the challenges of happiness, well-being and...

THE CHALLENGES OF HAPPINESS, WELL-BEING AND JOB SATISFACTION IN

ADMINISTRATIVE WORK

By

STÉPHANIE PÉPIN

Integrated Studies Final Project Essay (MAIS 700)

submitted to Dr. Mike Gismondi

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts – Integrated Studies

Athabasca, Alberta

December, 2015

CHALLENGES OF HAPPINESS IN ADMINISTRATIVE WORK 1

Abstract

This paper explores the link between happiness, well-being and job satisfaction in the context of

administrative work at the entry-level. Drawing from several disciplines including human

resources, psychology and mental health, economics and ergonomics, occupational health and

safety, philosophy and gender studies, I outline the positive effects that happiness, well-being

and job satisfaction have on the mental, physical and emotional health of employees. My

analysis explores how happiness and satisfaction in administrative work is challenged by

standard roles and expectations, low salaries, increased responsibilities, limited flexibility, poor

management and lack of career growth opportunities. I conclude that employee happiness, well-

being and satisfaction are critical to overall health, and more research is required to establish

how the roles of administrative support staff can be redefined in a way that supports, motivates,

and encourages workers to grow and flourish in their roles.


The Challenges of Happiness, Well-Being and Job Satisfaction

in Administrative Work

In 2012, Canadians spent an average of 36.6 hours per week at work (ESDC, 2013). With

so much time spent at work weekly, it can be argued that employment is a pivotal part of one’s

life and satisfaction at work is key to happiness and health.. Over the last decade, research on

happiness has gained interest and widespread findings confirm that work contributes

substantially to well-being and happiness (Fisher, 2010; Warr, 2007, as cited in Rodríguez-

Muñoz & Sanz-Vergel, 2013, p. 95). When job satisfaction is not met, it is established that work

stress physically and psychologically damages workers and economically burdens organizations

and societies (Bono et al., 2013, p. 1601). Research also suggests that “current trends in

employment conditions may be eroding levels of job satisfaction – and directly damaging the

physical and mental health of employees” (Faragher, Cass & Cooper, 2005, p. 105).

In 2011, women compromised 48% of the employed labour force in Canada (Ontario Women’s

Directorate, n.d.). A 2009 study found that women held 23.2% of clerical and administrative

positions in Canada (Status of Women Canada, 2012). A search on Canada’s Job Bank

employment website shows many administrative assistant type jobs postings. Administrative

support staff positions include receptionist, administrative assistant, office assistant, executive

assistant, etc. Administrative and clerical employees play a variety of roles that may include

paperwork, sorting files, data entry, scheduling, answering telephones, greeting guests, writing

reports and memos, event planning, office cleaning, and assisting with any other administrative

tasks. Robert Hosking, OfficeTeam executive director, explains that: "Although much of what

administrative professionals do occurs outside the limelight, many are taking on expanded roles

to assist with everything from implementing technology to budgeting. Support staff who are


flexible can adapt to changing situations and give a lift to the entire team by introducing new

tools and processes that promote efficiency" (Ontario Mutuals, 2015).

While women’s participation in the workforce and contributions to the economy have been

crucial to Canada’s success, it is worth exploring what effects this type of work may have on the

health and well-being of the women and men who occupy these types of positions, a field that

has received less academic research. This literature review is interdisciplinary and draws from

several disciplines, including human resources, psychology, mental health, economics,

ergonomics, occupational health and safety, social sciences, philosophy, and gender studies. The

purpose of this paper is to explore the positive effects happiness, well-being and job satisfaction

have on an employees’ physical, emotional and mental health, as well as to establish how these

are challenged in administrative support staff positions.

Happiness at Work

Happiness

Research on happiness has created a wealth of knowledge on what makes people happy.

Given that individuals spend a large portion of their time at work, it is not surprising that one of

the most accepted findings is that work contributes greatly to well-being and happiness. Past

surveys have revealed that most North Americans think about happiness, on average, at least

once each day (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999, p. 137). Literature agrees that happiness is mostly

viewed as positive subjective experiences.An increased research interest in the positive

organizational life focuses study on positive phenomena such as engagement, well-being, job

satisfaction, and positive affective experiences at work (Rodríguez-Muñoz & Sanz-Vergel, 2013,

p. 95).


