THE DISPUTED ROLE OF EXPERT KNOWLEDGE IN UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING RISK

3/11/2013 How expert knowledge can be contested?

 

THE  OPEN  UNIERSITY  UK  FELIPE  VEIT  ©  All  rights  reserved  

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  Contents  

1. Introduction,  concepts  and  definitions…………………………………………………………2  

1.1 Risk…………………..…………………………………………………………………………………….2  

1.1.1 Material  risk…………………………………..……………………………………..2  

1.1.2 Symbolic  risk.………………………………………………………………………..2  

1.1.3 Risk  management…………………………………………………………………2  

1.2 Probability……………………………………………………………………………………..……….3  

1.3 Uncertainty…………………………………………………………………………………………….3  

1.4 Expert  knowledge…………………………………………………………………………………..3  

1.5 Lay  people………………………………………………………………………………………………3  

1.6 Epidemiology………………………………………………………………………………………….3  

1.7 Prevention  paradox…………………………………………………………………………………3  

2. Theory:  A  risky  society?…………………….………………………………………………………….4  

3. The  Evidence…………………………………………………………………………………………………4  

3.1 When  expert  knowledge  is  contradictory:  Experts  vs.  Experts……………….4  

3.2 Epidemiologists  vs.  Medical  experts....…………………………………………………...5  

3.3 Lay  knowledge  vs.  Expert  Knowledge…………………………………………….…….…5  

4. Pointers  towards  possible  conclusions………………………………………………………….6  

5. References……………………………………………………………………………………………………6  

   

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1.   Introduction,  concepts  and  definitions  

In   contemporary   society   people   are   under   constant   threat   of   being   harmed   in  regular  activities  and   in  different  ways.   Individuals  may  benefit   if  being  aware  of  a  potentially   dangerous   situation   when   this   is   avoidable.   Some   concepts   and  definitions  that  might  help  understanding  what  comes  with  the  factor  risk,  including  a  more   detailed   account   of   risk,  will   be   showed   in   the   first   part   of   this   report.   In  session  2,  the  theory  of  a  risky  society  will  present  the  idea  of  a  society  potentially  more   dangerous   than   ever.   Moving   from   the   ‘foundations’   to   the   ‘core’   of   this  report,   session   3   will   build   upon   three   different   circumstances   in   which   expert  knowledge   can   be   contested.   First   one   is   that  when   the   experts   provide   different  accounts   about   the   risks   of   a   particular   situation   using   a   case   study   related   to   a  contaminated   soil.   The   second  example  will   show  how  epidemiological   knowledge  diverges   from   medical   knowledge   using   the   prevention   paradox   concept   to  exemplify  another  possible  way   to  contest  expert  knowledge.  The  main   session  of  this   report   will   then   end   by   showing   how   lay   knowledge   may   oppose   expert  knowledge   by   demonstrating   that   people   often   assume   their   own   risk   or   take  decisions  according  to  their  perceptions.  

 

1.1 Risk  

One  definition  refers  to  “The  state  in  which  there  is  a  possibility  of  known  danger  or  harm,   which   if   avoided   may   lead   to   benefits”   and   another   to   “a   particular   and  known   outcome   combined   with   the   consequences   of   the   outcome”   (Carter   and  Jordan,  2009,  p.  59).    

1.1.1 Material  risk:  A  tangible  consequence  of  being  exposed  to  risk  like  driving  a  car  very  fast  and  getting  disabled  in  case  of  an  accident.  

1.1.2 Symbolic  risk:  When  getting  exposed  to  risk  has  a  meaning  like  one  who   gets   the   ‘color   of   summer’   to   show-­‐off   that   he/she   was   on  holidays.   In   session   3,   the   risk   of   Sun   exposure   will   be   further  debated.  

1.1.3 Risk  management:  When  a  risky  situation  is  known  and  something  is  done  in  order  to  prevent  or  reduce  negative  consequences.  

