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The case for communication

in sustainable development

Promoting dialogue, debate and change

ii

©PanosLondon,2007

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Acknowledgements

The case for communicationwaswrittenbyKittyWarnock,PanosLondon’sSeniorAdvisor,communicationfordevelopment;EmrysSchoemaker;andMarkWilson,ExecutiveDirectorofPanosLondon.

ThispapersupportsandcomplementsAt the heart of change: the role of communication in sustainable development,whichwascommissionedbytheUKGovernment’sDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID).Backgroundresearchandacomprehensiveliteraturereviewwereconductedforbothofthesepapers,alongwithaseriesofinterviewsintheUKandothercountries.PanosLondonisgratefulforthegeneroussupportofadistinguishedadvisorygroupofinternationalexpertsincommunication,politicalscience,economicsanddevelopment,whichassistedandadvisedintheresearchandwritingofthesepapers.Themembersofthisgroupwere:

LishanAdamCharlieBeckettRobertChambersPeterdaCostaJamesDeaneMargaretGallagherMaryGoodyearEmmaGrantLawrenceHaddadBirgitteJallovRhadikaLalPaulMartin

AdditionalsupportwasreceivedfromMarkGalloway,TeresaHanley,MarkHarvey,MyriamHorngren,DavidPage,JonTinker,WarrenFeek,AlexWynterandthestaffofPanosLondon.

Allviewsexpressedinthepaper,however,arethoseofPanosLondon.

At the heart of change andThe case for communicationareavailablefromwww.panos.org.uk/heartofchange

RobinMansellMikeMooreRichardMorganSinaOdugbemiAidaOpoku-MensahAlexRentonFionaRobertsDavidSouterEamoinnTaylorF.F.TusubiraMylesWickstead

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Contents

IntroductionCommunication:what,why–andwhynow?PoliticsandgovernanceAdiverse,engagedandempoweredcivilsocietyEconomicdevelopmentWhycommunicationneedssupportWhatneedstobedoneandwhoneedstodoitConclusion

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Withonlyeightyearstogountil2015–thetargetdatefortheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs)1–itisclearthatcurrentdevelopmenteffortsarenotdeliveringtheresultstheworld’spoorneedandtheglobalcommunitypromisedintheMillenniumDeclarationsignedbytheleadersof189countriesinSeptember2000.Atpresent,twooutofeveryfivepeoplearelivingonlessthanUS$2aday.Fiftycountries,24oftheminsub-SaharanAfrica,withacombinedpopulationofalmost900millionpeople,arefallingbehindonatleastoneoftheMDGs.2ThelatestWorldBankforecastspredictthatby2015morethan600millionpeoplewillstillbelivingonUS$1aday,andasitnotedinits2006reportontheMDGs:‘withoutmeasuresthatacceleratechange,manycountriesmayfallshortofthetargets…By2010wewillknowwhetherthegoalscanbeachieved.Ifbythenwehavenotcommittedthenecessaryresources,adoptedreforms,andimplementedeffectivenewprograms,itwillbedifficulttomakefurthercoursecorrections.’3

Whyare‘measuresthatacceleratechange’tolifthundredsofmillionsofpeopleoutofabsolutepovertyprovingsohardtoachieveindevelopingcountries?Thisisthesinglemostimportantquestionfacingtheworld,andthereisbroadagreementontheexplanatoryfactorsthatdrivepolitical,economicandsocialdevelopment.Theyincludeacountry’sclimate,geographyandaccesstonaturalresources,4itsinstitutionsandleadership,5historyandculture,6andprevalenceofconflictwithinitsbordersandwithitsneighbours.7Thesefactorsare,inturn,affectedbybroaderinternationalissues,suchaspoliticalalliancesandblocs,tradepolicies,andlevelsandpatternsofinternationaldebtforgivenessandaidrelief.8

Thereis,however,considerabledisagreementbetweenpoliticians,economists,developmentexperts,academicsandpractitionersontherelativeimportanceofthesefactorsandtheirpreciserelationshipstooneanother.

n Theinternationaldonorcommunityisincreasinglyconcentratingitsattentionontheconceptof‘goodgovernance’–thenotionthatastate’scapabilitytoperformitskeyfunctions,responsivenesstoitscitizens’aspirationsandneeds,andaccountabilitytothemforwhatitdoesarecentraltoestablishingsustainableandfar-reachingdevelopment.

n Manynon-governmentalorganisations(NGOs)warnagainsttakingtoo‘statist’anapproach,stressinginsteadtheimportancetosuccessfuldevelopmentofbuildingmoreempoweredandengagedcitizensina‘civilsociety’thatreflectsthecompetitiveandcollaborativedynamicsofpeoplelivinginthecountry.

n Economistscontinuetoargueovertherightbalanceoffreeandregulatedmarkets,acceptablelevelsofequityandefficiency,andtheimpactof‘free’and‘protectionist’traderulesoneconomicdevelopment.Buttheyallstresstheneedforlegalprotectionofassetsandcapital;aneducatedlabourforce;andthebuildingofastrongscientificandtechnologicalbaseifacountryistogenerateconsistenteconomicgrowth.9

Introduction

1TheeightMDGsaretheinternationaldevelopmenttargetsagreedbyeverycountry’sleadersattheMillenniumSummitin2000andreaffirmedattheWorldSummitinNewYorkinSeptember2005.Seewww.un.org/millenniumgoalsfordetails

2UNDP(2005)Human Development Report 2005

3WorldBank(2006)World Development Indicators 2006http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2006/contents/Section1_1.htm

4See,forexample,JaredDiamond(1998)Guns, germs and steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years,London:Vintage

5See,forexample,DouglassCNorth(2005) Understanding the process of economic change,(Revisededition)Princeton,NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress;andPaulCollier(2007)The bottom billion: Why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress

6See,forexample,DavidLandes(1998)The wealth and poverty of nations: Why are some rich and others so poor?NewYork:W.W.Norton;andLawrenceEHarrison(2006)The central liberal truth: How politics can change a culture and save it from itself,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress

7See,forexample,AzarGat(2006)War in human civilization,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress

8See,forexample,JeffreySachs(2005)The End of Poverty;MartinWolf(2005)Why Globalization Works,NewHaven,YaleNotaBene;andforadifferentview,ErikReinert(2006)How rich countries got rich, and why poor countries stay poor,London:Constable&Robinson

9Ontheneedforastrongscientific/technologicalbase,seeTheEconomist,3February2007,p11

Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment

� Introduction

Thispaperdoesnotaddressitselfdirectlytothesedebates,whichareextensivelycoveredelsewhere.Insteaditfocusesonavitalelementessentialtoeachofthem,butwhichisconsistentlyignoredormarginalisedindevelopmentanalyses,debatesandinterventions:allofthesehumananddevelopmentalprocessesrelyontheflowofinformationandcommunicationbetweenindividualsandgroups.Effectivecommunicationbuildsrelationships,engendersdebate,facilitateschoices,enablesinformeddecisions,helpsbuildcoalitionsandalliances,andacceleratesandgenerateschange.

The case for communication10showsthateffectiveinformationandcommunicationprocessesareprerequisitesforsuccessfuldevelopment.Theyarethelifebloodofgoodgovernance(centraltopoliticaldiscourseandpower,andlyingattheheartofcapable,responsiveandaccountablestates);anintegralpartofempoweringandenablingahealthy,vibrantcivilsociety;essentialforthecreationofefficientandeffectiveeconomies;andacriticalcomponentofsocialadaptationandofsocietiesdealingsuccessfullywithachangingworld.

Atitsheart,development–ifitistobesustainable–mustbeaprocessthatallowspeopletobetheirownagentsofchange:toactindividuallyandcollectivelyusingtheirowningenuityandaccessingideas,practicesandknowledgeinthesearchforwaystofulfiltheirpotential.ItrequireswhateconomistAmartyaSencalls‘realfreedoms’,11thecapacityforpeopletoparticipateinadiverserangeofdecisionsthataffectthem,andtoenjoyspecific‘functional’12aspectsthatconstituteahealthylife.Investingresourcesinprocessesthatenablepeopletotakeamoremeaningfulpartindebatesanddecision-makingprocessesandmakemoreinformedchoices,iscentraltorealisingthese‘freedoms’andtoeffectivedevelopmentandpovertyreduction.Enablinggreaternumbersofpeopletospeak,engageandrespondtooneanotherisultimatelyequippingthemtotakepoliticalresponsibility,whichisakeyingredienttoestablishingdeepandsustainablechange.13

Indeed,anincreasedpowerandabilitytocommunicateiswhatpoorpeoplewishforthemselvesasmuchasthemoretangibledevelopmentbenefitstargetedbytheMDGs.WhentheWorldBankasked40,000poorpeoplein1999whattheydesiredmost,having‘avoice’wasoneofthemostfrequentreplies,secondonlytoimprovedincomeandbasicnecessities.Notbeingabletohaveasayindecisionsthataffectedtheirliveswasidentifiedasakeyelementofpovertyinitself.14

Thispaperthereforeaddressesthechallengeofusingcommunicationmorepowerfullyasanagentofchangetoestablishfaster,moresustainabledevelopment.Afterashortchaptersettingoutthecontext,The case for communicationexplorestherolesinformationandcommunicationprocessesplayinallofthekeyelementsthatfosterdevelopment:

n first,inequitableandinclusivepoliticalprocesses

n second,innationalandinternationalgovernanceprocessesthatareeffective,responsiveandaccountable

n third,insupportingengagedcitizensanddynamiccivilsociety

n fourth,ingeneratinginclusiveeconomicgrowth,sustainablelivelihoodsandtransparent,efficientandequitablemarkets

n fifth,inestablishingandprotectingafree,pluralisticmediaenvironmentinwhichmediaoutputsaremanyanddiversebutalsoofhighquality.

10Thispaperisalonger,moredetailedexpositionoftheargumentssetoutinAt the heart of change: The role of communication in sustainable development.Bothdocumentsareavailableat:www.panos.org.uk/heartofchange

11The‘capabilityapproach’isaconceptualframeworkthatwasdevelopedbyAmartyaSenandMarthaNussbaumforunderstandingsocialstatesintermsofhumanwelfare.Itemphasisesthefunctionalcapabilities(‘substantialfreedoms’,suchastheabilitytolivetooldage,engageineconomictransactions,orparticipateinpoliticalactivities).SeeMCNussbaumandAKSen(1993)The quality of life,Oxford:ClarendonPress

12FunctioningsarewhatSenterms‘valuablebeingsanddoings’.Theycanbeelementary (escapingmorbidityandmortality,nourishment,mobility);complex(self-respect,participationincommunitylife,abilitytoappearinpublicwithoutshame);general(capabilitytobenourished);orspecific (capabilitytomakeparticularchoices).ThenotionoffunctioningsinfluencedtheempiricalmeasurementsthatunderpintheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme’sHuman Development Index,whichgoesbeyondeconomicmeasurementstoincludehealthandeducationdata.Formoreonfunctionings,seeAKSen(1985)Commodities and capabilities,Amsterdam:North-Holland;andNussbaumandSen(1993)

13AstheBritishdiplomatRobertCooperhasnoted:‘Itisstrangethatwedonotthinkmoreofourownhistorywhenwethinkofdevelopment.ThegradualincreaseingrowthratesinthelasttwocenturiesinEuropemirrorsthegrowthofthestate.Thegradualeliminationofpovertyreflectsthegrowthofpoliticalpoweramongthepoor…Peopledevelopthemselves:outsiderscannotdoitforthem.RobertCooper,‘Themysteryofdevelopment’,Prospect,Number120,February2006,p37

14WorldBank(1999)Voices of the Poor,WashingtonDC:WorldBank

Itsimportanceandubiquitydemandthataholisticviewbetakenofinformationandcommunicationprocessesinasociety,insteadofthead hocorfragmentaryapproachpolicymakersoftentakeatthemoment.Open,inclusive,participatoryinformationandmediachannelsalsoneedtoberecognisedasoneofthemostimportantres publica (publicgoods)thatbenefitallcitizensandmaximisedevelopmentimpacts.15Onecharacteristicofpublicgoodsisthatthemorepeopleusethem,thegreaterthecommonbenefit.Communicationprocessesshouldberegardedaspublicgoodsbecause–asthispapershows–theycontributetoasociety’sdevelopment,governance,peaceandprosperity.Likeotherpublicgoods,communicationprocessescostmoneytoproducebuttheproducerdoesnotalwaysprofitfromthem,andmanykindsofknowledgeandinformationbecomemorevaluablethemoretheyareused(asdothenetworkingsystemslinkingthemtogether).