Chiumento (2007) argues that employees are happy at work when they have good working

relationships, career development opportunities, and when they feel valued and are well treated

(p. 2). According to Seligman (2011), he uses the acronym ‘PERMA’ which concludes that

people feel happiest when they have: Pleasure (delicious food, warm baths, etc.), Engagement

(or flow, feelings enjoyment but challenging activity), Relationships (social ties have turned out

to be extremely reliable indicator of happiness.), Meaning (a perceived quest or belonging to

something bigger), and Accomplishments (having realized tangible goals) (as cited in

Saenghiran, 2013, p. 23). Echoing this finding, McGregor & Little (1998) analyzed a diverse set

of mental health indicators and also found two factors, one reflecting happiness and the other,

meaningfulness (as cited in Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 148). Therefore, it can be claimed that

happiness in a work context includes the pursuit of positive feelings at work where there is

meaning and purpose.

Work happiness is conceptualized as an employee’s satisfaction with his or her job where

positive emotions such as joy and contentment are experienced more frequently than negative

emotions such as anger and sadness. Ben-Ze’ev (2000) confirms that happiness is found in

activities in which individuals find value (p. 459). He notes, however, that happiness cannot be

achieved by simply repeating good experiences, as an enjoyable event is often progressively less

enjoyable with repetition (p. 456). As Jonathan Freedman argues, “We cannot capture happiness

and then sit still and hope to maintain it. We change, the world changes, our needs change, and

our requirements for happiness change all the time” (as cited in Ben-Ze’ev, 2000, p. 456).

Happiness is achievable but it is not an isolated achievement. Instead, it is an ongoing dynamic

progress where all individuals strive to grow as human beings.


Since 1971, the country of Bhutan has championed a new approach to development, which

measures prosperity through formal principles of gross national happiness (GNH) and the

spiritual, physical, social and environmental health of its citizens and natural environment

(Kelly, 2012). The belief that well-being should take preference over material growth has

remained a global oddity, especially in a world beset by collapsing financial systems, gross

inequity and wide-scale environmental destruction (Kelly, 2012). Bhutan’s “principles have been

set in policy through the GNH index, based on equitable social development, cultural

preservation, conservation of the environment and promotion of good governance” (Kelly,

2012). The 2015 GNH index showed that 91.2% of Bhutanese are narrowly, extensively, or

deeply happy (Gross National Happiness, 2015). The idea leads to questions whether gross

domestic product (GDP) and economic growth are more valuable than GNH.

Bhutan’s ideology suggests that positive psychology brings awareness to the role of psychology

in making life more fulfilling, which enhances human functioning, and increases happiness

(Seligman, 2002, as cited in Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010, p. 33). Happiness is not only beneficial to

the employees themselves but also the companies and organizations. For example, Fredrickson’s

(1998) broaden-and-build model suggests that positive emotions cause an increase of thought-

action potentials, build personal resources, and improve personal functioning (Fredrickson,

1998). Another research compiled by Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) documented that positive affect

is associated with multiple positive outcomes including better performance ratings at work,

higher salaries, and improved health (as cited in Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010, p. 33). Various

factors contribute to a positive mental health, including the opportunity to produce creative,

productive and fulfilling work. Studies suggest that happy individuals are more likely to have


positive conceptions of themselves, a belief in their ability to control what goes on around them,

and optimism about the future, which are frequently associated with high self-esteem (Taylor &

Brown, 1988, p. 200). By allowing employees to be creative, their performance increases as they

are more involved, motivated, and have a sense of purpose and accomplishment. In return, happy

employees lead to higher levels of productivity in the workforce and greater returns for the

company.

Well-Being

Well-being is a combination of life satisfaction and positive moods, which result in

happiness. The self-determination theory (SDT) identifies three basic psychological needs—

autonomy, competence, and relatedness—and suggests that fulfillment of these needs is essential

for psychological growth (e.g. intrinsic motivation), integrity (e.g. internalization and

assimilation of cultural practices), and well-being (e.g. life satisfaction and psychological health)

(Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 146-147).

Aristotle considered true happiness to be found in the expression of virtue—that is, in doing what

is worth doing (Ryan & Deci, 2001, p. 145). Work well-being is measured by analysing

employees’ personal well-being experiences, including feelings, meaning and thoughts, in their

current work setting (Abbey, 2015, p. 335). This suggests that there may be a link between well-

being and feeling competent and confident. This is particularly applicable in the achievement or

progress of a goal where the goal is considered to be of high importance (Brunstein, 1993, p.

1061).


