the development of online communities of...
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF ONLINE COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE:
A CASE STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ONLINE ENVIRONMENT FOR JUDO REFEREES
A study submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Information Systems
at
THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
by
PAUL ROGERS
September 2003
Abstract
This study investigates online communities of practice. It presents a series of
models and provides a practical test of the models through the implementation of an
online environment for a community of judo referees. It also reflects on the
suitability of information systems development techniques in the implementation of
online community Websites.
The literature review defines online communities of practice, examines
models of online community structures, lifecycles and development and identifies
principles of good practice in Website design. The online search reinforces the
literature review by identifying examples of good and bad practice in judo Websites
and online sports communities. The selection of appropriate information systems
development methodologies is also discussed.
Five models of online communities are created and presented. These address
online community design and implementation, the lifecycle of online communities,
sociability, usability and the purpose of online communities.
The models’ utility in the design and construction of the online environment
for judo referees is evaluated. Evolutionary prototyping is identified as an
appropriate information systems methodology for implementing online community
Websites, but should not be considered the only suitable methodology. However, due
to the time constraints of the study it is not possible to practically assess the
formation of an online community of practice around this online environment.
The study reveals the potential for an online community for judo referees to
provide a number of benefits to its members and to the governing bodies. However,
it is not possible at the time of writing to identify whether these benefits will be
realised in practice.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following people for their assistance in the
production of this dissertation.
• Dr Jose Miguel Baptista Nunes for his guidance and advice.
• Alan Medley, Simon Hill, Cristel de Bruijn for their contribution to the
development of the community.
• David Miller for his help with the technical foundations of the online
community.
• Jack Daniels and Metallica for providing support and motivation when
things got tough.
List of Figures
Figure 1: The I.J.F. Refereeing Commission 5
Figure 2: Chapter Headings 12
Figure 3: Methodology Summary 14
Figure 4: Why Use Mind Mapping? 18
Figure 5: MoSCoW Rules 24
Figure 6: Web Information Systems Development Methodology 25
Figure 7: The Process of Evolutionary Prototyping 26
Figure 8: Online Communities Synonyms and Specialisations 33
Figure 9: Steps to Build an Online Community 37
Figure 10: Indicators of a Successful Online Learning Community 38
Figure 11: Information Seeking Behaviours in Online Communities 41
Figure 12: Functional Roles in Online Communities 42
Figure 13: Online Community Roles Dependent on Experience 43
Figure 14: Social Behaviour in Online Communities 44
Figure 15: Usability and Sociability 46
Figure 16: Online Community Lifecycle 47
Figure 17: Community Centred Development 48
Figure 18: Establishing an Effective Learning Community 52
Figure 19: Exact Organisation Schemes 57
Figure 20: Ambiguous Organisation Schemes 57
Figure 21: Factors Affecting Labelling System Consistency 59
Figure 22: The Purpose of Navigation 61
Figure 23: Characteristics of Effective Navigation Systems 61
Figure 24: Effective Formatting of Breadcrumbs 63
Figure 25: Online Community Design and Implementation Model 88
Figure 25: Online Community Lifecycle Model 94
Figure 26: Sociability Model 98
Figure 27: Usability Model 101
Figure 28: Online Community Purpose Model 104
Table of Contents
Table of Contents............................................................7
1 Introduction.............................................................1
1.1 The Study............................................................................1
1.2 What is Judo?.....................................................................3
1.3 Judo Governing Bodies.....................................................4
1.3.1 The International Judo Federation (I.J.F.) ............................ 4
1.3.2 The British Judo Association................................................ 5
1.3.3 The Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association ............. 6
1.4 Objectives ...........................................................................7
1.5 Methodology.....................................................................10
1.6 Dissertation Structure .....................................................11
2 Methodology .........................................................13
2.1 Literature Review .............................................................15
2.2 Online Search ...................................................................16
2.3 Requirements Analysis ...................................................17
2.4 Establishing the Models ..................................................19
2.5 Building the Community..................................................21
2.5.1 Selecting the Information Systems Development Methodology....................................................................................... 21
2.5.2 Evolutionary Prototyping..................................................... 22
2.5.3 Timeboxing ........................................................................... 24
2.5.4 MoSCoW Rules. .................................................................... 24
2.5.5 WebQual Questionnaire....................................................... 25
2.6 Nurturing the Community................................................27
2.7 Evaluating the Community ..............................................28
2.8 Evaluating the Models .....................................................29
3 Literature Review..................................................30
3.1 What is an Online Community of Practice?...................30
3.1.1 Community............................................................................ 30
3.1.2 Online Communities............................................................. 31
3.1.3 Online Communities of Practice ......................................... 33
3.2 Modelling Online Communities.......................................36
3.2.1 A Simple Model..................................................................... 37
3.2.2 The Purpose of Online Communities ................................. 38
3.2.3 The Structure of Online Communities................................ 40
3.2.4 Community Lifecycle and the Community Development Process............................................................................................... 47
3.3 Online Community Infrastructures and Features..........54
3.3.1 Bulletin Boards ..................................................................... 54
3.3.2 Listservers (or Listservs)..................................................... 54
3.3.3 Chat Rooms .......................................................................... 54
3.3.4 Multi-User Dungeons (M.U.D.s) and Object-Oriented M.U.D.s (M.O.O.s)............................................................................... 55
3.3.5 Other Features ...................................................................... 55
3.4 Web Design.......................................................................56
3.4.1 Information Architecture...................................................... 56
3.4.2 Page Design .......................................................................... 63
4 Online Search........................................................64
4.1 Judo Websites..................................................................65
4.1.1 International Judo Federation............................................. 65
4.1.2 The British Judo Association.............................................. 65
4.1.3 Judo Scotland and Northern Ireland Judo Federation ..... 66
4.1.4 B.J.A. Midland Area.............................................................. 66
4.1.5 Southern Area Judo ............................................................. 67
4.1.6 The Judo Information Site ................................................... 67
4.2 Online Communities for Other Sports............................68
4.2.1 aBudokan Martial Arts ......................................................... 68
4.2.2 Martial Arts Planet. The Global Martial Arts Community.68
4.2.3 Great American Sports Fans............................................... 69
4.2.4 Arsenal.com.......................................................................... 69
5 Requirements Analysis ........................................70
5.1 The Purpose the Online Community Should Serve ......72
5.1.1 Recruitment and Retention.................................................. 73
5.1.2 Training of Referees............................................................. 74
5.1.3 Communication .................................................................... 77
5.1.4 Summary of the Purpose of the Online Community for Judo Referees .................................................................................... 79
5.2 The Features and Functionality the Online Environment Should Provide ..........................................................................80
5.2.1 Chat Room ............................................................................ 80
5.2.2 Bulletin Board ....................................................................... 81
5.3 The Governance of the Online Community ...................84
6 Establishing the Models.......................................86
6.1 Online Community Design and Implementation Model 87
6.1.1 Analysis of the Situation in which the Community will Operate ............................................................................................... 89
6.1.2 Exploration of the Community’s Purpose.......................... 90
6.1.3 Design of the Website .......................................................... 91
6.1.4 Launch of the Community ................................................... 92
6.1.5 Evaluation of the Community.............................................. 92
6.2 Online Community Lifecycle ...........................................93
6.3 Sociability Model..............................................................96
6.4 Usability Model .................................................................99
6.5 Online Community Purpose Model...............................102
7 Building the Community ....................................105
7.1 Community Purpose ......................................................105
7.2 Evolutionary Prototyping ..............................................107
7.2.1 Timeboxing And MoSCoW Rules...................................... 107
7.3 Web Design.....................................................................109
7.3.1 Information Architecture.................................................... 109
7.3.2 Page Design ........................................................................ 110
7.4 Technology .....................................................................111
8 Nurturing the Community ..................................113
8.1 Encouraging Sustainability ...........................................113
9 Evaluating the Community ................................115
10 Evaluating the Models........................................117
10.1 Community Purpose. ..................................................117
10.2 Sociability ....................................................................119
10.3 Usability .......................................................................120
11 Conclusions ........................................................121
11.1 Summary and Conclusions........................................121
11.2 Limitations of the Study .............................................124
11.3 Future Research..........................................................125
11.3.1 Models of Online Communities ..................................... 125
11.3.2 Development of the Online Environment for Judo Referees .......................................................................................... 125
11.3.3 Alternative Design and Implementation Methodologies ... .......................................................................................... 125
11.3.4 Impact of Online Communities ...................................... 126
12 Bibliography........................................................127
13 Glossary ..............................................................132
14 Appendices .........................................................138
Appendix 1: Interview Script ..................................................139
Appendix 2 Interview Mind Maps ...........................................140
Appendix 3: Requirements Specification Table ...................143
Appendix 4: Online Search Screen Shots.............................147
Appendix 5: Web Page Design Guidelines ...........................164
Appendix 6: Online Communities Models - Mind Maps. ......169
Appendix 7: Paper Prototype .................................................174
Appendix 8: Referees’ Corner Screen Shots ........................176
Appendix 9: Project Methodology / W.I.S.D.M. Comparison182
Appendix 10: Project Timetable .............................................183
1 Introduction
1.1 The Study
This dissertation is in part fulfilment of the requirements of MSc Information
Systems at Sheffield University. It was completed between June and September
2003, with some preparatory work being conducted prior to this period.
This study has the twin focus of academic study and the practical
implementation of an online environment for judo referees. The study investigates
the concept of online communities of practice and the requirements for such a
community of judo referees in the Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association
(Y&H.J.A.). It reviews established models of online communities, identifies relevant
principles of Website design and considers information systems development
methodologies. Five models of key aspects of online communities are proposed.
Experiences and examples from the introduction of the online community for judo
referees are used to inform and illustrate these models.
Online communities represent an important sector of the World Wide Web.
An online community may be a significant part of an individual’s social network
(Rheingold (1993)), may provide a source of revenue for a business (Cashel (2001)),
or may, in the form of online communities of practice, facilitate learning and a
deeper understanding of an area of interest (Hoadley and Pea (2002)). Furthermore,
online communities are a relatively recent phenomenon and have undergone
considerable changes since their widespread appearance in the public domain little
more than two decades ago (Rheingold (2001)). Therefore, understanding the factors
in the introduction and long term sustainability of online communities could bring
numerous benefits to a wide range of individuals and organisations. Online
community developers, online community members and online community providers
could all benefit from a greater understanding of the technical and human factors at
work in online communities. The potential benefits to the judo referees in the
Y&H.J.A. are discussed in Section 1.4: Objectives.
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The potential to study online communities is vast and many studies have
examined a variety of aspects of online communities (see Section 3.2: Modelling
Online Communities). However, the time available for this study is strictly limited.
Therefore, it concentrates on the identification of requirements, the design and the
initial introduction of an online environment for judo referees. Whether an online
community of practice will form around this resource remains to be seen. This
represents a possible area of future research.
2
1.2 What is Judo?
Judo is a combative sport in which competitors attempt to throw and hold
each other to score points. The referee, supported by two judges, evaluates the
techniques applied and awards scores and penalties according to the rules. If there is
disagreement between the referee and the judges, the majority view is taken. The
referee communicates the decisions taken to the timekeepers and scorekeepers. The
referee also ensures that competitors behave in a sporting manner and honour judo
traditions.
Judo was founded by Jigoro Kano (1860 - 1938), a graduate of Toyo Teikoku
(Imperial) University, a prominent educator and Asia’s first member of the
International Olympic Committee. He opened the first judo school, the Kodokan, in
1882 (International Judo Federation, 2002a).
The appeal of judo spread throughout the world during the early twentieth
century, with clubs being formed in Seattle, USA (1903), Los Angeles, USA (1915),
London, England (1918), Brisbane, Australia (1928) and Auckland, New Zealand
(1948). Despite a brief ban in Japan following World War II, judo continued to
develop with the formation of the Japanese Judo Federation (JJF) in 1949, the British
Judo Association (B.J.A.) in 1948, the European Judo Union (EJU) also in 1948 and
the International Judo Federation (I.J.F.) in 1951. (B.J.A., 2000).
Tokyo hosted the first World Judo Championships in 1956 and judo appeared
in the Olympic Games for the first time in the 1964 Tokyo games. The Junior World
Championships were introduced in 1976, the first Women’s World Judo
Championships took place in 1980 and women’s judo was admitted to the Olympic
Games in Barcelona in 1992 (I.J.F., 2002b).
The international judo community now includes 178 National Federations
from 5 Continental Unions; Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania and Pan America (I.J.F.,
2002b)
3
1.3 Judo Governing Bodies
1.3.1 The International Judo Federation (I.J.F.)
The I.J.F. is the international governing body for Judo. Composed of
representatives of National Judo Federations (one per country), the I.J.F. lists
amongst its aims:
• To supervise judo activity throughout the world
• To protect the interests of judo
• To organise judo for the Olympic Games
• To develop and spread judo, particularly amongst the youth
• To establish the international regulations for judo
(I.J.F., 2002c)
Refereeing issues within the I.J.F. are under the jurisdiction of the Congress
and the Executive Committee, but more specifically the Refereeing Director and the
Refereeing Commission.
4
The Refereeing Commission:
Grants I.J.F. licences
Supervises I.J.F. sanctioned events
Liases with Continental Unions on the interpretation of rules
Selects and evaluates referees for major championships
Maintains a database of active, inactive and retired referees
Promotes refereeing
Organises events to ensure consistency in refereeing
Provides financial support for referees’ development
Disseminates changes to rules and regulations
Reprints Refereeing Rules every 4 years
Figure 1: The I.J.F. Refereeing Commission
1.3.2 The British Judo Association
The British Judo Association (B.J.A.) was formed in 1948 and is the national
governing body for judo. Refereeing in Britain is the responsibility of the National
Refereeing Commission (N.R.C.) which consists of:
• The Chairman
• The International Co-ordinator
• The Senior Referee Co-ordinator
• The Junior Refereeing Co-ordinator
• The Coaching and Training Co-ordinator
• The Secretary and Examination Co-ordinator
5
The B.J.A. interprets the rules and amendments provided by the I.J.F., to
ensure they are appropriate for national level competition. The interpreted rules are
disseminated to the regional governing bodies.
1.3.3 The Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association
The Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association (Y&H.J.A.) is one of 13
regional governing bodies for judo in the UK. It has approximately 30 affiliated judo
clubs in the area. Each regional governing body has an Area Refereeing
Representative who liases with the N.R.C.. The Area Refereeing Representative for
the Y&H.J.A. is Alan Medley. He is also the Coaching and Training Co-ordinator of
the N.R.C. and was the first referee interviewed in this study.
6
1.4 Objectives
The objectives of this dissertation are both scholarly and pragmatic in nature.
The primary purpose of the study is:
To develop, refine and assess models of online communities of practice
and to test information systems development methods, through the
implementation of an online environment for a community of judo
referees.
Furthermore, it is intended that the findings from the study will be
generalisable, providing guidance to developers of other online communities of
practice, both in sports refereeing and other fields.
It is intended that a number of objectives will be achieved by this study.
These objectives reflect the twin focus of theory and pragmatism. Objectives
focussing on the development of theories and models include:
1) The identification of a generalisable model of the development of online
communities of practice. This model could potentially be utilised to
understand, initiate and support the development of other forms of online
communities.
2) A practical test of the effectiveness of established models of online
communities. Concepts identified in established models will be utilised in
the implementation of the online community of judo referees and strengths
and shortcomings identified.
3) A greater understanding of information systems development
methodologies, their applicability to the implementation of online
communities and their representation in models of online communities.
7
4) A greater understanding of the role of Web design in the implementation of
online communities and its representation in models of online communities
of practice.
5) The identification of a generalisable model of judo referees’ requirements
for an online community of practice. This model may also be applicable to
referees of other sports.
6) A greater understanding of the benefits, nature and problems of online
communities of practice. It should be noted, however, that the duration of
this study limits the potential to study these areas. The study will focus on
the initiation of the community.
The establishment of an online community of practice for judo referees could
bring a number of practical benefits to the community’s members and to the
governing bodies:
1) Improved coordination of referees and refereeing standards. The online
community could facilitate the communication of directives and
interpretations of rules, from the regional (Y&H.J.A.) and national (B.J.A.)
governing bodies to the referees en masse. It could provide technical
guidance and a forum for the clarification of refereeing issues.
2) Improved peer communication. A number of synchronous and
asynchronous computer mediated communication (C.M.C.) tools could be
used in the online community. Bulletin board, email and Internet Relay
Chat (I.R.C.) could be provided to facilitate communication between
referees.
8
3) Improved access to reference information. The provision of judo rules and
regulations, frequently asked questions (F.A.Q.s), glossaries of terms and
technical articles on judo refereeing, could be provided through the online
community Website.
Consequently, the online community could provide greater support for novice
referees, convenient access to information for established referees and a management
tool for senior referees and the governing bodies.
Although the case study focuses on the Y&H.J.A. region, the online
community could potentially be extended to include referees from other regions and
countries. Issues of jurisdiction and responsibility for managing the community
would have to be addressed.
9
1.5 Methodology
An inductive approach is used in this study to investigate online communities
of practice and develop relevant models. The methodology includes desk research
(Chapter 3: Literature Review) and primary research in the form of semi-structured
interviews conducted with judo referees. The study also involves the use of
information systems development methodologies and techniques to create an online
environment for judo referees. The reason for selecting this methodology is to
provide a rich analysis of the concepts and a successful implementation of the online
community of practice.
Each element of the methodology is discussed in detail in Chapter 2:
Methodology.
10
1.6 Dissertation Structure
The structure of this report reflects the tasks of researching, modelling,
designing, implementing and evaluating the online community for judo referees. It
should be noted that the stages and actions described were often undertaken
concurrently and previous stages revised as the study progressed.