Mostpoliticians,businesspeopleandeveryoneworkinginanykindofcollectiveenterpriseintuitivelyrecognisethateffectivecommunicationisfundamentaltotheirsuccess.Yetitisfrequentlyoverlookedindevelopmentalanalyses,developmentprojectsandpolicymaking.Policymakersoftenlacksufficientknowledgeofwhatspecificstepstheycantaketostrengthencommunicationprocesses;andevenwhentheyknow,sometimesthepoliticalwilltotakethemisabsent.Afterall,enablingmorepeopletobebetterinformedandtoengageandparticipatedirectlychallengesexistingpowerstructures.Inaddition,despiteplentifulanecdotalevidenceandastrongempiricalbaseshowingtheimportanceofcommunicationinenablingandcreatingtheconditionsforsuccessfuldevelopment,argumentshavenotalwaysbeenmarshalledcogentlyenoughandinanaccessibleway.Thisiswhatthispaperseekstoaccomplish.Itisspecificallyaimedatthosepolicymakers,advisors,academicsanddevelopmentpractitionerswhocanmakethelinkbetweentheoryandpracticeandtakealeadershiprolebyplacingcommunicationattheheartofhigh-levelpolicydiscourse,programmeplanningandprojectimplementation.

ReachingtheMDGsin2015willrequirehugeinvestmentsofpoliticalwillandfinancialresourcesbygovernmentsinboththedevelopedandthedevelopingworld;butitwillalsorequireabelatedrecognitionthatcommunicationiscentraltoallaspectsofsustainabledevelopment.The case for communicationconcludes,therefore,withacalltoactionbynationalandinternationalpolicymakersandleaders.Inordertorealisethepotentialofcommunicationinmaximisingdevelopmentoutcomes,weaskthemto:

Build more open, transparent information and communication systems and political cultures

Governmentsandinstitutionsmustaccepttherealityofanetworkedworld,thatwillshapepoliticsandcivilsocietyinwaysthatareonlyjuststartingtoemerge,andadapttocitizens’expectationsoftransparencyandaccountabilitybyestablishingandrealisinglegalrightstofreedomofspeechandaccesstoinformation.

Treat information, communication and the media as public goods and invest accordingly

Governmentsshouldrecognisethatmediaandcommunicationarepublicgoods.Theyshouldtakemeasurestoenablethegreaterparticipationofpoorandmarginalisedpeopleinsocial,economicandpoliticalprocesses;andinvestinstrengtheningthoseareasthatthemarketalonemaynotprovide,suchastelephoneaccessforpoorpeopleorhigh-qualitypublicinterestjournalism.

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‘Publicgoods’isaneconomictermreferringtogoodswhich,onceproduced(orexisting),benefitallmembersofasociety–forinstance,educationorjudicialsystems


Take a holistic view of communication processes and integrate communication into development planning and implementation

Governmentsanddevelopmentplannersmustrecognisethatcommunicationisattheheartofsuccessfuldevelopment:itsroleshouldbespecifiedinalldevelopmentanalysisandplanning,andadequateresourcesoffunding,expertiseandplanningmustbeinvestedtomakeithappen,includingexploitationoftherevolutionarynewopportunitiesofferedbyinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs).

Invest in media development

Adiverse,dynamicandfreemediaisvitaltodevelopment.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyestablishingmediafreedomandasupportiveregulatoryenvironment;strengtheningmediainfrastructure,capacityandprofessionalism;andsupportingimprovementsinthequalityanddiversityofmediacontent.

� Introduction

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Development

Whatisdevelopment?Mostexpertswouldagreethat–regardlessoftheparticulareconomicorpoliticalsystemusedtoproduceit–thegoalsofdevelopmentincludeimprovedmaterialconditionsforeveryone;greaterequityinaccesstotheworld’snaturalresourcesandwealth;improvedrealisationofhumanrights,freedomandsecurity;improvedchoices,self-determinationandpowertoinfluenceone’sownlifeandconditions;andsustainability.Achievementofthesegoalsentailschangesateverylevel:withinhouseholdsandcommunities,insocieties,statesandbusinesses,andininternationalrelations.Theyarenotgoalsthatcaneverbeachievedabsolutelyandforalltime:theyinvolvecontinuingprocessesofdialogue,competition,negotiation,exchange,adaptationanddecision-making–inwhichallsectorsofsociety,includingpoorandmarginalisedpeople,needtoparticipate.Theseprocessesarelargelyprocessesofcommunication.

Muchdevelopmentplanningtodayisfocusedonreducingpoverty.Thereisdebateabouttherelativeimportanceoflowincomes,otherelementscontributingtothequalityoflife,andinequalityindefiningpoverty.Butmostanalystswouldagreethatforanyimprovementinthelivesofthepoortobelastingandsustainable,itmustincludestrengtheningthepowersofpoorpeopletoparticipateintheprocessesofdevelopment–andthismeansstrengtheningtheircapacitytocommunicate.

Poorpeople,andpeoplewhoaremarginalisedandpowerlesswithintheirowncommunities,arebydefinitionexcludedfrommanythings,includingmanykindsofcommunication.Onesideofcommunicationisreceiving information.Constraintsonpoorpeople’scapacitytoreceiveinformationcanincludenon-literacy,distancefromsourcesofinformation,notspeakingthemajorityorofficiallanguages,andlackofelectricitythatlimitstheavailabilityofradiosandtelevisions.Theothersideofcommunicationistheabilitytogiveinformation,tomakeone’svoiceheardandtoparticipateindiscussionanddebate.Poorpeople’scapacitiestomaketheirvoicesheardarealsolimited:theylackaccesstopowerfulpeople;untiltheveryrecentspreadofmobilephones,mostpoorpeoplehadnotelephonewithinreach.UsingcomputersandtheInternetisexpensiveandneedsskills.Andwithincommunities,socialcustomsandpowerstructuresoftenkeepsomegroups,especiallywomen,silent.Strengtheningpoorpeople’spowertoshareinformationandengageindialoguewouldleadtomajorchangesinthelivesofmostnations,notonlydevelopingones.

Communication

Digitalandelectronic,printandinterpersonalcommunicationareallpartofthe‘communicationecology’ofsocieties,statesandinstitutions,andareincludedintheconceptofcommunicationinthispaper.Weincludealltypesofcommunication:fromplannedcommunicationcampaigns(forinstanceinhealth,politicsoreducation)tounplannedflowsofcommunication(suchaspersonalinteractions,informalgatheringsandthegrowingglobalwebofvirtualrelationships);artandentertainmentaswellasfactualinformation.Processesofgatheringandorderingknowledgeandinformationarepartofcommunication,aswellastheprocessesofsendingandsharinginformation.

Communication: what, why – and why now?


�Communication:what,why–andwhynow?

TheLatinrootoftheword‘communication’iscommunicare,‘toshare’.Wecommunicatetoshareourpointofview.Thisisacorehumantraitwithinandbetweenfamilies,friends,colleaguesandstrangersateverylevelinsociety.Thosewespeaktomay,ormaynot,bepersuadable.Ifbothsidesarelisteningtoeachother–thatis,‘sharing’thediscussion–adialogueensueswhichmayresultinagreement,oranagreementtodiffer,orunresolvedoppositionorconflict.Inthispaper,‘communication’meanstwo-wayexchange,nottheone-waypassingofinformationfromagivertoareceiver.Itmeansgivinginformation,andalsoreceivinginformationandlisteningwitharealpossibilityofresponding.

What is communication for development?

Recognisingtheimportanceofcommunicationinbringingaboutdevelopmentchangeisnotnew.Overthepast50yearsmanyanalysesofhowcommunicationworksindevelopmenthaveseenthetargetsofcommunicationprincipallyasreceiversofinformationandideas.Theaimhasbeentotransmitinformationtopersuadepeopletochangetheirbehaviourinrespectofaspecificareaoftheirlives–familyplanning,forexample,oragriculturalpractices.Atfirst,communicationwasseenasasimplematterofasendergivingamessagetoareceiver.Partlyinfluencedbytheexperienceoftheadvertisingindustry,theideagrewthatthemessageandthemediumhadtobecarefullymatchedtothereceiver’sideasandsocialcontext.Informationcampaignsbegantobemorecarefullydesigned,withrepresentativesofthetargetaudienceoftenhelpingtoidentifywhatneededtobesaidandhowtosayit.Formany,thisiswhatdevelopmentcommunicationis:plannedcommunicationcampaigns,oftenusingavarietyofmedia,toachievespecificchanges.16Withinthisapproach,theideaisnowwellestablishedthatpeople’sbehaviourismorelikelytochangeiftheyarenotjustpassiverecipientsofmessagesbutaremoreactivelyinvolvedintheprocess:discussionisbetterthanlistening.

Anotherfundamentalideagaininggroundisthatmanydevelopmentchangesrequirechangeinwholecommunities,notjustinindividuals.17Forinstance,awomancannotinsistherpartneruseacondomifhedoesnotaccepttheneedorobligationtodoso;andheismorelikelytodothisifithasbecomethenorminhissociety.Powerrelationsandtheattitudesofthecommunityaremoresignificantelementsinthedecisionthanthewoman’sfactualknowledgeofthedangersofunprotectedsex.Relatedtothisconceptthatchangeisasocialprocess,thereisincreasinginterestbydevelopmentcommunicationexpertsinanalysinghowideasarespreadwithinsocietiesandcommunities–whoaretheopinionleaderswithinacommunity,whichsourcesofinformationaremosttrusted,andwhatarethepathsalongwhichnewideasandbehavioursspreadthroughcommunities.Newideasaremorelikelytobeadoptediftheyareintroducedtothecommunitybytrusted‘changeagents’or‘communicationintermediaries’.18

Inthispaperwearearguingparticularlyforgreatersupportfortheothersideofcommunication–for‘voice’.Ifdevelopmentisunderstoodasprocesses inwhicheveryoneinasocietymustbeabletoparticipate,thisaspectofcommunicationisfundamental.Supportforcommunicationindevelopmentdoesnotjustmeanprovidingmoreinformationtopoorpeople.Itmeansenablingthemtoparticipate,toengageactivelyintheirdevelopmentthroughparticularcommunicationprocesses:articulatingviews,participatingindecision-making,actingoninformation,speakingandgettingaresponse,usingwhateverchannelsofcommunicationareavailable.Ofcoursenotallformsofcommunicationincludeparticipatoryprocesses–manysimplyaimtopersuadeorpassinformation.Butallformsofparticipationareessentiallycommunicationprocesses.19

16Foraconciseoverviewofchangingapproachestocommunicationindevelopment,seeSilvioWaisbord(2001)Family tree of theories, methodologies and strategies in development communication: Convergences and differences. PreparedfortheRockefellerFoundation:seewww.comminit.com/stsilviocomm/sld-2881.html

17Seeforexample:www.communicationforsocialchange.org/strategy.php

18Twootherthreadsintheclusterofideasthatmakeupthebroadfieldof‘communicationfordevelopment’areworthmentioningbecausetheyaredistinct,andcancausemisunderstanding.Firstly,‘strategiccommunication’isatermsometimesusedtorefertoaplannedcampaigninitiatedbyanoutsidebody(forinstance,agovernmentoraninternationalNGO)usingdifferenttypesofcommunicationtobringaboutvoluntarychangeintheattitudesandbehaviourofanaudience.Strategiccommunicationtreatstheaudiencewithrespect–whichdifferentiatesitfrom‘spin’.Thisisimportant:‘communication’inthepublicmindhasbecometaintedby‘spin’andbyfearsthatcommunicationfromgovernmentsandmajorcorporationsmaybedeceitfulandmanipulative.Secondly,theterm‘communicationfordevelopment’issometimesusedtorefertopublicrelations/publicaffairseffortsbygovernmentsoraidprogrammes

19WQuarryandRRamirez(2004)Communication for development: A medium for innovation in natural resource management,IDRC&FAO,p23.QuarryandRamireznotethat‘Communicationandparticipationareessentiallytwosidesofthesamecoin’,andidentifythreefunctionsofcommunication:1.communicationtoinform(policiesetc),2.communicationtoeducate(health,socialmarketing,etc),3.participatorycommunication(useofcommunicationtoolstoenableparticipation)

� Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment

Thisemphasison‘voice’isnotentirelynew.Forinstance,attheWorldCongressonCommunicationforDevelopmentinOctober2006,anumberofdevelopmentorganisationswithadistinguishedhistoryofprovidinginformation,includingtheUNFoodandAgricultureOrganization,agreedthatdevelopmentorganisationsshouldprioritise‘therightandpossibilityforpeopletoparticipateinthedecision-makingprocessesthataffecttheirlives’.20

Thedifferentchannelsofcommunicationstraddlebothinformationandvoiceaspects.Media(traditionalmassmedia–printandbroadcasting)giveinformationbutalsoexpressvoicesandenableparticipationbyexplaininggovernmentandpoliticalprocessesandprovidingaplatformfordebate.Communitymediainparticularenabledebateandvoice.ICTs(informationandcommunicationtechnologies–suchastelephones,computerandInternet)canalsobeusedtoreceiveinformation,butthegreatpotentialtheyofferforactiveengagementisonlystartingtobeexploited.WithnewICTs,everyuserispotentiallyanactivecreatorofinformation,avoiceaswellasapairofears.

