; i t . ; (aan, r YoLr rcn rner 'TLr t cJee rne i r . r tJ i i . r l :o : : . r i ! : r 6 r r , : J r ii, I ir. :iir!:t:r.ii .l l!t.cn lrt:Llr

i i e . : r re r j rn r ra r o1r : t r i r L re ;Dt j i , ) r .e ( l l x l r r :e Fe ! i s r r i j , r i r in i r ! r , ; i ! ' : " ; r j l r . r *C

l::ri!n :r!:Lr; .,r.,,! nr 'r;t c|i ilje.:i.lrr ejch ..riqo:! 4ir |c L,j..l 1 Prl :,

visa applicationTl . r r ( i r : : : . r ' . i :n r . i l t : r : r \ r ! r ra l ia . : t ' . r r \ r l . .1 . r : l :a . . i

tmpodart ll tne _.m lre !. rl-rili ::4 1 lrrrr li6 t xe! n-r.sl r(:id .! .;:jj .r:r'r :x.r:r isi.: l

' : \ ' a i ( :n r r { : ra r in ld t ie i {cN l . :de5.n tem| ] , r i t r l r : ! r : d i ! . i rn l r : r l , t req l : (

*{:rkeri citElri.,ra. :rrii 1r'('r(::ni ol: r . i ( l r *o 'k i rs ro i ( l t ry ! r r ' : o r-i,iitl r it!C'11 .r,sr srrrtql ir: rlrt'd to r,r a*i.C i!:-\e r! .!!r) uc:i eler i,rjln;'L: odpL.ted Jr tr(: nDp|llrl: Jr

i , ' l i ! .1 ! e l x i d . r ' r l rn l :e . t f t ! , ! ( ! : r . re ; .u t r ' r - , ! ! r l i :A r r , : : { : , : i JH: J , l ) r : i , r }c , {,i tt.;i Ic: 5r:clt 5l;\ r.iri

hglish language requircmedsh x.<I crrei r!:e ro.::n.e 1!-rr l::c r vqirir:rr'or i:rniJ:r.: c!. .i I rt iiilr'to.T.rtii,: .r t:re irtcnrat (rna: L':q;:!l' Lrnetae. la.r .i 5\<r.rr tlEL:1ii,;f ire ti.. r!l

-l y*Lldp.<om.au

Qualifi cation assessmentI : . r .T i \ :a q t i f . ; , r i . l r x r : i r rx : ; r \e ' i i ! r l I

. 'i -.: \nrlnr lrr.r! -:st r'r TemllJ.!- I ol a :F:le!a!.'t.l :,,\i! '1 n tr"(!rl.r:: " :l',.J:1,ri 'idl I €:d i,ie rn)!me-,t

l f l . i r ra \n : . : . , :e i r a n ; rn : * : re l l :e r l l :e n ,n i . r r led r { . r , t ! t . ) r : r . r i i . , : i . r , r , . ,1 ! r .s { ..tr.a.i:F l!:.:, \i::::r.{l.l-r(k sl: rleire'rpl,;}er !i{: Dl11lA lrr::rrx.! Cc'n'a ^. l-rlNilr\irr:.r {i:er. ri.- ro1rir.. .1)'\r\.. ro .rlA. ti(:! r .rJ.l!.rt io. car: rro.dc i o'e'rlar .rrr l i ! : rL r e . l i r : c : r { l ' rg dc t ; i l \ , r r r rc , \5 i : \1 : re bo l \ . f { i :n . ! to . .n ,D:ere r id : fL ' . x r r , i :i t :: t:x' c.:; l l ::1..l.J.(|