A detailed description and justification of the methodology is given in
Chapter 2: Methodology. Chapters 3: Literature Review to Chapter 10: Evaluating
the Models address the implementation of each stage of the methodology in turn.
Chapter 11: Conclusions presents a summary and conclusions, the limitations of the
study and recommendations for further research.
A glossary of abbreviations and terms is included following the bibliography.
The appendices are listed in the Table of Contents and at the beginning of Chapter
14: Appendices.
The online community for judo referees is available on the WWW at the
following U.R.L.:
www.yorkshire-judo.org.uk/referees/refindex.htm
11
Chapter Headings:
Chapter 1 – Introduction
Chapter 2 - Methodology
Chapter 3 - Literature Review
Chapter 4 - Online Search
Chapter 5 - Requirements Analysis
Chapter 6 - Establishing the Models
Chapter 7 - Building the Community
Chapter 8 - Nurturing the Community
Chapter 9 - Evaluating the Community
Chapter 10 - Evaluating the Models
Chapter 11 – Conclusions
Chapter 12 – Bibliography
Chapter 13 – Glossary
Chapter 14 - Appendices
Figure 2: Chapter Headings
12
2 Methodology Information systems development requires a socio-technical approach to
integrate the needs of the users and the client organisation with the characteristics of
the technology (Avison and Fitzgerald (2003), Beynon-Davies (2002)). The
development of online communities of practice requires the extension of this
approach to include consideration of community development and learning.
Moreover, this study also addresses approaches to Website design. The methodology
has to include a meaningful examination of relevant concepts and theories, in
addition to supporting the actual development of the online community for judo
referees.
The timescale for this study is restricted to approximately three months. It is
not possible within this time to undertake comprehensive ethnological research, to
complete a thorough systems analysis and development, to investigate and
implement the latest Web technologies and to initiate, monitor and evaluate a mature
online community, while identifying and assessing the relevant theoretical constructs.
Furthermore, it should also be recognized that the study is being conducted in a real
world setting and that the introduction of a poorly designed or partially completed
online environment could be problematic for the referees. Therefore, the
methodology must balance scientific rigour and pragmatism.
The methodology selected for the study uses eight stages. Each stage is
described in this chapter and the methodology is summarised in Figure 3:
Methodology Summary.
There is an important distinction to be made between the methodology used
to undertake the study (Figure 3: Methodology Summary) and the information
systems development methodology used to implement the Website for the judo
referees (Figure 7: The Process of Evolutionary Prototyping).
13
to implement
LiteratureReview
Online Search
Interviews &
Questionnaire
Models & Good Practice
Good Practice
Requirements
Model(s) ofOnline Community
of Practice
DesignMethodology
Online Community of Practice
for Judo Referees
to identify to identify
to inform to inform
to identify
to identify to identify
to implement
to identify
EVALUATION
EVALUATION
Figure 3: Methodology Summary
14
2.1 Literature Review
A literature review is employed in this study to review contemporary models
and principles related to the area of study. The multi-disciplinary nature of the study
requires that the literature review examines a broad spectrum of topics. It addresses
theoretical models and identifies good practice which can be implemented in the case
study. Consequently, the literature review addresses the following areas by drawing
on texts, journals, articles and online sources:
• Definitions of online communities of practice
• Models of online community objectives and structures
• Models of online community lifecycles and development
• Online community infrastructures and features
• Principles of good practice in Website design.
These subject areas are in their infancy, but have developed rapidly.
Therefore, literature published during the 1990’s can be considered historical in this
context. Key texts from this period provide the background to many of the current
theories and are therefore included in the literature review. The bulk of the literature
review is, however, drawn from contemporary sources.
15
2.2 Online Search
The online search supports and reinforces the literature review. The purpose
of the online search is to identify examples of good and bad practice in existence in
relevant Websites and online communities. These examples can be used to guide
design decisions for the online environment for judo referees. The two main types of
Website examined are:
• Judo Websites
• Online communities for other sports.
In addition, the online search provides examples which can be used in
interviews and discussions with the referees to illustrate the possible features and
functionality of the online environment.
16
2.3 Requirements Analysis
The aim of the requirements analysis is to establish if the referees have a need
and desire to belong to an online community. Moreover, the requirements analysis
identifies key issues for the referees and provides a foundation from which the
structure and contents of the community can be elicited. The requirements analysis
identifies both specific requirements for the online community for judo referees and
generalisable requirements to inform the development and analysis of online
community models.
The requirements analysis utilises semi-structured exploratory interviews
(Appendix 1: Interview Script), mind mapping and evolutionary prototyping to
identify the needs of the judo referees. The interviews and mind maps provide a rich
view of the referees’ needs and problems, their expectations and understanding of
online communities. The mind mapping technique identifies a hierarchy of themes
and specific requirements.
Higher level themes identified from the mind maps are used primarily to
inform the models of online communities (Chapter 6: Establishing the Models).
Specific requirements are recorded in Appendix 3: Requirements Specification Table.
It should be noted that evolutionary prototyping does not initially produce the
comprehensive list of requirements associated with the Systems Development Life
Cycle (S.D.L.C.) approach (Avison and Fitzgerald (2003)). Instead, requirements
emerge with each iteration of the prototyping cycle and the requirements
specification is updated accordingly.
A Webmaster for the online environment was identified and was regularly
consulted once a functional prototype had been produced. This helped to further
refine the design of the Website.
17
Why use Mind Mapping?
A technique was needed to distil key points from the interviews. This
technique had to be simple to learn and employ, be able to show the
relationship between topics and concepts and ideally be intuitive for
readers of the completed study. Mind mapping was selected as it
fulfilled these criteria.
Furthermore, the technique is very adaptable and could therefore also be
used in the development of the online community models (Chapter 6:
Establishing the Models).
Figure 4: Why Use Mind Mapping?
18
2.4 Establishing the Models
The purpose of this stage of the study is to generate accurate and
comprehensive models of online communities of practice, which will be beneficial to
online community developers. The initial objective was to identify two models:
• A generalisable model of the development of online communities of
practice.
• A generalisable model of judo referees’ requirements for an online
community of practice.
However, as the study progressed, it became apparent that this was
insufficient to represent the detail and depth of online community development.
Moreover, the referees’ requirements were sufficiently consistent with the models
that they could be integrated and used to illustrate the models. Therefore, the
objective was revised.
Five related models of online communities are presented, based on the
following themes:
• Online Community Design and Implementation
• Online Community Lifecycle
• Sociability
• Usability
• Online Community Purpose
19
The process of establishing these models consists of two stages:
1) The identification of key themes from the models presented in the literature
review.
2) The integration of the requirements of the judo referees.
Mind mapping is used to undertake the first stage of the analysis. Models
identified in the literature review were converted into a single mind map. Repetition
and duplication were removed and the single mind map decomposed into five mind
maps representing the themes listed above (Appendix 6: Online Communities Models
- Mind Maps).
The second stage of establishing the models uses the concepts and issues
identified by the referees (Chapter 5: Requirements Analysis). Relevant concepts and
issues are integrated with the mind maps to generate the themed models presented in
Chapter 6: Establishing the Models. Here each model is shown in a graphical form
and key characteristics of the models are discussed.
20
2.5 Building the Community
This section of the methodology is designed to use the models and concepts
discussed in previous stages, to build a functional information system, which meets
the requirements of the judo referees. Technical design and development is
addressed and consideration given to the social implications of the system. A critical
decision undertaken at this stage is the selection of an appropriate information
systems development methodology.
2.5.1 Selecting the Information Systems Development Methodology
Avison and Fitzgerald define information systems development
methodologies as:
“procedures, techniques, tools, and documentation aids which will help
the systems developers in their efforts to implement a new information
system.”
Avison and Fitzgerald (2003:20)
They also stress the importance of the underlying philosophy of each
methodology and the need to align this with the project’s characteristics. The
development of the online environment for judo referees has two key characteristics
which exert a powerful influence on the selection of the appropriate information
systems development methodology:
• The system must be delivered to a fixed timescale and at a negligible cost
• The system should support, be accepted by and be used by the community
of judo referees
21
Furthermore, the information system is not particularly complex or
innovative, and is of a modest size. The information systems development
methodology, therefore, has to be suited to delivering a system under these
conditions.
The time constraints on the project also restrict the level of detail to which the
techniques can be applied. Therefore, the methodology chosen is not applied in its
purest, most comprehensive form and the associated techniques are used only when
pragmatic to do so. This approach is typical of the way in which many organisations
apply information systems development methodologies (Avison and Fitzgerald
(2003)).
Furthermore, the information system development methodology must
integrate with the Online Community Design and Implementation model, identified in
Section 6.1. For instance, if the model requires thorough involvement of the users in
the design process, then the information systems development methodology should
allow this to take place.
2.5.2 Evolutionary Prototyping.
Consequently, evolutionary prototyping was selected as the most appropriate
methodology, for the following reasons:
• The importance of time constraints in the development process.
Evolutionary prototyping is suited to the delivery of projects within
restricted timescales ((Avison and Fitzgerald (2003), Stapleton (1997)).
• The anticipated lack of familiarity of the judo referees, with the concept of
online communities and their consequent difficulty in identifying specific
requirements. Evolutionary prototyping exposes the users to the system
and allows requirements to emerge as the project progresses (Avison and
Fitzgerald (2003)).
22
• The importance of developing a sense of ownership and acceptance of the
information system by the judo referees. The involvement of users in the
prototyping of the system can improve their acceptance of the system
((Avison and Fitzgerald (2003), Stapleton (1997)).
• The importance of controlling development costs. The control of project
deadlines is closely linked to the control of project costs. Therefore
evolutionary prototyping is relatively effective in mitigating the risk of
spiralling costs (Stapleton (1997)).
• The need to cater for the long-term maintenance and development of the
system. The involvement of the users in the design of the system results in
them becoming more familiar with and therefore more able to maintain the
system (Stapleton (1997)).
• The importance of mitigating the risk of total failure. Relative to the
S.D.L.C. approach, evolutionary prototyping is more likely to produce a
functioning system, albeit with faults (Stapleton (1997)).
• The opportunity to communicate with the judo referees is limited and it is
therefore important to gain comprehensive, focussed information from
them during each interview. The evolutionary prototyping approach
facilitates this.
The evolutionary prototyping approach was supported by the use of
techniques associated with a variety of prototyping methodologies. The techniques
used and their source methodologies are given subsequently.
23
2.5.3 Timeboxing
Source: Rapid Application Development (R.A.D.) (Avison and Fitzgerald (2003).
This technique uses fixed time periods, called timeboxes, for the overall
project and for iterations of the development cycle within the project. Two
timeboxes were used for the requirements analysis and prototype design. The first
resulting in a “paper prototype” created in Microsoft Powerpoint, the second
resulting in a functioning system, the alpha prototype. A third timebox was used to
review the system with the Webmaster to produce a beta prototype which was
launched to the referees (Appendix 10: Project Timetable).
2.5.4 MoSCoW Rules.
Source: R.A.D. (Avison and Fitzgerald (2003)).
This classification system is used to prioritise functions and features within a
timebox. User requirements are defined according to their importance and whether
they will be delivered in the current timebox. The acronym MoSCoW rules is used
as the basis of the classification:
Mo = Must haves. The minimum features for the project to be viable.
S = Should haves. Important, but not critical features.
Co = Could haves. Delivered if time permits, but can be left out.
W = Won’t haves. Not delivered in the current timebox, but may be
delivered in subsequent timeboxes.
Figure 5: MoSCoW Rules
24
2.5.5 WebQual Questionnaire.
Source: Web IS Development Methodology (W.I.S.D.M.) (Avison and
Fitzgerald (2003)).
The WebQual questionnaire, in an amended format (Appendix 8: Referees’
Corner Screen Shots), is integrated into the Website for judo referees. It provides a
simple method of securing feedback on the Website (see Section 2.7: Evaluating the
Community and Chapter 9: Evaluating the Community, for details).
Web Information Systems Development Methodology (W.I.S.D.M.)
The overall methodology used to undertake this study exhibits many
similarities to the W.I.S.D.M. approach. Each stage of the W.I.S.D.M.
methodology is addressed in this study and the approach of moving
between stages without a predetermined, linear order is also used.
However, there are also some departures from the W.I.S.D.M.
methodology (Appendix 9: Project Methodology / W.I.S.D.M.
Comparison).
It was decided not to use the W.I.S.D.M. methodology for the study, as it
would have provided less flexibility than the methodology chosen and
may have therefore restricted the development of the models.
Figure 6: Web Information Systems Development Methodology
25
Appendix XX Requirements Specification
Table
Mind Map
Prototype
Online Communities
Models
views recorded & organisedin
prioritised by MoSCoW Rules
specific requirements recorded
concepts included
in
reviewed at
used to inform
Semi-Structured Interview
refined with Webmaster
integrated into design
reviewed at
reviewed atbeginning of timebox
end of timebox
Figure 7 The Process of Evolutionary Prototyping.
26
2.6 Nurturing the Community
The time constraints of the project limit actions which can be taken to nurture
the community and ensure its sustainability. It is not possible to manage the online
interactions of the community members as part of this study.
However, the likelihood of the community evolving and becoming self-
sustaining can be influenced prior to the launch of the online environment. This
stage of the methodology, therefore, discusses the approaches taken to “seed” the
community (Preece (2000)). It also reflects on the approaches to nurturing online
communities identified from the literature.
27
2.7 Evaluating the Community
This section of the methodology is also restricted by the time constraints of
the project. Online learning communities need time to develop; the members need to
learn to use the environment, before they can start learning from the experience and
before the results show in productivity (Schlager et al (2002)). Nevertheless, it is
possible to facilitate the future evaluation of the online community by including
simple tools in the design of the online environment. Moreover, the theoretical
background of the evaluation of online communities can be explored.
A modified version of the WebQual questionnaire is integrated into the online
environment for judo referees (Appendix 8: Referees’ Corner Screen Shots). It
provides information on the community development and Web design elements of
this study. Furthermore, it is relatively quick and simple for the referees to complete.
A counter is included on the home page of the Website to record usage of the
site. The information collected by the counter provides some basic feedback on the
usage of the Website. This can provide an indication of the success of the
community (Bruckman and Jensen (2002)).
28
2.8 Evaluating the Models
This section of the methodology evaluates the online community models
developed during this study, by addressing the following questions:
• Do the models reflect the real world experience of designing and
implementing the online community of judo referees? Is there anything
missing from the models?
• Are the factors identified in the models given an appropriate level of
priority?
• Are the models of practical benefit? Do they assist developers to establish
online communities of practice or are they largely of theoretical interest
only?
The evaluation of the models is based largely on the experience of developing
the online environment for the referees and, therefore, focuses on the practical
application of the models. The models’ utility in the design and construction of the
community is considered. Similarly, the extent to which the models reflect the needs
expressed by the referees is also examined.
The long-term success of the online environment in facilitating a community
of practice cannot be assessed within the duration of the study. Therefore, the
models’ ability to represent sustainable online communities also cannot be tested.
29
3 Literature Review
3.1 What is an Online Community of Practice?
The concept of online communities has been the subject of a considerable
amount of discussion and debate. The term “community” in a real world context has
generated discourse amongst sociologists for many years (Bruckman and Jensen
(2002), Preece (2000)). It is unsurprising that the existence of communities in
cyberspace has proven to be controversial. This section examines the concept of
online communities and communities of practice, to identify a working definition for
this study.
3.1.1 Community
The word “community” entered the English language in the fourteenth
century, from Latin, via French. Initially, it referred to geographically localised
groups. From the seventeenth century it became distinct from the term “society”,
which implied formal relationships. In contrast, “community” implied a common
sense of identity and emotionally based relationships (Cole (2002)). Palloff and Pratt
(1999) indicate that communities are formed so that members can pursue their
common interests and that, until recently, communities were location-based.
Moreover, adherence to the rules and norms of the community is necessary to retain
membership. Although the advent of communities in cyberspace has challenged
some of these characteristics, many of these features of traditional communities
appear to endure in modern interpretations. The Longman Web Dictionary (2001),
for example, defines community as:
“all the people who live in the same area, town etc…sense of community
the feeling that you belong to a group of people because you live in the
same area…a group of people who share the same nationality or religion
or who are similar in another way”
Longman Web Dictionary (2001)
30
Bruckman and Jensen (2002), however, highlight the futility of seeking the
perfect definition of “community” and instead choose to use the term “in its loosest
possible, value neutral fashion,” defining it as:
“a group of people interacting with one another in some fashion.”
Bruckman and Jensen (2002:22)
3.1.2 Online Communities
The development of the Internet and the World Wide Web has fostered the
growth of so-called “online communities” and the synonymous “virtual
communities.” Early definitions of “virtual community” are often attributed to
Howard Rheingold:
“Virtual communities are social aggregations that emerge from the Net
when enough people carry on those public discussions long enough, with
sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationships in
cyberspace.”
Rheingold (1993:xx)
“Virtual communities are cultural aggregations that emerge when enough
people bump into each other often enough in cyberspace.
A virtual community as they exist today is a group of people who may or
may not meet one another face to face, and who exchange words and
ideas through the mediation of computer bulletin boards and
networks….We do everything people do when people get together, but
we do it with words on computer screens, leaving our bodies behind.”
Rheingold (1994:413)
31
These definitions, although a decade old, identify key characteristics which
are replicated by many contemporary definitions. The prominent themes of
interaction, sociability, reciprocity, common purpose and the mediation of
technology remain.
According to Preece (2000) there are four fundamentals of online
communities, namely:
• Social interaction between people pursuing their goals.
• A shared purpose which provides the reason for the community to exist.
• A set of implicit or explicit rules and protocols.
• Computer systems to facilitate the community.
Hunter (2002) describes a virtual community as a group of people, who
interact, learn and provide information and knowledge on agreed topics.
