the contribution of entrepreneurship education in the development
TRANSCRIPT
THE CONTRIBUTION OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE SKILLS IN YOUNG PEOPLE
A comparative research study between the NFTE (Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship) licensed partners in Belgium (Brussels) and Ireland (Dublin).
Laura Marques, 0959774
MACESS Dissertation
23 August 2010
18.924 words
MACESS Maastricht
P.O. Box 634
6200 AP Maastricht
The Netherlands
Website: www.macess.nl
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Formal requirements
• The date of submission of the dissertation is 23 August 2010 (as per postmark) at the
MA CESS Secretary by 17:00 hrs in the form of 4 paper copies plus a copy on disc. Only 1
paper copy must bear the original signature of the student.
• The dissertation report begins with the two standard, formal MA CESS cover pages: the
MA CESS title page followed by the page listing the formal requirements and assessment
criteria; the statement of originality, date and signature of the student.
• The length of the dissertation is 15,000 - 20,000 words (which includes the
introduction, the main chapters, the conclusions and recommendations). A student
not meeting this requirement incurs an automatic failure.
• The text is word-processed using a computer on A4 paper with a 12pt character size.
The format is double spaced, using page numbers and adequate margins such as those
defined by the defaults of major word-processing programmes.
• The length of the English abstract is 500 - 1000 words.
• The table of contents has chapter titles, sections and corresponding page numbers.
• The Harvard system of referencing is the recommended style for citing in the body of
the text and for listing bibliographical references.
• The end-product is soft bound with a thin cover.
Assessment criteria
• clarity and viability of research question (and hypothesis, if applicable)
• critical analysis of theory and literature;
• clearly articulated and justified methodology;
• quality of comparative framework and analysis;
• quality of conclusions and recommendations;
• rationale, cohesiveness and logical consistency;
• relevance for social professional practice and/or social policy;
• relevance for comparison at European and/or global levels;
• total presentation: linguistic style, lay-out, proper use of language.
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This dissertation is the original work of Laura Marques (0959774) and has been completed
solely in fulfilment of a dissertation for the MA in Comparative European Social Studies at Zuyd
University in Maastricht.
This dissertation complies with the aforementioned formal requirements and recognises the
assessment criteria.
……………………………………. ….…………………………….
Student signature Place and date
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Abstract
The central question of this comparative research study is “what is the
contribution of entrepreneurship training in the development of life skills in
young people?”. This dissertation, as a whole, consists of an answer to this
question through dealing with the sub-questions. Those sub-questions are
referring to the similarities and differences between the NFTE program
implemented in Belgium and Ireland; the trainers’ opinion about which teaching
methods they consider as the most suitable to achieve the objective of the
program in a more efficient way; the importance recognized by the different
actors (manager and trainer), to the profile and social context of young people
in the program results and the programme evaluation from the perspective of
different actors (manager, trainer and former trainee).
These questions are answered through conducting a comparative and
qualitative approach, interviewing the main actors of the NFTE entrepreneurship
education: manager, trainer and trainees. A general comparison of the situation
of entrepreneurship education in Belgium and Ireland was also made. There is,
in fact, a growth of awareness concerning the importance of entrepreneurship
education to the creation of an entrepreneur society. However, there is a clear
lack of a comprehensible definition of entrepreneurship and a specific policy,
especially targeted for this area. Ireland recognizes the importance of
entrepreneurship education, integrating it as compulsory in some schools (such
as the transition year). Belgium, want to incorporate it in the near future.
However, the government still has a decentralized role, limited in
recommending and promoting those initiatives at schools.
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The analysis of these interviews showed that although both NFTE have different
approaches to work with young people (in different ages; in school or training
center; with teachers or entrepreneurs) both managers and trainers coincide
that focusing on younger people and from disadvantaged contexts would have
more impact. According to them, trainees are more open to seizing
opportunities that otherwise would not have, thanks to the support they receive
in class (which some of them might not even receive at home). Also the
developmental stage of young people was recognized as having influence when
it comes to perceive and internalize the developed skills.
Success is according to the interviewed, influenced by both students' profile
(age and social context) and program characteristics. The active and dynamic
learning methodologies, the flexible and useful programme content and the
trainers’ support were strongly mentioned as successful factors. Also the trainer
motivation and passion for the project and for them, involves the trainees in a
supportive learning environment. This stage is felt by them as suitable and
reliable to call on their skills, through the method "learning by doing".
Students’ value recognition is a clear result of the NFTE success according to
the interviewed actors. Entrepreneurship competence was considered to involve
both knowledge and skills, namely self-confidence, planning, different thinking,
planning, opportunity seizing, responsibility, relational skills, know-how and
team work.
It is concluded that perceiving the development of these skills in trainees (and
how it change them), is the biggest success that NFTE can consider, according
to the managers and trainers. Some of the trainees reported a gain motivation
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to continue studying, working or even to start a business. And that means
programme success for NFTE.
However, the major focus of this programmes are the development of skills that
make them more entrepreneurial in their daily lives, which should take place
through the development of life skills. The development of these skills may in
fact result in higher academic or professional involvement.
Therefore, education can contribute tremendously to social inclusion and the
creation of an entrepreneurial society, starting at school with the younger
people. It should be further encouraged, within the youngest and vulnerable
population to a sustainable development, inclusion and participation of all
individuals. In a broad sense, entrepreneurship should be considered as a
general attitude that can be useful in all work activities and everyday life.
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Acknowledgments
Perhaps I should start by thanking those who motivated me to do this master.
Those would be: Dinis and my colleagues of Social Work in Coimbra.
I would also like to thank those who I met in the Netherlands, specially my
colleagues from my master: Aspa, Lotti, Maria, Tini, Peter, Mimi, David and
Katinka.
It is also important for me to mention those who have been encouraging me and
making me feel passionate about entrepreneurship and introduced me to NFTE:
Ricardo Zózimo, Miguel Martins and Cindy.
For those who gave me a bit of their time and labour to make this thesis
possible a big thanks: Henrique Umbelino, Miguel Tavares, Catarina Jesus,
Maria Inês, Inês Grilo, Jeanne and Joana Ferreira.
I could not forget to thank my supervisor, Cristina Albuquerque, for her
attention, care and support; the interviewees for their involvement in this project
and warmth contribution.
To Francisco, for all our shared projects. Thank you for reminding me of what is
important in life.
At last but not least, to my parents and brother, for their patience and
unconditional love.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract 4
Acknowledgments 7
Introduction 13
CHAPTER 1 Entrepreneurship in a modern world
1.1 What is entrepreneurship? 17
1.1.1 Different types of entrepreneurship 18
1.1.2 Is entrepreneurship important? 19
1.2 Who is the entrepreneur? 20
1.2.1 Entrepreneur’s profile 21
1.3 Entrepreneurship influencing factors 22
1.4 The emergence of the Citizen Sector 23
CHAPTER 2 Education and Training for the future
2.1 Skills for the future 25
2.1.1 Different kind of skills 26
2.2 New educational organization 28
2.2.1 A new focus: from Teacher to Facilitator 28
2.3 European educational investment 29
2.3.1 Focus on social inclusion 31
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CHAPTER 3 Embedding Entrepreneurship in Education
3.1 The evolution of entrepreneurship education 33
3.2 Can entrepreneurship be taught? 34
3.2.1 What to teach? 35
3.2.2 Where to teach? 36
3.2.3 Who should teach? 37
3.2.4 How to teach? 38
3.3 Entrepreneurship education for disadvantage you th 40
3.3.1 The NFTE organization 41
3.4 Entrepreneurship education in Belgium and Ireland 42
CHAPTER 4 Study Design
4.1 A comparative research 46
4.2 Study population 47
4.3 Methods of Data Collection 48
4.3.1 Documentary research 49
4.3.2 Semi-structured interviews 50
4.4 Ethical considerations and limitations 51
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CHAPTER 5 Analysis and interpretation of the interviews
5.1 Conception of NFTE programme in both countries : managers’
perspective 54
5.1.1 NFTE’s Mission 56
5.2 Implementation of the NFTE programme in both c ountries:
managers & trainers’ perspective 57
5.2.1 Educational NFTE structures 57
5.2.2 Trainers Requirements 58
5.2.3 Programme methodologies 60
5.2.4. Management role and Program sustainability 64
5.3 NFTE programme’s evaluation: managers, trainer s & trainees
perspective 64
5.3.1 Factors that influence the NFTE program succe ss 69
5.4 Development of skills through the NFTE program 77
CHAPTER 6 Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions 83
Recommendations 91
BIBLIOGRAPHY 93
APPENDICES
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Different perspectives for entrepreneurship conception
Figure 2: The benefits of skills
Figure 3: Three levels of understanding entrepreneurship
List of Tables
Table 1: Framework for the conduction of the interviews.
List of Appendices
Appendix 1: Sources of Research on Entrepreneurs
Appendix 2: The development of entrepreneurship research (Bjerke, 2008)
Appendix 3: Characteristics often attributed to the entrepreneur (Kuratko &
Hodgetts, 2000)
Appendix 4 - The Oslo Agenda for Entrepreneurship education
Appendix 5 – Can entrepreneurship be taught? An European perspective
(Crijns & Vermeulen, 2007:11)
Appendix 6 - What, how, where and who to teach entrepreneurship (World
Economic Forum, 2010: 11)
Appendix 7 - Where should entrepreneurship be taught? An European
perspective (Crijns & Vermeulen, 2007:11)
Appendix 8 - Examples of experiential learning methodologies (World Economic
Forum, 2009)
Appendix 9 - NFTE network (in www.nfte.com)
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Appendix 10 - Characterization of Belgium and Ireland concerning context,
educational system, entrepreneurial activity among “minorities” and
entrepreneurship policy to promote entrepreneurship education
Appendix 11 – Interviewed profile
Appendix 12 – NFTE organizational structure (Belgium and Ireland)
Appendix 13 – Interview guidelines
Appendix 14 – Tables of interview analysis
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Introduction
One of the main challenges facing the European Union Member States is the
need to boost entrepreneurship. That is one of the main objectives set by the
Lisbon European Council in 2000, in order to improve employment and develop
the economic sector and social cohesion within the European Union.
Encouraging entrepreneurship is the key to create jobs and improve
competitiveness and economic growth throughout Europe, to which education
and training offer are of important contribution. The European Commission, in
many work papers, has defined entrepreneurship as a basic skill, stressing the
importance of the development of an entrepreneurial spirit among European
citizens.
Due to entrepreneurship, the power of private enterprises is also high lightened
in the Lisbon strategy. In fact, the State reserves its performance for certain
populations, calling on citizens to rebuild and take the initiative from the
increasingly residual social policy perspective. Thus, the call is made to
create/achieve innovation and new ways to intervene, facing us with a new
paradigm of social intervention.
This new paradigm requires solutions that are more focused on the strengths
and skills of their recipients, built with and for them. The social intervention must
develop a holistic approach rather than responding piecemeal to the diversity of
people's problems. Therefore, an appeal is made to new values such as
networking, empowerment and innovation, in order to maximize the potential of
each person.
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These new values may lead to new job profiles. That is why our bodies of
governance have to take priority concerning the stimulation and enhancement
of learning ability to recognize the new entrepreneurs.
In this case, education can contribute greatly to the creation of an
entrepreneurial and innovative culture of social intervention.
The training for entrepreneurship has indeed the following goal: to revel
usefulness and dynamic potential in each person. This potential is boosted by
the development of classroom skills, which will be useful in all activities of
anyone’s life. Thus, the entrepreneur is not someone with specific skills, but
someone who had his/her potential stimulated. This important tool and method
for social practice is even more useful when dealing with young people in a
vulnerable context. Entrepreneurship education can have also an important role
in the promotion of social cohesion through value recognition.
This present thesis is, therefore, a result of the awareness of the power which
results through the combination between entrepreneurship and education and
the importance of training entrepreneurship to skills development required in the
21 century.
The central research question analyzed in this paper is the following:
“What is the contribution of entrepreneurship education in the development of
life skills in young people?”
The subjects researched in this paper can be separated into the central
question and the sub-questions which derive from the following objectives:
• To understand the contribution of (NFTE) entrepreneurship education in the
development of life skills in young people;
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• To identify similarities and differences between the programme implemented
in Belgium and Ireland;
• To understand the trainers' opinion on most appropriate teaching methods to
achieve the programme’s objectives in a more efficient way;
• To realize the importance associated to the different actors (manager and
trainer) to the profile and social context of youth through programme results;
• To understand how the programme is evaluated from the different actors
perspective (manager, trainer and former trainee).
This research is to be carried out by comparing the training given by NFTE
entrepreneurship organizations in Belgium and Ireland. This organization was
found in the U.S. by Steve Mariotti, in 1987, who intended to empower young
people from low-income communities.
In order to understand the complex research area of entrepreneurship, this
paper will first of all approach the main theory. Chapter 1 will focus on
entrepreneurship in general. A clarification about what is meant by
entrepreneurship will be carried out. Therefore definitions and forms, benefits
that are recognized and clarification of the entrepreneur profile will be used.