The broaden-and-build theory suggests that positive emotions: (i) broaden people’s attention and

thinking; (ii) undo lingering negative emotional arousal; (iii) fuel psychological resilience; (iv)

build consequential personal resources; (v) trigger upward spirals towards greater well-being in

the future; and (vi) seed human flourishing (Fredrickson, 2004, p. 1375). Positive emotions allow

people to grow as individuals and as a group, thus demonstrating how “positive emotions move

people forward and lift them to the higher ground of optimal well-being” (Fredrickson, 2004, p.

1375).

Job Satisfaction

There is a clear connection between happiness, well-being and optimal performance for

individual employees and their organizations (Achor, 2015, p. 111). In a study conducted in 142

countries, Gallup found that only 13% of employees worldwide are truly engaged in their jobs

(Achor, 2015, p. 111). Additionally, the study revealed that 63% of employees worldwide are not

engaged in their jobs and an additional 24 % are actively disengaged (Achor, 2015, p. 111).

Gallup estimates that active disengagement costs the United States alone more than $500 billion

annually (Achor, 2015, p. 111).

If an organisation’s culture is toxic, employees are more likely to suffer from burnout, fear, and

negative emotions which affect the neurophysiology of the person and interfere with his or her

sense of subjective well-being (Hanson & Mendius, 2009, as cited in Kerfoot, 2015, p. 93). It is

the employers’ responsibility to develop positive and happy cultures where individual, personal

and organizational success is combined. When employees have the ability to develop and grow

in supportive work environments, they are more likely to be happier than their counterparts

(Philippe, Vallerland & Lavigne, 2009, p. 21). As a result, passion for work has been found to be


associated with a variety of positive outcomes, such as lower level of burnout, greater employee

creativity, and staff effectiveness (Perttula, 2010, as cited in Johri & Misra, 2014, p. 24).

Job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable emotional state which results from an appraisal of

one’s job as achieving or facilitating one’s job values (Saenghiran, 2013, p. 24). This implies that

job satisfaction is directly tied to happiness. Warr, Cook, and Wall (1979) developed an

instrument to measure the level of job satisfaction which refers to the degree to which a person

reports satisfaction about intrinsic and extrinsic features of the job (p. 136). These can be

grouped into three sub-factors: (1) Job Itself Intrinsic Satisfaction consists of: the freedom to

choose one’s own method of working, the amount of responsibility one is given, the opportunity

to use one’s abilities, the amount of variety in one’s job; (2) Working Conditions Satisfaction

consists of the following items: the physical work conditions, one’s fellow workers, one’s

immediate boss, hours of work, job security; (3) Employee Relations Satisfaction consists of the

following items: the recognition one gets for good work, the rate of pay, industrial relations

between management and workers in the firm, the chance of promotion, the way of management

in the workplace, and the attention paid to suggestions one makes (Warr, Cook & Wall, 1979, p.

136).

Well-being is reflected in many aspects of organisational performance, for example, employee

turnover, industrial relations, workplace health and safety, learning and development, corporate

ethics, behaviour of leaders and managers, diversity and equal opportunity, customer health,

safety and privacy, and human rights (Abbey, 2015, p. 334). Organizations must work hard to

attract and retain employees, and by nurturing employee passion, the performance and mental

health of employees are greatly improved. Research has shown that when employees are


confident in their work, they are more likely to contribute more effort into achieving their goals

and overcoming challenges (Johri & Misra, 2014, p. 26). Additionally, employees who have a

sense of belonging and are satisfied in their jobs feel that they are valued and contribute more to

the attainment of goals, which generates better results, productivity and/or profit for the

organization (Ölçer, 2015, p. 118).

Studies show that employees’ attitudes and feelings towards their jobs and job experiences have

been found to have substantial effect on their performance (George, 2013, as cited in Ölçer,

2015, p. 118). Increased levels of happiness are linked to better-functioning immune systems and

to decreased amounts of stress. Positive emotions can serve as antidotes to negative emotions,

thus learning how to increase the levels of positive emotion can actually make employees feel

less stressed, more resilient, less angry, and less anxious (Silverblatt, 2010). Employees who are

happy at work maintain higher levels of subjective well-being when they are stressed (Scheier &

Carver, 1993, p. 27). They take direct action to solve problems and learn and grow from

experiences. In contrast to these positive coping reactions, pessimists are more likely than

optimists to react to stressful events by trying to deny that they exist or by trying to avoid dealing

with problems, and are also more likely to quit trying when difficulties arise (Scheier & Carver,

1993, p. 27-28). The effects of job satisfaction clearly outweigh the disadvantages of work

unhappiness.