Additionally, the notion of active contribution by members is raised. A virtual
community, according to this definition, must include members who contribute
content, rather than simply use the resources provided by others. Burnett (2000)
supports this view, stating that virtual communities provide socio-emotional support
and active exchange of information.
This is a critical issue for the online community for judo referees. The online
environment will have to be maintained and developed, both in content and
functionality, by the referees themselves. Therefore, if the referees view the Website
as a resource provided by Y&HJA, rather than a community that the referees provide
for each other’s benefit, then it is unlikely that a community will actually develop.
One of the notable features of online communities is the variety of ways in
which the concept and the term is interpreted and applied. The list of synonyms and
specialisations of online communities seems endless.
32
Online Community Synonyms and Specialisations:
Business communities (Burnett (2000))
Communities of practice (Burnett (2000))
Knowledge communities (Burnett (2000)
Virtual worlds (Seufert (2002))
Communities of interest (Seufert (2002))
Communities of relationship (Seufert (2002))
Communities of fantasy (Seufert (2002))
Communities of transaction (Seufert (2002))
Hobby communities (Seufert (2002))
Class support communities (Seufert (2002))
Search communities (Cashel (2001))
Trading communities (Cashel (2001))
Education communities (Cashel (2001))
Scheduled events communities (Cashel (2001))
Subscriber-based communities (Cashel (2001))
Consumer consulting firms (Cashel (2001))
E-mail-based communities (Cashel (2001))
Advocacy communities (Cashel (2001))
Customer Relationship Marketing (C.R.M.) communities (Cashel (2001))
Marketing and Advertising (M&A) communities (Cashel (2001))
Figure 8: Online Communities Synonyms and Specialisations
3.1.3 Online Communities of Practice
This study is concerned with a particular class of online community, the
“learning community” or more specifically the “online community of practice.”
Unsurprisingly, definitions of learning communities and communities of practice
inherit the fundamental themes of generic online communities and supplement them
with more precise and specialised characteristics.
33
Learning communities are described by Seufert (2002) as being made up of
students, lecturers, tutors, researchers, practitioners and other experts, who have a
common interest in a specific field of knowledge and area of learning. The members
intensively examine a particular theme, learn co-operatively, exchange existing
knowledge and undertake problem solving together. Learning communities are
typified by intrinsic motivation, trust and informal discourse.
Palloff and Pratt (1999) highlight the importance of creating a sense of
community to foster critical thinking, collaboration and an environment in which
learning can take place online. This environment can be facilitated, but must
essentially be the product of the community’s members. Therefore, an element of
ownership and self-determination is required.
Mojta (2002) identifies communities of practice as groups who have common
concerns regarding a topic and who regularly interact to improve their knowledge of
the topic. There is also an inference that communities of practice are distinct from
other forms of learning community, by virtue of their membership consisting of
practitioners in a field, who refine their knowledge and understanding in an
unstructured way. This learning takes place in direct relation to the area of practice,
so-called contextualized learning (Seufert (2002)). This contrasts with, for instance, a
learning community which supports a de-contextualized, taught course, based on a
structured curriculum. Hoadley and Pea (2002) define a community of practice as:
“…one in which members of the community interact to help
collaboratively other individuals and the group increase their
knowledge.”
Hoadley and Pea (2002:329)
34
Therefore, for the purposes of this study “online community of practice” is
defined as having the following features:
• A group of practitioners from a particular field, with a common interest in
developing knowledge and understanding
• Formal or informal rules and norms of behaviour
• Interaction using computer mediated means. Face to face interaction may
supplement computer mediated interaction
• A sense of community among the members, i.e. social ties, reciprocity,
belonging, active contribution, ownership
• Co-operative, contextualized, unstructured learning
• Collaboration, problem solving and informal discourse
35
3.2 Modelling Online Communities
Numerous attempts have been made to model online communities, from a
variety of perspectives:
• The interactions of community members have been studied by examining
the format and structure of textual communication (Burnett (2000))
• The benefits of online communities have been compared and contrasted to
those of traditional communities (Etzioni (1997))
• The impact of online communities on traditional communities has been
studied (Hunter (2002))
• The information seeking behaviour of community members has been
examined and classified (Burnett (2000))
• Attention has focussed on the lifecycle of online communities (Malhotra et
al (1997))
• Attempts have been made to identify the factors leading to the success or
failure of online communities (Bruckman and Jensen (2002))
• The relative importance of, and interaction between social and
technological factors has been examined (Hoadley and Pea (2002))
• Key factors in the design and implementation of online communities have
also been identified (Preece (2000))
This study concentrates on developing the understanding of online
communities of practice and involves the development of an online environment for
judo referees. Therefore, the models of greatest utility are likely to be those which
focus on implementing online communities, identifying factors critical to their
success and those which address learning communities. Nevertheless,
36
reference is made to models focusing on other aspects of online communities, when
the models are relevant.
3.2.1 A Simple Model
Palloff and Pratt (1999) provide a simple model of the steps needed to build
an online community and of the indications that a successful online learning
community has been formed. Although simple and brief, this model provides a
useful starting point for more detailed discussion.
Steps to Build an Online Community (Palloff and Pratt (1999)):
Clearly define the purpose of the group
Create a distinctive gathering place for the group
Promote effective leadership from within
Define norms and a clear code of conduct
Allow for a range of membership roles
Allow for and facilitate subgroups
Allow members to resolve their own disputes
Figure 9: Steps to Build an Online Community
37
Indicators of a Successful Online Learning Community (Palloff and
Pratt (1999)):
Active interaction involving both course content and personal
communication
Collaborative learning evidenced by comments directed primarily
student to student rather than student to lecturer
Socially constructed meaning evidenced by agreement or questioning,
with the intent to achieve agreement on issues of meaning
Sharing of resources among students
Expressions of support and encouragement exchanged between
students, as well as willingness to critically evaluate the work of others
Figure 10: Indicators of a Successful Online Learning Community
3.2.2 The Purpose of Online Communities
“You must know why your site exists. Otherwise, you cannot judge the
effectiveness of any policy. Worse yet, how will visitors know if they
want to join the community?”
(Chromatic (2002:1))
The reason for the existence of an online community is a key foundation on
which the site can be built. The purpose of the site will exert an influence on the
functionality, structure and organisation of the online resource. The precise purpose
and, therefore, the characteristics of the Website will vary between communities
(Perfetti (2002), Cole (2002)). For instance, e-commerce-based online communities
are likely to have a strong profit motive, provide comprehensive functionality for
transaction processing and have a strong brand identity. By contrast, self-help
communities are likely to be altruistic in nature and focus on functionality to support
many-to-many communication.
38
Seufert (2002) provides a list of essential objectives for learning communities,
as follows:
• To achieve a deeper understanding of learning content and knowledge
themes
• To work together to solve problems, to exchange experience and develop
new knowledge
• To support the socialization process among the members of the group
through group learning and community activities
• To promote the development of formal and informal learning groups in
order to exchange implicit as well as empirical knowledge
• To provide opportunities for informal discourse and freedom for ideas,
integrated into the natural working environment in which the knowledge
has been developed and proven
• To achieve higher motivation and a greater sense of responsibility for
successful learning
These objectives appear to be appropriate for an online community of
practice because they reflect the contextualized, collective learning style associated
with these groups. Additionally, these objectives emphasise the importance of social
factors for the community and raise the issue of freedom of expression.
39
3.2.3 The Structure of Online Communities
The structure of the community addresses issues, such as, the rules of the
community and the roles individuals take within the community. These elements
clearly have an influence on the success and the direction of the community.
Due to the importance of contributions from members to the success of a
community of practice, Seufert (2002) and Palloff and Pratt (1999) stress that it is
critical to establish with members, that they are required to provide contributions of
an acceptable quality. Moreover, they suggest that member commitment should be
sought by involving members in the formation of communal laws, duties and codes
of conduct. The role of a “moderator” is also considered important in the fostering
of communication between members, rather than between members and the
moderator or the site provider. Emphasis is also placed on overcoming the differing
levels of Internet competence between members, to prevent less media competent
members from being excluded from learning experiences and communication.
The roles of individuals within online communities have been studied in
some depth and provide useful insight for community providers. The classification
of roles has been addressed according to a number of criteria, including information
seeking behaviour (Burnett (2000)), the functions individuals perform within
communities (Seufert (2002)), the experience of members (Kim (2000)) and the type
of social behaviour members demonstrate (Kim (2000)). It is important to note that
these roles are not necessarily “official” and may actually be undesirable.
40
Information Seeking Behaviours In Online Communities (Burnett (2000)).
Non Interactive
Behaviours
“Lurking” or consuming information provided in the
community, without contributing to the group resource.
Hostile interactive behaviours, including:
flaming (insults),
trolling (prompting flaming),
spamming (unsolicited information),
cyber-rape (unsolicited, violent language aimed at
individuals)
Interactive Behaviours
Positive interactive behaviours, including behaviours:
not specifically orientated towards information,
(such as, pleasantries, gossip, language games, play,
emotional support)
related to seeking or providing information (such as,
announcements, queries made by other members,
queries taken outside of the community, queries
presented to the community)
Figure 11: Information Seeking Behaviours in Online Communities
41
Functional Roles In Online Communities (Seufert (2002)).
Pathfinders Find an item of information from the site. This function
is often undertaken by a search engine.
Knowledge Shops Provide information content.
Moderator Controls and stimulates communication and discussion
in forums.
Statistician Reports on activity within the community.
Reporter Provides reports of community news and provides new
information.
Mayor Enforces rules and protocols.
Figure 12: Functional Roles in Online Communities
42
Online Community Roles Dependent on Experience. (Kim (2000)).
Visitor Not actually a member of the community, but observes
the “scene.”
Novice or Newcomer New member of the community. Tends to be restrained
in making comments.
Regular Has been a member for some time. Makes frequent
contributions.
Elder or Expert Experienced members who make many contributions.
Figure 13: Online Community Roles Dependent on Experience
43
Social Behaviours In Online Communities (Kim (2000))
Achievers and Performers Organise events
Communicate with other communities
Goal-oriented
Explorers and Gurus Introduce new information and trends
Curiosity oriented
Socializers, Greeters and
Caretakers
Maintain the social network
Help others.
Killers and Brats Raise contradictions
Irritate others, but can bring new impetus.
Figure 14: Social Behaviour in Online Communities
The importance of social factors extends beyond establishing a nomenclature
of roles and encouraging these roles within a community. Understanding the factors
that encourage social interaction is vital for the formation of the community.
Moreover, the interaction between the technology and the people in the community
needs to be examined and planned. Community providers therefore should take
account of both usability and sociability (Preece (2000)).
44
“The biggest misconception is that community can be built at all. It can't.
What you can do is build an environment that is conducive to social
interaction. If people adopt it and make it their home, they'll call it a
community for you. Community isn't built—it's grown.”
Powazek in Perfetti (2002:1)
Sociability, or social interaction, is influenced by the collective purpose of the
community, the goals and roles of individual members and the policies which govern
behaviour in the community. It is this latter area where community providers can
have a direct influence (Preece (2000)). Nevertheless, it is also necessary to
understand the purpose of the community and to accommodate the goals of
individual community members whenever possible (Preece (2000)).
Usability refers to the interaction between the technology of the online
environment and the members of the community. Factors influencing usability
include the reliability, consistency, predictability and the controllability of the
information system (Preece (2000)). Usability issues are addressed in detail in
Section 3.4: Web Design.
The relationship between usability and sociability, and their role in the
development of online communities is indicated by Preece (2000) in the following
model:
45
Design Usability: • interaction dialog• navigation • registration forms• feedback • user representatio• message formats • archives • support tools
This model show
order to guide the desig
“Design Usability” and
linked, indicating the in
Community” box indica
in implementing a comm
While this mode
examples of the tools w
does not model the com
development process in
Support Evolving Community
ue
n
Plan Sociability: • membership policy • codes of conduct • security • privacy • copyright • free speech • moderators
Assess Community Needs
Figure 15: Usability and Sociability (Preece (2000)).
s the need to assess the requirements of the members, in
n of the community. The design stage is represented by the
“Plan Sociability” boxes. It is notable that these boxes are
terrelation between these activities. The “Support Evolving
tes that completion of the design process is not the final stage
unity, and that the community needs time to develop.
l shows the importance of social factors and gives some
hich could be used to manage sociability and usability, it
plete lifecycle of a community and does not represent the
any detail.
46
3.2.4 Community Lifecycle and the Community Development Process
Preece (2000) also proposes a model of “Community Centred Development”
which includes a summary of the community lifecycle and a detailed description of a
methodology for developing an online community.
Pre-birth Stage:
Software design Social policy development
Early Life:
Nurturing to ensure the community is populated
Maturity:
Community functions independently
Death:
The number of community members drops below “critical mass” Discussion within the community ceases
Figure 16: Online Community Lifecycle (Preece (2000)).
47
Figure 17: Community Centred Development (Preece (2000)).
1) Community Needs Assessment and User Task Analysis
6) Evaluate
3) Designing implementing and testing prototypes
4) Refining and testing sociability and usability
5) Welcoming and nurturing the community
2) Selecting technology and planning sociability
1) Community Needs Assessment and User Task Analysis.
This stage is used to identify the following:
• The purpose of the community
• The tasks the community is needed to support
• What type of discussion spaces are needed
• How users could send and receive messages
• The demographics and Internet competence of the users
Issues to be addressed include fundamentals, such as whether the community
is to be used for unidirectional information dissemination from a central source,
information exchange, discussion, support or entertainment; and details, such as
whether to provide synchronous and/or asynchronous communication.
48
2) Selecting Technology and Planning Sociability
The second stage of the community’s development involves:
• Mapping the needs of the community to the software
• The planning of policies and structures to support sociability
Issues covered could include: selecting a technology platform, establishing a
member registration policy and setting by-laws of the community.
3) Designing, Implementing and Testing Prototypes
The main activities of this stage include:
• The conceptual design of the site
• Matching the needs of the community to the selected platform
• Planning the user interface
Prototyping is recommended as a method of verifying the users’ needs are
understood, exploring design ideas and testing designs and policies.
4) Refining and Testing Sociability and Usability
Although the previous stage includes user testing, the purpose of stage 4 is
the formal testing and resolution of problems.
49
5) Welcoming and Nurturing the Community
Prior to launch, the community requires “seeding” to encourage participation.
Methods of accomplishing this include:
• Involving potential users in the design process
• Maintaining an email list of interested individuals
• Publicizing the community
This stage also includes selecting an approach to welcoming new members,
the provision of a help facilities and establishing the roles of community leaders.
Developing Professional Networks
An alternative model of the development lifecycle of online professional
communities is provided by Rainey (2001). This model lists a three stage strategy
for developing networks of professionals.
Stage I: Information (one-way dissemination)
The attention and loyalty of the audience is secured by distributing an e-mail
newsletter, providing relevant news and information.
Stage II: Participation (two-way interaction)
Stage II aims to move users from being passive consumers of information to
being active participants in the community. Users are encouraged to submit
information to the Website, though surveys, question and answer features, online
professional directories and competitions.
50
Stage III: Collaboration (multiple interaction)
The third stage moves users from communicating with the site providers to
communicating with each other. Methods to achieve this include holding offline
events, time-delimited online events and providing private workspaces for groups or
individuals.
Rainey (2001) also identifies practices which have been problematic in
implementing online communities. Surprisingly, these include staples of online
communities, such as synchronous chat and bulletin boards. Moreover, the
importance of minimising the need for users to use unfamiliar technology is also
emphasized.
Establishing Online Learning Communities
A model specific to online learning communities is provided by Hoadley and
Pea (2002). This model is particularly relevant to this study, as it applies to
communities of practice and to communities which already exist in the real world.
Established relationships, protocols and the expectations of the judo referees
are likely to have an influence on the online community and should, therefore, be
considered. The relationship between online and real communities within the model
implies that the influence is bi-directional, that is, the online community also exerts
an influence on the real world community. While this may be true and should be
considered, it is beyond the scope of this study to attempt to use the online
community to radically alter the established culture and practice of the judo referees.
51
1) Examining existing practices
2) Identifying potential improvements
3) Finding ways technology can help
4) Designing and building technologies
5) Cultivating a community of use
6) Understanding technological consequences
7) Evaluation
Figure 18: Establishing an Effective Learning Community
Source: Adapted from Hoadley and Pea (2002)
1) Examining Existing Practices
The initial stage is to use ethnographic techniques to examine the ways in
which the established real community learns. This includes identifying the level of
collaboration and competition, the extent and methods of interaction, learning
support tools and the culture of the community.
2) Identifying Potential Improvements
Process engineers and management consultants are recommended to identify
areas of the community’s practices which could be improved by collective
intelligence.
52
3) Finding Ways Technology Can Help
This stage extends the preceding stage by identifying which of the potential
improvements could be effectively delivered, by using technology. Human computer
interaction specialists and best practice from other communities are identified as
possible tools to achieve this.
4) Designing and Building Technologies
At this stage developers undertake hardware and software selection, and the
design, building and testing of the technological element of the community, using
appropriate information systems development methodologies.
5) Cultivating a Community of Use
The fifth stage takes place following the launch of the site. It involves
establishing patterns of regular use, by promoting the site through publicity and
“community champions.”
6) Understanding Technology’s Consequences
Social science researchers are recommended to examine the manner in which
the community is being used and its affects on the learning behaviour of members.
7) Evaluation
The evaluation stage assesses the impact of the online community on the
performance of individuals and groups belonging to the community. It also
examines the members’ view of the community and usage patterns.