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1.2 Probability  Is   a   mathematical   expression   which   shows   the   likelihood   or   chance   of  something   to   happen.   Later   in   session   3   when   evaluating   the   case   of   Sun  exposure,  it  will  be  clear  the  role  that  probability  play  in  defining  how  people  take  some  decisions  in  face  of  a  situation  of  risk.    

1.3 Uncertainty  It   refers   to   the   lack   of   knowledge   or   a   state   of   doubt   regarding   the  consequences  of  an  action.  In  the  context  of  this  report,  people  might  not  be  completely   sure   about   the   ‘real’   risks   of   a   situation   as   session   3  will   show  with  the  case  of  the  contaminated  soil.    

1.4 Expert  knowledge  Expert   knowledge   arises   from   the   study   of   a   particular   area   in  most   cases  through   scientific   methods   (e.g.   research   and   observation).   An   ‘expert’   is  distinct   from   a   ‘lay’   person   in   the   sense   that   he/she   knows  more   about   a  particular  subject  and  is  able  to  provide  reliable  advices  in  situations  of  risk.  Experts  can  be  sociologists,  journalists,  epidemiologists  and  so  on.    

1.5 Lay  people  Lay  people  are  those  who  do  not  have  knowledge  of  a  specific  area.  One  can  be  expert  in  Social  Sciences  but  ‘lay’  in  Physics.  They  use  lay  knowledge  and  this  is  somehow  an  opposite  or  at  least  different  way  of  managing  risk  than  those  from  the  experts.    

1.6 Epidemiology  Epidemiology  is  one  type  of  expert  knowledge  and  generally  “is  the  study  of  the   various   things   that   contribute   to   illness,   disease   and   death   in   human  populations  (Carter  and  Jordan,  2009,  p.  83).  Epidemiologists  are  interested  in   the   risks   a   disease   may   represent   to   a   population   as   a   whole,   not  individually  as,  for  instance,  a  family  doctor  would  do.      

1.7 Prevention  paradox  “Any   measure   in   public   health   that   brings   large   overall   benefits   to   the  community  offers   little  to  each  participant   individual”  (Rose,  1981,  p.  1850,  quoted  in  Carter  and  Jordan,  2009,  p.  87).    

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2.   Theory:  The  risk  society  

In   the   thesis   named   ‘On   the   way   to   the   industrial   risk-­‐society?   Outline   of   an  argument’   (1989),   the  German   sociologist  Ulrich  Beck  developed  a   theory  about  a  risky  society  which  debated:    

• Current  society  full  of  harms  more  complex  to  manage.  • The  Chernobyl  nuclear  power  plant  accident   in  1986  and  the  way  ‘invisible’  

risks  are  associated  to  it.  • ‘Lay’  people  relying  on  ‘experts’  advice  regarding  the  potential  risks  of  being  

in  contact  with  radioactive  substances.  • The  accident   as   a   symbol  of   the   contemporary   society  with   abundant   risks  

with  different  meanings  as  those  seen  in  the  prior  industrial  society.  • Risk  as  an  inherent  danger  in  anything,  a  probability,  the  central  element  of  

life  in  the  risk  society.  • The  concern  of  ‘the  role  expert  knowledge  in  defining  the  risks  that  go  on  to  

cause  of  anxiety  for  us  all’  (Beck  cited  in  Carter  and  Jordan,  2009,  p.  81).  

 

3.   The  Evidence  

  Possible  ways  expert  knowledge  can  be  disputed:  

 

  3.1   When  expert  knowledge  is  contradictory:  Experts  vs.  Experts  

• Expert   knowledge   is   created   by   different   scientists,   in   different   times   and  using  different  parameters.  This  may  lead  to  different  accounts  of  risk.  

• The   allotment   case   study   in   which   suddenly   a   family   was   advised   not   to  handle   the   soil   due   to   contamination   clearly   shows   that   experts  may  have  different  concepts  of  risk  in  the  same  situation.  

