1

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC THOUGHT IN THE MALAY

ARCHIPELAGO: A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SHIA

Assoc. Prof. Dr. WZ Kamaruddin Wan Ali, PhD1

Department of Aqidah and Islamic Thought

Academy of Islamic Studies,

University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur

Abstract

Shi’ah refers to the followers of ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (k.w) and the thoughts of (al-

madhhab) a name that has existed a long time in the development of Islamic

history. However, in the context of the Malay world, the Nusantara or South-east

Asia, the studies on this are rather new and lack depth, although data and

evidence can be found in most study locations. The developments in the Islamic

world from the early days till now continue to attract the interest of researchers

from within and without, especially since it is the focus of the study of both

believers and non-believers. At the same time it continues to leave the influence

and effects that can be seen till today. This study aims to identify the

developments of the thoughts of (al-madhhab) in the Islamic world from the early

days till now, its effect on Islamic thinking and the effects it leaves behind.

Introduction

This study aims to examine the development of the Shia thinking in South-east

Asia in particular and the Islamic world in general. The actual objective is to examine,

and to study the history of the development of this subject from the early days of its

commencement till the stage where they establish a foothold on some areas and

situations, and leaves a strong influence and effect to this day.

In addition, studies on the subject are really never done or the subject is not preferred

to be studied because of factors like politics, religion, religious sects, ardent allegiance to

leaders or existing sects, unreadiness or lack of open mindedness or vision. Furthermore, this

subject is generally seen as a deviant teaching especially to Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah,

although it might not be to Islam generally. This is because any thinking, either Ahl al-

Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah or Shia, are both the product of Islam’s long history. Both are

1 Dr Wan Zailan Kamaruddin Wan Ali, currently hold the post as the Deputy Director of Higher Degree

Division, Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya. He is also an Associate Professor, and his

specialization and expertise is in Islamic Thought.

2

separated within Islam itself due to resources and thinking and understanding methodology

although both refer to the same al-Qur’an and al-Sunnah.

Shia from Literal and Terminological Perspectives:

In the literal sense, al-shi‘ah means ‘helper’ (al-ansar) and follower (al-atba‘).1 From

the terminology sense, it refers to anyone who follows ‘Ali and Ahl al-Bayt (‘a.s), and it is a

term used to describe this group.2 Al-Manqiri said that al-Imam ‘Ali once said: “Talhah and

al-Zubayr killed shi‘ah and all our helpers (‘ummal) in Basrah…”2 Al-Mas‘udi reported that

al-Imam ‘Ali have stood with his shi‘ah group in his house till the denial of Abi Bakr.3 Abu

al-Hasan al-Ash‘ari explains that they are al-shi‘ah because they support ‘Ali (r.‘a) and

revered him over other followers of Rasulullah (s.‘a.w).4

The Development of Islam at the time of Rasulullah (s.‘a.w) and Khulafa’ al-Rasyidin:

Based on the historical books written by Islamic scholars, at the time of Rasulullah

(s.a.w) (610-632), the spread of Islam was confined to the Arabic peninsula. However, at the

time of Khulafa' al-Rasyidin (11-40/632-661), Islam begins to be spread outside the Arab

peninsula, six years after the death of the prophet including to Iraq and Syria. Four years

later, Egypt and the area west of Egypt which are at that time under the Byzantine Empire,

whilst the area east of Iraq then is under the Sasan (Persian) Empire. In 30/650 Turkey is

opened by Muslims and many Persians embraced Islam.

The Development of Islam at the time of Bani Umaiyyah:

At the time of Bani Umaiyyah (41-132/661-750), the teachings of Islam spread

further to Spain and Italy to the west and to China and Nusantara to the east. To spread the

teachings of Islam, many Muslim (Arab) scholars and others emigrated abroad including to

Nusantara.

Political and social turmoil occurs during the time of Bani Umaiyyah between the

government of Bani Umaiyyah and his main political enemies which are the followers of Shia

led by the descendents of ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (r.‘a.) from the Bani Hashim group. This is

because the Shia group cannot compromise on issues of government and the cruelty of the

2 Nasr bin Muzahim (1365), Waq‘ah Siffin, al-Qahirah, p.7. 3 Al-Mas‘udi, ‘Ali bin al-Husayn, Ithbat al-Wasiyyah li al-Imam ‘Ali bin Abi Talib ‘alayh al-salam, Najaf: al-

Matba‘ah al-Haydariyyah, 1374/1955, p.161. 4 Al-Ash‘ari, Abu al-Hasan (1950), Maqalat al-Islamiyyin wa Ikhtilaf al-Musallin, al-Qahirah: Maktabah al-

Nahdah al-Misriyyah, 1389/1969, I, p.65.

3

Bani Umaiyyah. History has shown that oppression, cruelty and the massacres have been

directed at the Shia groups, particularly by Mu‘awiyah and Yazid. The assassination of

Husayn bin ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (r.‘a) marks the black spot in the history of Islam and this is

carried out by Yazid bin Mu‘awiyah bin Abi Sufyan.5

However, the fate of the Shia group is good during the time of Mu‘awiyah II (64/683)

due to his policies that differed from that of his father and grandfather before him. He did not

massacre and oppress the descendents of ‘Ali bin Abi Talib and their followers. However, he

is able to live only for a few days because then he is said to have been poisoned.6 At the time

of ‘Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (64-85/685-705) the Shia group of ‘Alawiyyah have escaped

to Nusantara to avoid the oppression of the army of Umaiyyah led by al-Hajjaj.7

For as long as Bani Marwan was in power, the Shia followers are oppressed and

cruelly treated except for the period under ‘Umar bin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz (99-101/717-720). His

attitude is clearly different towards the Shia followers. He stops the condemnation of ‘Ali bin

Abi Talib, he returns the rights of Ahl al-Bayt and returns them to their rightful positions.

However, he is not given the chance to govern for a long time because he is assassinated by

Bani Umaiyyah who is unhappy about his actions.8

In 126-129/744-747, a big Shia rebellion breaks up in Persia under the leadership of

‘Abdullah bin Mu‘awiyah9, a descendent of Ja‘far bin Abi Talib (Bani Hashim). According to

Ahmad Shalaby,10 ‘Abdullah is deemed to be deviant in Islam because of his belief in re-

incarnation, his claim to be God and a Prophet and claims to know of the invisible. However,

al-Nawbakhti explains that the statement of Ahmad Shalaby is not accurate because

‘Abdullah bin Mu`awiyah bin ‘Abdullah bin Ja`far is a leader, a poet, and a learned man who

is very knowledgeable and these cause his followers to overly revere him (ghallu). This has

4 See: Ibn Qutaybah, Abu Muhammad ‘Abd-Allah ibn Muslim, al-Imamah wa al-Siyasah, al-Qahirah,

1322/1904, II, p.4-8; al-Suyuti (t.t), Tarikh al-Khulafa', (ed) Muhammad Muhyi al-Din ‘Abd al-Hamid, n.p,

p.207-208.

6 Mughniyyah, M.J., The Despotic Rulers, p.111; Mohd. Nor Ngah (1991), “Sikap dan reaksi Syi`ah terhadap

tuduhan dan serangan ke atas mereka,” in Islamika, Kuala Lumpur: Gateway Publishing House, IV, p.152-

159. 7 Ibn Abi al-Hadid (1385/1965), Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah, (ed) Muhammad Abu al-Fadl Ibrahim, Beirut: Dar

Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi, III, p.15; Mughniyyah, M.J., Ibid, p.116.

8 Ibid, p.127-138.

9 `Abdullah bin Mu`awiyah bin `Abdullah bin Ja`far. A grandson of Ja`far bin Abi Talib whereas Ja`far was

the brother of `Ali bin Abi Talib (a.s). (See: K.V.Zettersteen, " `Abdullah bin Mu`awiyah, " in. EI, (New.ed.),

I, p.48-49.

10 Ahmad Shalaby, Sejarah dan Kebudayaan Islam, II, p.141; C.Brockelmann, History of the Islamic

People, p.101.

4

led them to believe god has a Nur and God’s Nur is ‘Abdullah bin Mu`awiyah. According to

Watt, his followers adhered to this believe, especially after his death.11

‘Abdullah bin Mu`awiyah12 has a big following among the Shia groups of

‘Alawiyyah, Zaidiyyah and ‘Abbasiyyah. Al-Tabari says that the area between al-Hirah and

al-Kufah, which is about 3 miles “is full of them.”13 Ibn al-Athir also said that the white area

are full of the followers of Ibn Mu‘awiyah (the white turbans).14 ‘Abdullah is said to be able

to control an area (in Isfahan) for two years (126-128/744-746) and build a palace in Istakhr

and declares himself as the king in Mada’in, Hulwan, Qumis, Asbahan, Rayy and other big

cities in the east. However he is finally defeated by the armies of Marwan bin Muhammad

(126-132/744-750) led by ‘Amir bin Dubara, in 129/746-747 in the Battle of Merw al-

Syadhan. With this defeat, some of his followers flee to as far as the Far East and some to

India, Oman and Egypt.15

Developments during the time of Bani ‘Abbasiyyah:

During the time of Bani ‘Abbasiyyah (132-656/750-1258), during the time of the

government of al-Saffah (132-136/750-762) and al-Mansur (136-158/754-775), there are Shia

groups that cannot accept the oppression and tyranny and rise up in rebellion. They are led by

Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah bin al-Hasan bin al-Hasan bin ‘Ali bin Abi Talib also called

Sahib al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah.16 In the time of al-Hadi (169-170/785-786), the rebellion is led by

al-Husayn bin ‘Ali bin al-Hasan bin ‘Ali bin Abi Talib.17 However, both rebellions are

defeated.