Insupportingeitheraspectofcommunication–receivinginformationorgivingvoice–itisnotenoughtoprovidethecommunicationtechnologiessuchasphones,radiosorsatellites.Technologiesmakenodifferenceuntiltheyareused.Sodevelopmentsupportshouldalsoincludemakingsurethetechnologiesarereallyaccessible(intermsoflocation,costorsocialcustoms),buildingskillstousethem,creatingcontent,anddevelopingsystemsandculturesofusingthem.Inthe1990s,ICTenthusiastswereover-optimisticthattechnologiesthemselveswouldtransformsocieties.Manyprojectssuchasruraltelecentreswereestablished,withoftendisappointingresults.Experienceshowedthattherearemanybarrierstousingatechnology:costandreliability,skillsandmanagement,lackofusefulcontent,oralackoffitbetweenthenewtechnologiesandtheexistingcommunicationneedsandflowsofthetargetcommunity.Thestartingpointforanyinitiativetostrengthencommunicationflowsmustbetheexistingcommunicationcapacitiesandhabitsoftheintendedbeneficiaries.

Werecognisethatnotallcommunicationisbenignfromthepointofviewofdevelopment.Opinioncanbemanipulated,truthcanbehiddenordistorted,mediacanbeusedtopromotetheinterestsofpowerfulelites,peoplecanbeexploited.Thebenefitsofmorecommunicationbringwiththemthedangersofworsecommunication.Judicious,transparentandpubliclyacceptedregulationandcontrolshouldbepartoftheresponse.Butinafreesocietymuchoftheresponsibilitymustliewiththeaudiencefordistinguishingthegoodfromthebad,theempoweringfromthemanipulative.Audiencesmustlearntorecognisetheirowninterests,andtobeproactiveinchallenging,inseekinginformationthemselvesandinproducingmediaoftheirown.Groupswhoaregenerallyunder-represented,includingwomen,needtobeactivetomaketheirvoicesheardandcontributetopublicdiscourse.

Whynow?

TheintroductionoftheprintingpresswithmovabletypeinEuropeover500yearsagoledtorevolutionarychanges,asknowledgeandinformationbecameincreasinglyaccessibleandaffordable.TheexplosivegrowthofICTsinthelasttwodecadesisbringingasecondGutenbergrevolution:transformingthewaysthatpeoplecommunicateandshareknowledgewithoneanother,andprofoundlychangingthedynamicsofsocial,politicalandeconomiclife.Thiscommunicationsrevolution–includingtheInternet,mobiletelephonesandnewmediachannels–offersimmenseopportunitiesforpeopletoaccessmoreinformationandknowledge,whichtheycanusetoimprovetheirlives.Butitalsorisksexpandingthechasmbetweenrichandpoor,betweenthosewhoenjoytheaccessandskillstoutilisethesenewinformationandcommunicationchannelsandthosewhodonot.

20www.devcomm.org/worldbank/admin/uploads/New%20documents/Rome%20Consensus.doc

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WiththeMDGsasawidelysharedgoal,unprecedentedinternationalattentionisbeinggiventothemoral,political,economic,socialandsecuritychallengesofglobalunder-development.InJune2007theG8meetingoftherichestcountriesintheworldconcentrated,forasecondtimeintwoyears,onsupportingdevelopmentinAfricabyaddressingtheissuesofgoodgovernance,sustainableinvestment,peaceandsecurity.GlobalaidvolumesarepromisedtorisetoUS$125billionayearby2010(upfromUS$106.8billionin2005).21Donoranddevelopingcountrygovernmentsaretryingtoshakeoffyearsofdevelopmentfailureandcommitthemselvestomakingdevelopmentaidmoreeffective.BothpledgedinMarch2005toacttogethertoensurethisscaled-upaidisincreasinglycoordinated,bettermanagedandmoreeffective.22IntheParisDeclarationonAidEffectivenessthesignatoriescommittedthemselvestotheir‘respectiveaccountabilitytotheircitizensandparliamentsfortheirdevelopmentpolicies,strategiesandperformance’.

Communicationprocessesofthekindwedescribeinthispapermustformanessentialpartofachievingthesegeneralcommitments,andtheMDGsthemselves.Accountabilityisrealisedthroughtheactiveengagementofcitizens,asweargueinthefollowingsection.AchievingtheMDGsneedssocialchangewithincommunitiesaswellaseffectivedeliveryofservicesbygovernments,bothofwhich,tobesustainable,needprocessesofdebateandnegotiation.ButthereislittleornomentionofcommunicationineitherthegeneralcommitmentsortheMDGs,becausetheydonotstateindetailhowthedesiredgoalsaretobeachieved.

Webelievethatunlesscommunicationisclearlyidentifiedfromthestartasoneoftheessentialelementsofachievingtheagreedgoals,itislikelytobeneglectedandunder-resourced–andsothecommitmentsmaycometonothing.

Developmentorganisationsandgovernmentshavealreadyrecognisedtheroleofinformationandcommunicationindevelopmentinanumberofrecentinitiatives.23Butdespitethisswellofopinion,communicationisstillnotrecognisedwhereitneedstobe,attheheartofdevelopmentplansandcommitmentsateverylevel.SointhegatheringeffortofthedevelopmentcommunitytoachievetheMDGs,itistimelytocallforturningthespotlightoncommunicationnow.

Communicationisalsobecomingmoreurgentforotherreasons.Thepaceoftechnologicalchangeinthecommunicationfieldleavesgovernments,institutionsandanalystsstrugglingtokeepup.Thereisalackofskillsateverylevelrelatingtonewtechnologicaldemandsandpossibilities,fromcommunity-leveljournalismtogovernmentministriesandtelecommunicationsregulatoryauthorities;andthereisinsufficientinvestmentininfrastructure,training,legalandregulatoryprocessesandthesystemicchangesneededinallinstitutionstoadapttothechallengesandopportunitiesofcommunication.

Finally,theimpactofcommunicationandinformationprocessesonsocietiesofeverykindisgoingtoincreaserapidlyinthecomingdecades.Thevolumeandspeedofinformationflows,andthenumberofpeoplewhohaveaccesstothem,isrisingfast,whilecostsdecline.24Asthetake-up,reachandimpactofmobilephones,citizenjournalismandblogs,localandregionalbroadcasting,andinternational‘net’coalitionsaroundissuesexpand,governmentsandmainstreammediainstitutionsarebeingleftbehind.Howeverhardtheytry,theycannotcontroltheircitizens’orconsumers’accesstoinformation,orresistthedemandformoreaccessiblecommunicationsamongpeopleandbetweenpeopleandtheirgovernments.Theyneedtofindwaysofembracingthesechangesthattheycannotresist.

21Manydoubtwhetherthispromisewillbefulfilled.AreportfromtheOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)inApril2007foundthatoveralldevelopmentaidhadfallenin2006forthefirsttimesince1997.www.oecd.org/document/17/0,2340,en_2649_37413_38341265_1_1_1_37413,00.html

22TheOECDParisDeclarationonAidEffectiveness:Ownership,Harmonisation,Alignment,ResultsandMutualAccountability,seewww.oecd.org/document/18/0,2340,en_2649_3236398_35401554_1_1_1_1,00.html

23Forexample,theUNICTTaskforce;theG8DigitalOpportunitiesTaskForce;UNDPworkonAccesstoInformation;theWorldSummitontheInformationSocietyin2003and2005;theWorldCongressonCommunicationforDevelopment2006;theCommissionforAfrica;DFID’s2006DevelopmentWhitePaper;WorldBankWorldDevelopmentReportsonKnowledgeandPoverty.AcompilationoftherecommendationssetoutintheseandotherdocumentshasbeencompiledbyPanosLondonandcanbefoundonthePanosLondonwebsite,www.panos.org.uk/heartofchange

24Forinstance,between2000and2004,thenumberofmobilephonesubscribersinsub-SaharanAfricaquadrupled,raisingthetotalnumberofphonesubscribersfrom31per1,000to84per1,000.(2006WorldDevelopmentIndicatorsdatabase,WorldBank,16April2006).EvenmorestartlingisthecurrentincreaseofnewmobilephoneusersinIndia,wheresevenmillionnewsubscribersarebeingaddedtothemobilenetworkseverymonth.SeeFinancialTimes,‘India&GlobalisationSpecialReport’,26January2007,p6

Communication:what,why–andwhynow?

10 Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment

The political nature of development

Developmentinvolvesnotjusttheexpansionofresources,skillsandpowerinanygivenstatebutalsothepoliticalprocessesof‘state/societybargaining’overtheirdistributionthatoccurwithinit.25Thisistrueonaglobalscaleaswellaswithinnationsandcommunities.Sodevelopmentisfundamentallypolitical.Itinvolvesenablingthosewhoareexcludedtogainagreaterandmorejustshareofpowerandresources,throughparticipationinpolitical,policyanddecision-makingprocessesateverylevel.

Anewwillingnesstodealwithpoliticsindevelopmentdiscourseisemerging,inbothrichandpoorcountriesandinsomemajordevelopmentinstitutions.Theneedtoaddresspoliticalprocessesaswellastechnicalaspectsofgovernanceinterventionshasbeenhighlightedindonorinitiativessuchasthe‘DriversofChange’analysis,‘PowerAnalysis’andsomeWorldBankpoliticalandinstitutionalanalyses.26In2006HilaryBenn,thentheUK’sSecretaryofStateforInternationalDevelopment,statedthat:‘Developmenthastobeaboutgettingthepoliticsrightbecausedevelopmentandprogresscannotbeachievedifthepoliticalsystemexcludesthemajority.’27

Communicationiscentraltothepoliticalprocessandtheexerciseofpower.Infact,theentirepoliticalprocess,theexchangebetweencivilsocietyandpoliticalinstitutions,isatheartacommunicativeact.Peoplehavetobeabletoexpresstheirneedsanddemandfulfilmentofgovernmentpromisesandapropershareofacountry’sresources.Peopleandtheirgovernmenthavetodebatepolicyoptions,prioritiesandstrategies.

ProgresstowardstheMDGsneedspro-poor,people-centredpoliticalprocessesthatputvoiceandaccountabilityattheheartoftherelationshipbetweenthecitizenandthestate.Healthypoliticalprocessesneedhealthy,opencommunicationenvironments–communicationprocessesthatsupportparticipation,inclusiveness,responsivenessandequity.Thisisallthemoresignificantasthemassivegrowthindemocracies28combinedwiththeongoingrevolutionincommunicationtechnologiesincreasescitizens’rightsandopportunitiestocommunicateandengageinpoliticaldebateandactivities.

Politiciansandotherpolicymakersinthedevelopedworldareintuitivelyawareoftheimportanceofcommunication,yetdevelopmentinitiativesoftenappeartoignorecommunicationinthedevelopingworld.Acommitmentbykeystakeholderstosupportopeninformationandcommunicationchannelsofallkindsinacountry,includingpromotingthevoicesofpoorandmarginalisedpeople,wouldhaveprofoundconsequencesforitspolitical,economicandsociallife.Theaimofsuchacommitmentwouldbetocreatean‘opensociety’inwhichthecitizens,politiciansandstateofficialscandiscuss,knowandfulfiltheirdutiesandresponsibilitiestooneanotherinawaythatoffersthebestchanceto‘getthepoliticsright’andgeneratethemostconduciveenvironmentfordevelopment.

Politics and governance

25‘Signpoststomoreeffectivestates:Respondingtogovernancechallengesindevelopingcountries’,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies(IDS)report,June2005

26DriversofChangestudiesarepartofDFID’sefforttounderstandprocessandopportunitiesforchange;SIDA’spoweranalysiscontributestounderstandingtheroleofpowerdynamicsindevelopment;theWorldBank’sToolsforInstitutional,Political&SocialAnalysis(TIPS)arepartofthePovertyandSocialImpactAnalysis(PSIA)approach

27HilaryBenn,speechtotheDemosthinktank,23October2006,see:www.demos.co.uk/files/File/HB_speech_-_final.pdf

28SeethelatestfiguresfromtheHuman security report 2005: War and peace in the 21st Century,HumanSecurityCentre,UniversityofBritishColumbia,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,p151

11

Supporting good governance

‘Gettingthepoliticsright’maybeoneofthekeystodevelopment,butbilateralandmultilateralaidorganisationsarenotabletointerveneformallyanddirectlyinarecipientcountry’spolitics:thiswouldviolatethenormsofinternationalrelations,aswellasbeingincompatiblewiththeircommitmenttopartnershipwithgovernments.Theconceptof‘goodgovernance’offersawayroundthisdilemmabyfocusingonthetechnicalaspectsofgovernment.

Governancecanbedefinedinmanyways.Someconcentrateontherelationshipofgovernmentwithcivilsociety;othersfocusontherelationshipbetweenindividuals,communities,societiesandthenaturalenvironment.29Somefocusontheroleandperformanceofgovernmentitself:indeed,thestressongovernancehasarisenpartlybecauseashigherlevelsofofficialaidaregranteddirectlytosupporttheoveralloperationsofdevelopingcountrygovernments(‘budgetsupport’),donorshaveanobligationtotrytoensurethattheirmoneyiswellspent.Governanceofothersocialandeconomicinstitutions,includinglargecorporations,andtheirrelationswithsociety,isalsoimportant.However,thischapterfocusesongovernment.