PART 1

1i: rl i: :i ld .-iart.l.| er?cr.F. !a !('F:vd€.* dc ri:ge.n t!:r!l:r-:!.;i :l;;'ressi::Jie.l .e.!!.cs tr;ss ir Br;\rrss Sl: s entrlats . 5elt:re L:D tireir rek Liurrnejii i:irsl ra::j acrtr.t drtdi,\ l.n Sa.rrp..l.aitor! ltrjlrrj\:r; rl ljl,:qmnr::!:.r.::tr,.:r:e\\l.1:Lr. :)arr:ded !] 5talc e.rl l.rrr....:: . i;:: i,.: roird .jr Fd:1 5 a1d tlrrririlr iir:ls,r.nl::€ l)i)-1lA *r!!it. rwjnni4d3r

l r : r : : i : le r : ! f : i j s . ' : \ r kn c ' r€ r i ) : l : r ! : r . ! : ! t , l r , re ax \ i ,FssS l i l l : e r tG.n tpeor :e ! Dcr re.cte: r. tle r.:!! dcE,i.d :rrt)rlr

.r r P;rr. 2 nn.l l

General information

Australia welcomes skitled business people_: re

t I . r t r r r . & . j r . ss 5kr i r t a rk ! . r i : : ln a r tE . r rx r ' t : r : x i l r j de i :n r : l : r l r '11 a . : r r l. , r : rJs : :e i ! r r ,eL t . ,c r : r aLr i . i l ! * r . '& r t ( r r r r i r l . r l rL ' . r . r :q r : r r r i r .F i j t s - d rn l . . r ' .' ! ( ! r ! ' r : ! :L ! r r \u . , l r r l rJ

l:r'i !r:rrk:cr :):.rvrils debilrd :rb.r.Jl-:.:: !he !ira;r.r-reerer:ls ror ll:!!r.-s sl:; !

Who is eligible?

ir!.6n--i

Vsa parllw'ays' l : L r x r i i , , r i l j n t : l i i s i : :e : i ! k ;c : t . . r : t . ; * : . : c r l c : : \ r i t r : r i : : : i i i : : ! . i : , ; : ) r \ .o f - l

ri! re!r (v :r.J.il1mlrt,ri:tlv !.;. rrii,r)D t lrr tF!n;r'!€r1?:nl4r.e ll:t:ldl:.s:i! l:!) . -T ; re rJ t r : ! : ' n : ! r " i \ d , :s .s red lu a : !e t i ; j . l r ; rd ,€ r r ; i : ! l r l t : f : r i ! ; ( : r r i ! t : i , : ! c j .r!!-jjn. .rNl !i:inr-. rrD! r!:. est;LJir|JEr:l ,:rj rd;*er:.:rt ri €e-Lirc !rii:iir-.::

r . t ! : t i : r \L : ! r3 i : i

: l c1 : : i i i i o e : .v i . : . i l r : r : r ie l . ; l i L rE br { i r !4 \ a - iCzr : t : t i r t ru r : r : j t J In i i t d re : rp! !-j:n:n::r :.! (l.r'.a. ir! r'i. U:rs: rer. -Lre:r!

titl:4o!:tr ..i:J.atrer.i :i t1.t rar. f ai:ieel LrJsiaes" aftrit-.{el a rd a? sr.r.ir:(l i)r . 5rJle :r k-n ( qr V' rrr : rlr-r;n : r:i,ilrLx rh!: .dte!-o.t .r'r ie t6ri-rd jt Prr' l

SDonsolship

Srrkr':? r'r,!r, e{rF-rrxerr \q: r<or:iriD i! 3r.r: i5i. fc'4;.r fila .rk e.iy. ao rirr:..:r:i r