During the time of al-Ma’mun (198-218/813-833), there is a Shia ‘Alawiyyah

rebellion led by Muhammad al-Dibaj.18 He rebels against al-Ma’mun in Baghdad and

declares himself as the caliph and the Amir al-Mu’minin in Makkah.19 Al-Ma’mun send his

army to Makkah to put down the rebellion and was able to do so with ease. However, al-

Ma’mun forgives Muhammad al-Dibaj and other rebels and does not kill them. Al-Ma’mun

11 Watt, M.W., The Formative Period of Islamic Thought, p.53 12 W.F.Tucker, "`Abd-Allah bin Mu`awiyah and the Janahiyya: Rebels and Idealogies of the late Umayyad

period " in. SI, LI (51), Paris, 1980, pp.39-58. 13 Al-Tabari, Tarikh, VII, p.308. 14 Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil, V, p.326. 15 See: al-Tabari, op.cit, VII, pp.371-372; Ibn al-Athir, op.cit, V, pp.370-373. 16 Mughniyyah, M.J., op.cit, pp.170-171. 17 Ibid, pp.181-182. 18 Muhammad al-Dibaj bin Ja`far al-Sadiq bin Muhammad al-Baqir bin `Ali Zayn al-`Abidin bin Husayn al-

Syahid bin `Ali bin Abi Talib. (Al-Nawbakhti, Firaq al-Syi`ah, p.97.) 19 Ibn al-Tiqtaqa, al-Fakhri fi al-Adab al-Sultaniyyah wa al-Duwal al-Islamiyyah, p.195.

5

is said to propose to them to better leave the Arab soil and go to propagate Islam in regions of

Hindi, South-east Asia, and the Far East (China and others).20

Based on the proposal of this, a group is created to propagate Islam under the

leadership of Nakhoda Khalifah and is made up mostly of Shia Arabs, Persians and Indian

personalities. One of the important ones in this group is ‘Ali bin Muhammad bin Ja’far al-

Sadiq who rebels against al-Ma’mun.21 During the government of al-Ma’mun, the Shia

group is quite lucky in the earlier stages. The Shia sect is able to spread widely to most

Islamic cities and its effects can be seen in the palace of al-Ma’mun itself. The Shia followers

hold positions in government, such as its minister Fadl bin Sahl (Dhu al-Riyasatain), its army

general Tahir bin al-Husayn al-Khuza‘i and others. Nevertheless, finally they again faced

oppression like they do under khalifah ‘Abbasiyyah before.22

During the time of al-Ma’mun too, there are two important developments, that is the

movement of al-Batiniyyah23 that undergoes through two stages of developments:

(1) Open political movements through its divisions like Isma`iliyyah,24 Qaramitah.25 The

Qaramitah movement is a branch of the sect of Isma‘iliyyah. This is because they belief

that Muhammad bin Isma‘il bin Ja‘far is al-Mahdi (al-Qa’im) who is still alive. Al-Qa'im

according to them means a person who brings a new teaching that supercedes that brought

by Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). He is also the ulu al-‘azm the seventh after Noah,

Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad (s.a.w) and ‘Ali) and the like. It moves as a political

and religious body with its own identity, and the unifying factor for them is the doctrin

that “everthing has its exergesis.”26 Among this movements is the Isma`iliyyah.

According to Petrushevsky, Isma‘iliyyah is a sect that is the arch enemy of Imamiyyah,

and they control the power and important positions in the Islamic countries, particularly

Iran from the end of 3/9 century till the middle of 7/13 century. They are active and

threaten the nation’s stability. The al-Batiniyyah and Isma‘iliyyah relationship is so close

that sometimes one is synonymous with the other.

20 Nabi Ahmed, Advent of Islam in Indonesia, h.17; Hasjmy, A., “Adakah Kerajaan Islam Perlak Negeri Islam

pertama di AsiaTenggara,” in Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Indonesia, pp.156 - 158.

21 Hasjmy, A., ibid, p.156.

22 Mughniyyah, M.J., The Despotic Rulers, pp.193-197.

23 B.Carra De Vaux, "Batiniyya" in.EI, (New.ed.), I, h.679. (Among the sects of al-Batiniyyah, the most

important are Khurramiyyah, Qaramitah dan Isma`iliyyah (Batiniyyah). The title of Batiniyyah is also used to

certain groups of sufism.)

24 Al-Nawbakhti, Firaq al-Shi`ah, p.88.

25 Al-Nawbakhti, Ibid, p.93; al-Ash`ari, Maqalat al-Islamiyyin, p. 100;

26 Peters, F.E., Aristotles and the Arabs, pp.174-175; Hitti, P.K., History of the Arabs, p.443.

6

(2) At the second stage, there is increasing differences in thinking between the fuqaha’ and

the sufis, or between the regular ulama (religious scholar) and the mystical ulama. At one

instance the ulama of Fiqh (Islamic practices) are accused of favoring the zahir

(apparent), and at another instance the followers of tasawwuf are accused of being deviant

because they are said to be deviating from the religious teachings, the Kor’an and the

hadis (Prophet’s teachings.) After the fall of Baghdad, it is said that tasawwuf tariqat is

closely connected to Shia.

After the attack of the Mongols, the Isma‘iliyyah move in secret and appear in the

Sufi groups. If before this the Isma‘iliyyah group is known for its firm political stance, after

that their history is not much known because of their secrecy and their lack of political

involvement.27

The group of Isma‘iliyyah are the followers of Aga Khan28 who belief in Imamah

Isma`il bin Ja`far al-Sadiq and are found in Pakistan and West Africa. They are also known

as Bohoras. The group of Fatimiyyah in Egypt also adopts the Isma‘iliyyah thoughts. It is one

of the groups in al-Batiniyyah, and it can be assumed that the development of tasawwuf

tariqat after the fall of Baghdad has been influenced by al-Batiniyyah.29 Although the

Umaiyyah and ‘Abbasiyyah are violent and cruel towards the Shia, the Shia however,

managed to gain power. Among them are:

(1) The government of Bani Buwayh in Baghdad (333-447/945-1055) [around west Persia)

(in Syiraz in 321) and Iraq].30

(2) The government of Fatimiyyah31 in Egypt (297-567/909-1171).

(3) The government of Idrisiyyah in Moroco in years 172/789.

(4) The government of Mazyad32 `Arab - Syi`ah in `Iraq (403-545/1012-1150).

(5) The government of Rassid di Yaman (280-700/893-1300) dominated by Syi`ah

Zaidiyyah.33

27 Idem, Islam dalam cita dan fakta, pp.117-118.

28 Hasan al-Amin, Islamic Shi`ite Encyclopaedia, I, p.14.

29 Abdul Rahman Hj. Abdullah, Pemikiran umat Islam di nusantara, p.89.

30 Lane-Poole S, The Muhammadan Dynasties, h.139. (It is said that Imamiyyah and Zaidiyyah can practice

their schools in terms of theology and jurisprudence freely during this period. See: I.P.Petrushevsky, Islam in

Iran, p.219.)

31 The government of Fatimids in Egypt follows the notion of Isma`iliyyah regarding the Imamat of Isma`il bin

Ja`far al-Sadiq. At present, they can be found in India, Pakistan and East Africa and is known as the Bohoras.

The factions of Isma’iliyyah - batiniyyah are also followers of the Aga Khan. (Hasan al-Amin, Islamic Shi`ite

Encyclopaedia, I, p.14.)

32 Makdisi, G., "Notes on Hilla and the Mazyadids in Medieval Islam," in JAOS, LXXIV, 1954, pp.249 -

262.

33 Watt, W.M., The Majesty that was Islam, p.173-174; Lane-Poole, The Muhammadan Dynasties, p.102;

Petrushevsky, I.P., Islam in Iran, p.209.

7

(6) The government of Bani Hamdan under the leadership of Saif al-Dawlah al-Hamdani in

Aleppo.

(7) The government of Bani Mardas, led by Saleh bin Mardas in Aleppo in 414/1023.

(8) The government of Bani ‘Ammar in Tripoli (Lebanon).

However, the growth and development of Shia during the time of ‘Abbasiyyah must

be studied from the perspective of the Shia which then consists of the groups of Imamiyyah,

Zaidiyyah and Isma‘iliyyah. Focus must be given to the development of each of these

groups in the Islamic world, generally.

Development in the Middle Ages:

It can be said that in the 3/9 century until the 6/12 century, the Islamic world is under

the influence of Shia. Among the governments of the time that have a direct influence on the

development of Islam (Shia) on the whole world is the Fatimids in Egypt. This is because

within the administration of this government, there is a propaganda body named (Dar al-

Du‘at) which runs an efficient propaganda machinery to the entire Asia using a large number

of evengalists.

During the century of 4/10, there is a big immigration of Turks to Nusantara. Among

them are Shia families that arrive in Nusantara during the time of the government of Rukn

al-Dawlah Ibn Hasan ibn Buwayh al-Daylami, around the years 359/969.34

In early 7/13, major changes occur in the West Asia. Two main challenges come from

both within and without.

(1) External challenge – from the century 5/11 to 7/13, the Christians from the West and the

Mongols.

(2) Internal challenge – the rise of the Shia.

When the Shia government is in power in Baghdad, they are slandered and

condemned. Among the accusations, they are said to prevent the khalifah from helping the

Muslims in Syria, while at the same time the Byzantine is trying to wrestle their land in the

4/10 century. When the government of Fatimiyyah is in power in Egypt, they are said to be in

alliance with the Christian crusaders from the west.

The most important challenge is that they (including the Prime Minister of al-

Mu‘tasim that is, al-Alqami) is said to have invited Hulagu Khan to attack the city of

Baghdad and after 656/1258 they are accused of devoting themselves to the Mongols and

34 Wan Hussein Azmi, "Islam di Aceh: Masuk dan Berkembangnya hingga abad ke XVI (16)," in Sejarah

Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam ke Indonesia, p.185.

8

continue to work to destroy what they have all damaged. The fall of Baghdad in 656/1258

caused an emigration of a large number of scholars and religious leaders (theology) to

neighboring Muslim countries as far as India, spreading the Islamic religion.

The Arrival of Shia in Malay World (South-east Asia):

In discussing the development, influence and effect of the Shia teachings in

Nusantara, the students of history who study the Shia sect have made a few errors in their

writings because without an in-depth study and analysis, they generalize that all Shia are

deviant and erroneous. In addition, whether it is deviant or not is based on the existing sect

that dominates the scene in Nusantara, that is, the Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama`ah. It is not

based on the al-Qur’an and al-Hadith and is an unfair evaluation. This is because they make

the study without using the authentic Islamic sources, instead they gather the proof from the

anti-Shia groups and based their thoughts on sentiments and fanaticism to condemn them

without differentiating the true Shia and the Batiniyyah (ghulat or extremist) groups.