TheUKGovernment’sDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID)WhitePaperin2006definedgovernanceasthestate’s:

n capabilitytoperformitskeyfunctions

n responsivenesstoitscitizens’aspirationsandneeds

n accountabilitytoitscitizens.30

Goodgovernanceinanystateisrootedinthecreationofapoliticalsysteminwhichtheaggregationofpublicdemandleadstoconsensus-basedpolicyformation.Thisaggregationofpublicwantsintopolicyislicensedbypublicopinion,whichgrantspoliticalauthoritytoitsgovernmentatelections.

Discussionsofgoodgovernancecanbecontentiousbecausepeoplesometimesusethetermasifitwassynonymouswithdemocracy.Butitisnot.31ExternalinterventionstoreplicateNortherndemocraticmodelsofstateinstitutionsandpoliticalprocessesindevelopingcountrieshaveenjoyedlimitedsuccess,inpartbecausetheyhavereplicatedtheformsbutnotthecontent.Withoutdeep-rootedprocessesof‘state/societynegotiation’,32democraticinstitutionshavelittlemeaning.33

Anyconceptionof‘goodgovernance’mustincludeanactivepublicsphereinwhichsocietalissuescanbeopenlydebated,consensusreachedordisagreementsmanaged,andanationalsenseofcommunityestablished.Approachestopoliticalprocessesthatpredominantlyfocusonelections,representationandtheruleoflaw–andconceiveofcitizenssimplyasvoterswhoexpresstheirconsentfromtimetotimebutleavegovernancetoelectedrulersandelites–areinadequate.Technically‘democratic’electionprocesses,forinstance,cancoexistwithhighlevelsofcorruptionandwithweakcivilsociety.Thisconceptionofcitizenshipmissesthebroaderrolesandactivitiesthatcitizensfulfil;andisincreasinglychallengedbythegrowthinaccesstoinformationandmedia,whichmeansthatpeopleareevermoreinformedandabletoparticipateinlocalandglobalassociations.

29TheWorldBankdefinesgovernanceas:‘Thetraditionsandinstitutionsbywhichauthorityinacountryisexercisedforthecommongood’inDKaufmann,‘Backtobasics’inFinance and development,September2005,Volume42,Number3;DFIDdefinesitas:‘…howcitizens,leadersandpublicinstitutionsrelatetoeachotherinordertomakechangehappen’inEliminating world poverty: Making governance work for the poor,UKWhitePaperonInternationalDevelopment,2006;theUNDPas:‘Theexerciseofeconomic,politicalandadministrativeauthoritytomanageacountry’saffairsatalllevels’inUNDP,OsloGovernanceCentre.TheConcordCotonouWorkingGroup(June2006)whichincludesinputfromActionAid,Aprodev,Bond,CNCD,Eurodad,Eurostep,FERN,PollenandVENROdefinesgovernanceas:‘themanagementofrelationshipsbetweenhumanbeings,betweensocieties,betweenmankindandthebiosphere’

30DFID(2006)Eliminating world poverty,p20(seenote29)

31Democracyitselfisacontentiousterm,inpartbecausetherearesomanydifferingconceptions(direct,representative,liberal),eachofwhichhasdifferentforms.However,theprinciplesofdemocracy–asoutlinedbyWesternpoliticalphilosophersfromLocke,MadisonandJohnStuartMillthroughtocontemporarytheoristssuchasJürgenHabermas–centreonideasofparticipation,dialogueandpublicdeliberation.AmartyaSen(‘Thediverseancestryofdemocracy’,FinancialTimes,13June2005)notesthattheunderlyingprinciples–‘theopportunityofparticipatoryreasoningandpublicdecisionmaking’–haveverywidehistoricalrootsthatincludetheBuddhistCouncilsofthesixthcentury,legalcodesforminorityrightsunderMughalEmperorAkbarinIndia,andthehighpositiongiventotheJewishphilosopherMaimonidesinEmperorSaladin’scourtinCairo.WhiledemocracymaybeaWesternconcept,theprinciplesofparticipationandpublicdebateunderpinningitarefarbroader

32‘Signpoststomoreeffectivestates’,IDS2005,seenote25

33SeealsoLHarrison(2006),The central liberal truth: How politics can change a culture and save it from itself (seenote6)

Politicsandgovernance

1� Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment

Goodgovernanceisnotuniversallyacceptedasausefulfocusfordevelopmentplanning.Criticsfeelthatitoftenplacestoomuchfocusonthepowersofgovernment,withtoolittleonthecapabilitiesofpeople.Amorefundamentalcriticismisthatbyfocusingoncorruptionandontechnicalchangesindevelopingcountrygovernments,the‘goodgovernanceagenda’distractsattentionfrommajorissuesofinternationalpowerimbalances.Inotherwords,criticsseethegoodgovernanceapproachasawayforthegovernmentsofrichcountriestoblamethepoor,insteadoffullyrecognisingtheirownroleinovercomingunder-development.34

Itiscertainlytruethattheconceptofgoodgovernance,whichincludestechnicalaspectsaswellaspowerrelations,islessdirectlychallenging–bothtodevelopinganddevelopedcountrygovernments–thantheconceptofpoliticalchange.

However,fewwoulddisputethat‘goodgovernance’matters–asadevelopmentgoalinitselfandasacriticalenablerforimprovedhumanwelfare.Initsbroadsenseofthemachineryofstateprovidingaccountablegovernmentthatenablesdevelopmentinpartnershipwithempoweredcitizenry,goodgovernanceprovidessecurity,stabilityandanenvironmentinwhichpeoplecanmakethemostoftheirlives.Itenablesapoliticalsystemthatbuildscitizens’senseofinclusion,fairness,voiceandparticipationindecision-making.Itpromotestheruleoflaw.Itisgoodforeconomicgrowthandthepursuitoflivelihoods,encouraginginvestmentandenablingproductionandtrade.Thereisagrowingbodyofresearchdemonstratingitsimportance.The2006 Global Monitoring ReportonprogressontheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs)suggeststhatgoodgovernancecanincreasethegrowthrateofgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)percapitaby1.2percentagepoints35andpercapitaincomesuptofourfold.36TheWorldBankestimatesthatinthelongrun,improvementsinthequalityofgovernancemayleadtoathreefoldincreaseineconomicgrowthanddevelopmentoutcomes.37

Itisequallyclearthat‘goodgovernance’ishardtocreate,evenwherepoliticalwillispresent.Attheheartoftherelationshipsbetweenandamongdifferentstateandnon-stateactorsareflowsofinformationandcommunication.Goodgovernancecannotbeachievedwithoutconcentratingmoreattentionandinvestmentonthesemultipleflowsofcommunicationandthetechnologiesthroughwhichtheyarefacilitated.Yetthisisbecomingmorecomplicatedandchallenging.

Inthepast,communicationwaslimitedandthe‘publicsphere’withinwhichmostpeoplelivedwasrelativelysmall.Localandtraditionalcommunitydecision-makingstructuresdominatedthis‘publicsphere’,whichwasinformedbylimitedexternalinformationandoftengovernment-controlledmassmedia.Thesewerethespacesinwhichdebatewasconducted,consensusformedandcoalitionsbuilt.Nowtherearemanymoresourcesofinformationavailabletomanymorepeople,andmuchgreaterlevelsandscopeofcommunicationflows,globallyaswellaswithincountries.Thismeansthatbuildingconsensusisharder,andthepossibilityofinfluencebyasingleactorisreduced.Yetconsensusisarguablyevermoreimportant.Thespreadofrulebydemocracyratherthandiktat,risingexpectationsandgreaterindividualfreedom,theneedtosharedwindlingresources–allthesepointtoaneedforincreasednegotiationindifferentspheresoflife,andmoreacceptanceofnegotiatedsolutions.Governmentsneedtowintheconsentandsupportoftheircitizens–notthesedaysbypropagandathroughstate-controlledmedia,butthroughinformationandpersuasiontobuildunderstanding,acceptanceandownership.Theboundarybetweentheinevitabletaskofademocraticgovernmenttobuildconsensus,and‘spin’–themanagementofpublicopinion,includingofmedia,seenasdeceitfulandsuppressingdebate–isblurry,butitisjustasimportantindevelopingasindevelopedcountries.

34Thisisalegitimatecritiquewhenthosesamecountriessimultaneouslyrestrictorstymiediscussionsonthemanagementofglobalresourcesandotherglobalgoods(suchasCO2emissionsandpublichealthissues),andreformsinthegovernanceofinternationalsystems(suchastradingrules)andmultilateralorganisations(theWorldBankandIMF).Criticsalsochargedonorswithusingtheabsenceofgoodgovernanceasanexcuseforthefailureofrecentdevelopmentstrategiessuchasstructuraladjustment.Thechargeofhypocrisyisalsosometimesvalid:richcountriesdonotalwaysinsistonthesameanti-corruptionmeasuresforthemselvesthattheydemandofdevelopingcountries

35Rivera-Batiz’s2002studyfoundthataone-standarddeviation(or0.26)ofhisqualityofgovernanceindexincreasesthegrowthrateofGDPpercapitaby1.2percentagepointsperyear.SeeFLRivera-Batiz(2002)‘Democracy,governanceandeconomicgrowth:Theoryandevidence’inReview of Development Economics,Vol.6,No.2,pp225–247

36WorldBanktrackingofgovernanceindicatorsshowsaone-standarddeviationinoneofthesixgovernanceindicators(VoiceandAccountability,PoliticalInstabilityandViolence,GovernmentEffectiveness,RegulatoryBurden,RuleofLaw,Graft)leadsto2.4–4-foldincreaseinpercapitaincomes.SeeWorldBankGovernanceIndicators2006

37WorldBankGovernanceIndicators.TheWorldBank’sGlobal Monitoring Report 2006 stressedthevitalroleofgoodgovernanceinreducingpoverty.Aconcentrationoncorruptioninthedevelopingworldmixescauseandeffect:corruptionisthesymptom,notthecause,ofbadgovernance

1�

Newtechnologiesprovideaplatformthatneitherthestatenortraditionalpublicspherescancontrol.GovernmentssuchasChina’sthatarestilltryingtoimposecontrolovertheircitizens’accesstocommunicationmaynotbeabletoholdbackthefloodmuchlonger.Governmentshaveachoice:embracethenewtechnologiesandforgenewrelationshipswiththeirpeopleor,likeJosephEstrada,theformerpresidentofthePhilippines(toppledin2001by‘smartmobs’coordinatingthroughmobilephones38),facethepowerofnewlyenabledcivilsocieties.

Forgovernmentstoengageeffectivelyindialoguewiththeircitizens(andexternalstakeholders),theywillrequiremorevaried,nimble,openandactivelyengagedstrategiesoflistening,respondingandbeingaccountabletotheneedsofthepeople.Thisistrueforallpoliticalsystems.InVietnam,atapressconferenceinJanuary2007toannouncetheprimeminister’sfirsteveronlinechatwithmembersofthepublic,PhamVietDung,editoroftheVietnamGovernment’swebsite,said‘theonlineforumshighlighttheresponsibilitypoliticalleadershaveinlisteninganddiscussingissuesofpublicconcern’.39

Belowweoutlinethecentralityofcommunicationandinformationinhelpinggovernmentstomeetthesechallenges:theirroleinpromotingastate’sresponsivenessandaccountability,andinboostingitscapacities and capabilities.Theimportanceofcommunicationtotheroleofcivilsociety–bothasthepartnerforgovernment(holdingitaccountable),andinitsownrightinthedevelopmentofahealthypublicsphere–isthesubjectofthenextchapter.

State responsiveness and accountability

Responsiveness

Stateresponsivenessisthewaygovernmentstakeaccountoftheircitizens’aspirations,expectationsandneeds,andrespondtothem.Responsivestatesrequiregovernmentsthatcancommunicatewithcivilsocietyandbasetheformationandimplementationofpolicyontheneedsandconcernsoftheircitizens.Greaterconsultationandresponsivenessincreasepublicownershipandtrustingovernment,andtendtoincreasetheeffectivenessofpolicies.Butthemeansbywhichthisinteractioncantakeplacearefrequentlyignoredorunder-resourcedbygovernments,andtoooftenthevoicesofthewealthyandpowerfularethosewhichare‘heard’bygovernmentsandthewiderpublic,andbecomemoreinfluentialthanthoseofthepoor.Governmentshaveobligationstoallcitizens,andshouldmakespecialeffortstoprovidechannelsandmechanismstoensurepoorandmarginalisedpeoplecanmaketheirvoicesheard.

Assessmentsofpovertyandthedesignofpovertyreductionstrategiesthatarebasedontheparticipationofthepoorthemselves–suchasParticipatoryPovertyAssessments(PPAs)andtheemphasisonconsultationinthePovertyReductionStrategyPapers(PRSPs)–havepotential,whentheyarewellimplemented,asmodelsofcommunicationprocessesthatcansupportresponsivepolicymakingandgoodgovernance.40

Accountability

Accountabilityisacrucialelementofgoodgovernance.Agovernmentmustbeanswerabletoitscitizensforwhatitdoes.Accountabilityisrealisedthroughperiodic politicalprocesses,butalsothroughongoingtransparency,andmonitoringofagovernment’sperformance.Allofthesearecommunicationprocesses.