53
3.3 Online Community Infrastructures and Features
Online communities can take many forms (see Figure 8: Online Communities
Synonyms and Specialisations) and the technology used to facilitate online
communities can be equally as diverse. Listservers, for instance, send email
messages to subscribers, ensuring the members of the community are informed of the
latest news. By contrast Multi-User Dungeons (or Multi-User Domains) (M.U.D.s),
immerse community members in three-dimensional graphical worlds. This section
provides an introduction to some widely used features of online communities.
Chapter 4: Online Search also identifies examples of these features in practice.
3.3.1 Bulletin Boards
Bulletin boards host asynchronous communication. Members are able to post
a message to the bulletin board. The message, the sender’s name or pseudonym and
the subject are typically displayed. Other users can then reply to the message or post
a message on a new subject. Messages and related replies are usually visually related,
or “threaded” to mimic a conversation. Bulletin boards are often embedded within
Websites (Chapter 4: Online Search).
3.3.2 Listservers (or Listservs)
Listservers allow members to receive emails on chosen subjects. By
subscribing to a listserver on a particular subject, the user enters their email address
into an email mailing list. Subsequent messages on that subject are sent to each
member of the mailing list. There may be many thousand members of a listserver
community, however, the level of interaction is low (Preece (2000)).
3.3.3 Chat Rooms
Chat rooms, often referred to as Internet Relay Chat (I.R.C.), provide
synchronous, or “live” communication. Members log in to a chat room and are able
to type and send messages to a common information space. These messages appear
almost instantly in the information space and are visible to other community
members. Typing speed notwithstanding, members are able to conduct text-based
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conversations using these features.
3.3.4 Multi-User Dungeons (M.U.D.s) and Object-Oriented M.U.D.s (M.O.O.s)
M.U.D.s are a development of real world adventure games. They allow
players, represented by graphical characters called avatars, to explore three-
dimensional worlds and to interact with other players and the environment. M.O.O.s
are text-based and use metaphorical spaces and objects to facilitate interaction.
M.U.D.s and M.O.O.s are often managed and behaviour of the members moderated
by administrators called wizards.
3.3.5 Other Features
Online community Websites are not restricted to using one of these features.
It is common to find a number of bulletin boards, listservs and chat rooms in the one
online community. Moreover, online communities may contain a volume of
reference material, links to other communities and other standard Website features.
The interactive and C.M.C. features which underpin online communities are
therefore often embedded in Websites.
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3.4 Web Design
Principles of Web design are applicable to online community Websites, as
design features have a significant influence on usability and, therefore, the probable
success of the community (Powazek (2001)). Issues addressed in this section of the
study include: information architecture, page design, visual appearance, choice of
technology and writing style. Few comprehensive models of Web design exist and it
is widely accepted that there is no single correct way to design a Website (Krug
(2000), Niederst (2001), Nielson (2000)). Nevertheless, advice on good and bad
practice abounds.
3.4.1 Information Architecture
“How software is designed affects community development just as the
architecture of a house affects those who live in it”
Preece (2000:6)
Information architecture concerns the structural design of information spaces
to allow users to access content and complete tasks. It includes the organisation of
information, labelling systems and navigation schemes. As with many areas of Web
design, there is no single, correct way to approach information architecture. The
architecture should reflect the organisational context of the Website, the content and
the characteristics of the users (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
3.4.1.1 Organisation of Information.
There are a wide number of schemes for organising information, divided
between “exact organisation schemes” and “ambiguous organisation schemes”
(Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
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Exact Organisation Schemes:
Information is divided into well-defined, mutually exclusive sections.
Example criteria include:
Alphabetical
Chronological
Geographical
Order of magnitude
Figure 19: Exact Organisation Schemes
Exact organisation schemes are easy to design and useful when users are
searching for specific information, so-called “known-item searching.” However,
exact organisation schemes cannot reflect the ambiguity of language or real world
situations and do not support associative learning (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
Ambiguous Organisation Schemes:
Information is divided into subjective, meaningful categories, so that
related information is grouped together.
Example categories include:
Topic
Task
Audience
Metaphor
Class (or Type)
Figure 20: Ambiguous Organisation Schemes
Ambiguous organisational schemes can be more intuitive and can allow users
to browse for information and explore information spaces. However, ambiguous
organisation schemes are more difficult to create and maintain, and may require
modification following user testing (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
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Many Websites use a hybrid of organisational schemes, mixing exact and
ambiguous schemes. This can be confusing for users, particularly when mixed
schemes persist throughout the site’s structure. However, a single site can use
multiple schemes effectively, if the schemes are visually separated on each page to
maintain their integrity (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
Whichever organisational scheme is selected, the most common structure for
Websites is the hierarchy. This provides a greater level of detail or granularity of
content, as the user proceeds down the hierarchy. Niederst (2001) and Nielson
(2000) suggest designers should balance the breadth and depth of the site. This
should ensure users are not presented with a bewildering array of options and do not
have to navigate through many layers to find the information they want. Niederst
(2001) suggests a guideline of approximately seven choices at each level of the
information space.
Although the hierarchy is the most common structure, other structures are
possible. Niederst (2001) suggests using a linear structure for narrative information
or information that is in a set sequence. Each page provides access to the next (and
previous) page in the sequence.
3.4.1.2 Labelling Systems.
Labelling systems within Websites act as the intermediary between the
content of the site and the user. There are two main formats for labels: textual and
iconic. These are used for links, navigation, page headings and indexing content
(Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)). Krug (2000) identities characteristics of effective
labelling systems as being:
• Consistent
• Intuitive
• Self-explanatory
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Moreover, he asserts that the visual impact of a label should reflect the
importance of the information it represents and that logically related content should
use visually related links.
Factors Affecting Labelling System Consistency:
Style: punctuation and case
Presentation: fonts, font size, colours, white space and grouping of
labels
Syntax: verb, noun and question-based labels
Granularity: specificity of adjacent labels
Comprehensiveness: noticeable omissions in lists
Audience: terminology specific to groups of users, e.g. mixed scientific
and colloquial terms
Figure 21: Factors Affecting Labelling System Consistency.
(Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
Hyperlink labels embedded within text draw their meaning from two sources:
the text used for the link itself and the context in which the link is located. Nielson
(2000) advises using “information carrying” words for links and restricting the link
length to between two and four words. It is also recommended to provide a short
summary of the information available, adjacent to links and to use “pop-ups” if
further explanation of the link is required. Krug (2000) advises against using “cute,”
clever phrases and jargon for links, as this adds to the workload of users to interpret
the meaning of the link.
It is particularly important for navigation labels to remain consistent
throughout a Website as users expect the appearance and behaviour of navigation to
remain familiar. Scope notes (a brief description of the navigation labels), may be
used to explain the navigation labels to novice users (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
Labels used for page headings and sub headings should convey the meaning
of the content in a simple and unambiguous manner and provide a visual
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clue to the importance of the information (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002), Nielson
(2000)). Puns, clever phrases and jargon should again be avoided, as should leading
articles (“A”, “An”, “The”) (Krug (2000)).
The indexing of content, through the use of keywords and metadata, supports
the searching of Websites. Nielson (2000) suggests using synonyms for the content
of the page contained in each page’s HTML <META> tags, to improve the
effectiveness of searching.
Iconic labels require interpretation by the user and can therefore have a
negative influence on usability. The use of graphics can also slow download times.
However, the main benefit of using iconic labels is improved aesthetics, compared to
textual links (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002), Krug (2000)).
Consistency of labelling between embedded links, navigation and headings is
particularly important in the design of usable labelling systems. The labelling system
should also be tested with users to ensure common understanding of the words and
phrases used (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
3.4.1.3 Navigation
“Structure and organisation are about building rooms. Navigation design
is about adding doors and windows”
Rosenfeld and Morville (2002:106)
Navigation elements provide users with the means to explore Websites.
Website navigation includes embedded and supplemental systems within the site,
which complement the navigation functionality provided by Web browsers.
Discussion of Web browser functionality is beyond the scope of this study. However,
the design of the embedded and supplemental navigation systems for the judo
referees’ Website is an important factor in ensuring the usability of the site.
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The Purpose of Navigation:
Help users find information
Indicate to users their current location within the site (Krug (2000)),
(Nielson (2000))
Prevent users feeling lost (Krug (2000))
Indicate what information is available (Krug (2000)), (Nielson (2000))
Indicate how to use the site (Krug (2000))
Build user confidence (Krug (2000))
Show which parts of the site have been visited (Nielson (2000))
Figure 22: The Purpose of Navigation
Characteristics of Effective Navigation Systems:
Clarity: clear labels, should look like navigation. (Niederst (2001)).
Consistency: availability/presence on each page, look and feel.
(Niederst (2001)).
Efficiency: rapid access to information. (Niederst (2001)).
Figure 23: Characteristics of Effective Navigation Systems
3.4.1.4 Embedded Navigation
Embedded navigation systems are the main form of navigation in Websites
and are integrated into the content carrying pages, often in headers or margins.
Global, persistent or site-wide navigation appears on all pages in a site and provides
users with access to the main sections of the site. Krug (2000) suggests five
elements for global navigation:
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• The site’s identity
• The main sections of the site
• A home page link
• A search facility
• Site utilities, such as “help” or “about us”
Conventionally, global navigation is contained in a horizontal bar towards the
top of the page (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002), Krug (2000)).
Local navigation provides options and functionality specific to each section
of a Website. Local navigation may be used to allow users access to more specific
information than the global navigation system, or because the navigation needs of the
section are different from the rest of the site. Local navigation is often located in a
vertical bar towards the left margin of the page (Krug (2000)).
Contextual navigation usually takes the form of embedded textual hyperlinks
which link content from different sections of the site. These links support associative
learning by allowing users to navigate between related content (Rosenfeld and
Morville (2002)).
Navigation elements should also indicate the current location within a site.
Krug (2002) recommends the use of “breadcrumbs” to indicate the current location
and provides recommendations for effective formatting.
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Effective Formatting of Breadcrumbs:
Locate at the top of the screen.
Prefix the breadcrumbs with “You are here”
Use a tiny font.
Use “>” to divide the levels.
Bold the last item.
e.g. You are here: News > Archive > September 2002 > Base Rate Cut
Figure 24: Effective Formatting of Breadcrumbs (Krug (2000))
3.4.1.5 Supplemental Navigation
Supplemental navigation provides complementary ways of locating content,
using tools such as: search facilities, sitemaps and indexes. These tools are most
useful on large sites where there is a greater potential for users to get lost, although a
search facility is expected on all sites (Krug (2000)). Sitemaps are most appropriate
for strongly hierarchical sites and indexes most effective for known-item searching
(Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)).
3.4.2 Page Design
As with other elements of Web design, there is no single correct way to
construct individual pages in Websites. Indeed, literature on the subject does not
tend to use comprehensive models to describe effective page design. Instead, simple
lists of recommended practices and common mistakes are often presented. There are
also conventions, such as the use of the colour blue for hyperlinks and locating titles
at the top of the screen. Neilsen (2000), Niederst (2001) and Krug (2002) all suggest
adherence to these conventions to avoid confusing the user. It is beyond the scope of
this study to examine the rationale for these practices and to discuss graphic design
in detail. Therefore, Appendix 5: Web Page Design Guidelines provides tables of
key guidelines identified from the literature. The tables also indicate whether the
guideline was integrated into the design of the Website for judo referees.
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4 Online Search This section examines a number of Websites, many which provide online
community functionality. The Websites are from judo and from sports organisations
and demonstrate both good and bad practice. These practices can then be adopted or
avoided in the design of the online environment for judo referees. Section 3.4: Web
Design provides much of the theory upon which the following judgements are based.
Screen shots of the Websites examined are contained in Appendix 4: Online Search
Screen Shots.
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4.1 Judo Websites
4.1.1 International Judo Federation
http://www.ijf.org/site/page.php
This Website uses persistent navigation contained in a high quality, graphical
header. The navigation is slightly confusing as the navigation options use multi-level
drop down menus.
The home page uses numerous graphics and animations, which slows the
download time for the site. There is also mixed use of textual and iconic labelling
and navigation. This makes it unclear which elements of the page contain hyperlinks
and therefore hampers usability.
The forum has an elegant and clear design, with instructions provided for
novice users. These instructions would however be redundant for experienced
members. The forum does not use emoticons or avatars. This helps retain the clean
visual style, but makes the forum appear functional and clinical. This is an example
of the practical difficulties in combining usability, i.e. the clarity of the interface,
with sociability, i.e. the ability to express individuality and emotion.
4.1.2 The British Judo Association
http://www.britishjudo.org.uk/
This site has what appears to be persistent navigation on the home page.
However, it is not repeated throughout the site, making navigation difficult. The
Glossary, for instance is an exceptionally long page, with the only link to the rest of
the site contained at the foot of the page. The home page also has an excessive
volume of logos.
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4.1.3 Judo Scotland and Northern Ireland Judo Federation
http://www.judoscotland.com/ and http://www.nijf.org/index.php
These separate Websites share many similar characteristics. Both have very
elegant visual designs, with high contrast text on a plain background, framed by
subtle graphics. There is a consistent appearance and navigation scheme throughout
the sites and advertising and logos are not intrusive.
The Northern Ireland Judo Federation Website avoids the use of drop down
menus as part of the navigation scheme and is therefore slightly easier to use. The
Judo Scotland Website, however, provides more functionality for its Bulletin Board
feature, where 2 levels of membership are offered. The benefits of registering are
clearly presented. Messages are also threaded, whereas the Northern Ireland Judo
Federations Message Board does not offer this functionality.
4.1.4 B.J.A. Midland Area
http://www.bjamidlandarea.org.uk/
This Website has a home page which serves little purpose, other than to lead
users to the Contents page. This page has simple persistent navigation, but uses
numerous fonts, formats, animations and colours and is very long. Consequently the
site is confusing and appears disorganised. It is also more difficult to read the
brightly coloured text on the dark background, in comparison to the previous sites.
The B.J.A. Midland Area site provides a Refereeing section, although its
functionality is limited to the provision of information.
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4.1.5 Southern Area Judo
http://www.southernareajudo.tk/
The Southern Area Judo Website uses a very confusing navigation bar, which
is poorly defined and contains numerous acronyms. There are coloured blocks of
text which infer a structure for the site, but these do not reflect the navigation bar.
The Website uses a background which resembles the night sky, and includes
animation. The background is not relevant to the subject matter of the site and is
visually unappealing. Furthermore, the refereeing pages of the site use an entirely
different style.
4.1.6 The Judo Information Site
http://judoinfo.com/menu.shtml
The Judo Information Site, as the name suggests, provides a large volume of
information on many aspects of judo. No persistent navigation scheme is used and
there is no indication of site’s structure. It can be difficult to determine the current
location within the site. This is compounded by the “Return to the Judo Information
Site” link which appears at the foot of many pages.
Long documents on the site are punctuated with illustrations, headings and
photographs and there is extensive use of embedded links for navigation. While this
makes long documents relatively easy to read, the appearance of the site is disjointed,
with little visual consistency. Advertising is presented on the site, without being
intrusive.
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4.2 Online Communities for Other Sports
4.2.1 aBudokan Martial Arts
http://www.abudokan.com/
This site concentrates on interactive features, in contrast to the sites examined
above, which concentrate largely on the provision of information. Therefore, there
are a large number of bulletin board forums provided for different topics related to
martial arts.
The site has a consistent appearance and navigation throughout and has a
clear but detailed layout. The visual style does not however reflect the martial arts
theme and is predominantly grey, making it appear dull. There are also some
sections which contain large blocks of uninterrupted text, which is difficult to read.
4.2.2 Martial Arts Planet. The Global Martial Arts Community
http://www.martialartsplanet.com/
This Website uses a small number of graphics and a plain background to
create a site which is easy to read, with clear navigation and an obvious martial arts
theme. There is a succinct explanation of the site with embedded links to relevant
content. Interactive community features are provided in the form of bulletin boards
and chat rooms. A Website Poll is also provided to obtain feedback.
However, there is some intrusive pop up advertising and some advertising
which appears incongruous to the rest of the Website.
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4.2.3 Great American Sports Fans
http://www.gasf.com/
The home page of this site presents a bewildering array of navigation, links,
graphics and advertising. The purpose of the site is unclear and it is difficult to
identify what information and functionality is available.
The site provides a variety of forums which use emoticons, avatars and
graphics. This contrasts with the forum provided by the I.J.F. Website by appearing
more cluttered, but more also more personal.
Great American Sports Fans is the only site reviewed to utilise breadcrumbs
in the design. This provides a useful guide to the current location, particularly when
the remainder of the navigation scheme is as unclear as this example.
4.2.4 Arsenal.com
http://www.arsenal.com/plus/index.jsp
A very complicated home page, with multiple graphics, logos, textual and
iconic links, colours, advertisements and navigation elements, results in the user
having to study the site carefully to identify the information and functionality
available.
The labelling system is ambiguous. The difference between Arsenal PLUS,
Match Day, The Club and Fan Zone is not clear. It is difficult to identify which
graphics are hyperlinks and which are not. The vertical navigation bar provides drop
down menus which repeat some links contained in the horizontal navigation bar.
Arsenal.com provides two levels of registration. Initial registration provides
email updates to members. However, access to the forums can only be obtained after
subscribing for a fee to Arsenal PLUS.
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5 Requirements Analysis The needs of the judo referees in the Y&HJA region were assessed by
undertaking a series of semi-structured interviews, securing feedback on
evolutionary prototypes and mind mapping the responses of the referees.
Ideally a control group of referees would have been used to provide feedback
on the prototypes throughout the development process. Unfortunately, this was not
possible for practical reasons. Consequently, it was decided to interview a series of
individuals to provide feedback on the evolving prototype. This compromise
weakens the requirements analysis by removing the consistency that a control group
of users would provide. Moreover, each interviewee lacks the familiarity with the
prototype that a control group would possess and is, therefore, likely to have a less
well informed view of the prototype.