Regarding the arrival of Shia to Nusantara in particular, historical data has shown that

the influence of Shia has supercedes that of the Sunni and in fact the Shia mazhab has been

the official mazhab in a number of Islamic countries in the region. This is not surprising

because Shia followers have been found in business centers in the Far East and South-east

Asia. It is said that the early dates for the arrival of Muslims in this region is around the time

of Bani Umaiyyah.35

Generally, the nature of the teachings of the Shia in Nusantara is sourced from the al-

Batiniyyah (ghulat) group. It has also penetrated the tasawwuf groups, either the Sunni or

otherwise. The teachings and thinking of Shia like Imamiyyah Ithna-‘Asyariah and others

are also present, but not as obvious and prevalent as compared to al-Batiniyyah.

It is important to note here that Batiniyyah thinking is entirely different from the real

Shia thinking, with similarities confined to a few aspects only. This is because the initiator of

al-Batiniyyah, Abu al-Khattab36 was at one time associated with Maymun al-Qaddah and his

son, `Abdullah bin Maymun al-Qaddah. These two is said to follow the teachings of Ja`far al-

Sadiq,37 the sixth Imam of Syi`ah Imamiyyah Ithna-`Asyariah. All the sources of

35 Groneveldt, W.P. (1960), Historical notes on Indonesia and Malaya compiled from Chinese Sources,

Bhratara, p.14.

36 Lewis, Bernard (1940), The Origins of Isma‘ilism: A Study of the Historical Background of the Fatimid

Cambridge: W.Heffer and co. Ltd., p.32.

37 Ibid, pp.66-67.

9

Imamiyyah Ithna-`Asyariah and almost all Sunni sources accept the rejection of Imam Ja`far

al-Sadiq towards Abu al-Khattab.38

Most scholars studying the introduction of Islam to Nusantara agree that the Islam

that propagated in Nusantara is initiated by Sufi teachers in the form of tasawwuf thinking.

History has also accepted that the thinking of Isma‘iliyyah Batiniyyah has penetrated into the

tasawwuf streams after the fall of the government of Fatimiyyah in Egypt. Consequently, the

thinking of al-Batiniyyah makes its way into the thinking of people in this region through

tasawwuf since this is the most effective and simple way in terms of spreading and accepting

Islam.

Champa:

Islam is said to have existed in Champa39 based on a tombstone dated 431/103940

found in Phang Rang or Pandurangga which is a major port in Champa41 in those days42 and

the Shia teachings are spread here. The Shia ‘Alawiyyah group that travels to the islands of

Sila (Sulu)43 is said to transit at Champa before this, that is, around 65-132/685-705 while

running away from the armies of al-Hajjaj, of the Umayyad Dynasty.44

Indonesia:

In Indonesia the spread of the Shia teachings resulted from the propaganda of Shia,

(Isma‘iliyyah) which is very effective in the 5/11 and 6/12 century. This caused Indonesia to

be under the influence of Shia. This is perhaps also caused by the dominance of Shia in the

38 Ibid, p.37.

39 Abdul Rahman Ahmadi (1981), Sejarah kedatangan Islam di Asia Tenggara, Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian

Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan, p.19. 40 The grave of Abu Kamil Ahmad dated 29 Safar 431. On the grave the words of Allahumma salli `ala

Muhammad wa Al Muhammad wa sallam `alaihim is written on it. This proves that he is a Shia. This is

because Al Muhammad (the family and descendents of Muhammad (s.a.w) is a symbol to prove that someone is

a Shia.

41 See: Fatimi, S.Q. (1963), Islam comes to Malaysia, Singapore: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute

Ltd, p.47.

42 Hamdan Hassan (1981), “Peranan Aceh dalam pengembangan Islam di Nusantara,” in (Hasyjmy, A.),

Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Indonesia, Aceh: P.T.al-Ma‘arif, h.332; Fatimi, S.Q., ibid, pp.45 -

47.

43 The island of Sila means the island of Sulu. (See: Sayyid Alwi bin Tahir al-Haddad, `Uqud al-Almas, I,

pp.144-146 based on the book of Nukhbat al-Dahr fi `Aja'ib al-Barr wa al-Bahr by Syams al-Din Abu

Abdullah Muhammad bin Abu Talib al-Ansari. See also Wheatly, Paul (1962), “Arabo-Persian sources for the

history of the Malay Peninsula ancient times,” in Malaysian Historical Sources, (eds.) K.Tregonning,

Singapore: University of Singapore, p.18.) 44 See my research on Champa or Malay Cham together with Dr Ahmad Zuhdi Ismail and Dr Phu Van Han,

published with the title “Masyarakat Muslim Melayu Cham di Vietnam: Kajian Mengenai Isu dan Cabaran

Dalam Pemikiran Islam Era Globalisasi,” JATI, Department of Southeast Asian Studies, University of Malaya,

18, December 2013.

10

Arab world then. A scholar of the Shia (Zaydiyyah) group, named Sulayman bin ‘Abdullah

comes to Aceh from Yaman in 235/850, but his intentions and his role in Aceh are never

really known.45

The Shia teachings has spread here in the times of Mu`awiyah bin Abi Sufyan around

the 24/674.46 The main factor driving the Arab and Persian traders to come to north Sumatera

(or Sumatera in general) in the 1/7 is the fact that the Straits of Melaka is controlled by the

Buddhist government of Srivijaya. This is said to be the vengeance for the Muslim attack on

the Hindu government in India at the time of Khalifah of al-Hadi (158-169/775-785).47

This madhhab is later brought by the Shia Isma‘iliyyah (from Persia) group in 2/8

century, spreads to the interior of India through the Bukhara route and Afghanistan. It finally

arrives in Indonesia (on the west coast of Sumatera). The spread of the teachings of Shia

Isma`iliyyah in Sumatera is because in the time of the government of Shia Isma`iliyyah (296-

566/909-1171), in Egypt, the Fatimiyyah propaganda has arrived in Sumatera.48

This probably happened because many Persians emigrated to Sumatera, particularly

North Sumatera to spread the religion. In the area of East Sumatera, a number of Shia

families arrived in the time of Buwayh around 359/969 and set up their homes in the middle

of east Sumatera. This is in the Siak area which later changed its name to Nagari Siak or Siak

Seri Inderapura.49

The Islamic government of Samudera-Pasai has existed even before Aceh has one.

The Islamic thinking at the earlier stages (before the Aceh government) from 433-848/1042-

144450 is influenced by Shia especially during the times of Meurah Nui, the fourth king of

Pasai. He was known as Sultan al-Kamil (550-606/1155-1210). This is because a group of

ulama’ from Makkah under Shaikh `Abdullah `Arif, a Sufi leader from the 6/12 century

becomes the first person to spread the Shia teachings in Aceh, Kedah and Patani.51 He left

behind a book he wrote titled Bahr al-Lahut on tasawwuf philosophy which contains Shia

45 Abdul Rahman Hj. Abdullah (1990), Pemikiran umat Islam di Nusantara: Sejarah dan Perkembangannya

Hingga Abad ke-19, Kuala Lumpur: D.B.P, p.38.

46 Arnold, Thomas (1979), The Preaching of Islam, Lahore: Sh.Muhammad Ashraf, p.368.

47 Wan Hussein Azmi, "Islam di Aceh: Masuk dan berkembangnya hingga abad ke XVI (16)," in Sejarah

masuk dan berkembangnya Islam ke Indonesia, Aceh: P.T. al-Ma‘arif, p.195.

48 Abdul Rahman Hj. Abdullah (1989), Islam dalam Sejarah Asia Tenggara Tradisional, Kuala Lumpur:

Penerbitan Pena, p.91.

49 W.Hussein Azmi, op.cit, p.185.

50 Warsito.S (1973), Di sekitar Kebatinan, Jakarta: Penerbit Bulan Bintang, p.53.

51 Mahayuddin Yahya, “Sejarah perkembangan pemikiran Islam dalam konteks Alam Melayu: Iktibarnya

untuk abad akan datang,” in Seminar on Islamic Thought in 21st century, p.15.(Syaikh `Abdullah `Arif lived in

505-510/1112 - 1117. See also: Abdul Rahman Ahmadi, Drs., Sejarah kedatangan Islam ke Asia Tenggara,

p.53.)

11

teachings. This the first religious book to arrive in this region based on the arrival of its writer

in the 6/12 century.52

Samudera - Pasai is said to play an important role in the development of Islam in Jawa

and Sulawesi in the years 797/1395. This is based on the event where Sultan Zainal Abidin

Bahiyan Syah (748-809/1349-1406) sends two of his religious scholars to Jawa and these are

Mawlana Malik Ibrahim,53 and Mawlana Ishak titled Shaikh Awwal al-Islam.

In early 7/13 century the Sunni teachings are brought to this region by Shaikh Isma’il

al-Siddiq (al-Zarfy), a special envoy from Makkah to Pasai sent by Sharif Makkah who is

governing under the auspicious of the government of Mamluk (Turki) (650-922/1252-1517)

in Egypt. The purpose is to replace the Shia madhhab which is in control of Pasai then with

Sunni believes and to convert to Islam Raja Pasai Meurah Silu (al-Malik al-Salih).

The government of Pasai ends at the time of Ratu Nihrasiyah Rawangsu Khadiyu

(802-831/1400-1428), who is the daughter of Sultan Zainal Abidin. At the time, the war is

between Malik Mustafa (husband of the princess) and Mangkubumi Pasai, Maharaja Bakoy

Ahmad Permala. The latter is the pantheism tasawwuf leader in the Shia mould.

The group of Shia ‘Alawiyyah has been living in islands of Sulu (Sila), Sulawesi and

Kalimantan at the time of ‘Abd al-Malik bin Marwan (65-86/685-705) because they are

running from the oppression of Bani Umaiyyah. At the same time they are spreading the Shia

version of Islam.