Chapter 2 will examine the education and training and its special link to the
skills required for the future, such as life skills. Chapter 3 will be the alliance
between entrepreneurship and education. This chapter will discuss the
importance of educating an entrepreneur, as a solution for social integration
and active participation - also for those from disadvantaged communities.
However, an overview of the development of entrepreneurship education in
Belgium and Ireland will be given in this chapter.
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Chapter 4 outlines the theoretical framework which will be analyzed. The central
question and objectives are defined; the comparative character of this case
study research is analyzed; the research methods are made visible as well as
the ethical considerations and limitations.
Chapter 5 gives an insight into the NFTE’s practice entrepreneurship education
in Belgium and Ireland, through the analysis of qualitative interviews that were
conducted on aware of the programme’s conception, implementation and
evaluation. Finally, conclusions and recommendations will be drawn in chapter
6 for further field action of entrepreneurship education.
The general intention of this thesis is to demonstrate the potential that lies
within the field of parenting education and to contribute to a better
understanding of its growing importance.
A bibliography and appendices are included in the back of this dissertation.
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CHAPTER 1 Entrepreneurship in the modern world
1.1 What is entrepreneurship?
The conceptual framework concerning entrepreneurship is far from unanimous.
Therefore, for the purposes of this research we will take a broad definition from
the European Commission (2004a: 5):
“Entrepreneurship refers to an individual’s ability to turn ideas into action. It
includes creativity, innovation and taking calculated risks, as well as the ability
to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives. This supports
everyone in day-to-day life at home and in society”.
There are many different perspectives derived from entrepreneurship word, as it
can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 2: Different perspectives for Entrepreneurship conception (World Economic Forum, 2009: 14)
As Davidsson (2008) suggests, to define entrepreneurship we can take the
individual perspective; the processes beyond entrepreneurship; the
entrepreneurial behaviour or finally, the social role.
Entrepreneurship is in fact a complex phenomenon which has been studied
within many different disciplines, contexts and sources (appendix 1). This has
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led to a variety of opinions about its meaning and characteristics researched
over the years (summarized in appendix 2) (Bjerke, 2008; Sarkar, 2010).
In fact, entrepreneurship is still unsolved or, as Baumol (1993: 7) says
"entrepreneurship continues to be the more emphasized phenomenon and least
understood by economists".
Furthermore, it is important to note that entrepreneurial behaviour varies
significantly depending on the culture and society, which can also be a barrier to
the spreading of entrepreneurship theories (Baumol, 1990; Kilby, 1971).
However, Drucker (1985) says that starting a business is neither necessary nor
sufficient for entrepreneurship. Drucker (1985: 2) explicitly comments “Not every
new small business is entrepreneurial or represents entrepreneurship”.
1.1.1 Different types of entrepreneurship
When talking about entrepreneurship we can observe two main different types,
as highlighted by Bucha (2009): the entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.
Bruin & Dupuis (2003) however, describe different types: entrepreneurship by
necessity, ethic entrepreneurship, electronic entrepreneurship, capital
entrepreneurship, state entrepreneurship, familiar, community, local and
entrepreneurship among elderly and young people. In fact, the broader impact
entrepreneurship can have on society comes in the form of social
entrepreneurship and can be defined as: “(…) not only a registered
phenomenon in business but also in non-profit-making institutions, known today
as social entrepreneurship” (Drucker, 1985: 3).
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In the business sector, entrepreneurs transform the economy by moving
resources to areas that are not yet served. Social entrepreneurs share many of
the same qualities, but their first effect is observed in activities that generate
social change and social value, and not mainly economical profit (Dees, 2001).
1.1.2 Is entrepreneurship important?
The current economic climate has reminds us that the discussion about
entrepreneurship and its potential impact is timeless. In fact, according to Crijns
& Vermeulen (2007) and Cuervo et al. (2007), the concepts ‘entrepreneurship’
and ‘prosper economy’ are inseparable. Several authors (Birch, 1979; Kirchoff &
Philips, 1988; Reynolds, 1992; Acs, 1999) have argued that the economic
impact of entrepreneurship is not just on business establishment level but also
in its growth. Moreover, Bridge et al. (2003, quoted in Bjerke, 2008) stresses
both economical and social benefits.
Recently, the European Union Green Paper on Entrepreneurship (European
Commission, 2003a) sets out a range of benefits that can be associated with
entrepreneurship. These benefits include contributing to economic growth by
job creation and growth; fostering social and economic cohesion particularly in
less developed regions being crucial to competitiveness and productivity
improvements; unlocking personal potential; and satisfying a range of social
interests, by making wealth, jobs and diversity of choice for consumers
available.
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Drawing on these indications of the benefits that are associated with
entrepreneurship, it is possible to summarize a range of strategic, economic,
spatial, social and personal benefits (Forfás, 2007b; Morris, 1998).
1.2 Who is the entrepreneur?
The entrepreneur is the most important player in our modern society. Choosing
to be an entrepreneur requires an understanding of a variety of business areas.
Knight in 1921, invoked the difference between entrepreneurs and other
individuals in society, recognizing their skills and abilities that enable them to
take risks in situations of uncertainty (Knight, 1921). However, Gaspar (2009)
says that the entrepreneur is no different from others, even less risk averse.
According to the author, what differentiates the entrepreneurs is, firstly, their
desire to create their own business, and, secondly, their ability to identify
opportunities and gather resources.
Today, scholars continue to debate what defines an entrepreneur. In French the
word “entrepreneur” means: the one “who takes risks and starts something
new” (Dees, 2001:1). According to Drucker (quoted in Dees, 2001:1) “the
entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to it, and exploits it as an
opportunity”. Therefore, we can say that the entrepreneur mobilizes resources
in a different untraditional way.
In a more economist perspective, Casson (1990) suggests four main
approaches: the entrepreneur as a specialist in risk-taking; as an intermediary
in the market process; as an innovator and as an expert in making decisions.
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Lowrey (2003) and McClelland (1961) define the entrepreneur due to its
characteristics as an individual with a perpetual need of achievement.
1.2.1 Entrepreneur’s profile
Regarding the motivations, Birley & Westhead (1990) identified several factors
which may help us understand what leads individuals to develop their own
businesses. Sometimes, these factors are related to cultural characteristics
identified by Hofstede (1980) or, with the satisfaction of certain levels of need
from the perspective of Maslow (1954, quoted in Bucha, 2009).
The authors refer as entrepreneurial motivations the need for recognition; the
desire for independence; personal development alongside the desire to
continue learning. Also the care for the social groups to which they belong and
the effect of imitation of other individuals in society. However, the behavioural
tendency was also criticized, since the profile of the entrepreneur depends on
many variables such as time spent in the market, professional experience and
level of education (idem).
Several authors (Bridge et al, 2003, quoted in Bjerke, 2008; Lourenço et al.,
2008; Fillion, 1991) agree in a range of personality traits which by tradition have
been identified with entrepreneurs. They mainly focus on characteristics such
as achievement motivation; risk-taking propensity; locus of control (believe in
themselves, so they make things happen); need for autonomy (feeling of being
in control of their own lives); determination; initiative; creativity (ability to come
up with solutions); self-confidence and trust. In addition to these characteristics,
Hood & Young (1993) believe it is necessary also to develop skills in oral
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presentation, interpersonal relationships and business planning for
entrepreneurial success.
However, Drucker (1985: 41) argue that “anyone who can face up to decision
making can learn to be an entrepreneur and to behave entrepreneurially.
Entrepreneurship is, therefore, a behaviour rather than personality trait”.
In fact there is a vast research on the profile of the entrepreneurs, and a vast
list of characteristics attributed to entrepreneurs (see appendix 3).
Monteiro (2009) however, noted the importance of cultural and behavioural
issues for the entrepreneurial behaviour.
1.3 Entrepreneurship influencing factors
Scholars of entrepreneurship in a variety of disciplines agree that age, gender,
work status, education, income, motivation and perceptions are all significant
socio-economic factors in a person’s decision to start a business (Bosma &
Harding, 2007).
Several studies indicate (Gibb, 1987; Shane, 2003; Bosma et al., 2008) that the
contact with successful entrepreneurs and strong networks of support (family,
friends) as influencing factors to enhance their own capabilities perception.
Although most individuals are pulled into entrepreneurial activity because of
opportunity recognitions, others are pushed into entrepreneurship because they
have no other means of living.
These influencing views and opinions are also conditioned by culture and social
norms. Several authors (Gibb, 1987; Jackson & Rodkey, 1994) agree that
external factors including exposure to an entrepreneurial culture can have a
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strong role in determining an entrepreneur. In reality, entrepreneurship is
always linked to a context, based on the social, cultural, political context, which
in turn influences the socio-economic context of a country. The intense
concentration of entrepreneurial activity in a specific zone is then believed to be
a result of environmental factors that stimulate entrepreneurship. Among the
most influential factors are the role of media, venture capital availability, the
presence of experienced entrepreneurs and incubator organizations, favourable
government policies, a receptive population, availability of supporting services,
and good living conditions (Forfas, 2007; Bosma et al., 2008).
That is why the European Union published an Action Plan to encourage
entrepreneurial initiatives and sets out a European agenda as well as the
Green Paper. The European Council, as part of its renewed strategy to achieve
the Lisbon goals of growth and jobs, specifically called on the EU and the
Member States to promote entrepreneurship among young people in the
European Youth Pact adopted in March 2005 (European Commission, 2006b).
In 2003, the EU Green Paper also highlighted women and ethnic minorities as
having considerable entrepreneurial potential. It identified the need to focus
specifically on these underrepresented groups as one means of achieving
Europe’s entrepreneurial ambitions (Forfás, 2007).
1.4 The emergence of the Citizen Sector
The Lisbon Strategy for Growth and Employment prioritize workers increasing
adaptability and reforms implementation for better governance.
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In fact, the current trend is towards decentralization and greater empowerment
of individuals to act (Bucha, 2009).
In policy making and in political circles, entrepreneurs get central attention on
how to rebalance the role of the government and civil society. Often
governments failed to respond to the citizens’ needs. According to Bornstein
(2007), entrepreneurs are needed to take matters into their hand, to drive
innovation for society.
The State’s primary responsibility in relation to entrepreneurship policy
(horizontal area of policy) is to ensure that the environment and framework
conditions continue to support the development of a sustainable
entrepreneurship sector. Also the European Commission has been promoting
the concept of Entrepreneurship Policy development since the late 1990s.
Governments have approved Entrepreneurship Policy documents and allocated
budgets for the implementation of measures to increase the level of
entrepreneurial activity, including entrepreneurship in schools, initiatives to
increase women, young people and ethnic minorities entrepreneurial activity
rates , stimulation of private sector venture capital activity, improvement in the
level of business support and promotion of a stronger entrepreneurial culture
(Lundström & Stevenson, 2005; Lundström, Almerud & Stevenson, 2008;
Bosma & Harding, 2007).
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CHAPTER 2 Education and Training for the future
The actual globalization era, with the increasing power of the private initiative,
requires the development of citizens in acquiring new knowledge and
professional skills (European Training Foundation website).
2.1 Skills for the future
The European Commission (2004c:5) defines competences as “a combination
of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to the context”.
According to the systemic approach of Le Boterf (1994), skill is a “know-act”,
which is based on “know-mobilization” and a “know-integrate”. Skills
development is, therefore, seen as a dynamic and integrative process. The
Expert Group understands skills as emanating from and developing through
innate ability and socialization; formal, informal and non-formal education and
training; and experience, both from the workplace and other voluntary activities
(EGFSN, 2007).
This way, contemporary education should be more focused on preparing people
for tomorrow’s labour market and for a more complex risk society. Education
and training systems should, therefore, be ready to develop new programmes
for emerging new professions, and new skills should be taught as part of
changing job profiles within existing professions and the increased service and
private sector. The nature of work is already changing: technological team work,
job rotation and multitasking, have a considerable impact on the type of skills
required (Dickerson & Green, 2002). Therefore, employees in all jobs will be
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increasingly required to acquire a range of generic and transferable skills and
attitudes, including people-related and thinking skills. There is also a growing
demand for problem solving and analytical skills, self-management and
communication skills, linguistic skills and entrepreneurship (Dearden, Reed &
van Reenan, 2000).
Education should, therefore, provide the skills which will be never more
important in the future: the technical skills and the so called life skills, such as
critical thinking, team working, creativity, languages, communication skills and a
sense of initiative and entrepreneurship. Instilling these life skills will require
changes in the way schools are organized including teaching practices (Denny
& Harmon, 2000).
While the responsibilities for education and training lie on national governments,
some challenges are common to all European Union countries which could
exchange tools.
2.3.2 Different kinds of skills
According to Jardim & Pereira (2006) we can distinguish three types of skills:
basic, generic and technical.
The basic skills are those that are acquired for excellence within the formal
education system (e.g. reading and writing). Generic, or key skills, are those
that are common to various activities (e.g., creativity, cooperation, leadership).
Technical skills are those that are directly related to a profession.
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Generic, horizontal, soft, key, transferable, emplo yability, life skills
Those are the more common classifications used when broadly referring to
combinations of skills and personal attributes which are deemed essential to be
effective in the workplace of the 21st century (EGFSN, 2007; Dickerson &
Green, 2002).