Challenges of Work Happiness in Administrative Support Positions

Negative job-related characteristics have been identified in several studies. Long work

hours, low control at work, and high work demands may lead to cardiovascular disease as well as

other psychological and physical outcomes (Bono, 2013, p. 1606). Other studies have linked


daily work hassles (e.g., disliking work duties) to somatic symptoms such as headaches, chest

pain, and back trouble (Bono, 2013, p. 1606). In addition, research has also shown that negative

work events influence health by increasing negative mood states (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, &

Schilling, 1989; Evans, Johansson, & Rydstedt, 1999, as cited in Bono, 2013, p. 1606). These

make it challenging for employees to be happy at work when negative factors play a pivotal part

in their work days. The following will explore the challenges administrative support staff face

due to low salaries, stress, management, limited work flexibility and career growth.

Low Salaries

The average annual salary range for full time administrative assistant varies between

C$29,036 and C$50,393 (PayScale, Inc., n.d.). Administrative assistants who are starting in the

field and have little work experience are more likely to earn at the lower end of the salary range.

These employees earn well below the average salary, as in December 2014, the average wage for

Canadian employees was $943 a week – or just over $49,000 a year (Harris, 2015).

A study by a workforce management organisation, Kronos, identified the key sources of

workplace unhappiness as low pay (36%), little or no variety in job role (25%) and unpaid

overtime (22%) (Paterson, 2013). Low salaries force workers to manage with basic necessities,

and may also incline workers to obtain second jobs. A study in the United States shows that

“nearly three quarters (73%) of American workers are stressed out on the job, and the number

one reason is low pay” (Adams, 2012). Additionally, “14% of women said low pay was their

biggest stressor while only 8% of men said pay was to blame” (Adams, 2012). While similar

research may not have been conducted in Canada, the statistics demonstrate the impact of

financial stress for those who earn lower salaries. Financial stress is harmful to psychological

http://www.employeebenefits.co.uk/benefits/pay-/-bonus-and-reward


and physical health, as those who report struggle with financial stress are more likely to report

health problems. When stressed, “the body experiences immediate short-term effects, such as the

release of cortisol, memory and concentration suppression, increased heart rate and blood

pressure, faster breathing and a reduction in metabolism” (Fox News Health, 2015). Long-term

effects of stress may increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, digestive problems and sexual

dysfunction in addition to weight loss or gain, skin problems, sleep issues, increased pain and

diabetes (Fox News Health, 2015).

Dr. Arta Bakshandeh, senior medical officer with Alignment Healthcare in Los Angeles, stated:

“Of the patients that I would attribute their medical problems to stress, the overwhelming

majority have money at the root. Most commonly, these patients complain of headaches,

elevated blood pressure, ulcers, depression and moderate to severe anxiety” (Fox News Health,

2015). This shows that financial stress can have immense consequence on the human body, and

can be an added burden for administrative assistants who are not happy and satisfied with their

work.

Increased Responsibilities and Stress

The World Health Organization (2006) has defined health as the presence of physical,

mental, and social well-being. When the nature of work becomes increasingly demanding and

employees feel underappreciated, their levels of stress can have negative effects on their overall

health. Work is characterized as stressful when the demands of the requests and expectations

outweigh the employee’s available resources (Cohen et al. 1983, as cited in Schiffrin & Nelson,

2010, p. 35).


Foss & Dyrstad (2011) explain that the stress system consists of two major parts: (i) the

sympathetic nervous system, which by itself and via the adrenal medulla releases noradrenaline

and adrenaline and triggers the fight-or-flight mechanism; and (ii) the hypothalamic–pituitary–

adrenal (HPA) axis, which releases cortisol, an adrenal cortex-derived hormone that plays a

central role in the physiology of stress responses as well as illness (p. 7). They add that

“persistent exposure to stressors may induce overactivity of the stress system and may ultimately

lead to development of various pathological conditions of, e.g., reproduction, growth, immune

function, and mental disorders” (p. 7).

Additionally, Statistics Canada (2006) outlines depression as a major occupational health issue.

Out of just over one million adults who experienced a major depressive episode in the year prior

to their study, 7 in 10 of these people were employed during that year. The survey revealed that

high stress on and off the job was associated with depression for both sexes (Statistics Canada,

2006). Studies suggest that depressive states and/or feelings of unhappiness were significantly

associated with psychological strain, and that mental distress was significantly and inversely

correlated with feelings of well-being (Kawada, Kuratomi, & Kanai, 2011, p. 318).