In the 2/8 century, Perlak (Peureulak) is already known as an important port and is a

place transited by Arab Muslims and the Persians. There is a book written by Abu Ishaq

Makarani al-Fasy titled Izhar al-Haqq fi Mamlakah Ferlak54 that tells vividly about the

development of Shia Islam in Pasai.

The development of Shia started in 173/790 when Nakhoda Khalifah together with

100 of his religious teachers anchored at Bandar Perlak. They consist of Arabs, Persians and

Hindi. This group arrives here at the time Shahir Nuwi is the Meurah Negeri Perlak. Shahir

Nuwi was said to be a descendent of the Sasan Dynasty. At that time the entire Persian

population including the entire Sasan descendents has converted to Islam and is dominated

under the Islamic faith.

52 See: Mahayuddin Yahya (1980), “Latarbelakang Sejarah Keturunan Sayyid di Malaysia,” in Tamadun Islam

di Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, p.73.

53 Maulana Malik Ibrahim is said to have his descendants connected with Zayn al-‘Abidin, a grandson of Imam

‘Ali bin Abi Talib, and he is also a cousin of the Raja Cermin.

54 Hasjmy, A. (1981), Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Indonesia, Aceh: P.T. al-Ma‘arif, p.147.

12

Shahir Nuwi accepted the arrival of the band of religious scholars under Nakhoda

Khalifah and in less than half a century, Meurah and the whole of the Perlak population

embraced Islam. As a result of the assimilation through the marriages of the Muslim Arabs

and Persians and maidens of Perlak there is a presence of a mixed blood generation. As an

example Meurah Perlak, Shahir Nuwi married `Ali bin Muhammad al-Dibaj bin Ja`far al-

Sadiq of Arab descent and links his roots to Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w), whilst his mother

descended from the Persian Sasan Dynasty with his biological younger sister Puteri

Makhdum Tansyuri. The factor that attracts Shahir Nuwi to take the Arab/Persian youth to

be his brother-in-law is because of the blood connection to the revered `Ali bin bin

Muhammad al-Dibaj. From this marriage they had a son named Sayyid `Abd al-`Aziz who is

later proclaimed to be the king of the Islamic Kingdom of Perlak, with the title Sultan

Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana `Abd al-`Aziz Shah.

Regarding the history of the the descendents of Sayyid `Abd al-`Aziz who is declared

as Sultan Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana `Abd al-`Aziz Shah who is really `Abd al-`Aziz bin `Ali

bin Muhammad al-Dibaj bin Ja`far al-Sadiq bin Muhammad al-Baqir bin `Ali Zayn al-

Abidin bin Husayn al-Shahid bin `Ali bin Abi Talib (with his wife, Fatimah bint

Muhammad (s.a.w)). This resulted in the establishment of the Islamic Government of Perlak

on Tuesday, 1 Muharram 225/840 and the Islamic teachings then is the version of Shia.55

The following is a list of kings based on the dynasty of Sayyid Mawlana `Abd al-`Aziz Shah:

1) Sultan Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana `Abd al-`Aziz Shah (225-249/840-864).

2) Sultan Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana `Abd al-Rahim Shah (249-285/864-888).

3) Sultan Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana `Abbas Shah (285-300/888-913).

During the times of Sultan Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana `Abd al-`Aziz Shah, Sunni

teachings begin to penetrate into the Islamic society of Perlak. This is not to the liking of the

Shia groups, and at the end of his reign a civil war erupted between the two groups resulting

in Perlak not having a sultan for two (2) years when the sultan dies.

At the end of the reign of Sultan Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana Ali Mughayat Syah (302-

305/915-918), there is a struggle and civil war breaks out between the Shia and Sunni groups.

This ends with the defeat of the government of Sayyid (Azizah Dynasty) and the rise of the

Makhdum Dynasty. With the victory of the Sunni, they are able to appoint their own king

from the descendents of Meurah Perlak asli (Shahir Nuwi) and their first sultan is Sultan

55 W.Hussein Azmi, “Islam di Aceh: Masuk dan berkembangnya hingga abad ke XVI (16),” in Sejarah Masuk

dan Berkembangnya Islam ke Indonesia, pp.195-196.

13

Makhdum Alauddin Malik Abd al-Qadir Syah Johan Berdaulat (306-310/928-932). During

the reign of Sultan Makhdum Alauddin Malik Muhammad Amin Shah Johan Berdaulat (310-

334/922-946), many major attempts are made to unite the families of Azizah and Makhdum.

One method used is to appoint one ancestor of Azizah named Sayyid Mawlana

Abdullah to be the Mangkubumi. At the end of the reign of Sultan Makhdum Alauddin Malik

Shah Johan Berdaulat in (334-362/956-983), the Shia group rebel to seize power. This causes

a civil war lasting four years ending in the Alue Meuh peace accord on 10 Muharram

353/964. Among the contents of the agreement is the government of Perlak is divided into

two, that is:

a) Coastal Perlak (Perlak Baroh) – For the Shia, and they can appoint their own sultan

from the Azizah Dynasty.

b) Interior Perlak (Perlak Tunong) - For Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama`ah and they can

appoint their own sultan from the Makhdum Dynasty.

So there are two sultans in Perlak as the eighth sultan, that is:

(1) The Shia group appoints their sultan, Sultan Alauddin Sayyid Mawlana Mahmud

Shah reigning from 365-377/976-988, ruling in Perlak Baroh with its capital in Bandar

Perlak.

(2) The Sunni pula appoints their sultan Sultan Makhdum Alauddin Malik Ibrahim

Shah Johan Berdaulat reigning from 365-402/986-1023, ruling in Perlak Tunong with its

capital in Bandar Khalifah.56

In 375/986, the Buddhist government of Srivijaya (Sribuza) attacks the government of

Perlak (Perlak Baroh) and war breaks out between the two sides. Sultan Alauddin Sayyid

Mawlana Mahmud Syah (sultan of coastal Perlak (Shia area) dies.

After the government of Srivijaya withdraws from Perlak in 396/1006, the Perlak

government is re-united under Sultan Makhdum Alauddin Malik Ibrahim Shah Johan

Berdaulat.57 Sultan Makhdum Alauddin Malik Abdullah Shah Johan Berdaulat (470-

501/1078-1108) takes steps to avoid civil war with the Sayyid Mawlana (Shia) by marrying

the daughter of Sharifah Azizah.

Philippines:

56 Muhammad Ibrahim and Rusdi Sufi, “Proses Islamisasi dan munculnya kerajaan-kerajaan Islam di

Aceh,” in (Hasjmy, A.), Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam di Indonesia, p.407. 57 Fatimi, S.Q., Islam comes to Malaysia, p.7.

14

In the Philippines,58 Islam has been established and spread with much influence and

success in Mindanao (Magindanao) by the actions of Sharif Mohammad Kabungsuwan or

better known as Sharif Kabungsuwan.59 He is the son of Sharif ‘Ali Zainal Abidin, a

descendent of Rasulullah (s.a.w) who migrated from Makkah to Hadramaut, south of the

Arabia Jazirah to Juhur (Johor) the Malay Peninsula.60 According to Saleeby, the arrival of

Sharif Kabungsuwan in Mindanao may have happened at the end of the 9/15 century or early

10/16 century.61

If based on the chronological history after the fall of Melaka in 917/1511 and the

establishment of the Juhur (Johor) government, Sharif Kabungsuwan may have come to

Malabang around the year 921/1515.

Although based on the traditions of Magindanao and his writings mentions that he is

preceded by two pioneers who are also descendents of Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w), that is,

Sharif Awliya (Sharif Hasan)62 and Sharif Maraja, both of them related, but their influence

and success in spreading Islam cannot be ascertained. It is believed that the first sultan of

Sulu, Sharif Hasan originated from Basilan. Basilan is the place Sharif Hasan called at and

where he established the Sulu sultanate. Descendents of the Brunei, Sulu63 and Mindanao

sultans are said to be related.

Burma (Myanmar):

The arrival of the Shiites to Burma is hard to determine. Most probably, they come

and settled down in Burma in the 12/18 century. Mostly the data that supported their coming

to this area based on the existence of Sayyid in Bengal.64 In Burma there are a few small

groups of the Shia followers in Amarapoora65 and others scattered in a few other places. But

they begin to be united around 1327/1909. Around 2000 of them in Burma are involved in

business. They are known in Burma as “Mogul” with the majority of Indian descent, whereas

58 Tom Harrison, “The Advent of Islam to West and North Borneo,” in JMBRAS, XLV (45), 1972, Pt.I, p.10-20. 59 WZ Kamaruddin Wan Ali and Ahmad Zuhdi Ismail, (2012) “Islam dan Masyarakat Muslim di Filipina: kajian

mengenai isu dan cabaran dalam pemikiran Islam era globalisasi”. Islam dan Alam Melayu. University of

Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 489-498. (Refer: UM Research Repository) 60 Saleeby, N.M (1976), Studies in Moro History, Law and Religions, Manila: Fillipiana Book Guild, p.52. 61 Ibid, p.53. 62 There are two versions that mention their names, but the versions differ. The first version mentions the

names Ahmad and Alawi whereas the second version mentions Mohamad and Ahmad. The elder establishes the

Brunei sultanate and the other establishes the Sulu Sultanate. The Datus of Sulu are said to be originally from

the descendants of Sharif Hasan.(See: Ibid, p.24.) 63 See also: Saleeby, N.M. (1908), The History of Sulu, Manila. 64 Harvey, G.E. (1967), History of Burma, London: Frank Cass, p.144. 65 Yegar, Moshe. (1972), The Muslims of Burma: A Study of Minority Group, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrosowitz,

p.14.

15

their dedication and adherence to Iran.66 There are 3 main Shia mosques in Rangoon and the

biggest is Mogul mosque, built in 1332/1914.67

Thailand:

Just as in the case of Burma, the arrival of the Shi’ites to Thailand (Siam) is also

hardly determine due to not much information collected and compiled thus far, but

in Thailand, the ‘Alawiyyah group has been based there for 500 years since 18th century ago

or may be a little bit earlier. It is based on research by Dr. Omar Farouk and also of American

University in Thailand.68 It is said that until the middle of 1380/1960, there are as many Shia

mosques as 1350 all over the places, and the rest are from Sunnites.