The European Commission (2004b:5) defines those skills as “those which all
individuals need for personal fulfilment and development, active citizenship,
social inclusion and employment”. These skills are summarized in the European
framework as: mother tongue; foreign language; mathematics, science and
technology; digital competence; learning to learn; social and civic competences;
sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; and cultural awareness/ expression.
It can then be included in life skills: basic skills (in particular, literacy), people-
related skills (e.g. communication, interpersonal, team-working) and conceptual
skills (e.g. organization, problem solving, planning, learning-to-learn skills,
innovation and creativity skills, systematic thinking) (Faustino, 2010). The same
skills are also mentioned in the European report “Employability Skills for the
Future” and “New skills for new jobs” as employability skills (European
Commission, 2010).
These skills should, therefore, be prioritized into all funded education and
training provision to operate successfully within society.
This thesis focuses on the term "life skills" as they are not only important for the
workplace, but common to different dimensions of life and social life, reporting
to whole life (Pullen, 2000).
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2.3 New educational organization
As AIESEC organization (1992) argues, educational institutions play an
important role in developing the professional potential and capacity of every
individual. Their main challenge and responsibility is to bridge the gap between
the theoretical studies and practical knowledge.
This new educational organization must provide the training of critical and
responsible people, aware of their ability to create and transform. Therefore, we
speak of a new paradigm for school organization (Smith & Walker, 1997;
Santos, 2005) with the students in focus, as the protagonists.
Bertrand (2001) stresses the importance of an open pedagogy, as it allows
personal growth while respecting personal rhythm and style. Then, teachers
should be focused on the student’s needs and characteristics, not only on their
curriculum. It should allow the development of skills and talents of each student
through a rich and stimulating environment.
2.3.1 A new focus: from Teacher to Facilitator
Nowadays, life skills are required at the workplace, which should be fostered
from the school. For such, teachers should take a more dynamic and active
learning: teachers as facilitators of learning.
The Council of Europe (2003: 21) defines a facilitator as “someone who helps
the group to discover the knowledge they already have, which encourages you
to learn more and help you explore your potential. Facilitate means creating an
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environment where the group learns, experiences, explore and grow. Not a
process where experts, transmit their knowledge and skills to others".
Penin (2010) says that moving from teacher to facilitator requires a new
perspective. It is working from the point at which each student is (not from the
contents) in a flexible, unpredictable, and reinvented way. Finally, by creating a
team spirit and inspiring dreams and challenges attainable, but challenging,
until they get each one to attain success. In conclusion, the profile of teachers is
needed to become more a facilitator of learning, working with students more
responsible in the conduction of their learning process (Faustino, 2010).
2.4 European educational investment
Education and training play a central role in Europe. Prove of that was the
Lisbon Summit (2000) which put education and training policies at the centre of
the European policy with three broad goals: “preparing the transition to a
knowledge-based economy and society; modernizing the European social
model and investing in people to combat social exclusion” (European
Commission, 2005: i).
On 14 February 2002, the European Council and the Commission jointly
adopted a thorough work in education and training systems in Europe. It
focuses on three strategic objectives: (1) improving the quality and
effectiveness of education and training systems in the EU; (2) facilitating the
access of all to education and training systems; and (3) opening up education
and training systems to the wider world (European Commission, 2002).
30
The Bologna’s guidelines go in the same direction: a teaching-oriented skills
development. The "New skills for new jobs" political initiative for example, was
aimed at building bridges between the worlds of education, training and work
and concerned with anticipating the future skills and capabilities needed
(European Commission, 2010).
According to the European Commission (2010), better skills can easily help the
EU to become more prosperous, with more and better jobs and greater
competitiveness. Individuals and employers also benefit from investment in
training and education, namely social inclusion (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: The benefits of better skills (European Commission, 2010: 10)
As emphasized by the European Council in Barcelona, the current education
and training systems in Europe need to evolve and change in order to face new
challenges. Following on from the Communication on Lifelong Learning, the
“Bruges Process”, was launched to improve cooperation in European vocational
education and training. The Action Plan on Skills and Mobility and the eLearning
Initiative and Action Plan are other major initiatives in this area. The support is
given via the European Social Fund and the Leonardo da Vinci and Socrates
Programmes (European Commission, 2003a).
31
2.4.1 Focus on social inclusion
The Lisbon Strategy did not establish competitiveness as the single strategic
objective for Europe: it also emphasized social inclusion. In fact, education is
the key to social inclusion, because enable citizens to make use of existing
possibilities for full engagement in social and political life as active citizens. It
also results in better social cohesion such as reduced crime potential and
greater political participation.
In the future, those with low skills will find it increasingly difficult to get
employed. The barriers to participate in education and training are also more
pronounced for those with lower level skills. The State, therefore, should
intervene in education and training market, namely at primary and post primary
level and training of certain target groups such as the low-skilled and
marginalized. The State should continue to encourage their participation in
education or training and, when necessary, increase funding initiatives targeted
at addressing educational disadvantage (EGFSN, 2007).
In this context, Sarkar (2010) and the European Commission defines, in diverse
work papers, entrepreneurship as a basic skill. Both stress the importance of
developing an entrepreneurial spirit among European citizens.
32
CHAPTER 3 Embedding Entrepreneurship in Education
The world is in need for more entrepreneurial societies who can address
changing contexts and responses to problems. Entrepreneurship and education
are two forces and opportunities that need to be interconnected.
3.1 The evolution and investment in entrepreneurshi p education
Entrepreneurship education started over a century ago, with organizations such
as Junior Achievement. However, entrepreneurship has only been part of the
curriculum in higher education institutions for 50 years. The first graduate
course in entrepreneurship was offered at Harvard University in 1947 (Katz,
2003). In the past 15 years entrepreneurship education has growth
spectacularly through the US and other parts of the world. This growth is
reflected in many initiatives focused in entrepreneurship education as well as
programmes targeted towards young people (Greene & Rice, 2002).
The field is expanding and research has been conducted in the past two
decades. However, there has been relatively little research conducted on the
impacts in entrepreneurship education and training (Storey, 1994), namely on
the development of entrepreneurial skills and values (McMullan et al., 2001).
Most of the research has tended to be fragmented and with a descriptive
orientation (Sexton & Ksadarda, 1991).
However, recent research made on the contribution of entrepreneurship
education indicates conclusively that entrepreneurship education contributes
significantly to risk taking, the formation of new businesses (Garavan &
33
O’Cinnelde, 1994) and the propensity to be self employed (Charney & Libecap,
2002). Entrepreneurship education also seems to have a positive effect on the
perceived feasibility of entrepreneurship or on entrepreneurial self-efficacy
(Wilson et al., 2007; Lepoutre et al., 2010).
The recent literature highlights the existence of different types of education and
training programmes for entrepreneurs. While all of them have a common base,
in that they emphasize skills the entrepreneurs need; course methodologies and
evaluations differ significantly.
As Damon and Lerner (2008) note, there is a lack of commonly accepted
factors of success and protocols for conducting the necessary evaluations.
Evaluation should then be taken using success indicators that fall into four
categories (1) academic knowledge about entrepreneurship; (2) academic
performance more generally; (3) business formation and wealth generation and
finally (4) personal values and aspirations.
Entrepreneurship education, in ways not yet fully understood by researchers,
leads to improvement in all these areas, helping individuals move from passive
beings to agents who act on their own. However, there is a lack of knowledge
on the impact of personal and initiative characteristics on entrepreneurial
intentions and other outcomes. It was yet demonstrated that positive
entrepreneurship education impacts are stronger among students with a
positive prior exposure to entrepreneurs (Peterman & Kennedy, 2003).
Aware of the impact of entrepreneurship education, national governments,
international organizations, and civil society groups are facilitating the
development of effective ecosystems that support and encourage
entrepreneurship and the role that education plays. The European Commission
34
has focus on the development of entrepreneurial spirit in many papers,
agreements and projects (see appendix 4).
3.2 Can entrepreneurship be taught?
The idea the characteristics of entrepreneurs cannot be taught or learned
because they are innate has long been prevailing. Today, the recognition of
entrepreneurship as a discipline is helping to disperse this myth (Kuratko &
Hodgetts, 2000).
In fact, there are some qualities that cannot be taught (to have entrepreneurial
parents and some innate risk-taking propensity), but certain skills can be
stimulated, trained and potentiated to become an entrepreneur (Miner, 2000;
Davidsson, 2008).
According to Drucker (1993: 3) “most of what you hear about entrepreneurship
is all wrong. It is not magic; it is not mysterious; and it has nothing to do with
genes. It is a discipline and, like any discipline, it can be learned.” Not
surprisingly, most entrepreneurship scholars seem to agree that
entrepreneurship can be learned and taught. However, it can be seen that the
points of view vary significantly by country, region or culture (see appendix 5).
Therefore, assuming that entrepreneurs are not born but made, it is crucial to
encourage entrepreneurship, through entrepreneurial culture, education and
public policy. Education can help shape an entrepreneurial culture, while the
culture can help to increase the effectiveness of entrepreneurship educational
initiatives.
35
The argument might be that entrepreneurship education would generate more
and better entrepreneurs than in the past (Ronstadt, 1985) and would increase
the chances of obtaining entrepreneurial success (Bjerke, 2008).
To maximize possible impacts, we will focus next on the what, how, where and
who to teach entrepreneurship (see summary in appendix 6).
3.2.1 What to teach?
Although a few exceptional individuals are born entrepreneurs, the development
of an entrepreneurial attitude can be encouraged in all people (European
Commission, 2004a). Therefore, entrepreneurship should not be considered
just as a mean for creating new businesses, but as a general attitude that can
be usefully applied by everyone in their daily life and working experience.
The objectives of teaching about entrepreneurship (adapted to the different
levels of education) will therefore include personal development, business
development and entrepreneurial skill development (European Commission,
2002; 2004a).
For personal development it means promoting the development of personal
qualities that are relevant to entrepreneurship and in their own lives, such as
confidence, personal initiative, creativity and responsibility. Business
development is increased by providing the business skills that are needed in
order to engage in self-employment, employment and in entrepreneurship. And
finally, the entrepreneurial skill development is done through training in social
skills, creative problem solving, opportunity seeking, selling, presentations,
group leadership, community co-operation, dealing with bureaucracy, etc.
36
The differentiated understanding of entrepreneurship is then linked to three
different sets of entrepreneurship learning (figure 3): (1) learning to understand
entrepreneurship; (2) learning to become entrepreneurial; and (3) learning to
become an entrepreneur (Hytti, 2008, Alberti et al., 2005).
Figure 3: Three levels of understanding entrepreneurship (Forfas, 2007: 48)
Ultimately, it is about skills and attitudes that can take many forms during an
individual’s career, creating a range of long-term benefits to society and the
economy.
3.2.2 Where to teach?
Even if entrepreneurship can be partly learned, the question is where this
should be done. With regard to this question, the points of view vary within
various cultures (see appendix 7).
However, according to the European Commission (2004b), the education
system should help to stimulate an entrepreneurial culture among young
people, not only in high education but also in basic and secondary education.
37
This could be either through public initiatives or through partnerships between
private and public, as for example the initiatives of civil society and international
networks long implemented in several countries (as NFTE).
The importance of entrepreneurship as one of the basic skills to be provided
through lifelong learning is recognized today. The Lisbon European Council and
the European Charter for Small Enterprises have stressed this point and the
importance of teaching entrepreneurship at all school levels (European
Commission, 2004a; 2004d). The purpose of embedding entrepreneurship at all
levels of education is to create an environment that is conducive to
entrepreneurial activity among students, researchers and faculty members
(Greene & Rice, 2002; Gibb, 1993).
The European Foundation for Entrepreneurship Research (EFER) and several
authors (Lipper, 1987; Gibb, 1987; Hatten & Ruhland, 1995) consider that the
earlier and more widespread the exposure to entrepreneurship is, the more
likely it is that students will consider becoming entrepreneurial in one form or
another, at some stage in their lives.
Fostering an entrepreneurial culture in education involves an intervention in the
education and training systems, but also in other institutions and socializing
agents such as the media in achieving this goal (Ministerio de Educación y
Ciencia, 2006).
3.2.3 Who to teach?
The teacher plays a crucial role in the overall effectiveness of any
entrepreneurship programme. To be successful, it demands entrepreneurial
38
teachers, working as entrepreneurial socialization agents (Gibb, 1993).
Teachers may need training in either or both the experiential pedagogy and the
business content, because it implies at least some operational changes in the
current education model. Their training curriculum should be nearly as
extensive as the underlying curriculum for students (World Economic Forum,
2009).
It is also important to work closely with entrepreneurs, as an example for others
to follow. As it is said in the World Economic Forum (2009: 33), “no
entrepreneurship programme can succeed without close interaction with
entrepreneurs”.
The most suitable profile would be a combination of a good classroom instructor
(with or without knowledge and experience in entrepreneurship before training
in the subject) and structured interactions with entrepreneurs. “Very few
teachers will have been entrepreneurs, and very few entrepreneurs will be good
teachers” (World Economic Forum, 2009: 33).