rr:!l rt-: r,r:ies.:i ! rlr-.r.t t re tr!rC. tJf .u5i*:5: !:{:r!:rt ir..i a:a 5..c1::r! ti.:-. st :r l:nl. : : , i : c1 i r4era i ;p :ne i l , r f :De iJ i . r re r ! l : r ra1 , ( r r l ; i ! : \ : i ! tL : l i , i i ;n t ra : r . ' r iL ) : ,n i ! : f ! :E : - ! : r : i ! - 5k : i : s e - { r ; ! Jc rD:e ! rp b r i r . c : : r r i :g i } r r i . , r ; : r . .n l i - . * i : i ! . , r1 i r . r } : . lr..:;)l.ri i li:LatJrr : cor.'r+ix..:. -ri: :iilr.r,)r rla'sc :tir..rvni (ar,:eo.:ar a! :r:lil!:e irJv:sior:i rn(l lcrma! err lec:dcrr€ {iiees lsee r};1! I r:rl li F-(}. Fr.:rDi'.. r,r"5la!{tli:1r..i 5:xrso:ed [li:s:re3 Or.er c;tcCor! pr.e d.:q lo: r.op.: + ro m.y:.!l: ' ' veoura l l :p : r .s r ' J i j r imers l ju l r \o hdven a€ . l r . r . r jd J ! j l , : : . resscn:d{ \e , . , "T i : . jqer 'a . r : , ) i . :nar . ; : : . i i e : r i t c r . !gorer r ren5nr€ i r . t : cs . r . i i te - i J lo .de<, j r ! :r i i :T l l .e r * : l : ! ,$ . i ] . . i ! l i aC or l J ln ) r t s : r r ' : sos : ! :J rd t ! ! r . npr r i . . , : r r i r l i aSl;r!r'..!4-Jr::1 tr).',rni:.:l :)r.,r."! (l$.c!,.r-rtsIl;!fl r:e,: .rsl.r!;;t !);tn $ ,

Srsiness services

o g

E d

E;E Eo =

€EEE : :

F:A

:!

t 9 ; 9 :r; i; ; i.i

E o E 6 :

; g ; e a* g u c t . =

i 3 # i 3 ; ;

= 6 >

5 E 5; - td = ne i 9! P 2i 5 # i

i , n E

o - : o

I < 9

is,*H

d x d :

,Fsi,F

t

E

t

9 -

ev

! !

EeE

a'i

' t t

9 < 9

i s l i

_9 .4

- : =

9 = 9q - 6 4d 6 o d

!c)

c

i 9E 6a.E

g €

E E

: €6 E

E . E

g

I

9

o

z=c.

o

E A ed 9 d: 5 ; io X =E t i - S^ - e -a * E

3 € E6 t a6 E ;+ . s =; ! . ;9 E . ( !

E U Pe = ;g d o_ q q o

E } Pq E Y5 4 6o

z

oUTaooJat,zo

()JILo-l!oEuro=lz

rtooooo

a oq

c,\s

a?$

c@

qto

(')d +

a?gt

ol(\I

q (r).rt

qoo

g=ocoo-

d)o(.)

ov

(t)tf

@o

(v,q)

oro ols

(t)(\l

F. (, (Dt

oo)o)

roortoo

!too6o

@F.

@(Y)

ao(r) CU (\l

(.) o @ F (r) r.()AI

aoctooF

a \(ool

qq)

a(t)

oq oci

\ol c'j

olot

ot<'i

olol

rJto

goo

o,gocoo-

s@(\l

rt€ool

c{()

(t)q)s

o(t)(')

oo

(()o

FT@

ro@

(r)rr,

()(oF-

(to)<.i

q,o66

()

oo(\I

N(r) ro(\l CO

F* (\l OJ(')AI

r')(\l

F. \tf*

ocoF.

G'E(\lo6

a olN

ocri

roo;

oq o?ro

oq(.)

oqo

a@

a?s

aq o?ro

oc;o

dtroooo-

oq)ol

\io)

\tl.-

(r)olol

oAIet

()1r)

g)o

F.rf)

(\ solol

(oF.q

ooooo

oFT

F- F.(r)

(o$

ol(0 rf) (t) ro(\I

F- f- (v(o CD

EFzloo

oY

c

I

(5

.iot-

(!o

_cl

a

(g

oco

T'c

.qaD(!(5

oo(Eo.ca

(!

oY

oo

Y

f

a

Eooo�

vEo=cl

al

c)E Fo

F

oUIE Gt- o)= 9o i 5o 96 EF ( L

C Ev .F >> =. o 5f f r8 B9 ee 2= <i- <tt - ( D

v O D--i ctd FO. t'i< Q; ct)Y_a o)