38‘Smartmobs’isatermcoinedbyHowardRheingoldtodescribesocialgroupsnewlyempoweredthroughevolvingcommunicationtechnologiessuchastheInternet,onlinechattools,mobilesandthenewopportunitiespresentedbynetworks.HowardRheingold(2002)Smart mobs: The next social revolution,CambridgeMass:PerseusBooksGroup

39http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/showarticle.php?num=01POL250107

40SeetheforthcomingpaperfromPanosLondon,Making poverty the story: Time to involve the media in poverty reduction Available at www.panos.org.uk



Accountabilityisoftenseenasamattermainlyoffinancialreportingtoshowthatfundshavebeenusedproperly,butitismuchmorethanthat.Peopleshouldbeabletojudgewhetherpolicydecisionsarebeingproperlyimplemented,andholdtheirgovernmentsaccountableforfulfillingthepromisesonwhichtheywereelected.Poorpeoplecanbeinvolvedinthis,throughdifferenttypesofcommunicationprocess.Forinstance,NGOsinruralIndiaarecreatingnewplatformsandarenasforthearticulationofaccountabilityclaimsthroughinformalpublichearingsandtheconstructionof‘People’sDevelopmentPlans’.41

Transparencyisanessentialcomponentinmakingsystemsandprocessesofallkindsaccountabletotheirusers,stakeholdersandconsumers–notonlyfornationalgovernmentsbutalsoforinternationalbodiesandtheprivatesector.42Countriesthataremoretransparent,forexampleintheprovisionofeconomicinformation,havebettergovernanceindicatorsforgovernmenteffectiveness,regulatoryburden,voiceandaccountability,theruleoflaw,bureaucraticefficiencyandcontractrepudiation,andriskofexpropriation.43

Transparencydemandsclear,predictableanddocumentedprocessesofdecision-makingandimplementation;withinformationabouttheseprocessesbeingmadeavailabletocitizensandtherightofaccesstothisinformationbeingaccordedtothem.

Accessforallcitizenstoinformation–heldbygovernmentsbutalsobytheprivatesector–isanessentialcomponentofaccountability.Itenablescitizenstounderstandpoliciesandprocessessothattheycanquestionthemandenterintoinformeddialogue.44In2006nearly70countriesaroundtheworldhadadoptedcomprehensivefreedomofinformationlegislationtofacilitateaccesstorecordsheldbygovernmentbodies,andanother50wereintheprocessofdoingso,45thoughfrequentlythisprocessisveryprolonged.FreedomofinformationlegislationhasbeenpendinginGhanaandNigeriaforsixyears,andtheZambianGovernmenthasbeenrunning‘consultations’onpotentiallegislationsince2001.46Meanwhileinsomedevelopedcountries,governmentsareactuallytryingtoclawbackcitizens’rights:in2006theUKGovernmentconsideredrestrictingitsexistingfreedomofinformationpractices,apparentlyasacost-cuttingmeasure,47makingitharderforcampaignersandjournaliststoaccessinformationpotentiallyembarrassingtoministers.Accesstoinformationlegislationisneeded,therefore–butcivilsocietyandthemediaalsohavetoseeitsvalueanduseit.TheorganisationArticle19worksnotonlytogetfreedomofinformationlegislationintroduced,butalsotohelppeopletoseehowitcanbenefitthem,andtostrengthenthecapacityofgovernmentstoimplementit.48

Transparencyreducesopportunitiesforcorruption.49‘Sunlightisthebestdisinfectant,50USSupremeCourtJusticeLouisBrandeisfamouslyobserved,andtheevidencebearsthisout.51Loweringlevelsofcorruptionlimitsthediversionofinvestmentandaidflows;promotesequityinaccesstodecision-makingandservices;andbuildstrustingovernmentandinstitutions.Itisanecessary,thoughnotasufficient,measureforachievinggoodgovernance.Keyareaswheretransparencycanbefocusedtoreducecorruptionincludeappointmentsandotherhumanresourcespractices(throughtheintroductionofopenandmeritocraticrecruitmentmethods,electronicselectionprocesses,andclearcriteria-basedcareerpaths);andbudgetarycontrol(throughensuringno‘off-budget’accounts,clearbudgetprojections,incomeandexpenditureassumptions,regularprogressreports,wideparticipationandsharingofdraftbudgets,andtransparentaccountingstandards).52

41PNewellandJWheeler(2006)Rights, resources and the politics of accountability: Claiming citizenship – rights, participation and accountability,London:ZedBooks,p3

42MMooreandGTeskey(2006)The CAR Framework: Capability, accountability, responsiveness. A discussion note for DFID Governance and Conflict Advisors, Brighton: IDS

43RIslam(2003)Do more transparent governments govern better?PolicyResearchWorkingPaper3077,WorldBank,citedin:ABellverandDKaufmann(2006)‘Transparenting transparency: Initial empirics and policy applications’,TheWorldBankInstitute

44InMexico,thepassingofaccesstoinformationlegislationempoweredinformationintermediaries.Mostofthoseaccessinginformationunderthenewlegislationarebusinesses,academicsandjournalists.Ofthe150,000requestsreceivedupto2006,over50percentarefrombusinesspeopleandacademics,journalistsandotherbureaucrats(JuanPabloGuerrero,AccesstoInformationCommissioner,Mexico,presentationatWorldCongressonCommunicationforDevelopment,Rome,October2006)

45DBanisar(2006)Freedom of information around the world 2006: A global survey of access to government information laws, PrivacyInternational

46AfricanMediaDevelopmentInitiative:Researchsummaryreport,BBCWorldServiceTrust,2006

47The Economist,23December2006,p46

48www.article19.orgThenameoftheorganisation,Article19,istakenfromtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsArticle19,whichreferstofreedomofexpression

49Indeed,somedevelopmentagenciesusethetermalmostexclusivelywithinthecontextofcorruption,leadingtocriticismsthattheyareonlyblamingdevelopingworldgovernmentsforfailurestoreachdevelopmentgoals

50LBrandeis(1914)Other People’s Money, and How the Bankers Use It, NewYork:FAStokes

51DKaufmann,‘Backtobasics–10mythsaboutgovernanceandcorruption’inFinance and Development – a quarterly magazine of the IMF,September2005,Vol42,No3

52UtsteinAnti-CorruptionResourceCentre:www.u4.no/helpdesk/faq/faqs2c.cfm

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TransparencyInternational(TI)hasfoundthatlawsandsanctionsseemtobelesssuccessfulinreducinglevelsofcorruptionthanpublicvoluntaryagreementstorefrainfromcorruptpractices.TIhasdevelopedwhatitcalls‘integritypacts’,53inwhichagreementstomaintaincertainstandardsaremadebetweenpublicofficialsandtheprivatesector,forinstance,ormultinationalcompaniesandtheirpartners.Theirsuccessdependsonthebroadpubliccommunicationoftheircontent:citizenshavetoknowwhatthesignatoriesofthepacthavecommittedto.

Citizenparticipationcanalsocontributetoreducingcorruption.54InBolivia,forexample,citizenparticipationinannualplanning,budgetingandoversightonmunicipalhospitalhealthboardshadastrongercorrelationtoreducedcorruptionthanotheranti-corruptioninterventionsthatfocusedonpublicsectormanagementvariables(suchasrelativewages,internalenforcementofrules,andtheautonomyofagencybyfiat).55

Box 1 Transparent procurement reduces corruption

InPakistan,theKarachiWaterandSewerageBoardinstitutedanopenandtransparentbiddingprocessthatwasmonitoredbyTransparencyInternational.Makingpubliclyavailabletheprocurementdocumentsandprocessdemonstratedhowtheapplicationofano-bribesintegritypactcouldberolledoutacrossothercontractsforconsultancyservicesandallserviceprovision.Theintroductionoftransparencyinitiativesresultedinanetsavingestimatedatnearly20percentofthepreviouslyestimatedcostofthecontract.56

Statisticalanalysisshowsthatincreasedpenetrationofinformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs)andmassmediaisassociatedwithlowerlevelsofcorruption.57Inastudythatanalysedacomprehensivedatasetofqualityofgovernanceandmediaindicators,58researchersfoundthatwheremediaandICTpenetrationwasgreater,corruptionlevelswerelower–withthemostsignificantindicatorbeingnewspapercirculation.

Governmentsmaybereluctanttoimprovetransparencyandthepowerofpeopletomonitortheirperformance;and,ofcourse,themostsophisticatedITsystemwillnotincreaserealtransparencymuchifthepoliticalwillfortransparencyisabsent–atseniorlevelsofgovernmentorlowerdowninbureaucraciesandimplementingagencies.Externaldevelopmentagenciescannotcreatepoliticalwill–buttheymaybeabletoinfluencegovernmentsbydemonstratinghownewtechnologicalopportunitiesandacultureofopennesswillbenefitratherthanthreatenthem.Communicationcaninspiregreaterpublicsupportandcontributetopoliticalgainssuchaslongertenure.59

Themonitoringofgovernmentperformance,particularlybycivilsociety,isanimportantaccountabilitymechanism.Monitoringcancoveravarietyofissues,suchasfinancialmanagementandqualityofservicesprovided.Ideally,governmentsshouldsetthemselvescleartargetsandmaketransparentplansforachievingthem,andmaketheseknowntocitizens–sothatcitizenscanfollowprogressandunderstandconstraints.Thisisanenormouschallengeforgovernmentsanddoesnotoftenhappeneitherinrichordevelopingcountries,butsmallexamplesshowitspower.Monitoringalsorequiresanincreasedcapacityofcitizenstofollow,assessandrespondtogovernmentperformance,anditcanbecarriedoutthroughavarietyofmechanisms–forinstance,citizenreportcardsandsocialaudits.

53DevelopedbyTransparencyInternational,theIntegrityPact(IP)isatoolaimedatpreventingcorruptioninpubliccontracting.Itconsistsofaprocessthatincludesanagreementbetweenagovernmentoragovernmentdepartment(atthefederal,nationalorlocallevel)andallbiddersforapubliccontract.Itcontainsrightsandobligationstotheeffectthatneithersidewill:pay,offer,demandoracceptbribes;colludewithcompetitorstoobtainthecontract;orengageinsuchabuseswhilecarryingoutthecontract.TheIPalsointroducesamonitoringsystemthatprovidesforindependentoversightandaccountability

54GGray-Molina,EPérezdeRada,EYañez,‘TransparencyandAccountabilityinBolivia:DoesVoiceMatter?’Inter-AmericanDevelopmentBank,LatinAmericanResearchNetwork,OfficeoftheChiefEconomist,Workingpaper#R-381December1999,p29

55DKaufmann,GMehrezandTGurgur(2002)‘Voiceorpublicsectormanagement?Anempiricalinvestigationofdeterminantsofpublicsectorperformancebasedonasurveyofpublicofficials,’WorldBankResearchWorkingPaper,June2002,p29

56TransparencyInternationalPakistanandGreaterKarachiWaterSupplyScheme(2003)Integrity Pact: A Pakistan Success Story,Karachi,p5

57SBandyopadhyay(2006)Knowledge-driven economic development,EconomicsSeriesWorkingPapersNo267,DepartmentofEconomics,UniversityofOxford

58Thedatasetconsistedof:WorldBankQualityofGovernanceIndicators2004,countryassessmentsfromtheInternationalCountryRiskGuide,FreedomHousecountryrankings,ReporterswithoutBordersassessmentsofmediafreedom

59LNeuman(2006)Making public institutions transparent: The cornerstones of an open society,paperpreparedfortheWorldCongressonCommunicationforDevelopment



Box 2 Citizen Report Cards (CRCs) improve public services in Bangalore, India

ThePublicAffairsCentre(PAC),anNGOinBangalore,India,haspioneeredtheuseofCitizenReportCards(CRCs).ThefirstreportcardonBangalore’spublicagenciesin1994coveredmunicipalservices,watersupply,electricity,telecomsandtransport.Serviceusersgavetheirratingoftheservices,thefindingswerewidelypublicisedthroughthemedia,andpublicofficialsandcivicgroupswerebroughttogetherthroughworkshopsandseminars.Theincreasedpublicawarenessofgovernmentinefficienciesreportedlytriggeredtheformationofmorethan100civicgroupsindifferentpartsofIndia.

Agencieswereratedandcomparedintermsofpublicsatisfaction,corruptionandresponsiveness.Almostallthepublicserviceprovidersreceivedlowratingsfromthepeople.ThethirdCRConBangalorein2003showedasurprisingturnaroundinthecity’sservices.Itnotedaremarkableriseinthecitizenratings.Notonlydidpublicsatisfactionimproveacrosstheboard,butproblemincidenceandcorruptionseemedtohavedeclinedperceptiblyintheroutinetransactionsbetweenthepublicandtheagencies.DecisivestepshadbeentakenbytheagenciestoimproveservicessincethefirstCRC.60

KeytothesuccessofmonitoringtoolssuchasCRCsisanopenanddemocraticenvironment–withoutspaceforparticipation,CRCshavelittleimpact.Inaddition,politicalwillfromgovernment,civilsocietyandthemediaisimportant.