Then, entrepreneurship education should be taught by a combination of both
teacher and entrepreneur.
3.2.4 How to teach?
Davies and Gibb (quoted in Greene & Rice, 2002) suggest that using traditional
education methods to develop entrepreneurs does not have the wanted results.
In fact, teaching entrepreneurship requires a different pedagogical approach to
other subjects and to the pedagogies that existed in the second half of the
twentieth century.
39
To be effective, the entrepreneur, like any other learner, needs to employ
different learning styles: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization and active experimentation. The findings of a large number of
researchers (Gibb, 1987; Garavan & O’Cinnelde, 1994; Greene & Rice, 2002;
Bucha, 2009; World Economic Forum, 2009) indicate that the best way to teach
entrepreneurship is through student centred, active experiential learning and not
didactically as most other subjects are taught.
The World Economic Forum (2009) describes some examples of experiential
learning methodologies (see appendix 8) and stresses the importance of
learning outside the class and through visuals. Apart from that, it is agreed that
the contact and the stories of examples of entrepreneurs may inspire students
(especially those from poor or marginalized backgrounds).
This experimental learning gives students an active role, in opposition to the
traditional “listen and take notes” role (Garavan & O’Cinnelde, 1994), essential
to be able to think for themselves, encouraging the use of feelings, attitudes,
and values, also when dealing with conflict situations. Through these active
methodologies, the entrepreneurship education may prepare them for learning
in and for the outside world.
As Bucha (2009) refer, we must aspire to teaching models that encourage
students to continue learning throughout their experience. In this context, the
experience of “learning by doing” becomes important.
40
3.3 Entrepreneurship education for disadvantaged yo ung people
“All human beings are inherently entrepreneurial, that is, entrepreneurial
potential is in all of us, in the same sense that all humans are innately musical,
linguistic and morally reflective” (World Economic Forum, 2009: 25).
In the US and Europe, recent studies have revealed a high number of students
who drop out of school, with the consequent social and economic problems.
Some of the reasons for such situation are that students do not see the
connection between the academic curriculum and what they need at their
workplace. To address both the problem of school disengagement,
unemployment and the need for individuals to learn to take responsibility for
their futures, entrepreneurship education should be integrated at education and
training structures.
It is important to note the extent to which governments give priority to
supporting specific target groups in the area of Entrepreneurship Policy.
Offering entrepreneurship as a career option to everyone in our societies does
not just bring economic benefits, but may also give new perspectives to
people’s careers, specifically for disadvantaged people (Lundström, Almerud &
Stevenson, 2008; Cuervo, Ribeiro & Roig (2007).
41
3.3.1 The NFTE organization
In U.S. there is a long tradition in promoting and supporting entrepreneurship
and a high number of students quitting school.
Steve Mariotti in 1987 founded NFTE to prevent dropouts and improve
academic performance among students who were at risk of exclusion.
Nowadays, NFTE’s mission is to teach entrepreneurship and empower young
people from low-income communities by improving academic, business,
technological, and life skills.
NFTE has worked with more than 300,000 young people since its founding and
with more than 1,500 certified entrepreneurship teachers. It has programmes in
28 states and 13 countries outside the United States (see NFTE network in
appendix 9).
NFTE programme had in fact been a success worldwide and many programmes
and initiatives have copy NFTE model. Indeed, NFTE had a good impact and
feedback from the NFTE alumni. Brandeis University (1993-1997), the Koch
Foundation (1998-1999), and the Harvard Graduate School of Education (2002-
present) have researched the impact and effectiveness of NFTE’s programmes.
The Harvard Graduate School of Education findings in 2001, stress the
increasing students’ interest in attending college and in occupational
aspirations. Brandeis University and Koch Foundation in 1993 had highlighted
the impacts of NFTE programmes in their academic and professional life: 70%
were in post-secondary education; 43% had part-time jobs and 33% were still
running a business.
42
3.4 Entrepreneurship education in Belgium and Irela nd1
There is a lack of a clear and generally accepted definition of the term
“entrepreneurship” in Belgium and in Ireland and to what extent education can
play a role. The definition of entrepreneurship education in Flanders is quite
broad and prioritizes as Ireland (usually named enterprise education), the
development of skills and attitudes that are important for everyday life: the
immaterial dimensions (Flanders in Action, 2006; Cooney & Kidney, 2007).
Although this Flemish-speaking part of Belgium enjoys a competitive and
productive economy, it is also a region with an ageing population. According to
Cooney & Kidney (2007) the current environment in Ireland is highly beneficial
to entrepreneurial activity, and in opposition to Belgium, the population profile is
relatively young.
Can entrepreneurship be taught?
Belgium as well as Flanders has an enormous lack of entrepreneurial activity
essentially because of mental block rather than financing or competence
problem. In Ireland, many of individuals have confidence in their ability to
successfully start and run a business because their culture is highly supportive
of entrepreneurship. Based on various indicators, Ireland is only just behind the
elite group of the most entrepreneurial countries in the world. However,
enterprise education programmes still on the periphery of the formal education
system (Cooney & Kidney, 2007).
1 More detailed characterization concerning context, educational system, entrepreneurial activity among “minorities” or entrepreneurship policy to promote Entrepreneurship education in appendix 10.
43
In the European Commission’s Eurobarometer (2001, quoted by Crijns &
Vermeulen, 2007:11) the majority of Belgians interviewed say that
“entrepreneurship can be partially learned”. Despite some disagreement within
the educational institutions, Belgians agree that the most suitable time for
students to learn it is during higher education. The annual GEM research
indicates that the early education remains one of Flanders’ problem areas.
According to the same research, the majority of Irish people interviewed agree
that “entrepreneurship can be learned”. They also agreed that the most suitable
time for students to learn it is at school or secondary education. Ireland was, in
fact recognized internationally by the European Commission as one of the best
examples of entrepreneurship education in terms of the Transition year in the
school system (Cooney & Kidney, 2007).
This year’s programme is designed to promote a range of competencies and
skills that are often difficult to incorporate into the traditional academic
curriculum (e.g. life skills) as well as providing the students with experience of
adult and working life. The Irish government, through the Department of
Education, has contributed greatly in promoting the development of life skills
through entrepreneurship education in Irish secondary schools (EGFSN, 2009;
Condon & McNaboe, 2009).
The highly decentralized education system in Flanders allows for
entrepreneurship education as it is up to particular schools to decide their own
teaching methods, curriculum, and timetables and also to decide on the most
suitable entrepreneurship education strategy. Therefore, students’ contact with
enterprise education may vary depending on the place where they’ve been
educated (ESF Flanders, 2007). Entrepreneurship education is mainly optional
44
in Belgium, but is in the pathway to be included in the curriculum. Nevertheless,
aspects of entrepreneurship such as creativity and sense of initiative are
incorporated as cross-curricular attainment targets in primary and secondary
schools. Most of the programmes concentrate on general secondary education
level. Statutory courses on entrepreneurship are only found in some fields of
VET (vocational education and training) and higher education.
Entrepreneurship Policy
In the 1990s with the Industrial Development Act in 1993, the Irish economic
policy began to support policy towards indigenous enterprise and gained focus
through the development of industry support agencies (e.g. Forfas, Enterprise
Ireland - EI). In Belgium is not clear when started to be promoted, because of
the division of competences in the different regions. However, it is believed that
started later on and with less power (Spyns et al., 2008a).
There is a growing awareness in both countries of the importance of
entrepreneurship education across all levels. There are many initiatives taken
by the government and other departments (public, private sector initiatives,
education, business and industry sector) to support and stimulate the culture
and spirit of entrepreneurship, but there is no explicit national policy for
entrepreneurship and coherent entrepreneurship education strategy
(Lundström, Almerud & Stevenson, 2008; Crijns & Vermeulen, 2007).
The State’s primary responsibility in relation to entrepreneurship policy is to
ensure the environment and essential framework conditions to support the
development of a sustainable enterprise sector. The government usually
45
subsidizes entrepreneurship education programmes that are provided by
intermediary organizations (governmental and private) (ESF Flanders, 2007).
CHAPTER 4 Study Design
Before analyzing the results of the research concerning entrepreneurship
training, the present chapter will describe the methodologies used and the main
conditions which have conducted the research.
The research was carried out taking into account the main research question,
which is:
“What is the contribution of entrepreneurship training in the development of life
skills in young people?” comparing NFTE organizations in Belgium and Ireland.
This present research aims to (1) understand the contribution of (NFTE)
entrepreneurship training in the development of life skills in young people; (2) to
identify the similarities and differences between the programme implemented in
Belgium and Ireland; (3) to understand the teachers' opinion on the most
appropriate teaching methods to achieve the goals of the programme in a more
efficient way; (4) to realize the importance recognized by the different actors
(manager and trainer) to the profile and social context of young people in
programme results; and (5) to understand how is the programme evaluated
from the perspective of different actors (manager, trainer and former trainee).
46
4.1 A comparative research
According to Hantrais & Letablier (1996) and May (2001: 200) we talk about a
cross-national and comparative research when “one or more units in two or
more societies, cultures or countries are compared in respect of the same
concepts and concerning the systematic analysis of phenomena.” Therefore, by
comparing the context, practice and contribution of NFTE entrepreneurship
training in the development of life skills in young people in Brussels and Dublin,
we intend to understand what concepts are used and how they are
implemented. Thereby, differences and similarities are analyzed in both cities
and countries in order to gain a better understanding of the “social reality”, as
maintains Hantrais & Letablier (1996: 1).
May (2001) argues that by analysing the relations between the economic, social
and political national sphere we can understand why countries developed in
similar or different ways. However, it is important to understand each society,
cultures, groups and individuals that distinguish themselves from the one
another, to know the rules which work in it, to allow for the equivalence of
meaning. We will not assume that what is appropriate in the Belgium culture will
necessarily be appropriate in the Irish culture, or other. Another common
problem is the linguistic differences when doing a cross-national comparison.
However, in this case that is not a problem, because the concepts used are
mainly equivalent, because they are adopted from the same American
organization (NFTE U.S.).
Indeed, as the field of entrepreneurship training is getting more and more
attention throughout Europe, the comparative analysis can be beneficial to
47
share and improve by learning with both its strengths and limitations cross-
national practices.
The choice of the two countries (Belgium and Ireland) was firstly lead by the fact
that NFTE only works in some of the European countries such as: Belgium (the
first in Europe), Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Austria, and Netherlands.
Secondly, the lifetime of the programme: Belgium was the first to implement the
NFTE in Europe (in 1998) and Ireland implemented it recently (2005),
corresponding to different stages of development and implementation.
That means that the structural context in which the research has been taken did
not differ widely, which made the comparison more reliable and valid.
4.2 Study population
The permission to conduct the research and to do the interviews was sought
and achieved from the contact (in NFTE website) with the NFTE programme
manager in Belgium and Ireland, explaining the research aims and main
questions, also involving them as participants in the present research, as
suggest Brewerton & Millward (2001). The trainer to participate in the research
has been chosen by them, based on their experience and recognition as Trainer
of the Year (NFTE recognition for their good performance). The two young
former trainees have been chosen by the participant trainers or managers, as
those who finished the training and which, in their understanding, met the NFTE
programme aim (see more detailed characterization of interviewed profile, in
appendix 11).
48
Identification
Code
Age Gender FUNCTION
NFTE
Belgium
BM 54 Female Manager, coordinator
BT 66 Male Trainer
Bt1 18 Male Young former trainee
Bt2 17 Female Young former trainee
NFTE
Ireland
IM Female Manager, coordinator
IT 27 Female Teacher/Trainer
It1 15 Female Young former trainee
It2 15 Female Young former trainee
Table 2: Framework for the conduction of the interviews.
These eight interviews were held during working hours at a quite place in the
NFTE building and lasted between 45 - 1:15 minutes.
4.3 Methods of Data Collection
The methodological instruments are merely the tools for gathering data, and it is
important to select the best tools to do it effectively. This research used
methodologies in the field of qualitative research, which is characterized by a
comprehensive paradigm. This choice was based on the fact that qualitative
perspective can provide a “deeper” understanding of the social phenomena in
an individual’s perception of the world, as refer Silverman (2001).
There are two major methods of data collection that have been used in order to
answer the research question: documentary research and interviews.
49
4.3.1 Documentary research
Documentary research is very important for setting the theoretical framework. It
was taken from books, journals, reports, articles and web pages (mainly from
NFTE and governmental websites in both countries). The research of
documentation was selective and focused on the research topic, questions,
research design, and has been conducted in both examined countries, in order
to understand this interesting topic and to write about its developments in both
contexts.
As May (2001:177) claims, “they are an important source of data for
understanding and explaining events, processes and transformations in social
relations”. They were useful for a multifaceted understanding of the researched
problem, interconnecting different areas of study such as entrepreneurship,
education, economy, and pedagogy. Sources like books, NFTE websites, e-
journals and journal articles have had an important and significant impact on
gathering information for this research due to its relatively concise and up-to-
date information. Nevertheless, “authenticity”, “credibility”, “representativeness”,
“context” and meaning of all kind of documents were permanently tested and
analyzed by the researcher as May suggests (2001: 189).