However, the approach used does provide a variety of perspectives and
ensures that each review of the prototype is from a naïve view, reflecting the
perspective of a novice user.
This section discusses the main issues and specific requirements raised by the
referees and relates them to theoretical models and to the pragmatics of developing
the community. Appendix 2: Interview Mind Maps contains the mind maps of the
interviews conducted and should be viewed alongside this section. The specific
requirements of the referees are listed in Appendix 3: Requirements Specification
Table.
Alan Medley
Alan Medley was the first referee to be interviewed and therefore provided
the initial requirements upon which the paper prototype was built. He is the Training
and Coaching Coordinator for the National Refereeing Commission (N.R.C.) and is
the Area Refereeing Representative for Yorkshire and Humberside.
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Simon Hill
Simon Hill was the second referee interviewed. He is a national “B” level
referee, with 8 years experience of refereeing. He is also a senior judo coach, an
examiner and a first aider. Simon Hill provided feedback on the paper prototype.
Cristel de Bruijn
Cristel de Bruijn was interviewed after Simon Hill, but also provided
feedback on the paper prototype. She is a national “C” level referee with 6 years
experience and is also a judo player.
Issues Raised
The issues raised by the referees could be classified into three groups:
• The purpose the online community should serve
• The features and functionality the online environment should provide
• The governance of the online community
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5.1 The Purpose the Online Community Should Serve
The underlying purpose of online communities is a critical factor in
determining the structure, organisation and success of the community (Chromatic
(2002), (Perfetti (2002), Cole (2002), Seufert (2002)). Consequently, this subject
was discussed at some length with the referees. There were many areas of
consistency between the referees’ views, but each placed a different emphasis on
their expectations of the community.
There was general agreement that the online community should facilitate the
dissemination of information from the I.J.F., B.J.A. and Y&H.J.A. and it should
provide a comprehensive source of reference material, including rules, amendments
and interpretations.
“The first thing that I would like to see on the Website is a set of contest
rules”
Alan Medley
“It would be very useful to have an online resource for referees, so that
there is a series of essential documents. Not just I.J.F. rules, but
proposed rules, B.J.A. rules and interpretations of the I.J.F. rules and
senior referees’ interpretations of the interpretations of the I.J.F. rules.
What does it actually mean? How does it translate in practice?”
Simon Hill
Simon Hill placed particular emphasis on the importance of this information
being valid, accurate and official. Indeed, this emphasis was applied to the Website
as a whole, including the proposed bulletin board.
Alan Medley was also keen to utilise the Website for communicating formal,
official information, such as the rule book. However, he also stressed the importance
of the community supporting less formal interaction, through debate and
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discussion. Interaction between referees, between referees and players/coaches, and
between the governing bodies and the referees, were all mentioned.
“The idea of a referees’ forum, I like very much. Referees could
exchange views…but it’s not open just to referees, it’s open to players to
be able to go in and say ‘Can you explain why referees are doing this?’”
Alan Medley
“I think the requesting of information from the website should be
accessible by all, referees, experienced referees, coaches and players.”
Simon Hill
The referees also identified a number of areas of concern and difficulty at
present, which the online community could potentially address.
5.1.1 Recruitment and Retention
Recruitment and retention of referees was identified by Alan Medley as a
critical issue. He felt that the governing body had not treated referees with sufficient
respect and the referees had not been provided with appropriate encouragement in
the past. Feedback to referees was seen as being overly negative. This had resulted
in referees leaving the sport.
“One of the major problems in refereeing is recruitment and retention.
It’s a pressure job.”
“It’s pressure, they can’t stand the hassle any more. Unfortunately, in the
past it’s been from the hierarchy, from people who should know better,
from the National Refereeing Commission, been treating them like
children.”
Alan Medley
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Although the other referees did not mention this issue directly, some
comments appeared to reflect an underlying lack of support for the referees.
Comments which could be attributed to this issue include:
• Simon Hill’s opinion that bulletin board questions should be anonymous, to
prevent inhibition caused by fear of criticism
• Simon Hill and Cristel De Bruijn’s view that novice referees had restricted
networks from which to learn
• Simon Hill’s concern that advice provided by the community should be
traceable and official, and his identification of a perceived “north vs. south”
inequality amongst referees, may indicate an absence of trust and mutual
support between the referees and the national body
However, this is not the only possible interpretation of these comments and it
should, therefore, be treated with caution.
Providing mutual support is a key element of many online communities
(Rheinegold (1993), Renninger & Shumar (2002), Hoadley & Pea (2002)). It
appears, therefore, that there is potential for the online community of judo referees to
satisfy a need in this regard. However, it is simplistic to expect the online
community to make an immediate and fundamental change to the culture of the
organisation and to transform the relationship between the referees and the N.R.C.
5.1.2 Training of Referees
The online community may be able to provide more tangible benefits in the
training of referees. All of the interviewees referred to the way in which they
developed their skills. Alan Medley was keen to use the online community to
reinforce a general move towards reflective learning in the training of referees.
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“In the past it was a hit over the head and you learned by your mistakes.
But we don’t do that anymore”
Alan Medley
“We don’t talk down to people, which is what happened in the past. We
talk on a level. If you are the referee, we are partners in improving your
skill level”
Alan Medley
Furthermore, Alan Medley indicated that providing specific advice and
guidance to individual referees, was sometimes of benefit to other referees. He
indicated that addressing a shortcoming in the refereeing technique of an individual
referee, could help other referees also. An online community could facilitate this
form of learning, by providing information and advice to all members, as the result
of a question from a single referee. Moreover, consistency of refereeing standards
and refereeing style could be positively influenced by an online community, as all
members would receive the same guidance.
Simon Hill and Cristel De Bruijn indicated that the referees learned from one
another’s experiences at events, by watching and discussing the performance of their
peers. Therefore, it appears that the referees are familiar with co-operative, reflective
learning in a practical setting. It is possible that they would develop similar learning
styles in the online environment.
“They (small groups of referees) get on together and exchange ideas and
are quite free to criticise each other without it being seen as criticism as
such, more constructive.”
Simon Hill
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“You meet referees of all standards and therefore you are able to look at
them and see how they interpret the rules, and that is how you learn.”
Cristel de Bruijn
Simon Hill and Cristel De Bruijn also indicated that they would use the
community as an information resource and would expect to be able to find answers
to their questions online. Although they did not directly mention training, their use
of the community as a source of information may indicate a willingness to use the
community as a learning resource.
However, neither Simon Hill nor Cristel De Bruijn indicated that they would
provide information, advice or answers to their peers. Possible explanations for this
could include:
• A comprehension that the online environment would be a source of formal,
official guidance and advice. It is possible that the referees had not
considered their role in providing information or had not perceived the
Website as supporting a learning community based on less formal, co-
operative interaction
• An unwillingness to provide information to other referees. Possible
explanations could be a lack of confidence in their knowledge, or fear of
the consequences of providing inaccurate information
Nevertheless, there appears to be some scope for the online community to
improve training and learning. The provision of training documents online, a
bulletin board and/or chat room facility could support both formal and informal
learning and training. An online community of practice also appears to be consistent
with the N.R.C.’s general aims and approach to training. However, the referees
anticipated use of the Website does not match the reflective, informal learning,
typical of communities of practice.
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5.1.3 Communication
Each of the interviewees identified communication as an important issue for
referees and one which presented some difficulties at present. The circulation of the
Y&H.J.A. and N.R.C. newsletters was identified as being inconsistent, with not all
referees receiving copies. Similarly, Cristel De Bruijn and Simon Hill indicated that
not all referees attend the annual refereeing conference. Cristel De Bruijn also stated
that direct access to the B.J.A. Area Representative to answer queries was not always
possible. As a result of these communications difficulties, information tended to be
passed by informal word of mouth and “the grapevine.”
“It (a change to the rules) usually filters through either the B.J.A.
grapevine at contests, or if there’s a referee who is also a coach or a
player, then he will brief his fellow coaches and players at the club.”
Simon Hill
“There is a Yorkshire and Humberside newsletter…but it is not seen by
anywhere near as many as it should be, so it’s not effective.”
Simon Hill
“There is a lack of communication between them (N.R.C.) and the rank
and file referees”
Simon Hill
“I know that there is a newsletter, but I don’t receive it and I don’t know
why and I don’t know who is responsible for it”
Cristel de Bruijn
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Particular problems appear to face novice referees as they do not have the
informal network of contacts available to more experienced referees and, therefore,
have to rely more heavily on the formal communication channels and information
sources.
“You have to have been in refereeing for four or five years before you
meet referees from other areas like the south so that they would see you
and say ‘how do you do?’…As you progress through refereeing your
circuit, your area, gets bigger.”
Simon Hill
“Novice referees don’t travel a lot so the only thing they have to referee
by is the rule book…If there is no good rule book it must be very difficult
for a novice referee to interpret the rules”
Cristel de Bruijn
Communications difficulties were related by the referees to peer
communication, to referee to player/coach communication and to dissemination of
information from the I.J.F., B.J.A. and Y&H.J.A.
The computer mediated communication (C.M.C.) potential of an online
community of practice could provide a possible solution to some of the
communication problems facing the referees. Online documents, bulletin boards,
chat rooms, frequently asked questions (F.A.Q.s) and email contact lists could all aid
communication.
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5.1.4 Summary of the Purpose of the Online Community for Judo Referees
The referees’ interviews revealed a number of points which echo the essential
objectives for learning communities identified by Seufert (2002) (Section 3.2.2:
Literature Review: The Objectives of Online Communities). There appears to be a
desire to use co-operative, contextualized learning, in both a formal and informal
social setting to improve knowledge, performance and motivation. However, there
are also differences between the referee’s expectations for the community and there
is doubt over whether there will be freedom of expression in the community.
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5.2 The Features and Functionality the Online Environment Should Provide
The interviewees were asked to comment on specific features and
functionality for the Website. For Simon Hill and Cristel de Bruijn, the paper
prototype was available to illustrate potential features and functionality. Appendix 3:
Requirements Specification Table gives a list of these features and functions and
indicates whether they were included in each prototype. This section elaborates the
issues considered in deciding which major features and functions to include.
5.2.1 Chat Room
Initially the response to the idea of a chat room facility was positive:
“There are probably two areas. One is just an open forum. A debate
where everybody chips in and you just let them get on with it.”
Alan Medley
However, Simon Hill and Cristel de Bruijn stated that a chat room would be
impractical. It was felt that there would be too few referees for unplanned
discussions to take place and that the logistics of arranging discussions at
predetermined times would be prohibitive.
“I think it would be really impractical to have real time question and
answer sessions.”
Simon Hill
However, Cristel de Bruijn indicated that if the online community were
extended nationally, then a chat room may become a possibility.
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“A chat room, I think would be a good idea on a national level, but with
it only being the Yorkshire and Humberside there aren’t that many
referees in this area…so the chances of there being one of nine people
there aren’t good”
Cristel de Bruijn
Consequently, although a chat room was included in the paper prototype, it
was removed from subsequent prototypes.
5.2.2 Bulletin Board
Bulletin boards provide asynchronous many-to-many communication.
Members “post” messages to the bulletin board, which other members can read and
reply to. Messages responding to the same theme are identified as a “thread.”
There were two areas for which bulletin boards were considered: referee to
referee communication and referee to player/coach communication. Although all
interviewees were positive about the use of bulletin boards, there were differing
views on how they should be implemented.
Alan Medley indicated that a bulletin board for referee to referee
communication should be used to exchange peer advice and support, for discussion
and debate and to obtain expert opinion. He also indicated a need for
players/coaches to interact with referees. Bulletin boards could be utilised to
undertake this function.
“Out of that (chat room) may come a question to the other side (bulletin
board) ‘Can somebody who knows what they’re talking about answer
this question?’”
Alan Medley
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Simon Hill suggested a more formal use of bulletin boards. He stated that
queries posted to the bulletin board should be anonymous, to prevent inhibitions
from fear of criticism, and that replies should be from named officials to ensure their
validity and that they were traceable.
“I’d like to be able to put a question to that site and expect an answer
within a few days… a senior national referee or an I.J.F. referee would
respond to that, so that other referees could see my query and the
response … I think the asking of the question ought to be anonymous,
because if it were not anonymous it would inhibit many referees from
asking the question and if it didn’t inhibit them there are other referees,
perhaps at a senior level, at a national level, that might then criticise”
Simon Hill
“I think that the response should not be anonymous, so that it has some
validity. If an I.J.F. “A” referee, an Olympic grade referee, is giving a
response, then they should be prepared to have their name put to that.”
Simon Hill
Furthermore, Simon Hill suggested that a single bulletin board could serve
both the referee to referee communication and the referee to player/coach
communication.
Cristel de Bruijn’s view, however, was that anonymity should be optional for
queries, but that replies should be from a named source. She also suggested that
there should be a restriction on which members were permitted to reply to messages
to ensure the integrity of responses. The suggestion of combining the referee-to-
referee bulletin board with the referee-to-player/coach bulletin board was rejected by
Cristel de Bruijn. This was because players and coaches may use information from
the bulletin boards to exploit uncertainties in the rules and may act on incorrect and
unofficial information posted on the bulletin board.
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“I think there should be limited access to the bulletin boards, only for
referees. I think if the public get access they may extract information or
take advantage of uncertainties”
Cristel de Bruijn
It was decided to retain separate bulletin boards for the referees and for the
referees and players/coaches. The purpose of the referee-to-referee bulletin board is
to support cooperative learning between the referees and is a fundamental part of the
online community of practice. The referee-to-player/coach bulletin board was
introduced as a means of improving communication between the parties and could be
seen as a distinct and only partially related function.
Moreover, it was felt that there was some validity in the concerns of Cristel
de Bruijn that players and coaches may take an unfair advantage of knowledge taken
from the referees’ bulletin board. Therefore, it was decided to introduce a password
gate to the referee-to-referee feature to prevent unauthorised access.
It was decided to introduce the referee-to-referee bulletin board without the
option of anonymity, as this is consistent with the ideals of co-operation and
mutually beneficial learning central to online communities of practice.
The choice of technology to support the bulletin boards is discussed in
Section 7.4: Technology.
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5.3 The Governance of the Online Community
As stated previously, Simon Hill indicated that the online community should
be operated with the official sanction of the N.R.C. to ensure content was valid,
accurate and authoritative. He, and Alan Medley, also expressed an opinion that the
community should operate at a national or international level.
“If this works out we may be able to include it as a page on the British
Judo Association Website as a referees newsletter, talking shop, forum,
whatever”
Alan Medley
“I think it should fall within the National Refereeing Commission
because that would give it some validity and authority.”
Simon Hill
“This would be national resource. It might be managed from the
Yorkshire and Humberside region but it needs to be national and have the
support nationally…It could be an international resource so that foreign
competitors wanting to fight in the UK could look at how the B.J.A.
interpret the international rules.”
Simon Hill
The issue of rules and regulations to guide the community was also raised.
Although Alan Medley stated that he felt there was a need for some form of
moderation of posts to the bulletin board, and that official content, such as the rule
book should be protected from unauthorised modification, he did not express a need
for a formal constitution for the community. Cristel de Bruijn stated that there
should be some form of regulations to indicate acceptable behaviour and gave the
example of an anti-discrimination policy. Simon Hill stressed the importance of
official governance of the community to provide credibility.
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It was decided to launch the community as a regional resource and allow it
time to develop, before possible expansion to a national level. It was also decided to
launch the community without an expressed code of conduct. The main reason for
this was to allow the community to develop its own rules and regulations as it
evolved.
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6 Establishing the Models This chapter uses the findings of the literature review and the requirements
analysis to construct five generalisable models of online communities. Models
identified in the literature review were represented on a mind map, and
commonalities, repetition and duplication removed (Appendix 6: Online
Communities Models Mind Maps). This highlighted five key aspects of online
communities, namely:
• Online Community Design and Implementation
• Online Community Lifecycle
• Sociability
• Usability
• Online Community Purpose
The issues identified in Chapter 5: Requirements Analysis were used to
inform and elaborate these five aspects of online communities. A graphical model
each of the five aspects was constructed and is subsequently presented with a
discussion of key points raised.
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6.1 Online Community Design and Implementation Model
The Online Community Design and Implementation model focuses on the
phases, tasks and considerations an online community developer should address
during an online community project. The model also refers to the Sociability,
Usability and Community Purpose models. These models provide explanation of the
relevant concepts, whereas the Design and Implementation model concentrates on
their application.
The Online Community Design and Implementation model also links the
online community of practice to its interaction with the real world and includes
evaluation of the community. The model includes elements of: Palloff and Pratt’s
(1999) Steps to Build an Online Community and their Indicators of a Successful
Online Learning Community; Preece’s (2000) Community Centred Development and
Hoadley and Pea’s (2002) Establishing an Effective Online Community (Chapter 3:
Literature Review).
The stages of the Online Community Design and Implementation model are:
• Analysis of the situation in which the community will operate
• Exploration of the community’s purpose
• Design of the Website
• Launch of the community
• Evaluation of the community
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O line Community Design And Implementation Model
Analysis of the situation
Exploration of the community’s
purpose
Design of the Website
Launch of the community
Evaluation of the community
CompetenciesCulture
L arning styles
Existing practices
Demographics
Information needs
Methods of interaction and
discussion
Online Community
Purpose model
Explicit statement of
purpose?
C ult or impose purpose?
Singl or many purposes
Potential improvements
Refine and test usabilityPrototyping?
Software & Hardware
Conceptual design
Sociability:structures,
seeding, self-determination
Sociability Model
Usability Model
Cultivate regular use
Internal leadershipPublicity
Attract new members
Effects on learning
behaviour
Improvements realized?