Malaysia:

In Malaysia (Tanah Melayu), the `Alawiyyah (Sayyid) group descending from

Husayn bin `Ali is based in a few states, among them, Johor and Terengganu. In

Terengganu, they are descendents of al-`Aidrus and their ancestry can be traced to Nabi

Muhammad (s.a.w) through `Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w) and Fatimah and Husayn bin `Ali.69

In Melaka, Sayyid Abdul Aziz who is an ulama’ and da’i from Jeddah comes here to teach

Raja Kechik Besar and other Melaka dignitaries regarding Islam.70 In Kedah, Syaikh

‘Abdullah ‘Arif may have spread Islam even in the 6/12 century in the form

of tasawwuf (Shia) if the Bahr al-Lahut book really contains the Shia teachings.

The Influence of Shia thinking in South-east Asia:

Regarding the influence of Shia in Nusantara, most of it can be seen from the

religious aspects. These aspects can be divided into a number of categories like the Malay-

Islam literature, religious practices, tasawwuf, usuluddin, celebrations (Mawlid), the du’a

tradition, the recitals, ratib (rawatib) and others.

1. The field of Malay-Islam literature:

66 Ibid, p.14. 67 Ibid, p.40. 68 Omar Farouk (1981), “The Muslim of Thailand,” in Islamika, Kuala Lumpur: Sarjana Entreprise, p.102. 69 The author has the opportunity to see the handwritten manuscript of their genealogy of the al-‘Aidrus

descendants from Dato’ Engku Embong Idrus bin Abdul Kadir, trustee of this lineage in Kuala Terengganu.

(Interview conducted on 8th of June, 1994). 70 Abdul Rahman Ahmadi, Drs., Sejarah kedatangan Islam ke Asia Tenggara, p.53.

16

In the Malay-Islam literature especially tales related to Islam, the influence of Shia

can be traced. For example there are tales on Hikayat Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w),71 Hikayat ‘Ali

Kahwin atau Hikayat Fatimah, Hikayat Nabi Mengajar Ali, Hikayat Amir Mukminin ‘Umar,

Hikayat Abu Bakar, Hikayat Muhammad ‘Ali al-Hanafiyyah,72 Hikayat Raja Khandaq,73

Hikayat Amir Hamzah and other legends. These tales are propaganda that glorifies ‘Ali, his

wife Fatima, and their children, Hasan and Husayn and all warriors from the Shia followers.

These situations continue to influence the literature and belief of the Malays.74 Besides ‘Ali,

Fatima, Hasan, Husayn and other Shia figures that are their Imams are ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin

and Ja‘far al-Sadiq gets special attention from the Malay world.75

2. Islamic Law (Shariah):

In the field of shariah, the influence Shia is difficult to ascertain. According to Wan

Muhammad Saghir Abdullah, it is certain that when Islam comes to Nusantara, it follows the

Shafi`i madhhab, besides other denominations, like Shia and others.76 According to some

scholars, the Shia groups dominate the government of Kuntu/Kampar in East Minangkabau

from the 5/11 century to the 7/1377 century. Prof. Nasr admits that among the Shia law that

differs from that of the Sunni is regarding the division of inheritance. In the Shia case, the

womenfolk are given a bigger share of the estate as compared to the Sunni.78 However it

cannot be determined if this issue affects the system of the Minangkabau culture.

In the 11/17 century, Sayyid Husayn al-Faradz, one of the followers of Ahmad bin

`Isa al-Muhajir introduced the code 99 Laws of Perak79 and used it for his generation since

becoming a minister in Perak and it is continued for generations after him. The book

containing this law is merely a reference book kept by this family and used by the family

members when asked to give advice to the sultan on legal issue. In this 99 laws, the Shia

71 Winstedt, R.O. (1969), A History of Classical Malay Literature, London: Oxford University Press, p.102-103. 72 Ibid, pp.105-106; pp.265-272. 73 Ibid, pp.281-282. 74 Ismail Hamid, “Unsur-unsur legenda dalam Hikayat Melayu bercorak Islam,” paper presented in Simposium

Kesusasteraan Melayu Tradisional; Kesusasteraan Melayu Lama dari Warisan Peradaban Islam, 1983A, pp.

62-63, 1983B, pp.116-118. 75 HAMKA (1963), Dari Perbendaharaan Lama, Medan: Maju, pp.161-162. 76 See: Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, Haji (1985), Perkembangan Ilmu Fiqh dan Tokoh-Tokohnya di Asia

Tenggara, Solo: Ramadhani, p.14. 77 Abdul Rahman Ahmadi, Drs., Sejarah kedatangan Islam ke Asia Tenggara, p.33. 78 Nasr, S.H. (1981), Islam Dalam Cita dan Fakta, (transl.), Jakarta: Lembaga Penunjang Pembangunan

Nasional (Leppenas), p.71. 79 Rigby, J., (ed.), “The Ninety Nine Laws of Perak,” in Papers on Malay subjects, Pt.II, 1908, p.4.

17

influence80 is so obvious because it contains questions similar to the questions asked by

Anushirwan to his minister, Buzurgmihr.81

Sufism

In the tasawwuf field, according to S.H.Nasr, the Shia teachings are the basics which

are later called tasawwuf.82 However, most Islamic scholars in Nusantara said the purity of

tasawwuf has been tainted as a result of the influence of the Shia’s philosophy and the

activity of the Shia groups. Among the Shia influence that is obvious in Nusantara are:

1) The importance of `Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w).

2) The doctrine of Nur Muhammad.

3) The concept of Imam al-Mahdi.

4) Celebrations relating to Shia like the celebration of 10 Muharram and others.83

The Shia groups are recognized because they believe their Imams have special

qualities and are above in stature to normal mortals except for Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w). The

first Imam to be held in high esteem is `Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w) and his descendents are

known as Ahl al-Bayt.

Actually their high positions and stature are re-inforced by proof obtained and agreed

to by Islamic scholars. However, Islamic scholars in the region do not study this issue in

depth. Instead they adopt the sources that are opposed to Shia (especially from Shia

Imamiyyah Ithna-‘Ashariah). They said that the hadith that is believed by the Shia groups are

false hadith,84 especially those that concern their position and their supremacy.

Hadith that are said to be false, not just those regarding ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w), but

also those regarding the Nur Muhammad85 doctrine which are the cosmological and main

Shia teachings spread by Shia followers. Then in the 6/13 century, it is made popular by the

Sufi.

80 Ibid, p.6. 81 Winstedt,R.O., A History of Classical Malay Literature, p.170; Engku Ibrahim (1985), “Pengaruh Syi’ah-

Parsi Dalam Sastera Melayu,” in Warisan Dunia Melayu Teras Peradaban Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Biro

Penerbitan GAPENA, p.35; Lutpi Ibrahim (1985), “Perbezaan dan Persamaan Antara Sunni dan Syi’ah,” in al-

Islam, August. p.30.

82 Nasr, S.H., Living Sufism, p.91. 83 Nasr, S.H. (1980), Living Sufism, London: Unwin Paperbacks, p.91. 84 Mustafa al-Siba`i, al-Sunnah, (transl.) p.118; Fathurrachman, Ikhtisar Mustalah al-Hadith, pp.147-148;

Abdul Rahman, Pemikiran Umat Islam di Nusantara, pp.82-83. 85 Doctrine is described in al-Mas‘udi. (According to Petrushevsky, I.P., Ja`far al-Sadiq is the one who expound

the doctrine of al-Imamate and Nur Muhammad. See: Islam in Iran, p.211; Hamka, Dari perbendaharaan lama,

pp.161-162.)

18

From the classification of hadiths, it is said that those concerning Nur Muhammad are

said to be false,86 because among those that narrates them are names like Ka‘b al-Ahbar who

is known to bring in fairy tales like Isra’iliyyat into Islam.87 However, sources about Nur

Muhammad are found in abundance in books written by leading Muslim scholars even from

the Sunni group. The Shia groups emphasized the truth of Nur Muhammad (primordial light)

by sourcing them from the correct anecdotes. They believe that the Nur shines and drips onto

their Imams that starts from ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w) and the process continues to their other

Imams.

The effect of the primordial light in their bodies makes the Imams have the ability to

not commit sins (`Ismah) and any wrongdoings. This concept of this eternal light of the Shia

has influenced the Sufi group till doctrine of Nur Muhammad becomes popular among them.

The first person to introduce it into tasawwuf is Sahl al-Tustari (282/896).88

Regarding the doctrine of Nur Muhammad in Nusantara, in the year 560/1165 a Sufi

figure named Shaikh ‘Abdullah ‘Arif is spreading Islam in Sumatera during the time of the

reign of Sultan Kamil (Nur al-Din) (550-606/1155-1210) did write books on Sufism, but the

only books discovered are the book Bahr al-Lahut.89

In this book the in-depth analysis in the subject of Nur Muhammad that originated

from the Shia groups is explained. The brief overview of the book mentions among others:

‘Arash, kursi, the seven skies, the earth are created by God from Nur. The size of Nur

Muhammad is equal to a journey of fifty thousand years. That is the greatness of Muhammad

within the greatness of Allah. Following this, this influence can be clearly seen in a tale titled

“This is the Tale of Nur Muhammad, the Tale of the Creation of Nur Muhammad or the

descendents of the prophet” is governed by Sultan Taj al-Alam Safiyat al-Din Shah (Aceh)

in the year 1079/1668.90

In this tale it is said that after the creation of Nur Muhammad, God created a bird

with its head being ‘Ali, his two eyes made up of his sons, Hasan and Husayn, his neck

86 Sayyid Sabiq, Akidah Islam, (transl.) p.85; Adab Mahmud Hamasy, Salahfaham tentang Nur Muhammadi,

(transl.)