Through this method, was also found NFTE organization web sites, which were
used for the comparative theoretical analysis of NFTE programmes. Also in
those websites, we could find the main contacts, which were used to contact the
NFTE managers from Belgium and Dublin for research permission and
collaboration.
50
4.3.2 Semi-structured interviews
In order to fully comprehend the contribution of entrepreneurship training is
necessary a detailed research about the NFTE work. The only source of
information capable for this purpose are the persons who are directly involved in
the entrepreneurship training. Therefore, qualitative interviews with key
informants were conducted to provide, as May (2001:120) refers “rich insights
into people’s experiences, opinions, aspirations, attitudes and feelings”. Due to
the limit time frame, size and scope of the research, was planned since the
beginning to only interview four actors in each country to maintain the research
doable: one of the programme managers (1); one trainer/teacher (1) and two
young learners (2). The interviews served to give an insight into the perspective
and understanding of the manager, trainers and former trainees about the
contribution of entrepreneurship training in the development of life skills.
There were three different interview guidelines according to the three
organizational layers (manager, trainer, trainees) in order to answer the
research questions (in appendix 12). However, the interview guideline for
manager and trainer had similar but specific questions divided in three main
categories. First, there were the “individual profile”; secondly, the “programme
conception and implementation” and finally, the “evaluation of the programme”.
The trainee interview had a different model, in order to understand the
contribution of the programme in their lives. Therefore, it was composed by, first
the “individual profile” and secondly by a category about the “NFTE
entrepreneurship training”, sub-divided in three main timetables, the “before the
51
entrepreneurship training”, “during” and after the training in order to have a
broader information.
Such dimensions ensure that basic and specific information is collected and
they serve as a classification of the analysis and the comparison. These
predetermined questions assure that specific information is gathered, but leave
space for the interviewees to answer what is suitable and important to mention.
(Saunders et al., 2003)
In both cities, the interviews were conducted as face-to-face interviews and
were electronically recorded, and later on, transcribed.
4.4 Ethical considerations and limitations
All scientific works, like the present research, have to take into account certain
considerations and limitations such as ethics of conducting social science
research (Homan, 1991: 23). Therefore, the research was built upon close co-
operation and dialogue with research participants, with confidence and
individual respect as integral parts. Concerning to trustworthiness, we firstly
explain to all participants the reasons of the interview and the research (Larrota,
et al., 2009). We also ask permission in both countries to record all interviews in
a tape recorder. The interviewees were ensured that all given information would
treat with cautiousness and their personal identity would be kept anonymous,
unless they agree on divulging their identity (Saunders et al., 2003). However,
we had informed consent from the participants for both and all of them feel
comfortable with being named.
52
Concerning the research’s limitations it is to say that the given time frame was
experienced as one major obstacle to investigate a subject, so a longitudinal
study was impossible to manage. Since the paper’s challenge was to narrow it
down, several related aspects had to be neglected for ulterior studies.
Therefore, and due to the limit time frame, size and scope of the research, it
was necessary to limit the amount of cross-checking that could be done and
analyzed, always founded in validity, reliability and feasibility, not in generality
(Saunders et al., 2003; Silverman, 2001). The methods of data collection, for
example, were chosen as Brewerton & Millward (2001) suggest, based on fact
that they were appropriate to the research goals. The amount of interviews was
also linked with the time available, which made the research more feasible.
The whole research-process effort was made to conduct a study that does not
run the risk of manipulating the outcome by subjectivity or judgments (May,
2001: 47).
53
CHAPTER 5 Data Analysis and Discussion
The present chapter deals with the analysis and discussion of the interviews
data, conducted in Belgium and Ireland NFTE organizations. The key layers are
the managers, the trainers and the former trainees.
The manager from each country will therefore be denominated IM (Ireland
Manager) and BM (Belgium Manager). The managers’ interview will contribute
to the analysis of both three parameters: the conception, implementation and
evaluation of the programme.
The trainers will be denominated IT (Ireland Trainer) and BT (Belgium Trainer).
Their main contribution is in the implementation and evaluation of the
programme.
Finally, the two former trainees from both countries will be denominated It1, It2
(Ireland trainee 1 and 2) and Bt1, Bt2 (Belgium trainee 1 and 2). Although the
interview guideline contained information relative to the time before, during and
after the programme, we decided to analyze only the information on the
trainees’ evaluation of the programme (after the programme). This is mainly
because the trainees had finished the programme recently and did not have
relevant information to the research to pick in the previous sections.
Further analysis is based in a table for analysis made from the information
gathered in the interviews (see in appendix 13). Parallel information, concerning
to NFTE organizational structure, gathered during the interviews is in appendix
14.
54
5.1 Conception of the NFTE programme in both countr ies
Belgium and Ireland started their NFTE programme at different periods.
Although both managers refer to the short time working in the country, NFTE
Ireland started recently, in 2005, and NFTE Belgium is working since 1998.
Cultural and time issues play a role on different perspectives about
management, sustainability and educational principles. Introducing a new
organization, with new models takes time. It is necessary to start from previous
successful models as a base, until they have sustainability to adapt it to their
own context. Thus, it is noted that we cannot copy models from other country,
but we can learn from them. The exchange of information from other countries
is positive.
Considering the relevance of the relationship with NFTE US, from managers’
perspective, we can identify two different categories in the analyzed European
programs: an operational perspective (IM) and a philosophical perspective
(BM). In fact while the IM puts in evidence the resources and program
standards received from NEFT headquarters, the BM emphasize specially “the
spirit that came across in Mariotti’s NFTE team on the US”.
5.1.1 NFTE’s Mission
Although both NFTE’s have initiated at different periods, both started by private
initiative, to cover lack of governmental entrepreneurship education initiatives
for young people with low-income. In both cases, the contact with the founder of
NFTE U.S. (Steve Mariotti) led the construction of NFTE.
55
In fact, as it has been focused in chapter 3, NFTE is an international
organization, which had its start in U.S. In order to continue growing, NFTE U.S.
licenses the programmes to established international NFTE licensed partners
that shares the same mission: teaching entrepreneurship to young people from
low-income communities. Licensed Partners as NFTE Belgium and Ireland are
responsible for raising funds and staff in their region while meeting the U.S.
rigorous programme standards. As Bornstein (2007) states, entrepreneurs need
to take matters into their hands, to drive innovation for society. Then, we can
say that entrepreneur mobilize resources in a different way from the traditionally
used by society (Drucker, 1985).
Like this, the managers of both countries agree that their main mission comes
from America: to “empower youth in disadvantage communities”.
Working with disadvantaged communities is dealing with population that have
social or/and economic problems. Both managers and trainers agree that
questions as unemployment, poverty and unqualified young people are their
main working areas. They believe that entrepreneurship education may
contribute to the continuity of their studies, and work and that may influence all
the parts of their lives. Usually, this kind of population does not receive the
government’s attention or support and, most of the times, does not receive
support at home. Therefore, and because they have the need to do so, they
seize opportunities with greater will than most of other youngsters. They are
strictly working with this target population which is then the major requirement to
the institutions with whom they may work, also associated with staff and time
resources:
56
“[…] they should be in a disadvantaged area […] from the age of thirteen (13) to
eighteen (18)” (IM);
“[…] from fifteen (15) to eighteen (18) in alternative schools, who go two days to
the alternative training centre […] Then we have the group between eighteen
(18) and thirty (30), who are young adults who are usually unemployed" (BM).
On the other hand it is possible to identify, in each programme, some
particularities related to national problems (in appendix 10) and specific goals
and priorities to achieve.
In fact the social and economic national problems were mentioned by BM as
leading factors:
“[…] many young people are struggling to find their pathway for life, and
sometimes they are stuck in unemployment […] and not necessarily motivated
for school and for the workforce” (BM).
Therefore BM focuses more in young people professional integration while IM in
their personal development:
“[…] what we want to do is to give young people an opportunity to study
entrepreneurship […] to give a little benefit or value to people that do not have
it” (IM).
“[…] our main focus is to push them to work, activity, to develop a positive
attitude […] most of all professional integration” (BM).
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5.2 Implementation of the NFTE programme in both co untries
According to those particular target-populations, the programmes will focus in
different delivery structures to reach their objectives.
5.2.1 Educational NFTE structures
NFTE Ireland, which has adopted the American model, delivers NFTE mainly to
formal educational structures (DEES), which are specifically working with
disadvantaged communities. In parallel with the school system, NFTE Ireland
also works with the young people system, which we can characterize as
informal educational structures and also deliver some summer camps (typically
American).
NFTE Belgium, which has adapted the programme to their own culture and
specificities, deliver exclusively to informal educational structures, where they
can find their target population:
"In NFTE Belgium […] we have opted for deliver NFTE partly to the school
context for young people who go to alternative schools (15-18) spending the
two days [of training] in this centre, and mostly in location training centres […]
where we will find young adults (18-30) who are out of school, at risk of
exclusion, neither motivated to school, neither motivated to courses" (BM).
Both formal and informal delivery structures integrate NFTE in an academic
year, as a module. Usually it is nine (9) consecutive weeks, one day per week,
which results in 60 hours of training. However, in NFTE Ireland, as is integrated
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in formal educational structures, students have the possibility to repeat it, as a
second course. This strategy has a positive feedback from the trainer’s
perspective:
“[…] in this school they started [NFTE] initially with their Transition Year
programme but now they have incorporated also into the fifth year, which would
be an advanced level […].at this stage the students can tackle the programme a
little bit better than before, because they learned from their mistakes. I think
allowing the students to do the programme again is a good thing" (IT).
5.2.2 Trainers Requirements
Linked with the chosen delivery structures are the NFTE trainers’ requirements.
Both managers agree that the trainers profile make the difference in NFTE
programme.
In fact the trainers’ personal motivation and the NFTE training course are two
important criteria to be a NFTE trainer. So, the trainer preparation course is
indispensable, “because it is such a specific thing to do” (BM).
“[...] the more motivated they are, and the more they understand NFTE, the
better the programme […] because you're going to be asked to do much more
than just delivering another subject” (IM);
“[…] it requires a lot of patience, a lot of humour, a lot of perseverance, a lot of
love [...] you have to be willing, maybe even specially motivated to work with a
challenging group of young people" (BM).
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The trainer from Belgium also mentioned the motivation as an important factor
to live, rather than to teach. The trainer from Ireland however, focused more on
the preparation course as an important factor to achieve NFTE’S mission. This
different perspective is also linked with the chosen delivery models. Therefore,
they have different perspectives about who should teach NFTE’s programme.
On one hand, in Ireland, they require a teacher from the school or a young
worker where NFTE works:
“You don't need to have any entrepreneurship background, just to be a teacher
or a youth worker […] it would be great if they had a business background but it
is not 100% necessary from our perspective” (IM);
In Belgium, on the other hand, they require an entrepreneurship background:
"They have to be either entrepreneurs or they have to have an extensive field of
the corporate world and to know what is about […] that it is very important for
young people, to establish contact with this trainers, with their background that
maybe they have never encounter before, it is another style, another way of
doing things […] and that gives them courage in life” (BM).
"If you have that expertise you also have the understanding of the crucial
knowledge of the field. […] it is the way of understanding the difficulty of your
learner” (BT).
Because NFTE Ireland is integrated in the school system, they require teachers
from those schools to teach NFTE’s programme, as an integrative approach.
That way, the same teacher from other subject may also be the NFTE trainer.
They may have previous contact with students, which may help in approaching
them. So, IT from school would give more importance to the NFTE trainer
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training, because of the insight knowledge about business and how to teach it in
a different way gained.
NFTE Belgium is integrated in the informal educational system, more focused in
professional integration of those young people at risk of exclusion (15-30). So,
they want a practical and re-integrative approach, as practical examples of
entrepreneurs to empower young people to re-integrate school or work.
Entrepreneurs share their knowledge and work experience with the youngsters,
however they should develop the right skills to teach and work with this specific
target population.
Despite these differences, all the interviewed (managers and trainers) seem to
agree that the most important factor to be a good trainer is to be passionate,
motivated and interested in the NFTE’s programme and in those young people.
5.2.3 Programme methodologies
As a teacher or as an entrepreneur, the programme methodologies they use
and learn in NFTE trainer preparation course seem to be the same: an
experimental and active learning. Those methodologies were adopted from
NFTE U.S. as the most appropriate to approach entrepreneurship education:
“[…] it is just to teach a little bit differently (IM, IT) […] what they have done it is
that they have set up a plan […] (IM; IT) is pretty much learning by doing” (IM;
BM; BT; IT)
“[…] this learning by doing is speaking more to young people, particularly in this
type of youth […].They want to work, they do not want theoretical analyses. […]
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understanding is the key” (BT); “they don't even realize they're learning because
it is fun" (IM);
“I think it is better a more practical approach, obviously you need to cover the
theory […] but I think they learn more from it. I think they remember it a little bit
more than if they were reading from a book” (IT)
These active learning is also possible through debates, games, dynamics and
businesses visits. Both programmes also include volunteers, from different
backgrounds, as important business people, which came to class to give their
own example. This methodology is widely used, and especially recommended
in Ireland, because is their main contact with entrepreneurs. Also according to
Crijns & Vermeulen (2007) and Martins, et al, (2008), those direct contacts with
entrepreneurs should be encouraged, to give students a better idea of how it
works.