Against purpose
Usage
By members
n
e
ons
e
88Figure 25: Online Community Design and Implementation Model
6.1.1 Analysis of the Situation in which the Community will Operate
This stage involves a thorough examination of the situation in which the
community is to operate. The aim is to generate a rich understanding of the potential
community and to identify significant issues and constraints. It could include the
study of organisational culture, learning behaviour, information needs, competences,
demographics etc. The issues identified and their relative importance is likely to be
specific to each community. In the case of the judo referees, the requirements
analysis identified recruitment and retention, referee training and communication as
important issues.
This stage of the model combines the following stages of models identified in
the literature review:
• 1) Examining Existing Practices.
Establishing Effective Learning Communities (Figure 18) (Hoadley and
Pea (2002)).
• 1) Community Needs Assessment and User Task Analysis.
Community Centred Development (Figure 17) (Preece (2000).
Although semi-structured interviews and mind mapping were used to
undertake the requirements analysis for the community for judo referees, there are a
number of alternative techniques which could be used and combined to undertake
this task. For instance, soft systems methodology (Checkland and Scholes (1999)),
cognitive mapping or conceptual modelling (Avison and Fitzgerald (2003)) could be
used.
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6.1.2 Exploration of the Community’s Purpose
Exploring the purpose of the community involves interpreting the results of
the previous stage to identify areas in which an online community could provide
benefits. There is widespread agreement in the literature about the importance of this
stage (Palloff and Pratt (1999), Chromatic (2002), Perfetti (2002), Cole (2002),
Seufert (2002), Preece (2000), Hoadley and Pea (2002)). However, the
interpretations vary to some extent. Preece (2002) for instance, emphasizes the
importance of the community members’ views in defining the purpose of the
community, whereas Hoadley and Pea (2002) focus on identifying processes and
practices which could benefit from an online community’s formation. The
environment in which the community operates is again likely to determine the
manner in which the purpose of the community is defined. For instance, a
professional community of practice within an organisation is likely to reflect
Hoadley and Pea’s approach, whereas a self-help community is likely to reflect
Preece’s interpretation.
The referees interviewed raised a number of requirements which could be
interpreted as objectives for the community of judo referees. Fortunately, the
individual referees identified similar requirements. A common purpose is cited in
some literature as being a principle characteristic of online communities (Preece
(2000), Seufert (2002), Palloff and Pratt (1999)). It is notable that Rheinegold
(1993) and Bruckman and Jensen (2002) do not include common purpose in their
definitions of online communities. This raises the issue of whether a community
needs a single, shared purpose to flourish. This study cannot examine this issue in
any great detail, but sufficient uncertainty exists to warrant naming this stage of the
model “Exploring the Purpose of the Community” rather than “Defining the Purpose
of the Community.”
Further discussion of the purpose of online communities is contained in
Section 6.5: Community Purpose Model and Section 7.1: Community Purpose.
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6.1.3 Design of the Website
This stage represents the construction of the online environment and includes
the selection, design, testing and implementation of hardware and software.
Moreover, it includes the consideration of usability and sociability. It contains
elements of the following models:
• 2) Selecting Technology and Planning Sociability.
3) Designing, Implementing and Testing Prototypes.
4) Refining and Testing Usability and Sociability.
Community Centred Development Model (Figure 17) (Preece (2000)).
• 4) Designing and Building Technologies.
Establishing Effective Learning Communities (Figure 18) (Hoadley and
Pea (2002)).
It is at this stage of the Online Community Design and Implementation model
that the information systems development methodology is most apparent. As with
the first stage of the model, there are a number of different techniques which could
be used. Evolutionary prototyping was selected for the development of the online
community for judo referees (Section 2.5: Building the Community) and is
recommended by Preece (2000). However, other information systems development
methodologies may be equally valid. The selection of the appropriate methodology
is likely to be determined by the priorities of the project, such as cost control or
timescale, by the experience and preference of the design team and by the
characteristics of the community members.
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6.1.4 Launch of the Community
This stage includes generating interest in and publicity for the community,
prior to launch. Furthermore, it includes the online approach to welcoming new
members and the cultivation of regular use. This stage is representative of:
• Stage II – Participation.
Stage III – Collaboration.
Developing Professional Networks (Rainey (2001)).
• 5) Cultivating a Community of Use
Establishing Effective Learning Communities (Figure 18) (Hoadley and
Pea (2002)).
Preece (2000) includes a stage “Welcoming and Nurturing the Community”
in her model of Community Centred Development. However, the initial launch is
absent from the other models examined. Nevertheless, the initiation of the
community is a task which online community developers are likely to encounter. It
has, therefore, been included in the Design and Implementation model.
6.1.5 Evaluation of the Community
The final stage of the Online Community Design and Implementation model
is the evaluation of the community. The way in which the community is reviewed
and the criteria used, provide a wide range of options.
Hoadley and Pea (2002) suggest evaluation by the members of the
community, by examining usage patterns and by assessing the wider impact of the
community on the performance of the members. Evaluation against the purpose and
objectives of the community is also an obvious option. The selection of the
evaluation technique and the aspect of the community which is evaluated are likely
to depend on the characteristics of the community and the reason for the evaluation
(Preece (2000)).
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6.2 Online Community Lifecycle
The lifecycle of online communities is represented in a number of models
(Preece (2000), Rainey (2001), (Malhotra et al (1997)). Although primarily a
description of the lifecycle stages seen in online communities, the Online
Community Lifecycle model helps to illuminate processes within online
communities.
The Online Community Lifecycle model uses the main stages identified by
Preece (2000) (Figure 16), elaborated with relevant information from other models.
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Online Community Lifecycle Model
Pre-birth
Early Life
Maturity
Death
• Development of social policy to support sociability
• Development of technology to support usability
• Collection of information of the site
• Establish communication with members
• Seeding the community
• Managed interactions between the providers and members
• Independent functioning of the community
• Maximum interaction
• Interaction and community membership belowcritical levels
• Community no longer viable
Figure 25: Online Community Lifecycle Model
The Pre-Birth stage involves the development of the social and technical
elements of the online environment to support sociability and usability, and the
collection of the information content of the site. This stage includes elements from
“Stage I - Information” of Rainey’s (2001) model, as initial contact with the
community members is established and their interest stimulated. The development
of the online community for judo referees undertaken for this study is largely
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contained within this stage.
The second stage, Early Life, represents the seeding, launch and closely
managed initial interactions within the community. This stage reflects “Stage II –
Participation” of Rainey’s (2001) model.
Maturity refers to the independent functioning of the community, when
interaction and collaboration between members is at its peak. This is the stage at
which the community is self-sustaining and maximum benefits are likely to be
achieved. It equates to Rainey’s (2001) “Stage III – Collaboration.” Although this
model refers to online and offline events occurring during this stage, it should be
noted that for the community of judo referees, offline interaction was taking place
prior to the introduction of the online community.
The final stage, “Death,” represents the point at which the community
membership and interaction falls below critical levels and interaction ceases. The
community is no longer viable.
The limited time scale of the study restricts the extent to which the Lifecycle
model can be tested or used in the development of the community for judo referees.
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6.3 Sociability Model
Sociability refers to the interaction between members of the community and
the formal and informal social structures which support and influence that interaction.
Policies, regulations, social roles and norms are all examples of such structures.
Understanding and identifying the factors which influence social interaction in an
online community, is clearly of fundamental importance to online community
development.
Preece (2000) also includes in her definition of sociability, the collective
purpose of the community. Although the two areas are closely linked, it was decided
that community purpose was of sufficient importance and scope to warrant a separate
model.
Formal social structures, such as rules and regulations, are perhaps an
obvious method of influencing the behaviour of the community. The literature
review identified a number of formal structures which could be used in this way.
Codes of conduct (Palloff and Pratt (1999)), community laws (Seufert (2002)) and
security policies (Preece (2000)) are examples given.
The Requirements Analysis for the judo referees (Chapter 5) identified a
need for formal social structures. Each interviewee mentioned this area and the
example of an anti-discrimination policy was given. It appears that these formal
social structures are not only of importance to community developers, but are also
needed by community members. It should also be noted that Seufert (2002) and
Palloff and Pratt (1999) stress the importance of involving community members in
the establishment of social rules and norms, in order to secure their commitment. It
appears that formal social structures should not be unilaterally imposed, but
developed and reviewed by the community.
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Informal social structures, the roles and behaviours that members adopt, are a
common theme in models of online communities. Although there was little mention
of this aspect in the interviews and this study does not provide an opportunity to
examine the roles of community members, it nevertheless appears to be an issue of
importance in understanding online communities. The classification systems
presented in the literature review indicate a number of roles and behaviours
community members may undertake. The Sociability model identifies four
classifications:
• Functional roles
• Experience based roles
• Social roles
• Behaviours
These roles and behaviours are not mutually exclusive. For instance, a
“reporter” (functional role) may be a “regular” (experience based role), an “explorer
and guru” (social role) and may exhibit “interactive, positive” behaviours.
The referees interviewed expressed their expected roles within the online
community for judo referees. These roles could be mapped on to the classifications
of this model. For instance, Simon Hill and Cristel de Bruijn’s anticipated use of the
community is consistent with “interactive, positive, information” behaviour.
However, these are predictions of their behaviour and may not reflect their actual
role within the community.
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Sociability Model
Sociability
Formal Social
Structures
Informal Roles
Membership Policy Codes of Conduct
Security Policy
Community Laws
Privacy Policy
Editorial Policy
Functional Experience
Social Behaviours
Pathfinder
Newcomer
Moderator
Statistician
Reporter
MajorVisitor
Knowledge Shop
Explorers and Gurus
Achievers and Performers
Elder
Regular
Killers and Brats Lurking
Non interactiveSocializers, Greeters,
Caretakers
Positive
InformationNon
information
Hostile
Interactive
Figure 26: Sociability Model
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6.4 Usability Model
Usability refers to the interaction between the technology of the online
community and the community members. Providing a system and an interface which
meets the needs of the community members is a fundamental part of the community
design process (Powazek (2001)). Web design principles are, therefore, integrated
into this model. The importance of usability is reflected in Preece’s (2000) models
of Usability and Sociability (Figure 15), and Community Centred Development
(Figure 17). These models provide the basis of the Usability model presented here.
The usability model identifies five characteristics which are likely to ensure
an online community has high levels of usability:
• Reliability
• Controllability
• Predictability
• Consistency
• Bespoke design
The ability of the online environment to satisfy these characteristics depends
on the hardware and software selection and design, and is strongly influenced by the
information systems design methodology used (Section 2.5: Building the
Community).
The prototyping of the online community for judo referees highlighted
examples of usability issues. The importance of controllability and consistency was
demonstrated by the response to the paper prototype. Both interviewees stated a
strong preference for retaining a similar look and feel throughout the online
environment and for retaining high levels of control over the interface.
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The Bespoke Design element of the Usability model refers to developing the
online environment to match the specific needs of the community. Examples of
design factors to achieve this include: the information architecture, the styles of
interface and the types of C.M.C. used in the community.
Notwithstanding the need for bespoke design, there appears to be a number of
design approaches which are consistent with the characteristics of online community
Websites. The use of ambiguous organisational schemes is consistent with
unstructured learning (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)) and is therefore appropriate
for online communities of practice. Contextual navigation, i.e. providing links
between information on similar subjects, also supports associative learning patterns
(Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)). The use of textual links, instead of iconic links
supports usability over aesthetics (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002), Krug (2000)) and
therefore also appears appropriate for online communities.
During the prototyping of the online community for judo referees, a potential
problem with the labelling system was identified. The word “articles” had been used
to refer to publications about judo. However, “articles” is commonly used by
referees to refer to the individual rules of the sport. This demonstrates the pitfalls of
jargon and importance of the “Audience” factor identified in Figure 21: Factors
Affecting Labelling System Consistency.
Usability design appears to be both important and unique to each online
community. This model can therefore only indicate the factors to be considered. It
cannot provide precise instructions on how to design a usable community.
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Usability
Reliability
Controllability Predictability
Consistency
Bespoke DesignInterface
Representation
Support
Archives
Information Architecture
Feedback
Registration
Navigation
Organisation Scheme
MessagesFormats
Labelling System
Page Design
Jargon Ambiguous
Contextual Textual Links
Usability Model
Figure 27: Usability Model
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6.5 Online Community Purpose Model
The Online Community Purpose model describes potential benefits online
communities could bring. Chapter 3: Literature Review revealed that the purpose of
online communities was considered and embedded in a number of online community
models (Seufert (2002), Preece (2000), Hoadley and Pea (2002), Palloff and Pratt
(1999)), but was not examined as a distinct entity. This model attempts to do this
and includes features from each of the above mentioned sources.
The purpose of an online community may be extrinsic or intrinsic. The
former may include the use of the community to generate improvements to the wider
organisation. For instance, improvements may be made to existing procedures and
practices (Hoadley and Pea (2002)) or socially-constructed solutions to existing
problems discovered through questioning and agreement (Palloff and Pratt (1999)).
The Requirements Analysis (Chapter 5) echoes the use of the community for judo
referees for extrinsic purposes. Improving recruitment and retention, and improving
the performance of referees are examples of such purposes.
Social benefits of online communities appear to be partly extrinsic and partly
intrinsic. Social benefits may be the primary purpose of a community of relationship
(Seufert (2002)) and therefore be an intrinsic purpose. By contrast, the social
benefits to a business community (Burnett (2000)) may be incidental, but may serve
the extrinsic purpose of generating business deals. The online community for judo
referees again appears to be consistent with this theory. It seems logical that the
referees participate in their sport for personal enjoyment. Therefore, the social
benefits of the online community could contribute to this – an intrinsic benefit.
Additionally, the social interaction that the community produces may help the
referees to perform more effectively in contests – an extrinsic benefit.
The pursuit of knowledge and learning is a principle foundation of
communities of practice (Seufert (2002), Palloff and Pratt (1999), Mojta (2002),
Hoadley and Pea (2002)). The characteristics of this are well documented in the
literature, and there is widespread agreement between the sources examined.
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Essentially, this purpose of online communities of practices can be summarized as:
Seeking a deeper understanding (Mojta (2002)) of a specific field, through
collaborative learning (Seufert (2002)), informal (Seufert (2002)) and unstructured
(Mojta (2002)) discourse, critical evaluation (Palloff and Pratt (1999)) and problem
solving (Seufert (2002)). This is underpinned by resource sharing (Hoadley and Pea
(2002)) and mutual trust (Palloff and Pratt (1999)).
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104
Online munity
Purpose
Improvements to Procedures and Practices
Learning, Knowledge and Understanding of a Specific Field
• Questioning and Agreement
• Socially Constructed Solutions
• Critical Evaluation
• Problem Solving
• Formal and Informal Discourse
• Contextualized Learning
• Collaborative Learning
• Sharing Resources
• Mutual Trust
• Mutual Support and Encouragement
• Improved Motivation
• Formal and Informal Interaction
• Activities and Events
• Self-responsibility for Learning
Social Benefits
Com
Online Community Purpose Model
Figure 28: Online Community Purpose Model
7 Building the Community The online environment for judo referees was built following the
Requirements Analysis (Chapter 5) using an evolutionary prototyping systems
development methodology, incorporating timeboxing and MoSCoW rules techniques
(Section 2.5: Methodology: Building the Community). The Website was named
“Referees’ Corner”. This section provides a description and justification of decisions
taken in the construction of the community and reflects on lessons learned during this
process. Implications for the models identified in Chapter 5: Establishing Models
are also discussed.
Appendix 8: Referees’ Corner Screen Shots contains pictures of some of the
more notable pages from the Website.
7.1 Community Purpose
The online community of judo referees presented some difficulties in
defining a purpose for the community. Membership and involvement in the
community is voluntary, although the online environment is provided by an external
source. Therefore, a stated purpose for the community could either be provided by
the external source prior to the launch of the community, or it could be allowed to
evolve from within the community following its launch. Both options present
problems. An imposed purpose is unlikely to secure the support of the community
members. Alternatively, allowing the purpose to evolve presents the risk of the
community drifting aimlessly.
It was decided to attempt to identify from the referees, their individual
perceptions of the community’s purpose and to embed support for these purposes in
the design. It was hoped this approach would stimulate the referees to consider the
purpose of the community and would facilitate the development of a self-determined
purpose as the community evolved.
The referees interviewed were encouraged to express their requirements of
the community, the purposes for which they would use the community and also
general challenges, difficulties and issues they faced. A number of
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consistent themes emerged, including the provision of comprehensive, consolidated
information, the opportunity to communicate with other referees and receive
information from the governing bodies. These requirements were integrated into
Referees’ Corner.
Other more general purposes were raised by Alan Medley, such as improving
referee training and recruitment and retention. Features and functions were also
provided to facilitate these aims.
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7.2 Evolutionary Prototyping
Evolutionary prototyping was selected as the information systems
development methodology for the reasons outlined in Section 2.5: Building the
Community. As intended, it provided the opportunity to involve some of the referees
in the design process.
The investigation of the referees’ requirements initially lacked some focus.
During the first interview, Alan Medley enquired about the features of the intended
Website. He appeared to focus on potential features of the Website, rather than on
the needs of the referees. Indeed, he described the need for communication
functionality by referring to his experience of C.M.C. features used by a computing
magazine Website.
The interviews with Simon Hill and Cristel de Bruijn were also conducted
before the paper prototype was presented to them. Their comments tended to be
more focussed on the referees needs, perhaps because the interviewees were more
familiar with the needs of rank and file referees. It was unclear whether the
presentation of the paper prototype immediately prior to the interviews would have
stimulated narrower or broader consideration of the issues.
Evolutionary prototyping provided a means of testing design ideas, appeared
to successfully involve the referees and helped to provide a reference point between
the referees and designer.