DEFINITION OF ASIA

Asiathe largest ofthe contincrts- bordcring on the Arctic Ocean- the Pacilic Occan. the lndian (kean. and thcIledilrranan and Red Scas in the wesl lt includes Ih€ l.rge p.rin$las ofAsia \'linor. India Arabia. andIndoch;na and the isldd gtuups ofllpan. tndoftsia. rhc Philippines. and C!'vlotr (Sri Lanla):conrains thcmounlain ranges ofthe I lindu Kush tlimalalas Pamirs Tian Shan. tlrals. dd Caucasus- t he Srq plaleausof lndia. lran. and T;bd. \asl plains and desens. and the valle! s of ronv largc rivc.s including thc Vclons.hawaddy- lndu\ Ganaes- Ti-sns. and Euphraics Pop lation: 158921i000 (1998 c$ ) Area::t4ir)l 162 sqknr ( l7 l l9+r5 s{ l nr }

I htrpriN$ wordrefereqqe qellliclslilEdqfu iriotr-asp"en -isi4)

tinited \ations Population Division defincd Asia comprising thc follorrring regions:

l:asrem ̂ sia \lesrcrn A5ia(-hina. llory Kong SAR AmflraChina i\tacao S'\R .l,erbaljanDcnocratic Peoplc s Republic ofKorea aahrainJapan C!_prus:\,lonsolia C'eorliaRcpublic ol-Korca lraq

lsraclJordan

Sourh-Central Asia Ku\ranAtghanis;tan txba onaan:rlad.\h Occupied I'alesiinian Temtorvllhutan OnranInd;a Qatarlran llslam Rcpublc ot) Saldi ArahiaKaakhstan Slnan Arab RepublicKlrgl,zsan Tu.ke!valdiles Unit.d .,\rab F-mirares\cpal Yrrren

S.i l-ankaTajikisian

iqq!h:[4l!q!.ljaBrurci Daruselam

Democrar;c Republic oaTinlor I csle

I ao Pctple s Donocraric Rcpublic

Philippine\Singapore-Ihailand

(hrlp:,.'esa utr org{npp/delinition hrmld^sia)

Provrnoal Ofigrns ol Former Chrnese Sludents (from a sample of 1018)

ShangharGuangdongFujranBetingLraonrngShandongZhetiangHubeiSichuanShanxiJEngsu

JiangxiHebeiGuangxlHeilongjiang

Ji l inGansuNrngxlaShaanxiGuizhouNingxaXrang (Tibet)Olhers

Number Per Cent

4M279

77751 9'18'15

1 41 1I877655433210o000

16

3 9 72 7 4

7 67 41 91 a1 5

1 10 9o 8o 7o 70 60 5o 50 4o 3o 3o 20 1

00000

'1 6

(Bactnun 1995)

: l l TFr . l r [ ] lA l : l i 1 l l : iT l r j \ r \ . l l \1u ;F l1TI ! ) . i : L ! i f : ! ; , l t f . \ l L . \ ] \L r - . t \ r L .

..j

r ' _ _ - =

- - + + ' , + j

:

I r R . - \ l \ l r i t r . l \ . . \ \ i j s l l - . 1 ) E \ l \ 1 ( \ \ I i \ 1 E \ T :

Tab le 12 .2 Ar rs t r l t l i u : r |nn t rg ra tL ( ) r r t i ( ) t -n i l l td u l l l l g r . r t i ( ) l l t i r, {s ian counr r ics , 19 f i4 - i i i ro 1991 r )4

t t I

Count rv o {

or ig in /

d e s t i n a t i o n

Ove rscas -

Immigrants born

to emigran ts

A u s t r a l i a ( N u m h e r ) .

A s . , 1 , , o f

I n tn l lg ran ts

R a t i o o f

Ar rs t ra l ia - over \ea \

born to

rnr ig ran ts Ar rs t ra l ia -

b(l rrl

cmigran t s

K, , r . . :

) . 1

l . ( .1 : +t h . ;

a _ il a: ,

t +i ;

l t _ i

1 t

: e_ i . l

t 11 . 1a. (.i . t .t r q

9 ; ,

i . r : ;

I sa9

+ l ;h f

I i,.)t t 9 a

1 ; ai4+ l( , 1 ;l 1 ;1 - i 1I 9

+h l I

l l ;+(l

+_i+e

I t ,J

1 1 i

1 t +j n -

. ' r lI l . {i 9 l

. . ' : ;I : . '

I n-l

l t lI r t .: q l

- l - i r: r ;1 + ;