Also the duration of the training is another example of an active and practical
approach. The NFTE course is usually one hour once a week (for nine weeks)
in order to give young people the needed time to “work on their attitudes,
knowledge and development” (BM). It is in fact considered by both managers as
a good timeframe to develop the desired skills.
An experimental and active learning also requires active and supportive
trainers. The NFTE trainer preparation course provides the business concepts,
practical learning methodologies and tips about how to deal with this special
target population.
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It is in fact an original approach to teach trainers the same things that trainees
will learn, in a condensed way. Therefore they will feel and understand better
the trainees’ fears and difficulties to help them. Managers and trainers feel that
trainers need to act more as a “facilitator”, as also argues Gibb (1993):
“[…] they are best described as someone who helps to develop a person within
himself/herself […] they facilitate the young person's learning, they assist them
in going through the process of understanding entrepreneurship, as opposed to
directing to learn more academically in a white board […] that's what teachers
do” (IM);
"More than even the methods it is through the all personality [of the trainers]
and their willingness to go with every participant until the end of the programme.
Our trainers are very energetic and realistic [...] to make it happen for
everybody, to make a fun experience for everybody" (BM).
According to the trainers, their trainees’ needs in NFTE programme were linked
to the “facilitator support”. Both trainers agree that trainees need them mainly
for the entrepreneurship concept understanding. For the full understanding of
entrepreneurship concepts (such as a business idea), trainees do need to feel
trainers’ availability to help them in the classroom:
"[...] availability is the basic condition. They should feel your availability for help
so they see you in the beginning as a trainer teacher (that is the world they
know), but gradually you see that their appreciation changes, that they start
understanding that you are a real guide, a really help for them” (BT);
"(...) when they start the NFTE programme, they need a lot of teacher
interaction […] it allows for the teacher to facilitate classes, rather than teach
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them […] you develop much closer relationships with the students. […] When
the class finishes you can meet them on the corridor and have a conversation
about the business and other different subjects. You do not have that kind of
interaction with the students [in other programmes]" (IT).
Apart from concept understanding and availability, BT also adds other important
role for trainers: trust building.
"Their needs are common to all, are mainly needs of trust. […] When you give
trust you get trust” (BT).
This way, in BT opinion the programme methodologies do not focus only on the
business knowledge and curriculum but also and ultimately, to the human
development:
“[…] we go for the guy, for the girl, not for the stuff. The curriculum is just a
strategy via which we can reach them. […] the curriculum is important because
it gives them a way of experimenting that they can learn, they can award and
build up their trust […] it is just providing a platform […]. The objective is to give
them an opportunity to grow. They have been growing in that sixty hours in a
way they won't grow otherwise" (BT).
The interviewed managers and trainers seem to agree that those practical
methodologies are the most suitable to achieve the programme’s objectives.
Most of those young people are unmotivated and tired of theoretical
approaches. They want practical approaches and useful knowledge for their
future and for their own development.
These findings also reinforce the literature that argues that entrepreneurship education is
particularly successful when it employs a more hands-on experiential learning approach
(Solomon et al., 2002; Kuratko, 2005).
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Furthermore, given that passion and emotion are increasingly acknowledged as
having an vital role in various aspects of entrepreneurship (Baron, 2008;
Cardon, et al., 2009), such reaffirmed attention to the emotional aspects of
entrepreneurship may well be one of the most important contributions of
entrepreneurship education research (Souitaris et al., 2007; Lepoutre et al.,
2010).
5.2.4 Management role and Programme sustainability
After the NFTE’s programme the trainees still have the follow up support, given
by both NFTE’s. However, NFTE Ireland has more limited support, with a
workshop about marketing, financial and legal stuff for those who want to go
further with their business idea. NFTE Belgium develops a more
professionalized coaching. They offer two years of free coaching after the NFTE
programmes, also with the possibility for a loan. This fact may influence the
amount of disadvantaged young people starting their business, because
finances are usually their main barrier.
It is important to note that NFTE Belgium did not have this financial recognition
until now. It took a long time of work on this area (since 1998) and their long list
of sponsors and networks.
Referring to the programme’s funding, NFTE Ireland and Belgium are both
supported financially mostly by private funding. However, while NFTE Ireland is
not receiving any funding from the government (“at no stage the government
refers to us” - IM), NFTE Belgium is receiving “some grants for certain projects”
(BM).
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This issue of financial recognition is also linked with the role that the manager
has in NFTE and with the history of entrepreneurship education and policy of
the country.
There are a lot of initiatives of entrepreneurship education in Ireland. However,
NFTE Ireland is a quite new organization. To help NFTE Ireland financially, and
to get stronger from the beginning, NFTE Ireland will merge with FOROIGE, a
young organization which has a well-built network as well as with the
government. NFTE Ireland is now hoping to get funding through FOROIGE
collaboration. Therefore, the management role in NFTE Ireland is more
operative, while in Belgium they are also operative but more strategic.
NFTE Ireland is working since 2005, but the actual manager is working there for
two and a half years which may influence the necessary role in NFTE. In the
beginning of a project or organization, it is in fact needed (as the manager said)
a more operational support in the schools, contact the sponsors and meet with
the teachers regularly to support them and receive their feedback. This hands-
on contact from the manager is needed at least until the sustainability and
stability of the programme is achieved. It is important until they get used to it
and gain some experience. However they are working in a large area and they
would need more staff than the two managers (which means more money) to
have a more strategic role:
"[...] we would be there [in the delivery structures] once a month to make sure
everything is doing all right and to support them, especially in the first year […]
"I contact directly with teachers, and ensure that the entire programme meets
the standards. And because there are only two of us, our job is mostly
operational as opposed to being strategic, and that is just because we do not
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have enough staff. So I am very hands-on […] I don't have time to be strategic,
and take a step back and do as much thinking as one should do, but we're in
the middle of the strategic planning […] (IM).
NFTE Belgium managers still have an operational role; however the tasks were
divided between the two managers and they are going to every certification
[presentation of the business plans]:
“There’s always one of us there, because you can just see from the result of
what people are presenting, how the course went. […] You simply can see what
the focus in the course was, if it was more technical, social, and financial or if
was more of the heart of the project […] (BM, p.16);
They are still going to schools and centres, to see how things are going, or to
some difficult group, but not that regularly, only when necessary or they feel that
they should go:
“[…] Especially when there are problems and the teachers are calling saying
that they have a very difficult group [...], not only to try to bring the group back to
board, but also to see how the trainers are doing or not doing, that could
improve the process” (BM).
This face-to-face contact and involvement of all stakeholders is crucial in all
programme’s phases . At some point, that gives the image and reflection of the
entire programme. The websites of each country are also an important source
of exchange information about the programmes. In NFTE Belgium website we
see more detailed information and specific photos of the target groups. NFTE
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Ireland website however, has a more “business oriented” profile, without
specific photos of their work and their target group. Once again, the work
experience as well as cultural issues is behind this difference.
5.3 NFTE programme's Evaluation: managers, trainers & trainees
perspective
Although the conceptions of NFTE programme’s success may differ according
to different intervenient perspectives, it is possible to identify some relevant and
shared criteria.
The criteria of success for IM were more concerning to the programme’s
structure. For IM, NFTE is successful when trainees fulfil the programme and
trainers continue in the NFTE programme. BT also agrees that his continuity on
the programme reveals the programme’s success. Those aspects are the most
easily measured by the Irish manager. The continuity of trainee and trainers in
the programme is also related to the beginning phase of the programme in
Ireland and the importance of the continuity and sustainability of NFTE’s work.
The perception of personal development had unanimity by both managers and
trainers as the most important criteria to success:
"[…] it is not only about opening a business, but also about their personal
development." (BM);
"It is probably quite hard to find out what they learn because they are
developing themselves, so it is much more than writing a business plan, it is
about their own self-developments” (IM, p.5);
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"You see them really changing in the line of sixty hours. That is very emotional.
[…] they are aware of the way they are being propelled beyond their own
borders. […] we achieve much more on their personal development level (...).
You can guess it when you see this group, but it is under the table (...).it does
change their lives […] the unperceivable reality is that they have decided to take
responsibility for their lives in a much higher way that they did before. […] And
you really notice that. They tell you. [...] Unfortunately we cannot really bring
into statistics all what we do [...] (BT);
"[…] when she won, the confidence she gained from the NFTE’s programme
was unbelievable, she was able to stand up in front of a big crowd and talk
about her experience. I never imagined her being able to do that [...]. They need
to develop their life skills for the programme to be successful (IT);
Also, it was considered the most difficult criteria to measure, because it is about
trainees’ self-development, and only who had contact with the trainees
(especially the trainers) will see the difference between the before and the after
programme. It was agreed to be the most important effect from the programme.
Apart from the perception of (trainees) personal development, NFTE Belgium
also relates the success of NFTE with professional results. To become
entrepreneur, to find a job or return to school, are in BM opinion the successful
cases in NFTE:
“[…] these eighteen or nineteen who followed the NFTE courses and became
entrepreneurs [...]. It is also a success when the NFTE course has developed
the relative effort to find a job, to engage themselves in a positive way in the
69
workforce […] And also when they go back to school […] and are looking for a
new ways to complete their education." (BM);
Also both trainers, as they have direct contact with the trainees, refer the re-
engage to school as an important effect of NFTE course:
"[...] After the NFTE course, they all continued [school] because they have
probably flavoured a new way of learning and development, so to me that is a
countable success. It is not our major objective; it just illustrates the effect it has
in the youngsters" (BT);
"I supposed presence in classes would improve as well. I've done it myself, so it
does have a positive impact in the students and in this school […] they feel they
have to finish their education, there's no jobs out there" (IT).
Despite being the most easily measurable aspects, there are no studies already
confirming these impacts.
IT does not refer that becoming an entrepreneur is an important criterion, but
does refer a more educational parameter: winning awards. For two consecutive
years, they have win in one school the “international entrepreneur of the year”
(2009; 2010). It can also be seen as trainer work recognition.
5.3.1 Factors that influence the NFTE programme suc cess
According to the interviewed managers, trainers and trainees, the learning
methodologies, students’ value recognition and the programme’s design and
structure are the most important influencing factors for NFTE programme
success.
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Learning methodologies
The successful learning methodologies were described as “learning by doing”,
“an active and dynamic methodology” by managers and trainers in 5.2.3. These
findings also reinforce the tenet in much of the entrepreneurship education
literature that entrepreneurship education is particularly successful when it
employs a more hands-on experiential learning approach (Solomon et al., 2002;
Kuratko, 2005; European Commission, 2003; Martins, et al, 2008, Weaver,
1999). Also in trainees view those methodologies were the best methodologies
to motivate them to develop their own skills:
“They [methodologies] were more practical [...] this knowledge is really useful
[…] We learn more and in a better way when the classes are fun and relaxed
[…] you will not forget it so fast […]. The best strategies used were let us just
doing it" (Bt1; Bt2; It1; It2). “The whole class was involved [...]” (It2); “It was very
hands-on […]. You learn how to remember facts a lot easier: if you enjoy it you
learn […]" (It1);
These practical methodologies and “not boring classes” help the trainees to
become more independent and prepared for the future. They clearly think that
those methodologies had impact in their understanding of concepts, education
and ultimately, their own skills.
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Programme’s design and structure
The programme’s design and structure are also seen as an important factor of
success, ally the methodologies: very practical, useful and strong (BM, IM; BT;
IT; Bt1; Bt2). According to IM and BT, NFTE’s programme is a success for
trainers, because it is a “structured programme”, “really well designed and very
well supported”.
For BT, the programme is very flexible. In fact:
“It allows you to work on the person, to work on the individual skills. […] it is the
human contact that gives the additional knowledge […] we do not teach these
skills, we live them and they notice them [...]. (BT); "NFTE train in both
[entrepreneurial and life skills] indirectly through the business plan" (Bt2);
"I think the programme is successful because it gives the students an
opportunity to learn in a real life situation. […] they need to speak, they need to
listen, and they need to communicate to do all the everyday things, it is about
life skills” (IT).
As part of the programme’s structure, the trainees referred to the way the
training is giving also as a factor of success. Both trainees from Ireland referred
the NFTE training as mandatory in the school curriculum as a factor of success.
They think students will always learn something with it. IM, however, referred a
volunteer programme as a factor of success to the trainees. This is the case in
Belgium where trainees pointed the NFTE voluntary programme as a successful
point.
These differences have also to do with the cultural differences and needs of the
students. In fact, in Ireland, the NFTE training is integrated in school system, in
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a transition year well designed to their personal development. In Belgium is
especially directed to those unmotivated young people, who drop out of school.
Another aspect of NFTE success focused for one of the trainees, also related
with the programme’s structure (Bt2) was the follow up support, given by NFTE
Belgium in the follow two years.
The learning methodologies and the programme’s design and structure were
described as flexible, practical and strong which allows a good understanding of
entrepreneurship concepts but also the flexibility to developing important skills,
as entrepreneurial and life skills.