7.2.1 Timeboxing And MoSCoW Rules
The importance of time management and of prioritising requirements became
apparent during the study. A common criticism of prototyping is that it can result in
development iterations ad infinitum and the failure to deliver a system (Stapleton
(1997)). The timescale for this study was fixed by the submission date, so this could
not take place. There was, however, the risk that the refining of minor design issues
would persist, thereby delaying the launch of the community. Timeboxing and the
prioritising of requirements were invaluable tools in controlling this risk. Although
individual timeboxes within the study (Appendix 10: Project Timetable)
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were not strictly adhered to and were subject to change by external forces, such as
the availability of the referees, they nevertheless instilled a sense of urgency.
Similarly, the MoSCoW rules acronym was not particularly useful, but the
prioritisation of requirements was necessary. It remains to be seen how the referees
will react to the failure to provide features they requested and whether these features
will be provided at a later date.
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7.3 Web Design
There was some success in integrating the Web design guidelines identified
in Section 3.4: Web Design. However, it was not possible to follow some guidelines
due to time constraints and technical skill. The design of the persistent navigation,
for instance, was intended to follow the guidelines, but was not entirely successful,
due to limited H.T.M.L. skills.
7.3.1 Information Architecture
A hybrid organisational scheme was used for the online environment. The
majority of the Website was organised according to an ambiguous scheme, based on
the topic of the information (Section 3.4.1.1: Organisation of Information). For
example, the sections on the N.R.C., Referee News, Refereeing Information, Judo
Rule Book, Glossary of Terms, F.A.Q.s and Judo Links were defined by topic. The
Referees’ Forum and Talk to the Referees features were, however, defined by
audience, i.e. referees and players/coaches respectively.
Within some sections exact organisational schemes were used. For instance,
the Glossary of Terms was organised alphabetically. Furthermore, large documents,
such as the Referee’s Manual, were divided into separate pages and the local
navigation used to provide the option to navigate through the document in a linear
fashion.
The choice of organisational scheme reflects two aspects of Wed design
principles. Firstly, an ambiguous organisational scheme was selected to support
associative learning (Rosenfeld and Morville (2002)) and secondly the choice of
exact organisational schemes for some sections of the Website was based on
convention (Neilsen (2000), Niederst (2001) and Krug (2002)).
However, testing by the Webmaster revealed weaknesses in the navigation
and labelling systems. It was difficult to identify the important content on each page
and was not always clear which navigation options were available. This reflects the
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criticism of mixed organisation systems identified by Rosenfeld and Morville (2002).
Guidelines for effective labelling systems were difficult to apply. The
prototyping of the Website highlighted a number of problems with the labelling
system, including inappropriate terminology (Section 6.4: Usability Model) and
insufficient visual impact of logically related content.
The embedded navigation scheme largely complied with the criteria
identified in Figure 22: Characteristics of Effective Navigation Systems and Section:
3.4.1.4: Embedded Navigation, with the exception of providing a site-wide search
system. This was omitted due to time limitations, as was a site map or index. Local
and contextual navigation were included and breadcrumbs used to orientate users.
7.3.2 Page Design
The ability to influence page design was limited by the contents provided for
inclusion on the Website. For instance, the I.J.F. Rule Book could not be rewritten to
comply with guidelines for online writing style. Nevertheless, many of the
guidelines were applied as indicated in Appendix 5: Web Page Design Guidelines.
Whether following these guidelines is effective in providing usable content cannot be
assessed by this study.
110
7.4 Technology
The technological infrastructure on which the online community is based
clearly has an influence on the usability of the online environment. Although this
issue is important, the pace of change with such technologies is so fast that it is
difficult to provide meaningful generalised guidelines. Nevertheless, this brief
section reflects on the key decisions taken in the design of the online environment for
judo referees.
Preece (2000) identifies three basic approaches to the technical challenges of
building an online community:
1) “Program it yourself” using H.T.M.L. and scripting languages such as Perl
and C.G.I. scripts. This option was rejected as there was insufficient time
and technical skills available to take this option.
2) “Glue it together” using templates and modules provided as freeware. This
option requires less advanced H.T.M.L. skills and utilizes pre-written
modules for bulletin boards and chat rooms.
3) “Become a Web homesteader” by using sites such as geocities.com and
msn.com to host the community. These services provide standardised
features and little control over the interface, but are simple to provide.
Options 2 and 3 above were presented with the paper prototype to the referees.
Option 2 was clearly preferred and was therefore adopted.
However, difficulties were encountered with the software available on the
server which was to host the online environment for judo referees. The choice of
modules for bulletin board was therefore limited. Consequently, it was decided to
utilise bravenet.com to host the bulletin board features.
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This service uses bravenet.com’s server to host the bulletin board, but allows
the remainder of the site to be hosted elsewhere. It also allows a degree of
customisation and provides other modules, such as a password gate. The main
disadvantage with this approach is that it presents advertising on the bulletin board
service.
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8 Nurturing the Community
8.1 Encouraging Sustainability
“People are the key to a thriving online community. Obvious as this may
sound, the importance of drawing people into the community and
encouraging them to participate and keep coming back cannot be over-
emphasized. Without people there is no community”
Preece (2000)
The opportunity to nurture the community in this study is strictly limited. It
was possible to undertake some actions to increase the likelihood of the community
becoming sustainable, including:
• Evolutionary prototyping was used as the information systems development
methodology, partly because it involved the referees in the development
process. It was hoped that this would stimulate interest and secure their
support.
• During the interviews, the referees were asked about their potential role in
the community. This was intended to identify and encourage individuals
who may be willing to take a leadership role in the community.
• A “Help” section was included in the design of the site. This was intended
to lead new members and those with limited internet skills and experience
through their initial interactions with the Web site. Moreover, explanations
and introductions were provided on many of the pages to help new
members become accustomed to the environment.
• Referees in the Y&HJA region were contacted by email to announce the
launch of the site.
113
• A WebQual questionnaire, presented as an online form, was provided at the
launch of the Web site. This was intended to encourage the members to
interact with the site, to demonstrate that their opinions were valued and
also to provide an initial evaluation of the site.
However, the community’s ability survive is likely to be more significantly
influenced its ability to continually satisfy members’ requirements. The referees’
current requirements are documented in Appendix 3: Requirements Specification. It
is likely that these will change with time and the community should adapt to meet
new requirements. Renninger & Shumar (2002) summarise reasons for members
continuing their membership of online communities of practice as:
• To think, talk and share resources with others.
• To interact with expert-others for problem solving and problem posing.
• To gain access to quality content.
Conversely factors linked to the decline of online communities should be
avoided if possible. These include:
• Excessive splintering of the community into smaller subgroups of interest
and affiliation (Bruckman & Jensen (2002)).
• Obsolescence of the technology supporting the community (Bruckman &
Jensen (2002)).
• The loss of enthusiasm of members in leadership roles in the community
(Bruckman & Jensen (2002)).
• The failure of the CMC technologies used to provide sufficient depth of
discourse in the community (Schlager et al (2002))
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9 Evaluating the Community “Most simply, one can say that a community is successful to the extent that it
meets the needs of its members”
Bruckman & Jensen (2002:22)
It is not feasible to undertake a meaningful evaluation of the online
community for judo referees within the timescales of this study. However, this
section addresses some of the key considerations concerning the evaluation of online
communities in general and describes the actions taken to facilitate the future
evaluation of the online community for judo referees.
Evaluation of the community could be undertaken on a number of levels.
Analysing the community members’ opinions of the community, is identified by
Bruckman & Jensen (2002) and Hoadley and Pea (2002) as an appropriate method of
evaluation. It could indicate if the requirements of the community members were
continuing to be met. Opinions could be assessed by a number of methods, such as
usability testing, interviews or questionnaire surveys.
A modified version of the WebQual questionnaire was integrated into the
design of the online community for judo referees for this purpose (Appendix 8:
Referees’ Corner Screen Shots). The WebQual questionnaire was selected because it
reflects many of the key issues identified during the Requirements Analysis (Chapter
5). The questionnaire assesses the Website relative to usability, information,
interaction and convergence on a 7-point Likert scale (Avison & Fitzgerald (2003)).
The questionnaire was modified to remove questions directly related to e-commerce
and a question was added to assess the referees’ view of expanding the website to a
national level. The 7-point scale was also altered to a 5-point scale to aid simplicity
and because of the limited sample size.
115
Analysing member’s opinions is, however, limited in its scope. An
alternative method of evaluation is to measure the usage of the community. The
level of activity has been identified as a good indicator of a community’s success
(Bruckman and Jensen (2002)). Indeed this could be particularly useful to identify
trends in a longitudinal study. A counter was, therefore, included on the home page
of the Website to indicate usage.
The impact of the online community on the real world could also be studied.
This would be particularly appropriate for online communities of practice, as it could
indicate if there were significant benefits in knowledge, performance and morale of
the community members. Such an evaluation would, however, require the
community of practice to have been established for sometime (Schlager et al (2002)).
Consequently, the timescales of this study negate this form of assessment of the
online community for judo referees.
The purpose of the online community and the purpose of the evaluation are
likely to influence the selection of an evaluation tool (Preece (2000)). Clearly, it is
logical to assess a community against the purpose for which it was created.
However, the online community of practice for judo referees highlights the
challenges in precisely defining a purpose for an online community. This makes
evaluation of this sort somewhat difficult. The purpose of the evaluation is also
likely to also have an influence on the evaluation tools selected. An organisation
may want to determine if their online community has attracted sufficient numbers of
customers, and may therefore concentrate on measuring usage. By contrast, a social
science researcher may aim to test a theory by examining the types of discourse
present in the community.
116
10 Evaluating the Models The development of the online community of referees was conducted
concurrently with the construction of the models presented in Chapter 6:
Establishing the Models. Therefore, it was possible to reflect on the applicability of
the models to a real world scenario. This reflection was guided by the following
questions:
• Do the models reflect the real world experience of designing and
implementing the online community of judo referees? Is there anything
missing from the models?
• Are the factors identified in the models given an appropriate level of
priority?
• Are the models of practical benefit? Do they assist developers to establish
online communities of practice or are they largely of theoretical interest
only?
10.1 Community Purpose.
This study contains a considerable discussion of the importance, problems
and implications of defining a purpose for the community. The referees interviewed
demonstrated the complexity of this issue, by expressing related, but differing
expectations of the community’s role. Such diversity of views within the community
is difficult to represent in the models. Indeed the models infer, and some literature
(Preece (2000), Paloff and Pratt (1999)) explicitly states, that a unified purpose is
essential for online communities.
This study is unable to conclusively state whether a community can exist if its
members have greatly varying views of the purpose of the community. It seems
likely that some common purpose is required. In the case study, this could be the
desire to improve the knowledge and performance of referees. However, the case
study also demonstrates that there are likely to be differing motives within the
community, such as improving practitioner networks for novice referees,
117
gaining convenient access to information for established referees and managing the
rank and file referees for the governing bodies.
The Online Community Design and Implementation model (Section 6.1) and
the Online Community Purpose model (Section 6.5) draw attention to the importance
of exploring the community’s purpose, although they are unable to fully represent the
complexity of this issue.
118
10.2 Sociability
The planning of social interaction is stressed by the Online Community
Design and Implementation model (Section 6.1) and the Sociability model (Section
6.3). There are a number of elements of these models over which community
developers have control. For instance, the structure of the cyberspaces which host the
community can be designed to encourage one-to-one, one-to-many or many-to-many
interaction. The policies and roles identified in the Sociability model could also be
of use to community developers as tools to influence the community.
However, the importance of self-determination of policies, practices and
norms is not particularly well represented in the models. Community self-
determination of membership policies, codes of conduct etc is not identified as a high
priority in the models. Unfortunately, this study cannot determine whether this is an
error in the models, or whether communities are willing to accept imposed rules and
regulations.
The existence of formal and informal structures is not clearly indicated by the
models. It became apparent in the referees’ interviews that small groups of referees
worked informally together to improve their performance. This form of interaction
may be identified in the initial stage of the Online Community Design and
Implementation model (Section 6.1.1). However, it is not highlighted in the Design
of the Website stage (Section 6.1.3). Consequently, designers may overlook the
importance of informal social structures in influencing sociability in online
communities.
119
10.3 Usability
The Literature Review (Chapter 3) revealed that online community models
represented usability in a relatively abstract way. The Online Community Design
and Implementation model (Section 6.1) and the Usability model (Section 6.4)
attempt to introduce a more practical indication of the ways in which usability can be
influenced by Web design techniques.
The development of the online environment for judo referees revealed two
major points of interest in this regard. Firstly, although there are design approaches
which are suited to online community development (Section 6.4: Usability model), it
is, nevertheless, vital that designers consider the specific needs of each community.
The Usability model emphasises this with the Bespoke Design element. Secondly,
although it is relatively simple to identify principles of good design, it is far more
difficult to implement them successfully (Section 7.3: Web Design).
The Online Community Design and Implementation model (Section 6.1) and
the Usability model (Section 6.4) have taken tentative steps towards linking online
community models with Web design principles. This appears to be an area which
could be developed further.
120
11 Conclusions
11.1 Summary and Conclusions
The primary purpose of this study was identified in Section 1.3 as:
To develop, refine and assess models of online communities of practice
and to test information systems development methods, through the
implementation of an online environment for a community of judo
referees.
A number of objectives for the study were also identified:
1) The identification of a generalisable model of the development of online
communities of practice.
2) A practical test of the effectiveness of established models of online
communities.
3) A greater understanding of information systems development
methodologies, their applicability to the implementation of online
communities and their representation in models of online communities.
4) A greater understanding of the role of Web design in the implementation of
online communities and its representation in models of online communities.
5) The identification of a generalisable model of judo referees’ requirements
for an online community of practice.
6) A greater understanding of the benefits, nature and problems of online
communities.
121
The study has been largely successful in achieving its purpose and objectives.
A number of established models of online communities, Web design principles and
the lessons from designing and implementing the case study, were combined to
create five models of online communities. These models represent:
• Online Community Design and Implementation
• Online Community Lifecycle
• Sociability
• Usability
• Online Community Purpose
While these models provide a comprehensive representation of online
communities of practice, and online communities in general, a common theme
apparent in the study is the need for designers to consider the unique nature of each
online community.
Evolutionary prototyping was used to implement the online environment for
judo referees and its suitability for this purpose assessed. Although it was identified
as an appropriate methodology, particularly due to its involvement of users in the
design process, it should not be considered as the only suitable methodology.
The objective of producing a model of judo referees’ requirements for an
online community of practice was subsumed in the creation of the aforementioned
models. The referees’ requirements were identified from the interviews and
modelled as mind maps. Although these maps were similar, it was decided that there
was little benefit in constructing a model of this, as the referees’ requirements were
integrated into the other, more comprehensive models.
122
As expected, the study has highlighted potential benefits, problems and issues
faced by online community members and developers. These are focussed on the
design and implementation of online communities, rather than on their sustained
existence.
Section 1.4: Objectives also identified a number of possible benefits to the
members of the referees’ community and to the governing bodies. The study
confirmed the potential of the online community of practice to realise these benefits.
Indeed the referees’ requirements for the online community were consistent with
these potential benefits. However, it is not possible at this time to identify whether
these benefits will be realised in practice.
123
11.2 Limitations of the Study
Time constraints forced this study to focus on the design and launch of the
online community of practice. It was not possible to examine the community once it
was established. Therefore, the study could not conclude with any certainty whether
models constructed represented sustainable online communities. Issues concerned
with the maintenance and evolution of the community could only be examined on a
theoretical basis.
Moreover, as the study focussed on the initial implementation of the
community, there was little distinction between the community as an information
resource and as an online community of practice. It was not feasible to study
learning behaviour and to practically assess the elements of the online environment
most critical to a community of practice, again due to the time constraints of the
project. As a result, the discussion of learning approaches is based on the referees’
opinions of what they would hypothetically use the online environment for, rather
than on their actual behaviour.
The sample of referees interviewed and the population of referees in the
Y&H.J.A. region is relatively small. There is some doubt whether there is a viable
population size to support an online community of practice. However, there is the
potential for the online community for judo referees to become a national resource.
This may represent an opportunity for further study.
124
11.3 Future Research
This study highlights a number of possibilities for future research and for the
development of the online environment for judo referees. Four avenues of potential
study are given below:
11.3.1 Models of Online Communities
The models of online communities could be tested and further refined. Their
effectiveness in representing features important to the sustainability of online
communities could be investigated.
The role of Web design principles could be elaborated and the importance
and effectiveness of approaches to Web design and information architecture analysed.
11.3.2 Development of the Online Environment for Judo Referees
The online community for judo referees could be further developed. The
impact of introducing Web design features not included in initial Website could be
assessed. The expansion of the community to a national level could be studied,
particularly as it would facilitate the introduction of other forms of C.M.C., such as
chat rooms.
11.3.3 Alternative Design and Implementation Methodologies
Alternative information systems development methodologies could be
compared to the evolutionary prototyping methodology used in this study. Similarly
alternative approaches to requirements analysis could be examined. For instance,
this study raised the issues of using controlled groups of users for prototyping
(Chapter 5: Requirements Analysis) and of the most appropriate time to demonstrate
prototypes (Section 7.2: Evolutionary Prototyping).
125
11.3.4 Impact of Online Communities
The potential influence of established real world communities on online
communities was apparent in the study (Section 3.2.4: Community Lifecycle and the
Community Development Process) It would be interesting to analyse this influence
and to investigate how an online community might affect the real world.
(Word count = 22,073)
126
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13 Glossary
Abbreviations and Terms Definition
Avatar An icon or picture used to represent an
individual.
B.J.A. – British Judo Association National governing body for judo.
Breadcrumbs A navigation element used to indicate the
location of the current Web page relative to
the home page of a Website.