Politicalprocessesareattheheartofhowaccountabilityisrealised;andelectionsarethemostvisibleofthemechanismsthroughwhichcivilsocietycanrewardorsanctionitsrepresentatives.Clearly,technologyandimprovedlevelsofcommunicationalreadyplayimportantrolesinensuringelectoralregistrationandaccurateandtimelyresults.61Newcommunicationtechnologiesarebeingusedinmanywaystoimprovethequalityofelectionsandpublicconfidenceinthem–essentialfactorsinneworhighlycontesteddemocraticprocesses.Forexample,journalists,NGOsandordinarycitizensareusingmobilephonestoreportfromremotepollingstationsandincreaselevelsofscrutiny.Electronicvotinghasbeenshowninsomecasestoincreaseconfidence,bygivinginstantaneousresultsandfeweropportunitiesformeddlingwithresults.

Communicationsandmediaalsosupportelectionsbyhelpingpoliticalpartiescampaignand‘getoutthevote’,informingvotersofthelocationoftheirpollingstationsandhowtovoteatthem.Broadcastmedia,radioandinterpersonalcommunication(‘workingthephones’)areallwell-establishedtoolsinthepoliticalactivist’stoolkit,andmobilephonesandtextmessagingareincreasinglyusedforcampaigning.

Butbeforeelectionsareheld,politiciansandpeoplehavetoengageinothercommunicationprocesses.Meaningfulchoicebycitizensdepends,amongotherthings,ontheirhavingknowledgeofcandidates’andparties’programmes,promisesandperformance;andtheopportunitytodebatetheseandrelatethemtotheirownconcerns.Politicalpartieshavetobeformed,agendasdevelopedandsupportsoughtfromthepublic.Peopleneedtodevelopthehabitofpoliticaldebatearoundcontentandissuesratherthanjustpersonalities.Allrelyoneffectivecommunicationchannels,andopinionpolls,assembliesandpublicdebates,face-to-facecanvassingandmanyothertypesofcommunicationarecriticaltothequalityofthepoliticalprocess.62

60The third Citizen Report Card on public services in Bangalore,PublicAffairsCommitteeIndia,2003

61HDeegan(2003)‘ElectionsinAfrica–Thepasttenyears:Anassessment,’ElectionsInAfricaSeriesBriefingPaperNo2,TheRoyalInstituteOfInternationalAffairs

62Seenote41

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Governance and the media

Mediaareanessentialcomponentofaccountability.Theycanreportonandinvestigatethedecisionsandbehaviourofthepowerful,exposingcorruptionandprovidingspacesforissuestobedebatedandagendasdeveloped.InDevelopment as Freedom,65AmartyaSenfamouslyarguedthatnofaminehasevertakenplaceinacountrywhichhasmulti-partypoliticsandfreemedia.FurtherresearchbytheLondonSchoolofEconomicsfoundthata1percentincreaseinnewspapercirculationisassociatedwitha2.4percentincreaseinpublicfooddistributionanda5.5percentincreaseindisasterreliefexpenditures.66

Therelationshipbetweenanationalgovernmentanditsmediaisinevitablyantagonisticattimes,indemocraciesaswellasinauthoritarianstates.Journalismisadangerousprofession:inthe10yearsfrom1996to2006,atleast657journalistshavebeenmurdered,themajorityinpeacetime,andonlyoneineightoftheirkillershasbeenprosecuted.67

However,mostgovernmentsarecommittedinprincipletoestablishingtheregulatoryandenablingenvironmentwhichallowsmediathe‘space’tospeakandactfreely.68Itiswhensuchpoliticalwillandprotectedspaceareabsentthatthemediacannot,orfail,toholdgovernmentstoaccount.Recentacademicfindingshavesupportedtheintuitiveandwidely-acceptedargumentthatfreemediapromotepoliticalfreedom.Researchacross97countriesaroundtheworldfoundthat‘governmentownershipofthepressisassociatedwith...lowerlevelsofpoliticalrightsandcivilliberties’.69Stateswithlittlepoliticalfreedomarethosewhereattacksonthefreedomofthepressarefrequent–forinstance,NorthKorea,Eritrea,Cuba,Myanmar,ChinaandTurkmenistanarealldescribedas‘majorculprits’ofmediarepressioninthe2007‘ReporterswithoutBorders’PressFreedomsurvey.

63JohnLloyd(2004)What the Media are Doing to Our Politics,Constable:London,p143

64‘MobilePhonePlaysRoleinFreeKenyanElections’6January2003,source:BillKagaitoDemocraciesOnline,postedontheCommunicationInitiativewebsite:www.comminit.com

65ASen,Development as Freedom(1999)Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress

66TimothyBesleyandRobinBurgess(2002)‘Politicaleconomyofgovernmentresponsiveness–theoryandevidencefromIndia’inQuarterly Journal of Economics,November2002

67InternationalNewsSafetyInstitute(2007)Killing the Messenger: Report of the global inquiry by the International News Safety Institute into the protection of journalists, Brussels

68InDecember2006theUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilunanimouslypassedResolution1738condemningattacksonjournalistsandothermediaprofessionalsandemphasisingtheresponsibilityofstatestoendimpunityandprosecutethoseresponsibleforseriousviolations

69Djankovetal(2003)‘Whoownsthemedia?’Journal of Law and Economics, XLVI:341–381

Box 3 Mobile phones and elections in Africa

TheavailabilityofmobilephoneswasfoundtomilitateagainstcorruptpracticesinGhanaandSenegal,withEuropeanUnion(EU)observerswitnessingagreaterdepthofinvolvementbecauseoftheeaseoftelephonecommunication.Politicalorganisationsweregreatlyassistedintheirmonitoringactivitiesbybeingconstantlyandimmediatelyincontactaseventsoccurred.Equally,observerscouldpromptlypublishontheInternetanyelectoralirregularitiesorincidencesofcoercionastheywerereportedbyphonefromthefield.

InKenya,themassiveuseoftextmessagingcrashedthemobilephonenetworkduringthefinalstagesoftheelectionin2002aspeopleusedtelephonestomobiliseeachotherandmonitorthepollingbooths.Politicalgroupsdevelopedcell-phonenumberdatabasesallowingpeopletocontacteachotherandthoseatthepollingstationstocallforsupportwhenneeded.Campaignsmadeuseofshortmessagingservicesandelectionresultsweredisseminatedassoonastheywerecounted,eveninthemostremoteareas.Thisuseofmobilephonescontributedtomoreeffectivecampaigning,greatertransparencyandlessballotrigging.64

Themediaalsoplayaparticularlyimportantrole.Themediarevealcontextandframecoveragetoallowjudgementstobemadebycitizensbasedontheissuesratherthantheperformanceofthesubjects.63Debatearoundtopicalissuesissharedwidelythroughthemediainopeneditorials,discussionprogrammes,phone-inradioshows,and‘questiontimes’withpoliticalcandidates.



Inordertoholdthepowerfultoaccountthemedianeedtobefree,inclusiveandplural.‘Free’meanslegallyandinpracticefreetomaketheirowneditorialdecisionsandpublishinformationandopinionscriticalofthoseinpower.Italsomeansfreefinancially–thatis,amediahouseshouldnotbedependentongovernmentoranysinglesourceforitsincome.‘Inclusive’meansmediashouldreflectthevoices,concernsandlanguageofdifferentelementsofsociety,includingthepoorandmarginalised.‘Plural’meansdiverseinscope,scaleandaudience–includingnationalmassmediaaswellaslocal,communityandcitizenmedia–andalsodiverseintheirownership.Anapparentpluralityofmediacanbedeceptive:theincreasingconcentrationofmediaownershipinmanymarketsmeansthatdespiteaplethoraoftitlesandoutletstheactual‘voices’,interestsandviewsreflectedmaybeextremelylimited.

Pluralityofownershipisimportantbecausenosinglemediaoutletcouldbeexpectedtoreflectallthevoiceswithinitssociety.Mediaorganisationsandentitiesoperateaccordingtotheirownagendasandpriorities,businessopportunitiesandconstraints.Theyarenotneutralinthemselves,butpartial,andmustattractandkeeptheiraudienceandconsumers,aswellassatisfyingtheexpectationsanddemandsofownersandstaff.Onlywhenmediaarediverseandpluralisticinbothformandcontentcanthecompetitionofvoices,opinions,factsandinterestsbefullyengaged;andwhenthistakesplace,governmentsandthepowerfulinallsectorsofsocietyarefarmorelikelytobeheldaccountable.

Whatistoooftenoverlookedisthatfortrulyindependentandpluralisticmediatoexist,therealsoneedstobepluralismofmediacontent.Thequalityaswellasquantityofmediacontentmatters.Achievinghigh-qualityandengaged,informedandrespectedmediaisfirstandforemostaresponsibilityofthemediathemselves.Simplythroughtheirdeterminationtoscrutiniseandaskdifficultquestions,journalistsandmediaownersstimulatecitizenstodemandandprovideaccountabilitymoreeffectivelyinturn.Ofcourse,citizenshavetherighttochoosethekindofmediatheywant,butthemediahavearealinterestinhelpingtoestablishapublicofeducatedconsumerswhoaremedialiterate,andknowwhattheywantandneed.

Thekindofmedianecessarytosupportgoodgovernance,accountabilityandempoweredcitizensismediawithquality contentthatservesthepublicinterest.Governmentsneedtobepersuadedofandcommittedtothemediaasa‘publicgood’andtosupportthemthroughpublicservicelegislationandopen,independentregulationpromotinghighjournalisticandmediastandards.Thechallengeofenablingsuchpublicinterestmediaisdiscussedinmoredepthinthesection–Whycommunicationneedssupport(onpage43).

Box 4 Media, power and accountability

Therearenumerousexamplesoftheabilityandimportanceofthemediainholdingpower-holderstoaccount.In2001anIndianonlinenewspaper,Tehelka.com,tapedsecretvideofootageofseniorpoliticians,bureaucratsandarmyofficersapparentlyreceivingmoneyinconnectionwithadefencedeal.ThesubsequentpublicoutrageledtotheresignationofthepresidentoftherulingBharatJanataParty(BJP).PublicopinionandTehelka’scampaignforintegrityappearedtoreflecteachother,butthestaterespondedbyattemptingtogagbroadermediacoverageanddetainingTehelka’sstaff.70InPeruinthe1990s,theheadofthesecretservice,VladimirMontesinosTorres,paiduptoUS$1,500,000tobuymediahouses’silenceoverwidespreadcorruptionandmaintainhiscontroloverthestate.Interestingly,thiswasmuchmorethantheUS$5,000–10,000hepaidtobribeindividualjudges,apparentlydemonstratingtheimportanceheattributedtothemediaasopposedtothejudiciaryinholdingpowertoaccount.

70ReporterswithoutBorders(2003)AnnualPressFreedomReport

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State capacity and public service delivery

Agreatdealofdevelopmentattentionispaidtodaytomakingstatesmoreeffectiveandefficient–whethertheideologicalcontextisof‘big’or‘small’government.Theconceptofaneffectivestatedoesnotnecessarilyimplyatop-down‘statist’ordominantgovernment,butonethatperformsthe‘supplyside’ofgoodgovernancewell.Thisincludes:

n setting,disseminating,monitoringandenforcinglaws,rulesandregulations

n ensuringgovernmentpoliciesareputintopracticeeffectively,transparentlyandhonestly

n deliveringpublicservicesefficientlyinwaysthatmeetpeople’sneeds

n creatingtheconditionsforinvestmentandtrade,andpromotinggrowthinjobsandincomes

n allocatingresourcesanddistributingwealth.

Informationandcommunicationprocessesandtechnologieslieattheheartofeverystate’scapacitytoperformthesevitalfunctions.ICTsofferhugepotentialinimprovingthecapabilitiesandperformanceofstatebodiesastheyservetheircitizens,makingtheiruseofinformationmoreeffective,andleadingtobetteravailabilityofpublicinformation,amoreresponsivecivilserviceandincreasedqualityofservicedelivery.7170

However,technologiesinthemselvesarenota‘goldenkey’tochange–theyonlyaugmentthepoliticalwilloftheinstitutionsbehindthem.Asaseniormanagerofcomputercompany,AdobeSystems,pointedout,‘ICTisanimportantandpowerfultoolforchangeandthekeytoitssuccessliesinempoweringpeople–bothcitizensandpublicsectorstaff.’72Changemanagementprogrammesareessentialtoenablethecultureofbureaucraciestoadaptfortheeffectiveandefficientdeliveryofservices.Theseneedstrongleadershipwhichlistensandrespondstopractitionersandcitizens.TheincreaseduseofICTsingovernmentisofnouseifthegovernancesystemsdonotacknowledgepublicneedsandthecommunicationneedsandcapacitiesofthepeople,oriftheinformationbeingusediswrong.