Students’ value recognition
These methodologies have an impact on the students’ value recognition, also
defined as a factor of success by the majority of the interviewed (BM; IM; IT;
BT; It1; Bt1; Bt2). By those methodologies and curriculum, the trainees do
develop their own skills, especially their confidence. For managers and trainers,
NFTE training empowers them and develops their confidence to create
something by themselves, also presenting it for others. The recognition that
they had done it well and they are certified as an entrepreneur when they're
finished. “For the first time ever they feel that they have been good at
something” (IM). This gives students a sense of achievement, for completing
the programme:
"I mean, you real feel proud of yourself for the recognition someone gives your
work" (It1).
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Linked with this perspective, for trainers (BT; IT) and in the opinion of IM, it is in
fact a factor of NFTE’s programme success the student development. In fact,
trainers do see them growing “slowly but surely, just becoming more in to
themselves” (IM), gaining confidence “to stand up in front the NFTE’s
programme” that they never imagined them doing (IT):
In fact, many authors refer as entrepreneurial motivations the need for
recognition; the desire for independence; personal development alongside the
desire to continue learning.
Trainers’ profile
According to both managers, high motivated trainers are also a factor of
success for NFTE’s programme: “good trainers are the key in our programmes”
(IM; BM). Actually, if they are motivated, the better will be the programme; the
better trainees will understand and will be motivated to learn; the more
motivated trainers will be with the seen impacts and they will continue in NFTE’s
programme. And that is success for NFTE: it is a continuous circular of success.
If trainers are motivated and passionate with NFTE’s programme is also
because of the continuous support from NFTE’s programme and from the
schools where they deliver, as refer IT:
“[schools] are very committed to the programme, which is great to happen from
both ends. It is not always like that in every school, so it makes my job easier"
(IT). In fact the involvement of the school also reflects in a more motivated and
involved teachers and students in the project, as suggest Raposo & Rodrigues
(2007).
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This passion and motivation from the trainers is recognized by the trainees as a
factor of success of NFTE. Compliments abound for NFTE trainers: “fun”,
“enthusiastic”, “passionate about what they taught”, “really helpful”, “get
everyone involved”; “really good in that [business]” (Bt2); “more practical than
the other teachers”; “more friends than the “normal” teachers”; “more like
facilitators”.
"I think the way they train us is important and has a positive impact in the way
we receive the knowledge, in the way we develop these [entrepreneurial and
life] skills, because we feel free to ask, to think and develop ourselves" (Bt1);
“she made us look on the inside" (It1).
“If they simply tell you how to do it, you will not be interested and even listen,
would be a boring class […] He had experience on that and that encourage us
to do it as well [...] (Bt2).
This list of trainers’ characteristics was simultaneous described by both trainees
(from both countries). Apparently, only one characteristic differ from both
trainers: their professional background. In Ireland, NFTE is integrated in school,
so they have teacher background. In Belgium, they are integrated in training
centres for people that are studying alternative trainings; studying and working
simultaneously or unemployed, so NFTE Belgium trainers have
entrepreneurship background.
“If you want to train entrepreneurship you should not go to a teacher. Teachers
are selling the examples of entrepreneurship […] they talk from a theoretical
background not from a practical one. […] you should first be an expert in your
field and then become a trainer in your field and not the other way around" (BT);
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"I was a student here. I'm back teaching, I am supposed to show the students
that they can aspire to be something if you want to be" (IT);
Even a teacher or an entrepreneur, they all must have the NFTE trainer training
course. In this training, they may develop the skills that are required in NFTE:
more business knowledge; more practical pedagogy, etc. Gibb (1993) also
states that the real challenge is to acquire teaching staff with the capability to
teach entrepreneurship. The most important aspects referred by the trainees
were based in the relation with the trainer, as a facilitator. The important
principle is to live the principles that NFTE is trying to take as a basis.
Both trainees from NFTE Ireland also mentioned the importance of contact with
successful entrepreneurs. Not only as guest speakers in the class, but also
students that had made NFTE programme before and have had success.
"[…] from seeing them we could see that it can actually work […] and achieve
your goals in life” (It2).
IT also agrees, saying that “seeing the prizes the students win […] they're more
motivated the second time around if they do a fifth year. They'll put in more work
and they'll become more competitive” (IT). So, a second NFTE programme
could be beneficial to students’ recognition, if they want to win and start a
business.
Trainees’ profile
In fact the youngsters profile characteristics may also influence the success of
NFTE. It is a matter of focus on the objectives. NFTE’s programme is defined
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for young people from disadvantaged communities and for specific ages.
However, both managers agree that if they had more resources they would
open this training to other ages, “maybe to all people”, because “it is useful and
works across all ages” (BM). But “it cannot be generalized” (BM), then they
made a choice to this specific age.
Despite both countries had “positive impacts in this age” (BM; IM; IT; BT); BM
and IM agree that they should start from a very younger age, with adapted
objectives and methodologies. IM refers to younger as they would have more
impact; however she is also aware that trainees should not be too young.
The success in this specific age in NFTE Ireland (apart from what was referred
previously), is linked with the specific moment in their academic education also
related with students’ development level:
“[…] the reason because we are as big as we are is that we are in the transition
year, which is the gap year, it is because it is not an exam year so it is a year of
sort of personal development for young people" (IM);
“ […] it is like a break between the two, so you have time to think a bit about
your future, and about who you really are and what you really want to do the
next two years.[...] we had just the right time to get it done" (It2);
In this age and moment, they are more aware and open to develop their skills,
and to think in their future. NFTE Ireland is then well integrated in a good
moment to be developed and encouraged, since it empower and develop
student skills and “gives them a purpose” (IT) of their future.
In BT opinion, they should start this training after 17 years, “to have the
catalysis that we want […] it does fulfil the needs” (BT). This is because their
77
focus in not (yet) in school, but their main goals are different and their specific
target population is an older population than in NFTE Ireland.
Also both managers agree that this programme could benefit all kind of groups,
since this programme is not specially designed or curriculum designed on this
target group. However, due to limited resources, they have chosen the most
fragile group of young people to work with. Concerning the impact, both
managers and trainers agree that NFTE may have more impact working in
disadvantaged communities:
"[…] because sometimes simply by necessity they are forced to think out of the
box if they want to do something useful with their lives […] not many doors are
opening for them” (BM); "They are looking for opportunities to get out of these
traps” (BT);
"[…] because we're the only programme […] that goes into a school, and […]
gives the level of support that we do" (IM); “[…] they can learn in a real life
situation, so a lot of them are inspired to become entrepreneurs, inspired to be
someone successful" (IT).
According to the interviewed, the student social and economic background does
influence their willingness to seize opportunities.
6.4. Development of skills through the NFTE program me
The NFTE mission is achieved through the development of important skills on
youth. According with the managers, entrepreneurial skills, technological skills
and life skills are the most important skills to be developed.
78
Crijns & Vermeulen (2007) argued that students that are being prepared
through the development of those skills to become acquainted with the different
aspects of entrepreneurship. Because entrepreneurship is not only linked with
business knowledge, but also touch the educational area (Bucha, 2009).
IM define entrepreneurial skill as “coming up with a solution for doing something
that they want” (IM). And describe life skills as “taking responsibility for
themselves […], having a little more confidence, and believing in themselves”
(IM).
For BM, entrepreneurial skills are “a mixture of things: Passion, seeing
opportunities and work” (BM). And life skills, more linked with attitudes:
“punctuality; to be committed; perseverance to go until the end with their
projects; respect; to take charge to their own project and their all life” (BM).
According to both managers, trainees would develop IT skills through the
business plan presentation and other presentations. Most of the research for
their business plan is also done through internet research. Digital resources are
agreed by authors as positive to develop youth motivation. Hood & Young
(1993) believe it is necessary to develop skills in oral presentation, interpersonal
relationships and business planning for entrepreneurial success.
Both trainers agree in the developed skills in young people: entrepreneurial and
life skills. For BT, entrepreneurial skills are more attitudes “[…] being pro-active,
where you accept responsibility […]; being creative; […] I do not run away, I
face it and I solve it” (BT). And life skills "are needed all around the world […].
You cannot separate things out of life. […] we cannot really teach these things,
we live them and they notice them" (BT).
79
For IM, an entrepreneurial skill is "[…] to become risk-takers […] resilient […]
and very motivated and committed in their business idea" (IT). In IM view, they
learn life skills when "they learn to negotiate and compromise, to be resilient […]
communication skills; their listening skills […] I suppose the most important one
would be life skills. […] the students definitely need them” (IT).
The interviewed trainees generally recognized entrepreneurial skills as those
skills linked with the entrepreneurship activity: "be more able to take risks”,
“leading”; “taking risks but aware of the dangerous”, “doing the work for
ourselves”, “know how to develop a big network” and “to know how to set up
your business”. However, was also mentioned by It1 the confidence as a most
important entrepreneurial skill.
The concept of life skills were not recognized by some trainees. However they
recognize skills as teamwork, the “courage to continue working”, communication
skills and confidence. And according to them, “we learned them [life skills] in
NFTE’s programme through the business plan”.
While they agree on the same kind of skills to be developed, they have different
perspectives of what this skill means or what it is included: BM related life skills
with attitudes, while BT linked attitudes with entrepreneurial skills. IT, IM and
trainees defined both entrepreneurial and life skills with the same related
concepts. In fact, it is difficult to separate life skill from entrepreneurial skills:
they are related, as life skills refer to all skills that may be important in daily life.
Confidence, as It2 argued, is in fact an important skill in entrepreneurship
activity and in all life.
80
Concerning the actually developed skills, both trainers agree that NFTE training
developed entrepreneurial skills in trainees. According to BT, “not sufficiently,
because it requires a lifetime […] (BT) […] At least we bring them in the focus of
attention” (BT; IT). For IT, “they develop all those skills that they wouldn't have
the time to do in just a normal subject" (IT). All trainees interviewed, in fact said
that they have developed their entrepreneurial skills (linked with
entrepreneurship activity): "to open my business”; "how to manage money,
about marketing, the courage to take risks", “coming up with an idea”, “believing
in themselves”. As they recognize, “NFTE tells you how to be a successful
business person".
Apart from the business knowledge, both trainers said that they also developed
life skills. While they did not recognize this concept, they mentioned same
important skills in their discourse that they had learned through NFTE’s
programme. IT apart from the big categorization (entrepreneurial and life skills)
also mentioned some developed skills in trainees that had been also recognized
by the trainees. Skills as responsibility is important because “they need to be
able to be entrepreneurial at their homes” (IT):
"Now I even sometimes discuss or give ideas to my dad who has a business
[…] I think I became more responsible, because I've learned that in business I
can't just slack off and do it next week, […] it is my responsibility" (It1); “we
developed [...] responsibility and courage to continue working (Bt2).
Also they have developed a different thinking, because "I do not think they really
stop and think about things like that until they get in the NFTE programme (IT):
81
"I open my mind to other objectives […] now I have a different aim, a different
perspective of work and study” (Bt1; Bt2; It2); “now I don't just look and criticize
without thinking things through, it teaches you to look deeply at things" (It1).
Communication and IT skills were also mentioned as skills developed, since
they have to do some presentations (and the business presentation) to some
people. Some of this business plans they done in groups, so they also
developed team working skills.
“we've even helped each other, giving our different opinions, our different views
of things, of what we thought could help the business, and that was really
helpful" (It1).
Opportunity seizing and planning skill was also other skills developed within all
the trainees interviewed. They learned to “look forward”, to be “more open” and
“to think and plan their future”. They get a clear idea about “what is the real life
and what do you have to do for it”. "I have now projects in my mind coming”; “It
really taught you to check goals for yourself”.
Also related with the planning skills, all of them also developed the know-how
skills, learning the way things should be done, “how it works and goes in real-
life”. For their real-life, they all also mentioned the relational skills associated
with the self-confidence to talk, ultimately, the confidence in their own skills, in
them.
All the interviewed have mentioned the impact of NFTE’s programme in their
self-confidence. In fact, when the self-confidence is developed, all the other
skills might also gain colour. Some authors (Lourenço, 2008; Hager & Gonczi,
1996; Jardim & Pereira, 2006) agree that skills are mobilized and integrated into
the various contexts of life, also influenced by the personal characteristics, as
82
self-confidence and the image that each person has of himself.The self-esteem,
and the feelings that they can do it, is the major impact that also might impact
the other areas of life. They all demonstrate “more confidence with life”.
Then the skills that had more recognition as being developed in NFTE’s
programme were: self-confidence; know-how; entrepreneurial; relational;
opportunity seizing, planning and different thinking. The non-recognition
(primarily) of this skills as life skills was because those skills were not
mentioned directly in the class (such as the entrepreneurial skills) but they were
taught through the business plan. Therefore, students were not conscious of
what they were learning to their lives. Because, as argued Lourenço et al.
(2008), life skills cross the different areas of people's lives (personal, social and
professional) referring therefore to the whole of their lives.
Life skills are those skills that are learned in the pathway of the programme
which are important because they are “skills for life” (BM) which “they can take
with them forever” (IM). Entrepreneurial skills had become more and more
important in our modern word, within entrepreneurial societies.