“Psychological well-being, manifested in characteristics such as depression, anxiety and

psychological strain, may also influence worker ability and motivation to perform” (Ford,

Cerasoli, Higgins & Decesare, 2011, p. 186). Employees who suffer from psychological job

stress, either tension, anxiety and/or depression, are more likely to develop eating disorders

(Nishitani & Sakakibara, 2007, p. 179). When people indulge in binge eating due to stress or

other factors, they are more likely to gain weight, have lower immune systems, suffer from

illnesses, and lack of sleep.


An analysis by Faragher, Cass & Cooper (2005) found that, on average, employees with low

levels of job satisfaction are most likely to experience emotional burn-out, have reduced levels of

self-esteem, and have raised levels of both anxiety and depression (p. 108). With employees

spending a considerable amount of their time at work, it is important that work should provide an

adequate amount of satisfaction. It is not surprising that a study conducted by Schiffrin & Nelson

(2010), revealed that participants who perceived higher levels of stress reported being less happy

than those with lower levels of stress (p. 37). Another study revealed that “the least active

employees reported the greatest percentages of lost productivity compared to the most active

employees” (Puig-Ribera, 2015, p. 4).

In response to this, Johri & Misra (2014) suggest that “to effectively respond to these

competitive pressures, organizations need workers who bring passion to their work to navigate

challenges and accelerate performance improvement” (p. 20).

Lack of Work Flexibility

Administrative assistant roles generally require employees to sit at a desk for extended

periods of time, as their work mainly involves tasks at the computer and answering the

telephone. Research has identified that sitting for more than 7 hours per day was associated with

an increased likelihood of depressive symptoms in women (van Uffelen, van Gellecum, Burton,

Peeters, Heesch & Brown, 2013, p. 278). In addition to effects on mental health, sitting at a desk

can also have physical consequences. Berenyi, Szolnoki & Banhegyesi (2015) identify the most

common ergonomic problems as bad sitting posture, the incorrect positioning of the mouse or the

keyboard on the table, and the improper selection of tools and gadgets in the direct work

environment (p. 21). Ergonomic problems such as these may lead to the mutation of human


muscular-skeletal systems. Further studies have revealed that workers who frequently use a

keyboard are more likely to develop carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) (Fagarasanu and Kumar,

2003, p. 91). A study has also suggested that CTS is more likely to develop in obese workers as

opposed to normal-weight individuals (Lam and Thurston, 1998, as cited in Smith et al, 2015, p.

31). Another study indicated that this association is even more strongly associated with women

(Becker et al., 2002, as cited in Smith et al, 2015, p. 31). This is not surprising, as previously

mentioned, the majority of administrative workers are female.

A mild intervention that can improve the work conditions may include a computer keyboard

replacement. This method is inexpensive and effective, and keyboard modification has been

shown to reduce wrist and hand pain and discomfort for workers (Tittiranonda, Rempel,

Armstrong & Burastero, 1999, p. 649). Keyboard modification may include an alternative-style

keyboards that is split and/or adjustable, and may improve write and forearm posture, muscle

activity, keystroke force, and increase comfort and performance. These keyboards are designed

with slant features which allow the user to adjust the keyboard and to maintain a more neutral

posture. The purpose is to reduce static posture in a seated position, as it is known to evoke pain

among computer users, and evidence suggests prolonged exposure to improper posture with

repetitive movements can cause irreversible musculoskeletal disorders (Smith et al, 2015, p. 31).

Poor Management and Low Self-Esteem

There is frequently no workspace or time flexibility because administrative staff must be

available at all times, as they are required to monitor the phone line and email inbox, and be

ready for any questions or tasks. In a study by Kronos, a workforce management organisation,

more than half (59%) of respondents indicated that they would like more flexibility in the hours

http://www.employeebenefits.co.uk/?s=flexibility


they work, while almost a quarter (24%) would like more accurate wages that reflect the hours

they work (Paterson, 2013).

When management fails to provide adequate working conditions, the needs of employees are left

unfulfilled. Poor management can lead staff to feel underappreciated and suffer from low self-

esteem. In a study, personal characteristics, job content and health status were measured over a

four-year period and the results indicated that the women most at risk of ill health were those in

jobs that were very demanding, but in which they had little control (BBC News Health, 2000).