87 Imron A. Manan, Pelbagai Masalah Tauhid Popular I, pp.257-266; Abdul Rahman Hj. Abdullah, Pemikiran

Umat Islam di Nusantara, p.83.

88 Fazlur Rahman, Islam, pp.142, 174; Massignon, L., “Sahl al-Tustari,” in EI, IV, h.63-64 (It is said that Sahl

al-Tustari was a scholar of ‘Ilm al-Kalam and Sunni mystical.)

89 Hj. Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, Khazanah karya pusaka Asia Tenggara, I, pp.1-5. (The book is said to

be on Sufism.)

90 (See: Liaw Yock Fang, Sejarah Kesusasteraan Melayu Klasik, p.132.; Hj. Muhammad Bukhari Lubis,

“Pengaruh bahasa dan sastera Parsi serta hubungannya dengan pemikiran Saidina ‘Ali terhadap masyarakat

Melayu: suatu perspektif sejarah,” paper presented in Seminar on Nahj al-Balaghah, p.20; Winstedt, R.O., A

History of classical Malay literature, pp.88, 101.

19

Fatima al-Zahra’. The wings are made up of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq dan ‘Umar al-Khattab, his

tail Amir Hamzah bin ‘Abd al-Muttalib, his back ‘Abbas and his leg Khadija. Only after that

others are created. The influence of the teachings of Nur Muhammad are also found in the

book Qisas al-Anbiya’ (Story of the prophets).

Regarding the above, it is clear that the story of Nur Muhammad in the tale above is

not something that forms part of hadith Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w) that is genuine, reported by

Muslim figures of some standing and in hadith books that is renowned. This shows that the

concept of Nur Muhammad in the Malay books have its basis in Islamic sources but the

difference is in its content that is clearly in contradiction to the authentic habit.

The links between tasawwuf tariqat, with the Shia teachings and influence was

evidently through the concept of ancestry, the invisible, Imam al-Mahdi, saints and the holy

souls.

Regarding the concept of ancestry, it was a practice of tasawwuf tariqat to link their

shaikhs and important figures to ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w), the first Shia Imam. As an

example, the tarikat of Shattariyyah is said to have been founded by ‘Abdullah Shattar but his

ancestry has been linked to famous sufi figures like Yazid al-Bistami, Ja‘far al-Sadiq and

Muhammad al-Baqir. Muhammad al-Baqir obtained this tarikat from Zayn al-‘Abidin. Zayn

al-‘Abidin received it from Ibn Fatima, that is, Husayn al-Shahid. Al-Shahid received it from

Imam ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w) who received it directly from Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w). Nabi

Muhammad (s.a.w) in turn received it from the angel Jibril (a.s).91 For example, the

Naqshabandiyyah tariqat connects their spiritual links to Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w) through

‘Ali bin Abi Talib (k.w). This is said to be the Shia version or the form accepted by the Shia

groups.

The `Alawiyyah that exists in Malaysia is quite different from other tarikats. They

place special importance to the ancestry of the sayyid that leads back to ‘Ali and subsequently

to the Prophet. It is a fact that most pioneers of tarikat including ‘Alawiyyah are ancestors of

sayyid.92

Regarding the concept of rijal al-ghayb,93 this belief is said to have surfaced after the

Shia groups failed to seize power from the government of Bani Umaiyyah, and they instituted

a mystical government while they await the coming of Imam al-Mahdi. As an invisible

government it also has its own arrangements and has personalities named Qutb, Ghawth,

91 (See: Hasjmy, A., Sejarah Masuk dan Berkembangnya Islam ke Indonesia, p.341; Marrison, G.E.,

“Persian influence in Malay life,” in JMBRAS, XXVIII, p.64.) 92 S. Naquib al-Attas, Some aspects of sufism as understood and practised among the Malays, p.32. 93 Petrushevsky, I.P., Islam in Iran, p.217.

20

‘Abdal, Awtad, Nujaba’ and others. This belief is also held among the supporters of tasawwuf

tariqat in Aceh like Nur al-Din al-Raniri, ‘Abd al-Rauf Fansuri, Jalal al-Din al-Tursani.

In Kelantan, Tariqat Shaziliyyah which was spread by Wan ‘Ali bin ‘Abd al-Rahman

al-Kelantani (1253-1330/1837-1912) as its pioneer in Kota Bharu. In his book, Majmu‘ al-

Qasa'id wa al-Awa’id, discussed the position of the saints that are considered rijal al-ghayb.

This could have links to Shia thinking regarding the invisible Imams. In Sumatera, the

influence of Imam al-Mahdi who will rise as the savior from among the ancestors of ‘Ali bin

Abi Talib (k.w) was already in existence. He will be saving the religion.

The concept of the intermediary between humans and Allah and the coming of the

awaited are very important. Because of this, after Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w) there must be

Imams that act as intermediary between humans and Allah and they come from generations

after the Holy Prophet (s.a.w). And then there must be a savior or al-Mahdi94 who will save

the world from spiritual doom and he is the 12th Imam, who is now in the invisible world.

The concept of saints and their special status can also be linked to the position of Imams of

the Shia.95

4. Theology (‘Ilm al-Kalam):

In Usul al-Din and in religious debates as can be found in old Malay texts, it is found

that not only the influence of the Sunni was found but also other influences that included

Shia. However, the scholars of Islamic thinking in this region seemed not to ‘recognize’ the

existence of the Shia influence among the Malays. Consequently they were not too aware of

the rise of the Shia influence in this region.

5. Celebrations:

In Nusantara, the recitals on stories relating to the birth of the Prophet Muhammad

(s.a.w)(Mawlid al-Nabi) were often read by the Sufi tariqat since the 13/19 century. Among

the known text on this was Qasidah al-Burdah which was written by al-Busiri (604-

695/1208-1296) and Mawlid al-Nabi by al-Barzanji (m.1179/1766). In both these works, the

doctrine of Nur Muhammad received their attention. For example, in Qasidah al-Burdah, one

of the lines is:

94 In Indonesia, this belief is found among the tribes of the Indonesian people, especially the Javanese and

Bugis. (See: Hamka, Dari Perbendaharaan Lama, p.173.) 95 Nasr, S.H., Living Sufism, pp.93-95.

21

“The signs of prophethood of the prophets are really connected to Nur Muhammad.

Other prophets are the other stars surrounding them and the sun shines its rays for

humans still in darkness.”96

In the works of Mawlid al-Nabi by al-Barzanji, the following is found, meaning:

“I pray may Allah shower his blessings and rewards to his Prophets, and his Nur was

created by Allah in the apparent world. Nur moved from one ancestry to another and

these are honorable ancestries.”97

Regarding the aspect of the celebrations of (Mawlid), the government of Bani

Buwayh98 and Fatimiyyah commemorated certain events. During the time of the government

of Fatimiyyah, the date of 10 Muharram (in memory when al-Husayn bin ‘Ali died as a

martyr) was seen as “a day of sadness”. Some food was served, and sad poetry was read by

the poets.99

The other celebrations are Mawlid Nabi, ‘Ali, Fatima, Hasan, al-Qa’im bi-amri’Llah

(al-Hujjah or Sahib al-Zaman). The celebration of 10 Muharram and Tabut Hasan and

Husayn showed that the Shia influence existed in Nusantara. In Sumatera (Pariaman) and

Padang,100 it is known that every 10 Muharram (Day of ‘Asyura) the ‘tabut’ that is designed

like a stretcher is made. They will carry it in numbers while chanting loudly ‘Oyak - Osen’

(Hasan - Husain), the names of two of the Prophet’s grandson from his daughter, Fatima al-

Zahra’, wife of ‘Ali bin Abi Talib, the first Imam of Shia.101 In the Islamic calendar, 10

Muharram had two significances. One is the date the boat of Prophet Nuh (a.s) landed. The

other is the ‘Asyura day, the day Muslims were encouraged to fast. However, the day Husayn

bin ‘Ali bin Abi Talib was killed as a martyr on the field of Karbala’ is also on this date. So

the Shia followers made this date a day of mourning.

In Jawa and Makasar, the porridge of ‘Asyura or “suro”, the symbol of the day of

mourning is well known. It is said that Sultan Agung Hanjokro Kusumo Mataram changed

the Saka-Jawi and adapts it to the Hijrah calendar. He named the first month as “Suro.”

96 Hj.Muhammad Bukhari Lubis, Qasidahs in honor of the prophet, UKM Publisher, Bangi, Selangor, 1983,

pp.85-86. 97 See: Hj. Jamaluddin Hashim, Barzanji Arab - Melayu, Lembaga Penerbitan Jabatan Agama Johor, Johor

Bharu, 1981, p.8. (Actually, the question of authenticity of the hadith has been acknowledged by the Muslim

scholars from both sects, Sunni and Shia. See also: Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, III, p.352; ‘Iyad bin Musa, al-Syifa', I,

p.328; al-Diyarbakri, Tarikh al-Khamis, I, p.56; al-Suyuti, Khasa’is al-Kubra, I, pp.92-94; Zayni Dahlan, al-

Sirat al-Nabawiyyah, I, p.33.) 98 At the time of Bani Buwayh around 963M during the reign of Mu‘iz al-Dawlah, mourning rituals and festivals

of al-Husayn and also Ghadir Khum usually carried out. See: Watt, The Majesty that was Islam, p.213. 99 Ahmad Syalaby, Kehidupan sosial dalam Pemikiran Islam, (transl.) Pustaka Nasional, Singapura, 1971,

pp.203-204. 100 Hamka, Dari perbendaharaan lama, Maju, Medan, 1st, 1963, pp.112-117. 101 Drs Moerad Oesman, op.cit, p.489.

22

Besides that, a Minang poet called Baginda Malim wrote a book of syair titled Hikayat Hasan

Husayn warring with raja (Ba) Yazid. It is sung among young maidens especially on 10

Muharram.