Ausefuldistinctionissometimesmadebetween‘e-government’(theuseofICTstoincreasetheinternalefficiencyofgovernment)and‘e-governance’(theuseofICTstostrengthendealingsbetweengovernmentandcitizens).Obviouslythebenefitsof‘e-governance’extendonlytothosewhohavethenecessaryskillsandaccesstothetechnology,butwiththiscaveatICTscanhelpgovernmentbebothmoreefficientandmoreopeninmanyways,suchas:

n gathering and using statistical information,onthebasisofwhichplanscanbemadeforbestuseoflimitedresourcesforservicedelivery

n documents, record-keeping, and archiving onlinecanincreaseexternalaccessandefficientsharingofinformationinternallyandexternally,helpinggovernmentbureaucraciescommunicateamongthemselvesandwithbusinessesandcitizens

n administrative efficiency gainscanbemadethroughtheincreaseduseofcomputers(accompaniedbytrainingandcapacitybuilding),andthenetworkingofdifferentgovernmentdepartments

71Therearealsomanyexamplesofwasteandfailureinlarge-scalegovernmentICTprojects(forexample,seePrivateEye,27February2007,issue1179);aswellasfearsthattoomuchgovernment-heldinformationmightthreatencitizens’freedom

72AJonesandLWilliams(2005)How ICT? Managing at the front line,WorkFoundation&AdobeSystems


�0 Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment

n transparency of processes suchasstaff recruitment. Makingcivilserviceappointmentprocessestransparentthroughadvertisements,independentselectionboards,andselectionprocessestakingplaceonlineandbeingdocumentedinthemediahelpstoensureappointmentsandpromotionareonmerit,therebyincreasingthequalityofserviceandlegitimacyintheeyesofthepublic

n greater public knowledge ofthelegalsystem,enabledthroughaccesstolegislation,educationandpubliclyavailableinformation,isimportantinhelpingtopreventarbitraryapplicationsofthelaw.Widespreadreportingonlegalproceduresandtheeasyavailabilityofcourtrulingsensuresthatjusticeisnotonlydonebutseentobedone,buildingconfidenceinthelawandthestate.

Box 5 E-governance in India

InBhoomi,Karnataka,India,priortotheintroductionofICTs,recordsonownershipofeachparceloflandweremaintainedby9,000villageaccountants.Therewere20millionrecordsoflandownershipinvolving6.7millionfarmersinthestate.Requestsforthealterationoflandrecords,forinstanceintheeventofsaleorinheritance,couldtakeuptotwoyearstoprocess.Requestsforcopiesofownershiptitle,forinstancetosecureabankloan,couldtakeupto30days.Bothinvolvedpaymentofbribes.Nowthatthedocumentshavebeencomputerised,theycanbeobtainedonthespotthroughoneofthe187kiosksinlocalofficesforasmallfeeof15rupees.73

73WorldPublicSectorReport2003E-Government at the Crossroads,UN-ECOSOC,2003

Publicservicedelivery

Themoreeffectiveandequitabledeliveryofpublicservicessuchashealth,educationandsecurityindevelopingcountriesisafundamentalrequirementiftheMDGsaretobeachieved.Publicservicedeliveryneedstobeefficientintermsofmanagementofresourcesandinputs;transparentforaccountability/anti-corruptionpurposes;andisoftencollaborative(betweengovernment,theprivatesectorandNGOs)formaximummobilisationofpotentialprovidersandresources.Strategiesandprioritiesneedtohavepeople’sbroadunderstandingandconsent;anddeliveryhastobedesignedinresponsetousers’needsandcultures,otherwisepeoplewillnottakeuptheservicesoffered.Serviceprovisionalsohastoberesponsivetofeedback,formonitoringandstrengtheningimpact.Alloftheserequirementsinvolvedifferenttypesofcommunicationprocesses.

Communicationatthepolicylevel

Indevelopedaswellasdevelopingcountries,theprovisionofservicesinvolveschoicesonhowtoallocateresourcesanddeliverservicesmostefficientlyandequitably.Thesechoicesand‘reforms’areoftencontroversial:forinstance,whethertousepublicorprivateproviderstodeliverbasicservices;orwhetherserviceusersshouldpay,orprovisionshouldbefreeatthepointofuse.Irrespectiveoftherightsandwrongsofdifferentapproaches,consultationwithandparticipationofthepublicinthedecision-makingprocessisessentialtoensurethattheneedsofallareaddressedandtohelpgainconsenttoandownershipofwhateverpoliciesarechosen.Inaddition,transparencyincontracts,plans,targetsandbudgetswillhelpbuildtrustandensurethatpoorandmarginalisedpeoplegaintheirfairshareoftheservicesaswellasricherones.

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Communicationassistsdeliveryofservices

Thedeliveryofpublicservicesismoreefficientwhenusershavetheopportunitytoprovidefeedbackandinputonthedesignofservicedelivery.ExamplesincludetheuseofmobilephonestoprovidepublicserviceinformationinIndia,e-complaintcentrestotrackservice-usersatisfactioninPakistan,andonlinewaitinglistsinCroatia.74

Whetherprovidedbythestateorprivatesector,orpartnershipsofthetwo,servicedeliverymustbeaccountabletothepublic,includingthepoor.Basicelementsofthisaccountabilityincludetransparencyofprocurementprocesses,contracts,sourcesoffinanceandbudgets.Userparticipationinthedesignofserviceshasalsobeenshowntoproducedeliverymechanismsthatmatchpeople’shabitsandprioritiesandgaintheirtrust;whilemanyexperimentshaveshownhowcitizenanduserparticipationinthemanagementofservicesandresourcescancontributetoaccountabilitywhilealsoincreasingefficiency(although,asnotedearlier,suchtransparencyisnotcommoneitherindevelopedordevelopingcountries).Forexample,enablinguserstoparticipateinwatermanagementthroughuserforumscanhelpensureservicedeliveryistargetedandefficient.OnewaterresourcesmanagementprojectintheGulfofMexicothatusedvideotofacilitatetheparticipationofwaterusersresultedinarateofreturn7percenthigherthanoriginallyplanned.75

Enablingparticipationrequirestheeducationandmobilisationofserviceusersthroughdifferentcommunication,monitoringandfeedbackprocesses.Publicationofstatisticalresearchandindependentimpactassessments,CitizenReportCards,telephone‘hotlines’andindependentombudsmencangiveserviceusersthecapacityandtoolstheyneed.

ICTscansupportmoreefficientmanagementofinputsandstaffofservicedeliveryorganisations,fromsimpletaskssuchasmanagingrecordsororganisingmeetings,tomorecomplexonessuchasanalysingstatisticsanddecision-making.TheuseofICTscanenablesupplychainstofunctionmoreeffectivelyinserviceprovision,justasitdoesinproductionandretailing.MonitoringmechanismssuchasPublicExpenditureTrackingSystemscanplayakeyroleinthemanagementofastrongercivilserviceandmoreefficientservicedelivery–butitisthewidespreadcommunicationofthedatawhichmakesthemeffective.

74Formoredetails,seeGSharma,NRajandBShadrach(2005)Knowledge and research programme on improving efficiency of pro-poor public services,OneworldSouthAsia/DFID

75Seenote19

76RReinikkaandNSmith(2004)Public expenditure tracking surveys in education in Peru, Uganda and Zambia,InternationalInstituteforEducationalPlanning,Ethicsandcorruptionineducationseries,UNESCO;RReinikkaandJSvensson(2004)The Power of Information: Evidence from a newspaper campaign to reduce capture, PolicyResearchWorkingPaper3239,WorldBank

Box 6 Making education more effective in Uganda

In1996theGovernmentofUgandaincreasedspendingonprimaryeducation,butsawlittleimpactonschoolenrolmentlevels.PublicExpenditureTrackingSystems(PETS)collecteddatafrom250schoolsandfoundthatonly13percentofintendedgrantsactuallyreachedschools.Thegovernmentrespondedbypublishingthemonthlytransfersofpublicfundstothedistrictsinnewspapers,broadcastinginformationonthetransfersonradio,andrequiringprimaryschoolstopostinformationoninflowsoffunds.Theobjectiveofthis‘informationcampaign’wastopromotetransparencyandincreasepublicsectoraccountabilitybygivingcitizensaccesstotheinformationtheyneededtobeabletounderstandandexaminetheworkingsofthegrantprogrammeforprimaryschools.Thisempoweredcitizenstoholdallthestakeholderstoaccountanddrewattentiontowheremoneywasbeingmis-spent.Asaresult,insteadof13percent,around80percentofeducationfundsbeganreachingschools.76


�� Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment

Politics and governance: conclusion

Inthissectionwehaveshownhowthepoliticalprocessandgoodgovernancedependonandarecharacterisedbyeffectivecommunicationprocesses.Transparency,accountabilityandparticipationarerealisedthroughcommunication.77Informationandcommunicationprocessesofmanykinds,includingthegrowingpossibilitiesofICTsandtheessentialroleoffree,independentandpluralisticmedia,arecentraltotheformationofopen,healthypoliticalactivityandtoanincreasedlevelofresponsiveness,accountabilityandcapabilityofastatetoperformitskeyfunctions.

Responsivepolicymaking,effectivegovernmentalaccountabilityandefficientservicedeliveryalsodependontheexistenceofacivilsocietythatcanformulateandassert(ie,isabletocommunicate)anagendaandopinionofitsown.Itistotheroleofthemedia,informationandcommunicationinthedevelopmentofavibrant,powerfulcivilsocietythatwenowturn.

77TheyarekeyvariablesintheWorldBank’s‘VoiceandAccountability’QualityofGovernanceIndicators

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Thefocusofdevelopmentispeople–theyareattheheartofchange.Sometimesdevelopmentplannerstendtoseepeoplemainlyas beneficiariesofdevelopment–ofimprovedhealthcare,forinstance.Butofcoursepeoplearealsothemainactorsinachievingdevelopment:choicesofagriculturaltechniquesmadebythousandsoffarmersadduptomoreorlesssustainablefoodproduction;effortsbymillionsofpoorfamiliestoputtheirdaughtersthroughschooladduptogreaterequalityforwomenandhealthierfamilies.

Thepreviouschaptershowedtheimportanceofcivilsocietyasanessentialpartnerofgovernmentsinestablishinggoodgovernance.‘Competentcitizens’–individualswhocanparticipateinpoliticalprocessesandpolicydebate,andholdgovernmentaccountable–formthe‘demandside’ofgoodgovernance.Researchintocitizenshiphasfoundthatdevelopmentinterventionsaimingtoestablisheffectiverelationshipsbetweenstatesandcitizensneedtoworkonbothsidesofthissupplyanddemandequation.Focusingonlyonstrengtheningthestateanditscapacitytoproviderightsdoeslittletofacilitateprocessesofchange.Rather,itismorelikelytostrengthenthestatusquo.78

Inthemodernworldveryfew,ifany,peopleliveindependentlyofgovernments.Governmentsshapemanyaspectsofpeople’slivesmoreorlessdirectly–butthereareotheraspectsoflife,andthusofdevelopment,inwhichpeopledooperatelargelyoutsidethereachofgovernment.

Differentdevelopmenttheoriesandapproachesfocusonsocialgroupingsatdifferentlevels.Somefocusonindividuals,forinstanceasconsumers.Somelookatfamilies,forinstanceatthepowerofwomentomakedecisionswithintheirhouseholds.Theinfluenceofcommunities,forinstanceinmanagingnaturalresources,orofsocieties,forinstanceinshapingattitudestoHIV,canbethefocus.Peopleascitizens,intheirrelationshipstogovernment,areimportant,aswehavealreadyseen,whileglobalconsumersandglobalnetworksarebecomingincreasinglyimportant.(Ofcoursealltheselevelsareoverlappingandinterrelated.)Thischapterfocusesontherolespeopleandsocialinstitutionsplayindevelopmentapartfromgovernment–andtherolescommunicationplaysinthese.

Individuals and individual rights

Individuals

Thewelfareofindividualsistheultimatemeasureofsuccessfuldevelopment,andprogressindevelopmentconsistsofindividualsgainingincreasedcapacitiestodothings–tomanagetheirlivelihoods,toprotecttheirownhealth,tobringuptheirownchildren,torespecttheirneighboursandcontributetociviclife.ThecentralityofindividualshasbeenarticulatedbyeconomistAmartyaSen,whodescribesthegoalofdevelopmentastheachievementbyindividualsof‘realfreedoms’.Freedoms,accordingtoSen,areachievedthroughindividualshaving‘functionalcapabilities’–suchastheabilitytolivetooldage,ortheabilitytoengageineconomictransactions.79Communicationmustbepartofachievingthesecapabilities:individualsmusthavethecapacitytoreceiveinformation,tocommunicatetheirownvoices,andtonegotiatewithothers.