: i1 . . - iI 0t .

a. : -1: t i

r 1-+

-+16.t l

T , , r , r l . + : ' r l , l i 1 n.\: t ' la asa t . l i

l 1 t ] . l fo : : rh lc e r tc l t s l r ) l t s ( ) t r t t c l t t ] t ( ) i l c t l l t i r - \ l l ) ) i l i l r \ \ i l v t ( ) 1997 t r t r H , ,ngKL,ng: rs i l l i l r cc r l t i ' e t i r r th t n r ) r ) -B .nr in . tc ra n ( ) f . la tL ( ) ' t ( ) seek , t i r r . r . t' i l l \ r l r i . tncc .

P" rhap. thc re i : l r l . , , . , . , t rc L lnccr ta in rv in Ta i r ran a l .ou t i t l . c r r rgrcL ln r tcJ rv r rh Chrna;

a t l l t l t t r t ta r i vc v tc \ \ , r : th l t t i . r i . t t rcss In ig r i ln ts rake a consr . l c ra [ r le anror . rn t r , lr i t t rc to t rans ic r t l ' r c i r l .L rs rne : : i r c t i v ine ) t r , rm A. i . to . {us t r i r l ia . T r : rns ic r r rngo i t l l t o l ien c ( ) l t ) l i e \ rve l r o l f L r rc l ' ras ing . n l rnu tnc tL l r i l l g anJ -se l l ing ac t iv r t r r \rrs:ociateel u i th busrness l- \ ln()re Jit trcLrl t than trensierr irrg people. Tl-rr: isf; tr t lcularl \ ' tr l le during tt |rn()\ l t t i econrtntrc . lour-rtut.r-r in Au-.tralr:r cont-parcJ t,r thel 'crv r: t l iJ ec() lr()nric grouth ()ccurr ir lg ir-r lv4alavsia, Hong Ki,rrg

F R { I \ I T R , { I \ , { \ I ) S T L ' I ' ! \ T \ 1 ! ] \ E \ 1 E \ T :

Tab le 12 .1 Ar . rs t ra i ia : pcnrancr l t a l ld l ( )ng- rc rn l a r r i va ls t rom an. i

. lcparturc, ' to Asia l .r ' l rccufl l tronal caregor\. , 1981-E2 ro 1989-9i i

C)ccupat ion Categ t r r l A r r i va ls Depar tu rcs Net N c t

mo\ 'emcnts t t t in ,

zl t

movement

m 0 \ ' e m e n l

I ' r , , t . ' ' .1 , ,11 ,1 l . 111s .1 , ; . ' 1

r l r l t c l J r r , , t < . . r r , ' 1 , t i

T c r i r r r . . r l( . i r r r e r l l r . r l . ' .

f k r i l r J t r , ' r k t r r

: e n r t - . k r l l e J r r , , r k c r .

l r r . k r l i . J r , , r k c r .

l c t ' , t t c .

R t t r r . , l

l l , , u r r , l i r r r r .

\ , , n - t , . , r k ; r . . e f , r l . l r c l

\ L ) f I ' r c \ r ( ) u . l \ c i l r l ' i , , r . , 1

I n e r n l ' 1 , , r c . l

. \ \ r l . l . r : c r l

t _ i ; 1r , ' .11 l

I i "

; ; I I

I q ;+

l 5 l hI l s t rl t t r l+ ) , l

l J f 6q

+ ( . l t 1I r,l,5 1 t ' l; 5 ; l

t 9 [ lf 3 s

l l l t 9

;6, ; ll i 6 l 5l s 1 9 ;

6765I 1 - { t i

+ 1 a l r l

9l +caI 966

l t ; ; s1 6 ; t 1

I / . ( \ {

5 r . ; ;l .r. - i6

r 1 1 l

i l . l r .