In Burma, the Shia groups in Amarapoora had a ta‘ziyah ceremony in their Imambara

and this was their biggest celebration in the month of Muharram. In Arakan, the Muslim

people were Sunnis but they continued to practice Shia traditions among them. For example,

their womenfolk covered their faces which resembled the purdah. The Mongol mosques were

the places where they gather for celebrations in the month of Muharram. On the day of

‘Asyura, prayers were read and the event of the massacre in Karbala was discussed.102

1. Spells and Incantation:

The Shia influence can also be observed in tradition of spells and incantation,

specifically directed to ‘Ali and Fatima. One of them was:

I know your origin,

From Fatima thou art sprung,

Moulded from a clod of clay,

Thy bones of sugar-cane knots,

Thy breast of palm-spathe.

For example, the Malays utter these to ward of contagious diseases, cholera and

others.

“Li-khamsatin utfi’u bi-ha harra al-waba’ al-hatima al-Mustafa wa al-Murtada

wabna-huma wa al-Fatimah.” The translation is as follows:

“For me there are five people with whom I ward of diseases, that is the Prophet of

choice, ‘Ali which we revere, and both their sons (Hasan dan Husayn) and Fatima.”

2. Prayers:

As for prayers, the following words were repeated:

"Salli ‘ala Muhammad wa Al Muhammad," which means salutation to Nabi

Muhammad (s.a.w) and to his family (Al) (the Holy Prophet’s progeny).

To acquire an unusual physical strength, Malays uttered the following words:

"In the name of God, the beneficent and the Merciful,

The veins of rocks, experts on rocks,

102 Ibid, p.44.

23

The rocks are stabbed, the rocks break,

The planks stabbed, they break,

Water stabbed, they dry,

The earth is stabbed, it breaks,

The earth is stabbed, it wilts,

The mountain is stabbed, it collapsed,

The sky is stabbed, it collapsed,

Standing upright before `Ali,

My attributes are the attributes of Allah,

The attributes are within the kalimah,

La ilaha illa Allah,

Hu Allah ! Hu Allah !

The iron morta, pounded by brass,

Ah, I am strong like Baginda `Ali,

I am courageous like Ummi Fatimah,

I am of iron, my bones of brass,

I am Allah’s Tiger,

Hah, Berkat La ilaha illa Allah.103

3. Ratib (Rawatib):

In every ratib (recitals) for prayers for the departed, Malays have never omitted to

tread the following sentences from the al-Qur’an:

"... Innama yuridu-llah li-yudhhiba `an-kum al-rijsa Ahl al-Bayt wa yutahhiru-kum

tathira." Al-Qur'an, the chapter of al-Ahzab (33): 33.

Its translation: “Allah really wants to cleanse the Ahl al-Bayt, to remove dirt from you,

and make you as clean as possible.” Based on the experts of Qur’anic translators,

experts on hadith and history, the scholars are in consensus that the Ahl al-Bayt

mentioned in the al-Qur’an above refers to Nabi Muhammad (s.a.w), ‘Ali bin Abi

Talib, Fatima al-Zahra', Hasan and Husayn (a.s).104

In the practice of ratib (rawatib) Samman Ratib Samman was established by Shaikh

Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Karim al-Sammani al-Ma‘ani from Madinah between the years of

1700M and 1750M. It is said that this recital was popular in the islands of the east,

103 Walter William Skeat (1967), Malay Magic, New York, p.653; Hamka, op.cit, p.170. 104 See: Al-Shirazi, Sadiq Husayn, Ahl al-Bayt fi al-Qur’an, pp.244-248.

24

particularly in Sumatera in the 18M century. This was when tariqat Syattariyyah had its

following and influence there. Every recital (qasidah and nashid) was done in Arabic except

for ‘dhikr kelima belas’ where the last two lines was changed by the Malays as follows:

"Al-Hasan thumma al-Husayn ibu `Ali Fatimah ya `aini, Muhammad rasul Allah

Amir Husayn sabil Allah, Al-Hasan thumma al-Husayn anak cucu rasul Allah ya

`aini, Mati Hasan tinggal Husayn mati berperang sabil Allah.”105

4. Falak (Astrology):

The writer of the book Taj al-Mulk, Shaikh ‘Abbas (m.1313H/1895M) was from

Aceh and he quoted Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq from among Ahl al-Bayt (6th Imam of Shia al-

Imamiyyah) as the true source of information regarding the field of astrology.106

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the development of Shia thoughts in the Nusantara world (Malay

world) was driven by two main factors:

The first factor is they tried to escape from the oppression and cruelty imposed on them by

the governments in the Islamic world in general and the government of Bani Umaiyyah and

‘Abbasiyyah in particular.

The second factor is they would like to, at the same time, spread the Islamic teachings which

they inherited from the Prophet and his Ahl al-Bayt. In terms of influence they were not very

apparent. Their influence was better in the fields of literature, tasawwuf, and traditional

medicine, whereas their influence in other fields were weak and not visible. In terms of

effect, the Shia thinking did not leave a major impact compared to the other madhhabs, in

fact it slowly faded away with time. This was particularly true when the Sunni or Ahl al-

Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah was able to establish itself in 7/13 century and got the huge support

from among the people of Nusantara. In addition, the local authorities did not permit the Shia

line of thinking and those close to it (like Mu‘tazilah) to gain any foothold. This is because of

its differences with madhhab of al-Ash‘ari (in the field of usul al-din) and al-Shafi‘i (in the

field of fiqh) or Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama‘ah which had been generally been declared the

national madhhab. At the height of the Aceh empire, the government declared the al-Ash‘ari

as the official madhhab. At the same time all other madhhabs were said to be banned because

105 Al-Attas, S.N., Some aspects of sufism as understood and practised among the Malays, p.87. (Winstedt

says that many Malay incantation addressed to prominent Shia figure, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. See: Malay Magician:

being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, Routledge and Paul, 1951.) 106 Winstedt, The Malay Magician, p.89.

25

they were said to be deviant and anyone violating this rule may be penalized with fines,

imprisonment or banishment.

References and bibliographies:

1. Abdul Fatah Harun (1980), “al-Batiniyya: satu gerakan sulit yang bertujuan hendak memusnahkan Islam,” paper presented in Seminar of Aqidah dan keruhanian, 16-17 March 1980.

2. DBP (1985), Ajaran Sesat: Gerakan sulit Wujudiah-Batiniah di Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: DBP.

3. Abdul Rahman Hj. Abdullah (1990), Pemikiran umat Islam di Nusantara: Sejarah dan Perkembangannya Hingga Abad ke-19, Kuala Lumpur: D.B.P.

4. _____ (1989), Islam Dalam Sejarah Asia Tenggara Tradisional, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pena.

5. Abdul Rahman Ahmadi, Drs. (1981), Sejarah kedatangan Islam di Asia Tenggara, Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

6. Aboe Bakar Atjeh (1971), Sekitar Masuknya Islam di Indonesia, Semarang: C.V.Ramadhani.

7. Abu Hassan Mohd. Sham (1972), Undang-undang Melayu Lama: Tumpuan khas kepada Hukum Kanun Melaka (HKM) dan undang-undang yang di bawah pengaruhnya, Kuala Lumpur.

8. Adab Mahmud Hamasy (1989), Salahfaham tentang Nur Muhammadi (transl.), Pustaka Asa, Kelantan.

9. Ahmad Syalaby (1975), Sejarah dan kebudayaan Islam, Pustaka Nasional, Singapura, Cet.I.

10. _______ (1976), Sejarah pendidikan Islam, (transl.), Pustaka Nasional, Singapura.

11. ______ (1971), Kehidupan sosial dalam pemikiran Islam, (Transl.) Pustaka Nasional, Singapura.

12. Alwi bin Tahir al-Haddad, Sayyid, `Uqud al-Almas, Matba`at al-Madani, al-Qahirah, 1388/1968. (Sejarah Perkembangan Islam Timur Jauh, al-Maktab al-Daimi, Jakarta, 1957).

13. Arnold, Thomas (1979), The Preaching of Islam, Sh.Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore. 14. Sejarah Dakwah Islam (al-Da`wat ila al-Islam), Malayan Publishing House,

Singapore, 1963; (Widjaya, 1977). 15. Al-Ash`ari, Maqalat al-Islamiyyin wa iktilaf al-musallin, Maktabat al-Nahdat al-

Misriyyah, 1389/1969, Cet.II. 16. Atlas of Islamic History, compiled by Harry W.Hazard. 17. Brockelmann, C. (1980), History of the Islamic people, Routledge and Kegan

Paul, London and Henley, London. 18. Broomhall, Marshall (1966), Islam in China: A Neglected Problem, Paragon Book

Reprint Corp., New York. 19. Clifford, Hugh (1904), Further India: Being the story of exploration from the

earliest times in Burma, Malaya, Siam and Indo-China, Lawrence and Bullen, London.

20. Al-Diyarbakri (t.t), Tarikh al-Khamis fi Ahwal Anfas Nafis, Muassasat Sya‘ban, Beirut.

21. Donaldson, D.W. (1933), The Shi‘ite Religion, Luzac, London.

26

22. Edward Mortimer (1985), Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam, The Thetford Press, London.

23. Encyclopaedia of Islam, (New.ed), E.J.Brill, Leiden, 1913. 24. Endicott, K.M., An Analysis of Malay Magic, Penerbit Fajar Bakti, Kuala Lumpur,

1991. 25. Engku Ibrahim (1985), “Pengaruh Syi`ah-Parsi dalam sastera Melayu,” in

Warisan Dunia Melayu Teras Peradaban Malaysia, Biro Penerbitan Gapena, Kuala Lumpur.