Bulletin board Asynchronous, online computer mediated
communication, where individuals post
messages to each other and for public display.
Messages are “threaded” to indicate
conversations.
C.M.C. - Computer Mediated
Communication
Interaction between individuals and groups
facilitated by information technology, e.g.
bulletin board, chat room, email.
Community of Practice A group of practioners in a specific field who
learn cooperatively to improve knowledge and
ultimately performance.
132
Cyberspace An area of information or interaction in a
Website.
Drop Down Menu A textual label which expands to reveal a
series of choices when the user’s mouse
pointer passes over the label.
E.J.U. – European Judo Union European governing body for judo.
Emoticon A small icon used to display emotions in
email, chat room and other forms of C.M.C.
Also known as “smilies”
Evolutionary prototyping The process of producing an information
system by incrementally improving,
developing and refining an initial prototype.
H.T.M.L. – Hypertext Mark-up
Language
The mark-up language used to describe the
structure of document presented on the World
Wide Web.
Hyperlink A textual label providing a link to another
location in a Website.
133
I.J.F. – International Judo
Federation
Worldwide governing body for judo.
I.R.C. - Internet Relay Chat Synchronous (live), online computer mediated
communication, where individuals undertake
textual conversations in cyberspaces known as
chat rooms.
Iconic labels Labels of information content, or more usually
navigation elements presented as pictogram.
Information architecture The structural design, labelling system and
navigation scheme within a Website to
facilitate the completion of tasks and intuitive
access to information.
Labelling system The names and graphics used to describe
information content and represent links in
Websites.
Mind maps A graphical technique used to express ideas
and concepts in a radiant form.
134
Moderator A member of an online community who can
edit, censor and remove content to ensure the
community members behave according to
accepted norms.
MoSCoW Rules Method for prioritising the requirements of an
information systems project. Associated with
Rapid Application Development
methodologies.
Navigation The combination of buttons and links used to
gain access to different parts of a Website.
Online Community A group of individuals interacting online.
Pop up A message which appears when a user passes
their mouse pointer over a part of a Web page.
Also an unsolicited window which appears in
Web browsers when accessing the Internet.
R.A.D. – Rapid Application
Development
An approach to information systems
development involving prototyping,
timeboxing, MoSCoW rules and other
techniques.
135
Referees’ Corner The name given to the online community of
judo referees developed during this study.
S.D.L.C. – Systems Development
Lifecycle
Traditional, staged method for developing
information systems
Tags The textual container for an element in a
H.T.M.L. document
Textual labels Labels of information content or navigation
elements presented as text.
Timeboxing Method of dividing up information systems
development projects into time delimited
components.
U.R.L. – Uniform Resource Locator The unique address of a Website on the World
Wide Web.
W.I.S.D.M. – Web Information
System Development Methodology
A modified version of the Multiview
information systems development
methodology, designed specifically for the
development of Web-based information
systems.
136
Web browser The software used to access the World Wide
Web.
Webmaster The individual responsible for the ongoing
maintenance of a Website. In the case of the
online community for judo referees, Dr
Miguel Nunes agreed to be the first
Webmaster for the site.
WebQual A questionnaire tool used in W.I.S.D.M. to
assess e-commerce Websites.
Y&HJA – Yorkshire and
Humberside Judo Association
Regional governing body for judo.
137
14 Appendices Appendix 1: Interview Script 139
Appendix 2: Interview Mind Maps 140
Appendix 3: Requirements Specification Table 143
Appendix 4: Online Search Screen Shots 147
Appendix 5: Web Page Design Guidelines 164
Appendix 6: Online Communities Models Mind Maps 169
Appendix 7: Paper Prototype Samples 174
Appendix 8: Referees Corner Screen Shots 176
Appendix 9: Project Methodology / WISDM Comparison 182
Appendix 10: Project Timetable 183
138
Appendix 1: Interview Script
Name: Gender: Age: What is your level of experience as a judo referee? What contact and communication do you have with other referees? (Prompt: frequency, method, success) Do you do anything relating to judo above and beyond refereeing competitions? (Prompt: training referees, coaching, first aid etc) What problems face you as a referee? (Prompt: keeping up to date with rules, isolation, lack of support) Do think this is typical for other referees? (Prompt: what about novice or experienced referees) What experience do you have of the Internet? (Prompts: access, email, IRC, bulletin boards, online communities etc) What do you think about an online environment for judo referees? (Prompt: worthwhile? likely to succeed? benefits? problems?) What do you think the environment should do for you? (Prompt: disseminating information, exchange information, discussion, support, entertainment, social) What do you the environment should do for judo referees in general? What level of governance do think would be needed? (Prompt; constitution, free speech Vs rules and regulations) What involvement would you want and what would you bring to the community? (Prompt: passive, leader, moderator) How do you feel about communicating with people using text only? (Prompt: typing proficiency) What features would like the website to have?
139
Appendix 2 Interview Mind Maps
140
141
142
Appendix 3: Requirements Specification Table
Included in Prototype:
Description
Function (F) or
Information (I)
Source: AM: Alan Medley
SH: Simon Hill CB: Cristel De
Bruijn MN: Miguel Nunes
MoSCoW Rules
Priority Paper Prototype Alpha Prototype Beta Prototype
Discussion between referees F AM / SH / CB M • Referees’ Forum • Chat Room
• Referees’ Forum • Referees’ Forum
Peer advice and support F AM / CB M • Referees’ Forum • Chat Room
• Referees’ Forum • Referees’ Forum
Expert opinion F / I AM / SH / CB M • Referees’ Forum • Chat Room • Players & Coaches – Ask the Referee • Judo Rules > About Judo Rules • Refereeing Articles • FAQs
• Referees’ Forum • Players & Coaches – Ask the Referee • Rule Book • Refereeing Information • FAQs
• Referees’ Forum • Talk to the Referees • Rule Book • Refereeing Information • FAQs
General information from I.J.F.
I AM / SH / CB S • Referee News • Referee News • Rule Book > Rule Amendments • Refereeing Information > Referee’s Manual
• Referee News • Rule Book > Rule Amendments • Refereeing Information > Referee’s Manual
143
General information from B.J.A.
I AM / SH / CB S • Referee News • Referee News • Rule Book (not yet supplied) • National Refereeing Commission
• Referee News • Rule Book (not yet supplied) • N.R.C.
Y&HJA information I AM / SH / CB M • Referee News • Referee Information
• Referee News • Referee Information
• Referee News • Referee Information
Explain rules and decisions to players and coaches
F AM / SH S • Players & Coaches – Ask the Referee
• Players & Coaches – Ask the Referee
• Talk to the Referees
Allow coaches and players to explain their perspective to referees
F AM S • Players & Coaches – Ask the Referee
• Players & Coaches – Ask the Referee
• Talk to the Referees
Master copy of rules I AM / SH / CB M • Judo Rules • Rule Book • Rule Book Articles and papers on judo I AM M • Refereeing Articles • Refereeing
Information • Refereeing Information
Judo and refereeing news I AM M • Referee News • Referee News • Referee News “Moderator” control F AM / MN S • Not provided • Some control
provided by Referees’ Forum and Players & Coaches Ask the Referee
• Some control provided by Referees’ Forum and Players & Coaches Ask the Referee
Overseen by National Refereeing Commission
F SH W • Not provided • Not provided • Not provided
144
Proposed rules I SH S • Referees’ Forum • Judo Rules
• Referees’ Forum • Rule Book > Rule Amendments
• Referees’ Forum • Rule Book > Rule Amendments
Interpretations of rules, with examples from senior referees
I SH C • Judo Rules • Refereeing Articles (Partly satisfies this requirement)
• Rule Book > Rule Amendments • Refereeing Information (Partly satisfies this requirement)
• Rule Book > Rule Amendments • Refereeing Information (Partly satisfies this requirement)
FAQs I SH S • FAQs • FAQs • FAQs Bulletin board F SH / CB M • Referees’ Forum • Referees’ Forum • Referees’ Forum List of Referees I SH S • Not provided • National
Refereeing Commission > Registered Referees
• National Refereeing Commission > List of Referees
Mailing list of referees I CB S • Not provided • National Refereeing Commission > Registered Referees
• National Refereeing Commission > List of Referees
B.J.A. structure including National Refereeing Commission
I CB S • Not provided • National Refereeing Commission
• N.R.C.
Career progression and requirements
I CB C • Not provided • Potential to include in Referee Information
• Potential to include in Referee Information
Glossary I CB C • Not provided • Glossary • Glossary Of Terms
145
Events calendar I CB W • Not provided • Could be included in main Y&HJA site
• Included in main Y&HJA site
146
Appendix 4: Online Search Screen Shots
International Judo Federation
• High quality graphical header
• Drop down menus
• Graphics and animations slow download times
• Mixed textual and iconic labels and navigation
147
I.J.F. Forum
• Elegant and clear design
• Instructions for novice users
• No emoticons or avatars
148
British Judo Association
• Excessive number of logos
149
B.J.A. Glossary
• Very long page
150• No persistent navigation
Judo Scotland
• Elegant design
• High contrast text
• Plain background
• Subtle graphics
• Consistent navigation
Northern Ireland Judo Federation
• Clear navigation
• Minimal
functionality of
message board
151
152
B.J.A. Midland Area
• Home page
serves little
purpose
• Limited
functionality
of referee
pages
B.J.A. Midland Area Contents Page
• Simple
persistent
navigation
• Too many
fonts, formats,
animations and
colours
• Poor
organisation
• Text difficult
to read
• Page too long
153
Southern Area Judo
• Confusing navigation
• Structure and navigation not consistent
• Incongruous background
• Inconsistent style for different pages
154
Judo Information Site
• No persistent navigation
• Unclear structure
• Use of embedded links
• Unobtrusive advertising
• Subsequent pages: Long documents are punctuated with illustrations,
headings and photographs
155
156
aBudokan Martial Arts
• Variety of bulletin boards
• Consistent appearance
• Consistent navigation
• Large blocks of uninterrupted text
• Dull appearance
157
158
• Graphics create martial arts theme
Martial Arts Planet: The Global Martial Arts Community
• Plain background makes the text easy to read
• Clear navigation
• Embedded links to relevant content
• Bulletin boards and chat rooms
• Website Poll to obtain feedback
• Intrusive advertising
159
Great American Sports Fans
• Array of navigation, links, graphics and advertising
• Unclear purpose and functionality
160
G.A.S.F. Forum
• Use of avatars and emoticons
• Use of breadcrumbs
161
Arsenal.com
• Multiple graphics, logos, textual and iconic links, colours, advertisements
and navigation elements
• Ambiguous labelling
162
• Drop down menus obscure content
163
Appendix 5: Web Page Design Guidelines
Technical Guidelines Topic Guideline Reference Utilised in
Website ( or )
Download speed is the overriding design criteria. Nielson (2000)
Minimise the size of pages to keep download times short, by using graphics and
animations sparingly.
Niederst (2001)
Download times for each page should be less than 10 seconds (34Kb approximately
with a 56K modem).
Nielson (2000)
Give a warning for downloads of 50Kb or more. Nielson (2000)
Technical
Guidelines
Design for established technology, not cutting edge browsers. Nielson (2000)
164
Colour Guidelines Topic Guideline Reference Utilised in
Website ( or )
Use bright colours to draw attention. Niederst (2001)
Use similar colours to indicate objects are associated. Niederst (2001)
Use the web palette to ensure colours display on 8-bit monitors. Niederst (2001)
Colour
Guidelines
Don’t use vivid backgrounds. Niederst (2001),
Krug (2002),
Nielson (2000)
165
Page Dimension Guidelines Topic Guideline Reference Utilised in
Website ( or )
Design for small monitors (640x480 pixels). Niederst (2001) Page
Dimension Limit page length to 2-3 screen lengths to minimise scrolling. Niederst (2001)
Formatting Guidelines Topic Guideline Reference Utilised in
Website ( or )
Don’t use multiple formats (fonts, alignments, bold, caps etc) on the same page. Niederst (2001) Formatting
Guidelines Allow for monitor and resolution differences by:
Specifying table and design element widths in percentages, not pixels.
Define font sizes relative to the user’s base font, not fixed font sizes.
Use abstract user interface specification (stylesheets).
Nielson (2000)
166
Page Layout Guidelines Topic Guideline Reference Utilised in
Website ( or )
Name each page and use the name to frame the page, by positioning it in the top
left position.
Krug (2002)
Use a visual hierarchy to indicate the importance of information on each page. Krug (2002)
Dominate each page with information of most value to users. Nielson (2000)
Divide pages into clearly defined areas by using white space. Avoid unnecessary
“noise” such as lines and boxes.
Krug (2002),
Nielson (2000)
Page Layout
Guidelines
Each page should be approximately 50% - 80% content and more than 20%
navigation.
Nielson (2000)
167
Writing Style Guidelines Topic Guideline Reference Utilised in
Website ( or )
Text should be succinct and easy to scan, by using short paragraphs, sub headings
and bulleted lists.
Nielson (2000)
Divide long sections of content between multiple pages. Nielson (2000)
Writing Style
Guidelines
Provide printable versions of long documents to supplement “chunked” documents
divided between multiple pages.
Nielson (2000)
168
Appendix 6: Online Communities Models - Mind Maps.
Design and Implementation Model Mind Map
169
Online Community Lifecycle Model Mind Map
170
Sociability Model Mind Map
171
Usability Model Mind Map
172
Online Community Purpose Model Mind Map
173
174
Paper Prototype: Home Page
Referees’ Corner Home Page
Introduction FAQsPlayers & Coaches Ask the Referee
Referees’ ForumRefereeing ArticlesReferee NewsJudo Rules
Search
Welcome to Referees’ Corner.
Come inside and browse the rules of judo, find out what’s new in judo refereeing and read technical articles on judo refereeing.
If you are a player or a coach, our referees will answer your questions on judo refereeing and rules in our ask the referee feature.
Referees from the Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association can enter the referees’ forum for online chat and discussion of judo refereeing issues.
Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association
British Judo Association
International Judo Federation
Appendix 7: Paper Prototype
175
Paper Prototype 1: Referees’ Forum
Introduction Judo Rules Refereeing ArticlesReferee News Players & Coaches Ask the Referee
FAQs
Referees’ CornerReferees’ Forum
Referees’ Forum
Search
The Referees’ Forum is for referees in the Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association. If you are a player of coach please use the ask the referee facility.
In the Referees’ Forum you can ask questions of each other, get advice and support and have your say on anything related to judo refereeing.
To use the Referees’ Foum:
Register if you are a new user or
Log in if you are already registered
Yorkshire and Humberside Judo Association
British Judo Association
International Judo Federation
Chat “live” with other referees in the
Post and reply to messages on the
Chat Room
Bulletin Board
Appendix 8: Referees’ Corner Screen Shots
Referees’ Corner Home Page
• Location given by title in top left
• Use of breadcrumbs
• Persistent navigation in horizontal bar at top of page
• Local navigation in vertical bar on left of page
• Embedded links in text
• Counter
• Minimal use of graphics and animation
• High contrast text on a plain back ground
176
Referees’ Corner Chui Stepping Out Gesture
• Breadcrumbs show hierarchical structure of the site
• Local navigation shows the linear structure of the 1999-2000 Refereeing
Rules Amendments section
• Jpeg format used for photographs
Next Page:
Referees’ Corner I.J.F Refereeing Commission Meeting 2003 Minutes 6
• Gif format for scoreboard graphic
• Simple formatting of text and use of table
• Maximum page length of 3 screens
177
178
179
Previous Page:
Referees’ Corner Feedback Form
• Modified WebQual questionnaire
• Use of radio boxes and text boxes for user input
Referees’ Corner Judo Rule Book
• Downloadable files provided in two formats
• Warning about download times
• Embedded links to related content to support associative learning
180
Referees’ Corner Referees’ Forum
• Password gate to access Referees’ Forum
• Simple explanation of Referees’ Forum purpose
• Email link to Referees’ Forum
• Relatively unobtrusive advertising
• Similar design to the main part of the site
181
Appendix 9: Project Methodology / W.I.S.D.M. Comparison
WISDM Stage Techniques used in this study
Organisational Analysis Interviews and evolutionary prototyping are used in this
study. Stakeholders are more narrowly defined, i.e. judo
referees in the Y&HJA, than is customary in WISDM
Information Analysis Mind mapping and MoSCoW Rules are used in this
study.
Prototyping is also used, as recommended by WISDM.
WISDM recommends the use of Unified Modelling
Language (UML). This is not used in this study, due to
time constraints.
Work Design WebQual, an integral part of WISDM, is used to assess
the system, albeit in a modified form.
Technical Design Minimal use was made of formalised software modelling
techniques encouraged by WISDM. Features of
Microsoft Visio and Macromedia Dreamweaver were
used to model the site during development.
Human-Computer
Interface (HCI)
Web design principles were identified in chapter XX and
implemented where possible. Templates were used in the
design to ensure a consistent appearance
182
Appendix 10: Project Timetable
ID Task Name Start End DurationJun 2003 Jul 2003
5/25 6/1 6/8 6/15 6/22 6/29 7/6 7/13 7/20 7/27 8/3 8/10
1 2w06/06/200326/05/2003Preparatory Work
2 4w04/07/200309/06/2003Timebox 1:Requirements Analysis andPaper Prototype Design
3 5w08/08/200307/07/2003Timebox 2:Requirements Analysis andAlpha Prototype Design
4 1.20w15/08/200308/08/2003Timebox 3:Review with Webmaster andBeta Prototype Design
5 0.20w21/08/200321/08/2003Launch of the community
6 18.20w29/09/200326/05/2003Compile Dissertation Report
7 7w11/07/200326/05/2003Literature Review
8 10w15/08/200309/06/2003Develop Models of Online Communities
Aug 2003
8/17 8/24
183