9 i . s 5

; l 5 l

i + . ) +6q .6 i( ,6.9J

1 ) . 1 0

r l 1 9

5 l . l t

T , , r . r l .1 i . : , ' l 9 l : s r 9 a i t s 1 + 9 ; I i e

Tab le 12 .4 - {L r r t ra l ia : l cml lnc l r t , rnJ l r rn l - tcnn ar r r \ -a l5 t ro rn and . lepar tu rc .

to . {s ra b l occr rpe t io r )a l c r r f rg ( ) r \ , l99a 9 l to 1992-91

Occupat ion Categor r Ar r iva ls f )epar tu re . Net

mqvcnrents o { in - movement

as o mo\ 'emen[

- \ . -ct

\ l r t t , rgc r : , - {J t t t r t l . t r . r i ( ) r \

f r , , t e " L ' , n , r L .

I ' , r r , r ' p r , , i . . ' r , , n . r l '

T r . rJ t .

( i l c r k .

5 ,1 lg r ' I i1 r , rp , . r l sc r \ rac \ \ ' ( r rkc rs

I ' i , r r r r \1 , i .h rnc ( , f c r . r t t i r j rn t l J r r r c r

L , r1 . , ,111115 \ re l r rcJ r r , r rkc rs

l 0 r l - i

I I o l !

i l l ( .

: + ; i.).,).r 5

5.) t I

l t i q

l 9 ; ;

1 l ) ' i

l t r b l - i

1 + r +

l i i l 9

l a r ;j 5 :

; ; 1

I s l 9

l 1 s a l

t i 5 4 t

l65 l

59+4

6 S l b

I ?a-i

17r lb

: i 1 5

O - r . 51

; 1 e ;

; a t :r--.5.s lt t . + r; ; ; 9

5 i . ; l

T , , 1 11 5 l 5b6 : 7 1 b ; 5r 699 b ; l l

I

ABBREVIATIONS

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics

AGEP Age of persons

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation

ASCO Australian Standard Classification of Occupations

ASEAN The Association of South-East Asian Nations

BIMPR Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural & Population Research

BLUE Best Linear Unbiased Estimators

BPLP Birth place of an individual

BPMP Birth place of the individual's mother

BPFP Birth place of the individual's father

CHN Chinese Origin

DIMEA Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs

DIMA Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs

DIMIA Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs

DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade

ENGP Very Good English Language Ability

HRSP Hours Worked

HSF Household Sample File

INCP Income

LPM Linear Probability Model

LSFP 1 Employees

LSFP2 Self-E,mployed

LSFP3 Unemployed looking for work

MDAA Multicultural Disability Advocacy association of New South Wales

MIA Migration Institute of Australia

ML Maximum Likelihood

OCCPI Managers and Administrators

OCCP2 Professionals

OCCP3 Associate Professionals

OCCP4 Tradespeople and Clerical Workers

QALLP I Postgraduate or Graduate qualifications

QALLP2 Bachelor degree or tertiary education

RSE Relative Standard Error

SE Standard Error

SEXP Sex of Persons

SIR Skil led-lndependent Regional

UNHCR The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

VTNM Vietnamese origin

YARP Years of Arrival

ABS CATEGORY NUMBERS

1301.0 Year Book Australia 2005, 2003,2002,2001, 2000, 1986

1370.0 Measuring Australia's Progress 2002

1996 Census of Population and Housing: Household Sample File -

Technical Documentation

2017 .0 Census of Population and Housing: Selected Education and Labour ForceCharacteristics 2003

2037.0 Census of Population and Housing: Household Sample File Technical Paper

3105.65.01 Australian Historical Population Statistics 2000

3201.0 Population by Age and Sex, Australian States and Territories

3222.0 Australia's Population reaches l9 million, 2 September 2003

331 I . l Demography, New South Wales

3401 .0 Overseas Arrivals and Departures

3412.0 Migration, Australia

4102.0 Australian Social Trends 2003,2002,2001 ,2000, 1998, 1996, 1995

4224.0 Education and Training in Australia, 1996

6250.0 Labour Force Status and Other Characteristics of Migrants

6305.0 Employee Earnings and Hours, Australia, Preliminary, l0 December 2002

6530.0 Household Expenditure Survey 1998-99

6537 .0 Government Benefits. Taxes and Household Income, Australia

8 149.0 Human Resources by Selected Qualifications and Occupations, Australial6 May 2003

the economic impact of asian migrants under …

Documents