Administrative support staff are vulnerable in the sense that the manager’s stress will be taken

out on them regardless of whether they are at fault. It is easy to take them for granted and to

expect them to take on additional tasks outside of their general responsibilities because they are

always available. It is expected that they will take criticism with grace, as their work revolves

around facilitating the work lives of others. “Self-confidence is a volatile substance; it takes

surprisingly few signs of disapproval or indifference to erode an individual’s confidence”

(Manzoni & Barsoux, 2002, p. 48). Assistants can get discouraged and therefore their work

performance will decrease.

It is worth questioning if positive psychological health leads to higher work motivation. Studies

have shown that depression and anxiety are associated with excessive cognitive appraisals of

danger and decreased self-worth, which may lead to irrational choices and lower effort (Ford,

Cerasoli, Higgins & Decesare, 2011, p. 190). A study has shown that employees who have high

self-esteem and self-confidence, have a lot of control in their lives, and who believe that the

future will bring them happiness are more likely to consider themselves as happy, as opposed to

people who lack these perceptions (Freedman, 1978, as cited in Taylor & Brown, 1988, p. 198).


Self-enhancing perceptions, a belief in personal control, and optimism appear to foster

motivation, persistence at tasks, and ultimately, more effective performance (Taylor & Brown,

1988, p. 199). Positive self-views are associated with working harder and longer on tasks, and

perseverance, in turn, produces more effective performance and a greater likelihood of goal

attainment (Taylor & Brown, 1988, p. 199). Compared to low-self-esteem colleagues, those with

high self-esteem are confident about their work abilities and performance, and set higher goals.

Lack of Career Growth Opportunities

Research indicates that human beings are trained to believe that more is better — more

power, more authority, more money and more responsibility (Brooks, 2015). Remaining at an

entry-level job where there is little chance for advancement becomes problematic.

Administrative support staff are expected to know everything regarding the office functions,

processes, etc., without the opportunity for advancement.

Most people are future oriented and seek to grow as employees over the course of their careers.

In one survey by Gonzales & Zimbardo (1985), the majority of respondents rated themselves as

oriented toward the present and the future (57%) or primarily toward the future (33%) rather than

toward the present only (9%) or toward the past (1%) (Taylor & Brown, 1988, p. 196). Career

growth is possible when employees are given work tasks that are related to their goals and that

allow the employees to develop skills in their desired line of work. Accordingly, Wang, Weng,

McElroy, Ashkanasy & Lievens (2014) found that when employees perceive successful career

growth, they become psychologically attached to their organizations, since their needs are

satisfied (p. 433).


Because people are wired for progress, failure to advance within an organization may feel like a

failure. Ben-Ze’ev (2000) notes that “pridefulness and shame may not rest on a comparison with

others, but on a comparison of standards” (p. 511). Employees may feel shameful if their careers

are not meeting their own high standards, and thus resulting in negative effects. Entry-level jobs,

such as administrative work, are perceived as entry-level occupations that do not require a high

level of education or skill.

An analysis by CareerBuilder lists Administrative Assistant as one of the top five positions with

the highest turnover rate (Gaspary, 2012). This shows the importance of offering employees the

opportunity to develop skills and to be engaged in their work. It suggests that employees who

perceive their organization to be interested in their career growth respond positively on behalf of

their organization (Wang, Weng, McElroy, Ashkanasy & Lievens, 2014, p. 431). Research

confirms that “employees experiencing high levels of career growth within their current

employment express more organizational commitment and less intention to leave” (Wang,

Weng, McElroy, Ashkanasy & Lievens, 2004, p. 431). If the needs and expectations of career

development of administrative assistants are not met, they may be more inclined to look

elsewhere for work.

In conclusion, literature suggests that the effects of work unhappiness on administrative

support staff are detrimental to physical, emotional, and mental health. Happy employees have

been shown to have higher levels of productivity in the workforce, thus, employers must review

their infrastructure in a way that supports and motivates employees to do meaningful and

fulfilling work. The high turnover rate of administrative assistants shows a flaw in the system, as

they are key players who perform tasks and responsibilities that are crucial to the workflow of


the organization, and their needs and happiness should not be overlooked. Studies have clearly

shown the negative effects of work related stress, and further studies are required to establish the

exact causes of workplace dissatisfaction in administrative work and to offer solutions. Given the

lack of research on administrative support workers, new research is necessary to provide insights

on how to improve the work of administrative staff in all three sectors, public, private and non-

profit, as the nature of the work may vary across sectors. This may include innovative solutions

to redefine the work expectations and practices in a way that allows administrative support staff

to have more flexibility and growth in their roles and careers.


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