• First   tests   indicated   a   poisoned   soil   and   later   on,   a   change   in   the   tests  indicated  that  the  soil  was  free  of  harms.  

   

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  3.2   Epidemiological  vs.  Medical  knowledge  

• To  ‘prevent’  or  to  ‘fix’?  • Epidemiologists   work   with   campaigns   like   vaccinations   that   affect   great  

portions  of   the  population  but  only  a   small  part  of   it   is  benefited   (e.g.  600  children  being   vaccinated  against  diphtheria  while   the  probability  was   that  only  1  would  get  the  disease).    

• A   doctor   who   knows   his/her   patient’s   health   state   through   particular  examinations   may   conclude   that   this   person   is   very   healthy   despite   some  attitudes   like   smoking   and   sun   tanning,   considered   a   ‘death’   sentence   in  some  epidemiologists  campaigns.  

• The   existence   of   characters   like   ‘Uncle   Norman’   and   ‘The   last   person’   as  symbols   that   exceptions   exists,   just   like   in   the   vaccination’s   case.  Epidemiologists   may   claim   that   bad   eating   habits   or   the   lack   of   ‘healthy’  activities  are  danger  but  this  is  not  true  for  100%  of  the  people.    

  3.3   Lay  Knowledge  vs.  Expert  knowledge  

• Only  part  of   the  opinion   formed  by   ‘lay’  people  consider  expert  knowledge  (‘A  risky  world?’,  2009,  track  3).  

• People  may  have  different  perceptions  about  risks  and  decide  by  themselves  what  is  best  for  them  according  to  what  they  believe  –  What  the  chances  are  of  developing  a  cancer  due  to  sun  exposure?  

• Sun  tanning  is  an  example  of  people  aware  of  the  existence  of  risks,  but  their  understanding  of  health  was  different  as  they  valuated  the  ‘feel  good’  factor  despite  the  risks  stated  by  experts.  

• In   the   allotment   case   the   family   decided   not   to   continue   due   the  uncertainties  created.  “We  didn’t  feel  safe”  stated  by  the  owner  Tim  Jordan  clearly  shows  a  disagreement  with  the  situation  proposed  by  experts  (‘A  risky  world?’,  2009,  track  3).  

   

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4.   Pointers  towards  possible  conclusions  

• Understanding   and   managing   risk   is   rather   complex   as   it   involves   many  interconnected   factors   such   as   uncertainty,   probability   and   different   forms   of  knowledge.  • Risk   may   be   visible   or   not,   certain   or   uncertain   and   it   is   perceived   and  managed  differently  from  people  to  people.  • Experts  in  the  same  area  may  diverge  and  create  uncertainties.  • Different  ways  of  managing  risks  can  be  seen  in  different  areas  of  expertise  (Epidemiologists  vs.  physicians).  • Lay   knowledge   plays   an   important   role   when   is   about   contesting   expert  knowledge  as  it  acts  in  areas  where  science  might  have  limitations  in  exploring.  • Expert   knowledge   is   passive   of   being   reinterpreted   according   to   people’s  perceptions  and  values.  

 

Word  count:  1.256  

 

6   References  

 

Beck,   U.   (1989)   ‘On   the   way   to   the   industrial   risk-­‐society?   Outline   of   an  argument’,  Thesis  Eleven,  vol.  23,  pp.  86-­‐103.  

‘A  risky  world  (2009)  Exploring  social  Lives  [Audio  CD  1],  Milton  Keynes,  The  Open  University.  

Carte,  S.  and  Jordan,  T.  (2009)  ‘Living  with  risk  and  risky  living’  in  Bromley,  S.,  Clarke,   J.,   Hinchliffe,   S.   and   Taylor,   S.   (eds)   Exploring   Social   Lives,   Milton  Keynes,  The  Open  University.  

   

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