26. Fathurrachman, Ikhtisar Mustalah al-hadith, P.T. al-Ma`arif, Bandung, 1974. 27. Fatimi, S.Q., Islam comes to Malaysia, Malaysian Sociological Research Institute

Ltd, Singapore, 1963. 28. ______ (1959), “The role of China in the spread of Islam to SEA,” University Of

Singapore. 29. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, Chicago Univ. Press, Chicago and London. 30. Gibb, H.A.R. (1953), Mohammedanism: an historical survey, Oxford University

Press London, Cet.II. 31. _________, and Kramers, J.H., Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, E.J.Brill, 1974. 32. Groneveldt, W.P (1960), Historical notes on Indonesia and Malaya compiled

from Chinese sources, Bhratara. 33. Hasjmy, A. (1981), Sejarah masuk dan berkembangnya Islam di Indonesia,

Aceh: P.T. al-Ma`arif, Aceh. 34. HAMKA (1963), Dari perbendaharaan lama, Medan: Maju. 35. Hitti, P.K. (1956), History of the Arabs: from the earliest times to the present,

London: Macmillan and co.Ltd. 36. Ibn Abi al-Hadid (1960), Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah, Dar Ihya' al-kutub al-

`Arabiyyah, Qahirah. 37. Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh, Dar al-Sadir, Beirut, 1399/1979. 38. Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Karim, `Isa al-Babi'l-Halabi, al-Qahirah, t.t. 39. Ibn Qutaibah, al-Imamat wa al-Siyasah, Mustafa al-Babi'l-Halabi, Misr, Cet.III,

1382H/1963M, Vol.I. 40. Ibn al-Tiqtaqa, Muhammad bin `Ali, al-Fakhri fi al-adab al-sultaniyyah wa al-

duwal al-Islamiyyah, Dar al-Bayrut, 1966. 41. Imron A.Manan, Pelbagai masalah Tauhid popular I, P.T Bina Ilmu, Surabaya,

1982. 42. Islam in Thailand, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1975. 43. Ismail Hamid, "Unsur-unsur legenda dalam Hikayat Melayu bercorak Islam,"

paper presented in Symposium of Kesusasteraan Melayu Tradisional, U.K.M, 4 - 6 Nov. 1982.

44. ̀ Iyad bin Musa (t.t), Qadi, al-Shifa' bi ta`rif huquq al-mustafa, Maktabat al-Farabi, Dimasyq.

45. Jamaluddin Hashim, Hj., Barzanji Arab - Melayu, Lembaga Penerbitan Jabatan Agama Johor, Johor Bharu, 1981.

46. Jassim M.Hussain, The occultation of twelfth Imam: a historical background, The Muhammadi Trust, London, 1982.

47. Lane-Poole, S. (1925), The Muhammadan dynasties, Paris: Librairie Orientaliste. 48. Law: Part II, The Ninety nine laws of Perak, F.M.S Govt. Press, Kuala Lumpur,

1929. 49. Leslie, Donald Daniel (1986), Islam in traditional China, Canberra College of

Advanced Education.

27

50. Lewis, Bernard (1940), The origins of Isma`ilism: a study of the historical background of the Fatimid Cambridge: W.Heffer and co.Ltd., Cambridge.

51. Mahayuddin Yahaya, "Sejarah Perkembangan Pemikiran Islam dalam konteks Melayu: Iktibarnya untuk abad akan datang, " paper presented in Seminar of Pemikiran Islam abad ke-21, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.

52. " Latar belakang sejarah keturunan Sayyid di Malaysia," in Tamadun Islam di Malaysia, Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 1980.

53. Marrison, G.E., "Persian influence in Malay life," in JMBRAS, Malaya Publishing House Ltd., Singapore, 1955, XXVIII, Pt.1.

54. Mohd Nor Ngah, "Sikap dan reaksi Syi`ah terhadap tuduhan dan serangan ke atas mereka," in Islamika, Gateway Publishing House, Kuala Lumpur, 1991.

55. Mughniyyah, M.J., The Despotic Rulers, Islamic Seminary Publications, London, Cet.I, 1985.

56. Muhammad Bukhari Lubis, Hj., Qasidahs in honor of the prophet, Penerbit U.K.M, Bangi, Selangor, 1983.

57. "Pengaruh bahasa dan sastera Parsi serta hubungannya dengan pemikiran Saidina `Ali terhadap masyarakat Melayu: satu perspektif sejarah," kertas kerja di Seminar Nahj al-Balaghah, Maktab Kerjasama Malaysia, Petaling Jaya, 29/2 - 1/3 1992.

58. Mustafa al-Siba`i, al-Sunnah (transl.) Penerbit Basheer Ahmad, Singapura, 1980.

59. Mutahhari, M., "The alleged role of Khwajah Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in the fall of Baghdad," in al-Tawhid, Sazman-e Tablighat-e Islami, Islamic Republic of Iran, VII, No.2, 1410H/1990M.

60. Nabi Ahmed, Prof., Advent of Islam in Indonesia, National Institute of Culture, Islamabad.

61. Nasr, S.H., Islam dalam cita dan fakta, (transl.) Lembaga Penunjang Pembangunan Nasional (Leppenas), Jakarta, 1981.

62. ______, Islam dalam nestapa manusia moden, Penerbit Pustaka, Bandung, 1983.

63. ______, Ideals and realities of Islam, George Allen and Unwin, London, 1980. 64. ______, Living Sufism, Unwin Paperbacks, London, 1980. 65. Al-Nawbakhti, Firaq al-Shi`ah, al-Matba`at al-Haydariyyah, Najaf, t.t. 66. Petrushevsky, I.P., Islam in Iran, State University of New York Press, Albany,

1985. 67. Peters, F.E., Aristotles and the Arabs, New York University Press, New York,

1968. 68. Qamaruddin Khan (1983), Pemikiran politik Ibn Taimiyyah, Bandung: Penerbit

Pustaka. 69. Rahmat, O.K. (1983), Pencemaran Akidah di Nusantara, Kuala Lumpur: D.B.P. 70. Rigby, J., (ed) (1908), “The Ninety Nine Laws of Perak,” in Papers on Malay

Subjects, Part 2. 71. Sabiq, Sayyid (1974), Aqidah Islam, (transl.) C.V.Diponegoro, Bandung. 72. Saleeby, Najeeb Mitry (1976), Studies in Moro History, Law and Religions,

Manila: Fillipiana Book Guild. 73. Sulayman al-Hanafi al-Qanduzi, Yanabi` al-Mawaddah fi syama'il al-Nabi wa al-

fada'il Amir al-Mu'minin `Ali, Maktabat al-Muhammadi, Qum, Iran, 1385/1944, Cet.III.

74. Al-Suyuti, Khasa'is al-kubra, Dar al-kutub al-Hadithah, al-Qahirah, 1967. 75. Tarikh al-Khulafa', Tahqiq Muhd. Muhyi'l-Din `Abd'l-Aziz.

28

76. Al-Syahrastani, al-Milal wa al-Nihal, Muassasat al-Halabi wa syurakahu, al-Qahirah, 1387/1968.

77. Al-Syirazi, Sadiq Husayn, Ahl al-Bayt fi al-Qur'an, Tehran, 1979. 78. Al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, Dar al-Ma`arif, Misr, 1966. 79. Tengku Hj.Abdullah, Ilmu tarikat dan kebatinan, Banda Aceh. 80. Walter William Skeat, Malay Magic: being an introduction to the folklore and

popular religion of the Malay Peninsula, New York, 1967. 81. Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, Haji, Perkembangan Ilmu Fiqh dan tokoh-

tokohnya di Asia Tenggara, Ramadhani, Solo, 1985. 82. _____ (1991), Khazanah karya pusaka Asia Tenggara, Kuala Lumpur:

Khazanah Fathaniyah. 83. WZ Kamaruddin Wan Ali (1990), Konsep al-Nubuwwah dalam Islam, (tesis

MA), Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya. 84. ________ (2001), ‘Ali bin Abi Talib k.w dan Pemikirannya Dalam Ilmu Kalam,

(unpublished PhD thesis), Akademi Pengajian Islam, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.

85. ________, Ismail, A.Z. (2009) “Salman Al-Farisi dan bangsa parsi dari perspektif pemikiran Islam: analisis dari aspek modal insan.” Toleransi: Media Komunikasi Umat Beragama, 1 (1).

86. ________ (2004) “Konsep perbuatan Allah (Af‘al Allah) dalam pemikiran Islam, pengaruh dan kesannya kepada pemikiran umat Islam di Malaysia.” Jurnal Pengajian Melayu, Academy of Malay Studies, University of Malaya,14.

87. ________ (1997), Hakikat Kenabian Menurut al-Qur’an, Kuala Lumpur: Berita Publishing Sdn Bhd.

88. ________ (2002) “Aliran al-Qadariyyah: perkembangan, pengaruh dan kesannya di alam Melayu dan khususnya di Malaysia.” Jurnal Pengajian Melayu, Academy of Malay Studies, University of Malaya, 12.

89. ________ and Ahmad Zuhdi Ismail, (2009), "Masyarakat Islam di Negara Brunei Darussalam: Kajian Mengenai Isu dan Cabaran Dalam Pemikiran Islam di Era Globalisasi" in BORNEO Research Journal, Department of Southeast Asian Studies, University of Malaya, Vol.3.

90. __________ (1994), “Asal-usul, pengaruh dan kesan aliran al- Asy'ari dan al-Asya'irah di Malaysia dan Kepulauan Melayu,” in Malaysia Dari Segi Sejarah, Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia, 22.

91. Warsito, S. (1973), Di sekitar kebatinan, Jakarta: Bulan Bintang. 92. Watt, W.M., The Formative period of Islamic thought, Edinburgh. 93. _______ (1974), The Majesty that was Islam: the Islamic world, 661-1100,

Sidgwick and Jackson. 94. Wheatly, P. (1962), “Arabo-Persian sources for the history of the Malay

Peninsula ancient times,” in Malaysian historical sources, (eds.) K. Tregonning, University of Singapore.

95. Wilson, H.E. (1972), “The Islamization of South-East Asia: A reassessment,” in Journal of Historical Research (Ranchi), Vol.XV (15), No.1, Aug 1972, h.1-24.

96. Winstedt, R.O. (1969), A History of Classical Malay Literature, London: Oxford University Press.

97. The Malay Magician: being Shaman, Saiva and Sufi, Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1982.

98. Yazid, A. (1979), Himpunan hadith-hadith palsu dan lemah, Surabaya: P.T. Bina Ilmu.

29

99. Yegar, Moshe (1972), The Muslims of Burma: A Study of Minority Group, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

100. Zaini Dahlan (t.t), al-Sirat al-Nabawiyyah wa al-Athar al-Muhammadiyyah, Dar al-Ma`rifah li'l-Taba`at wa al-Nashr, Beirut.