In fact, entrepreneurship competence was considered to involve both
knowledge and skills (what and how) as well as personal skills (Forfas, 2007).
With this gained skills and personal development, trainees do see their future
lives more clearly. The four former trainees desire to finish school, or continue
to further studies. The same four trainees also think to continue or start working.
These two options were in fact the main objectives of the NFTE’s programme:
to engage young people in school and to help integrate them professionally.
Three of them think to start a business, in the future (after finish school). They
83
know that is not easy. For that reason, one of them wants to have a further
entrepreneurship education, to get more prepared.
Not everyone needs to become an entrepreneur to benefit from
entrepreneurship education. But all individuals of the society need to be more
entrepreneurial.
CHAPTER 6 Conclusions and Recommendations
By comparing Belgium and Ireland, this paper showed the importance that is
given to entrepreneurship education and the development of life skills.
Belgium and Ireland presently recognize the importance of entrepreneurship
education with diverse initiatives and policies. The strong entrepreneurship
research support (e.g. Forfas) and the diverse initiatives in Ireland, especially in
early entrepreneurship education is also proof that high importance is given to
this issue. Belgium has been focusing on this issue lately. Belgium, as well as
Flanders, has an enormous lack of entrepreneurial activity essentially because
of mental block. However, there are enough governmental focus and policy but,
because of their political division, it is also more difficult to develop a strong and
practical policy.
According to their believe about where it should be taught, in Ireland it is usually
integrated in secondary education, while in Belgium it is more supported in a
high level education. However, they have both recognized the importance of
integrating entrepreneurship education in school system.
84
Belgium and Ireland have also recognized the important role of education and
training in the development of skills and the personality, important for the labour
market.
Due to this important recognition, the student profile and demographic aspects,
Ireland had introduce a specific year in the school system - a Transition Year -a
one year programme in the secondary school, to promote the personal
development, through skills that are often difficult to incorporate into the
traditional academic curriculum, such as those integrated in the
entrepreneurship education. Belgium on the other hand, has a sort of projects
and entrepreneurship education initiatives to go into class at all levels of
education.
This paper also revealed that the general mission of NFTE Ireland and Belgium
is the same: empower young people in disadvantaged communities, through the
development of their skills.
The main aspect that shows a clear difference is their delivery structures. They
have chosen them according to their objectives and main target population.
Then, while Ireland chose to integrate the NFTE programme in the Transition
Year in the school system, for young people between 13 and 18; Belgium has
chosen the alternative education structures (e.g. training centres) for young
people and young adults from 15 to 30 years.
There are then two different perspectives: on one hand NFTE Ireland develops
the skills of young people from school (DEES), an approach to prevent
exclusion by empowering young people through skills development; on the
other hand, NFTE Belgium attaches importance to developing these skills in the
85
alternative school system, more in reinstatement logic of those young people
that drop out of school and are having a part-time training or unemployed.
In fact, NFTE Ireland put the focus on the student personal development and
Belgium is more focused on the professional integration.
However, despite the different approaches, such training of entrepreneurship
education, based on the development of skills, is recognized by both as an
important contribution towards social inclusion.
An interesting factor that triggered the creation of both organizations was the
contact with the founder of NFTE U.S. and his team. Speaking about NFTE in a
passionate and captivating way, caused other people also touched by this
project to be themselves and wished to take NFTE to their countries. From
there, on its own initiative, the founders of NFTE Belgium (in 1998) and NFTE
Ireland (in 2005) base their choices on the needs felt in their country, away from
attention by the government. As opportunity seekers that also has seen the
awareness of entrepreneurship education, in the sense of creating more
entrepreneurs and a more entrepreneurial society.
The choice of different delivery structures is then linked with cultural issues.
NFTE Ireland adopted the American delivery model, of early entrepreneurship
education in integrated school system. It is indeed important to learn from NFTE
U.S. the main successful practices, but also important to adapted as soon as
possible to each country to be adapted to their needs and specificities. Having
chosen a different delivery model it also required different delivery responsible:
in Ireland, it is required to be given by teachers; in Belgium, it is required an
entrepreneurship background. However, despite the different profiles, there is
unanimity on the importance of the presence of entrepreneurs in the classroom
86
(e.g. as trainers, guest speakers) as a model for them. It is also unanimous that
the most important criteria for being a good trainer are motivation and passion
by NFTE project and by the students. In fact, passion creates more passion,
playing managers, teachers, and students, and that's what happens.
The fact that NFTE Belgium and Ireland are two licensed partners must match
the American standards makes the organizational level and services quite
similar. Some differences at this level come from the fact that projects need
time to be adapted and manager’s time to engage and mobilize the necessary
resources.
Although NFTE’s have started at different periods, none of those interviewed
doubted about the success of the programme, referring several contributing
factors.
Although they have different target population and both with positive impacts,
both managers believe that the training of entrepreneurship should be done
sooner (as many known authors), as it would get more impact. The trainers, on
the other hand, consider that the age at which both NFTE works is appropriate,
explaining the importance that the level of development and maturity has on
their predisposition to this knowledge and their own personal development. In
fact, the interviewed former trainees have given the same feedback. Then, it is
important to have in mind the environment and development moment in which it
should be integrated and adapted.
Focusing on young people from disadvantaged communities has, according to
the managers and trainers, more impact than NFTE’s programme would have
on advantaged communities. According to them, it is because NFTE’s
programme is the only programme focusing on this specific population giving
87
them opportunities and support. Because of their social context, their necessity
of opportunities will guide them as opportunity seekers, much stronger than
other populations. Scholars of entrepreneurship in a variety of disciplines agree
that age, gender, work status, education, income, motivation and perceptions
are all significant socio-economic factors in a person’s decision to start a
business (Bosma & Harding, 2007).
The NFTE teaching methodologies were clearly pointed not only by trainers but
by all interviewed as a factor of success of NFTE’s programme. Characterized
as a practical, active, dynamic, the famous “learning by doing” methodology, it
has had, according to all interviewed a positive impact on the youth skills
development. According to trainers and trainees, this is because practical and
dynamic methodologies allied to the programme’s structure and curriculum
gives young people a new perspective on learning and future life, since they
learn useful skills for the future. Since they are bored of theoretical models, this
learning methodology motivates and integrates them in class.
Learning methodologies however, would not have the expected impacts without
the high motivated NFTE trainers. NFTE managers reports to them as the key
factor of NFTE’s programmes. In fact, according to the managers, one of the
important requisites to be a good trainer is to be motivated, involved and
interested in NFTE’s programme and young people. For trainees, their support
is the key for the programme success and their involvement. “Trainers as
facilitators”, “more like friends”, as they are described by young people, and
even more for this specific target group, might have an import impact in their
personal development, since some of them might not have this kind of relation
88
at home. According to Gibb (1993) to be successful, it demands entrepreneurial
teachers, working as entrepreneurial socialization agents.
Finally, NFTE’s programme is a success, because it is not only focused on the
acquisition of business knowledge but also in the student personal development
and value recognition. In fact, trainers do see them “changing in the line of sixty
hours”. They are changing the way of thinking, behaving, in the way of dressing
and relating with each other. And trainees do feel this change. The confidence
that they gain in this programme causes the unfolding of other skills that they
already had and the image that they have of themselves.
Through the practical methodologies, the facilitators support and the
programme content, they develop their skills, since they have to put them into
practice. Those skills are not taught by the trainers, but also seized by imitating
of the behaviour of the trainer, and also because they have to learn alone, by
themselves, with their mistakes. According to the trainers, the best way of
learning is actually, doing it and doing it again, until they get unable to
understand. On being questioned about what they really want in life, they
develop the skills needed to achieve it.
Therefore, in addition to entrepreneurial skills (linked by the trainees with the
entrepreneurial activity), students develop life skills. Although two of the
trainees were not aware of what life skills are, they do recognize the
development of skills such as: self-confidence, different thinking, planning,
opportunity seizing, relational skills, know-how (those were mentioned by all
former trainees), responsibility, IT and teamwork. Those skills can be named as
entrepreneurial, because for being an entrepreneur you might need them as
well, however they are important in all areas of life. So, train to be an
89
entrepreneur, is in fact, training the person as a whole. It requires an
individualized work, an active role, blaming him for their own learning and future
life.
“Why do we learn so much in sixty hours that we don’t even do within the years
we’re here in school?” (BT)
Trainees recognize that they have learned much more in this entrepreneurship
training than just about business. They become more aware of the possibilities
for their future.
The concept of success for NFTE’s managers and trainers is, with no doubt, to
give them a future. More specifically, we can say that success for each
organization is directly related with their objectives. Accordingly, NFTE Ireland
relate their success concept with the sustainability of the programme, as that
trainees fulfil the programme and that trainers continue involved in NFTE.
According to NFTE Ireland trainer interviewed, winning awards is clearly a
successful case (it is in fact the concept of success for more directly trainer
work) as well as students return to school or to further studies.
NFTE Belgium focuses more on the professional and social integration of those
young people. Then successful cases are young people who find a job, return to
school or become an entrepreneur.
Apart from these differences, NFTE Belgium and Ireland managers and trainers
both agree on the perception of personal development as success of NFTE’s
programme. They all agree that seen personal development in those young
people is the most motivational and emotional (immeasurable) impact they
could have. Entrepreneurship education also affects social inclusion.
90
In fact, the interviewed trainees, as we mentioned before have developed skills
as self-confidence, planning and responsibility and different thinking. As a
result, all of them feel motivated to continue studding or to go to further studies.
Also, they all want to continue working, or those who did not, want to start
working. To start a business is only desired by three of them, because they
might also know the risks of starting a business, and therefore one of them
thinks that in the future might go to another entrepreneurship training to gain
more inside about the entrepreneurship world.
As we mentioned in chapter 2, the life skills trainees developed with NFTE are
increasingly important and required in the workplace. Education should then
provide the development of life skills which will be never more important in the
future. Because life skills are those skills all individuals need for personal
fulfilment and development, social inclusion and employment.
Training entrepreneurship education is then a rich combination of both needed
entrepreneurship and life skills, in 21’ Century.
Not everyone needs to become an entrepreneur to benefit from
entrepreneurship education, but all members of society need to be more
entrepreneurial.
There would be more active, aware and responsible citizens if entrepreneurship
education would be further promoted:
"[…] during this economic recession it is a great thing to teach
entrepreneurship, because when we finish school or college we cannot expect
to find that the recession is gone and the money is back in the country, and the
economy is finally good [...] they are teaching young people to be successful for
91
the future of their country as well, and it is important [...] I feel I could help a lot
in the future" (It1).
Recommendations
There is a growing awareness of the importance of entrepreneurship education
across all levels. However, it still needs time to get into people’s minds. But to
make people get used to entrepreneurship education and to establish it as a
normal element in education, its popularity has to be increased. Therefore, a
greater support to promote the idea is even more needed.
Especially in Belgium, more actions from the government should be taken to
include entrepreneurship education in the school system, like it had been done
in Ireland. Also more governmental funding and involvement in those
programmes should be raised, since entrepreneurship has benefits on several
levels.
More entrepreneurship educational programmes should be promoted for this
specific population – disadvantaged communities - as for ethnic minorities and
immigrants, since entrepreneurship education have a positive impact on social
inclusion.
Besides more programmes such as NFTE, there should be a bigger and better
dissemination of these projects, also to create a good image of
entrepreneurship education. Especially in Ireland, their NFTE website should be
more accurate with detailed information on working with their target population
and appropriate images, such as NFTE Belgium has. There should be someone
responsible for promoting communication intra - NFTE Europe network, to
92
exchange good practice and get more easily to European funds to their
projects. The disclosure of these projects on social networks such as Facebook,
as NFTE U.S. could be an alternative.
This present paper also serves as exchange of the success of both NFTE in
developing life skills. This exchange of information could be useful for an
upcoming NFTE resulting in an adjustment to the Mediterranean countries, such
as Portugal.
In the faculties of education students should be trained to adopt non-traditional
approaches and pedagogies to train others in the future, to increase the
efficiency and motivation of the learners. It should also be trained to teachers in
the educational system. In the future, trainers and teachers should act as
facilitators, to develop a supportive environment to the learning process.
Practical methodologies should be promoted at school system and at all
educational systems to stimulate young people.
With the contribution already discussed of the entrepreneurship education,
there should be more programmes or training initiatives open to all individuals. It
would be a more practical training, not only for youth, or into university.
Providing training courses for trainers to further train entrepreneurship
education would be an asset to many people, especially for people who work
with young people as social workers, social animators, psychologists and
kindergarten teachers.
There are many other areas to be further researched, as the impacts of such
programmes in alumni in long-term, regarding their professional activity. Also it
should be interesting to study the impact of entrepreneurship at different ages,
93
and the correlation with their developmental stage; the role of the trainer in the
impact of those programmes; a comparative research between the impacts of
entrepreneurship education to advantaged communities and disadvantaged
communities.
Actually, from the social, political and economic context, we are in an ideal
position to develop initiatives in this field. A propitious moment to be seized and
an opportunity that is expected to have contributed through this thesis.
94
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