A diverse, engaged and empowered civil society

78JGaventa(2005)‘Seeinglikeacitizen:Reclaimingcitizenshipinaneoliberalworld’,IDS,November2005,p17

79Seefootnotes11and12

Adiverse,engagedandempoweredcivilsociety


Formanydevelopmentorganisationstoday,thegoalofdevelopmentistherealisationofhumanrightsforeveryone.Inarights-basedapproach,asforSen,individualsarethefocusandthemeasureofdevelopmentinterventions.Butalthoughrightsareenjoyedbyindividuals,theyarerealisedinrelationtocommunitiesorsocieties.Forinstance,awoman’srighttoequalityhastobewoninitiallyfromthemeninherfamily;aminority’srightnottobethesubjectofdiscriminationhastobewonfromthesocietyofwhichitisapart.Inaddition,manyrightshavetobegranted,guaranteedorprotectedbygovernments–forinstance,manygovernmentshavetakenontheobligationtoprovideshelterandhealthcareforeveryone.Communicationisthusanessentialpartofarights-basedapproachtodevelopment.First,peoplehavetoknowwhattheirrightsare.Thentheactionstheytaketoclaimtheirrightsarelikelytoincludenegotiation,argument,complaint,lobbying,networkingandmobilisingotherclaimants,andpoliticaldiscourse.Somerights,suchaswomen’srighttoequality,arehinderedbytheattitudesandculturesofwholesocieties.Effortstoachievesuchrightsasthesehavetoinvolvelong-termcommunicationeffortsthroughmassmediaandculturalproducts,educationsystems,andsocialandgovernmentinstitutions.Inaddition,governmentsareoftentheprincipalviolatorsofindividuals’rights,soprotectingrightsinvolvesarangeofcommunicationactivitiesatnationalandinternationalleveltoinfluencegovernments.

Citizenshiprightsandpowers,likebasichumanrights,areenjoyedbyindividuals.Buttheyonlyexistwhentheyhavebeenestablishedbyastate,andtheyareoftenexercisedthroughassociationsandinstitutions,includingpoliticalparties.Realisationofcitizenshiprights,therefore,involvesmanytypesofcommunication,astheprevioussectionindicated.Massmediacanplayanimportantrole–forinstance,theycanconveyinformationandideastomanyindividuals,whoarefreetochoosehowtorespond.

Communicationrights

Somedevelopmentthinkershaveproposedthata‘righttocommunicate’shouldbeestablishedasanadditionalhumanright.80Communicationissuchafundamental,indeeddefining,humancharacteristic,thatitseemstomakesenseintuitivelythatweshouldhavesucharight.Theproposednewrightisanextensionofthealreadyexistingrighttofreedomofexpression(Article19oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights).81Itmakesexplicittheneedformeansofmakingcommunicationreal:theabilitytospeakisofnouse,afterall,ifnoonehearsandresponds.Butfarfrombeingcommonsense,theproposednewrighthasaverycontroversialanddivisivehistory,whichisnotyetresolved.

Theideaemergedinthe1970s,andfromthestartcontroversywasactedoutlargelywithintheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO).Ononeside,supportingthenewrighttocommunicate,werethosewhowereconcernedthatacommitmenttothecompletelyfreeflowofinformation,shapedonlybythemarket,wasresultingindominanceofmedia,infrastructureandcontentbybigcorporations,anddominanceofNorthernoverSouthernvoices.Ontheothersidewerethosewhoregardedinterventioninthe‘freeflow’andthemarketasinfringingonfreedom.AUNCommissionappointedin1976tolookintothesubjectpresenteditsreportin1980.82Thereportconcludedthatthecommunicationneedsofdemocraticsocietydidrequireextensionoftheexistingrighttoincludeelementsofanewconcept,therighttocommunicate,andrecommendedthatthe‘implicationsoftherighttocommunicate[should]befurtherexplored’.However,theUN’sacceptanceofthisfindingwasverysoonunderminedbytheColdWarandNorth–Southtensionsoftheperiod–whichcontributedtoaweakeningofUNESCO,andwhichstillcoloursthedebateonarighttocommunicatetoday.

80Foranoverviewofthehistoryandcurrentstatusofthedemandfora‘righttocommunicate’,seeforinstance,CampaignforCommunicationRightsintheInformationSociety(CRIS)(2005)Assessing communication rights: A handbook, www.crisinfo.org

81‘Everyonehastherighttofreedomofopinionandexpression;thisrightincludesthefreedomtoholdopinionswithoutinterferenceandtoseek,receiveandimpartinformationandideasthroughanymediaandregardlessoffrontiers.’UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,Article19,UnitedNations1948

82Many Voices, One World,reportoftheInternationalCommissionfortheStudyofCommunicationProblems(the‘MacBrideCommission’),oftenreferredtoastheMacBrideReport,presentedtotheUNGeneralAssembly,1980

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Thetopicswhichwouldbecoveredbyanewrightareclosetotherecommendationsbeingmadebythispaper–theyincludetheneedforpoorpeopletohaverealaccesstomeansofcommunication,theimportanceofthoseinpowerlisteningtothepoor,accesstoinformation,thevalueoflocalmedia,andthequestionofsupportingthelanguagesandculturesofminoritiesormarginalisedpeople.Mostdevelopmentthinkerswouldprobablyagreethatthesethingsareallpartofasustainable,inclusiveandwell-governedsociety.Sowhyistheideaofanewrightnotmorewidelysupported?Oneoftheobjectionstoitisthattheexistingrighttofreedomofexpressionisalreadysufficientlycomprehensive.Someopponentsareuncomfortablewiththeelementofcompulsiontheyseeintheproposednewright:ifpeoplearegiventherighttobeheardaswellastospeak,thatseemstoimplythatsomeonemustbecompelledtolistentothem.Amoregeneralobjectionisthataninternationalinstrumentdealingwithfundamentalrightsshouldnotgointodetailsofhowthoserightsarerealised.

Campaignersforimprovedcommunicationarenowtendingtotakeadifferentapproach.Insteadofdemandingtheestablishmentofanewandcomprehensive‘righttocommunicate’theyareconcentratingonrealisationofanumberofalreadyexistingrightsandcommitmentsthatrelatetocommunication,underthebanner‘Communicationrights’–includingaccesstoinformation,universalaccesstotelecommunications,andprotectionofminoritycultures.

Families and communities

Families

Mostpeoplelivenotalonebutinfamilies,andsorealisationofindividuals’theoreticalrightsandpowersdependsonrelationshipswithinthefamily.Families–nuclearandextended–areimportantsocialorganisationsforenablingindividuals’welfareandtheirabilitytomanagetheirlivelihoodsandsurviveshocks.Forinstance,inmanyculturesfamiliesregularlypoolresourcestohelpindividualmemberswithmajoreventssuchasweddings,educationorillness.Insome,theobligationofwealthiermembersofextendedfamiliestosupportthepoorermembersisamajormechanismforsocialsupport,distributionofresourcesandaccesstojobs(whichhas,ofcourse,negativeresultsfordemocracyaswellaspositiveonesfortheindividualsconcerned).Suchrelationshipsareenabledbycommunication.AstudyofhowpoorpeopleinIndia,TanzaniaandMozambiqueusedtelephonesfoundthatoneofthemostcommonuseswastokeepincontactwithscatteredfamilymembers.83Mobilephonesarefrequentlyusedtoarrangetransferofmigrants’remittancesbacktotheirfamilymembersathome.Poorpeoplearewillingtopayalargerproportionoftheirincomethanrichpeopledotokeepintouch.

83‘Theeconomicimpactoftelecommunicationsonrurallivelihoodsandpovertyreduction:AstudyofruralcommunitiesinIndia(Gujarat),MozambiqueandTanzania’,CommonwealthTelecommunicationsOrganisation,October2005



Familiesarethelocusandmechanismforreproducingsociety’sattitudesandindividualidentities(forinstance,genderidentity).Familiesshapeindividuals’self-perceptions–includinggenderinequalityandexpectationsofparticipationinpubliclife;familiesshapemembers’attitudesandtheirbehaviourinmanypersonalspheressuchashealth,sex,ordiet;andfamilieshaveanimpactpracticallyonindividuals’opportunities–forinstanceregardingeducation,mobilityormarriage.Inshort,familiesinfluencemanyaspectsofindividuals’freedomsandcapabilities,whichthemselvesarethebasisofdevelopment.Communicationwithinfamilies,therefore,isacrucialelementofdevelopment.Bydefinition,itishardforexternaldevelopmentagents(suchasgovernmentsorserviceproviders)tointervenedirectlyincommunicationwithinfamilies.Butmanydevelopmentcommunicationeffortsseektoinfluenceinternalfamilycommunicationindirectly–forinstance,throughgivinginformationaboutbirthspacingtowomenatclinics,abouttheenvironmenttochildrenatschools,oraboutsafesexualbehaviourtoyoungmeninbars.Massmedia(suchassoapoperas,informationspotsanddiscussionprogrammesonradio)canbedesignedtostimulatediscussionwithinfamilies;andcommunicationthroughrespectedcommunityfigures(suchaspriestsandimams)insocialspacesusedbylargenumbersofpeople(suchaschurchesandmosques)isalsointendedpartlytoinfluencediscussionanddecision-makinginfamilies.

Communities

Individualsandfamiliesalmostallliveincommunities,andtheirlivesareshapedbytheircommunities’cultureandsocialstructuresandaccesstoresources,andtheirownabilitytobenefitfromthese.Manydevelopmentinterventionsfocusonstrengtheningthecapacitiesofcommunitiestomanageresources,livelihoods,publichealth,andsoon,sustainablyandonbehalfofallcommunitymembers–forinstance,strengtheningtheskillsandcapacitiesofcommunity-levelhealthcareworkers,supportingnegotiationprocessesforcommunitiestomanagewaterresourceswithoutconflict,orhelpingfarmerspooltheirresourcesformoreefficientpurchasingandmarketing.Allsuchcommunity-leveldevelopmentinterventionsdependoncommunication,includingdiscussion,identifyingproblemsandsolutions,acquiringandsharinginformation,negotiation,agreement,jointmanagementprocesses,andmutualaccountabilityprocesseswithinthecommunity.Communitiesarenotisolatedandself-sufficientthesedays,andanothermajorfunctionofcommunicationistosupportthecapacityofcommunitiestocommunicatewithhigherauthoritiesandoutsidebodies–localandnationalgovernments,businesses,andNGOs–toholdthemaccountable,claimentitlements,andputcommunityconcernsontheagenda.Governmentandotheroutsidebodiesalsoneedtocommunicatewithcommunities,forinstancetoenableeffectivedeliveryandtake-upofservices.Forexample,somehealthservicesworkwithtraditionalbirthattendantstoensurethatruralwomenwhoneedmorespecialisedmedicalcareareabletogetit.

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Thefocusoncommunitiesasanimportantlocusofdevelopmentchangegrewinpartfromadeepeningunderstandingofhowcommunicationworks.Firstly,peoplelearnmoreeffectivelyandadoptnewideasastheirownwhentheylearnfromtheirpeers,andwhentheycanrespondandengageindialogue,ratherthanwhentheypassivelyreceiveinformationfromoutside.Secondly,ifadevelopmentstrategyrequirescommunitiestoadoptnewhabitsorsystems–forexample,protectingalocalforest,orpayingfortheirhouseholdwater–thenewsystemismorelikelytobeacceptedandsuccessfulifpeoplehavebuilt‘ownership’byparticipatinginidentifyingandsettingitupthemselves.Thecommunicationprocesshastobemuchmorethansimplytellingpeoplethatsomethingishappening.Thirdly,itisnoteasyforindividualstoadoptnewpersonalbehaviourunlesstheculturetheyarepartofalsochanges:safesex,forinstance,hastobecomethenorminayoungman’speergroupbeforehewillpractiseithimself;andafamilyismorelikelytopayforitsdaughterstobeeducatedifthishasbecometheexpectationinitscommunity.Anyefforttochangeindividuals’behaviourhastotargetthewholecommunity.84Developmentthinkingtodayisincreasinglyrecognisingthelinkbetweenparticipatorycommunicationandempowerment–thatis,increasedindividualandcommunitysenseofcapacitytomanagetheirlivesandachievechange.85

Box 7 Oral history triggers community action in Jamaica

MochoisapoorareaofJamaica,oftenscornedasbackwardbyotherJamaicans.Fortyyearsofbauxitemininghasdamagedtheenvironment,increasingvulnerabilitytohurricanes.Panostrainedcommunitymemberstointerviewresidentsabouttheirpersonalexperiencesandideasforsolutions.Collectionandpublicationofthese48personalstoriesrenewedthecommunity’sinterestinitshistoryandculturalheritage,aswellastriggeringanumberofotherinitiativesforcommunityactivitiesandcollectiveaction:plansincludeuseofphotographytodocumenttheenvironmentaldamage,ahurricanevulnerabilityassessment,andestablishmentofacommunitydisaster-managementcommittee.

Agroupofyoungpeopleisworkingtoproduceabi-monthlycommunitynewsletteronenvironmentalissues;acommitteehasbeenformedtoexplorethepotentialofcommunitytourism.CommunitymembershavealsobeenrepresentingMochoonthenationalandinternationalscene,includingjoininganinternationalmarchagainstclimatechangein2007.TalksarealsounderwaywithanothervulnerablecommunityontheJamaicancoasttoreplicatetheprojectandsharelessonslearnt.

Journalistsfromthenationalmediahavecoveredsomeoftheprojectactivities,includingaccompanyingcommunityrepresentativestoameetingwiththebauxiteminingcompanytoseekactiononrestoringdamagedonebymining.Thepublicitygiventothismeetingledtothecompanyrespondingtothepeople’sdemandsintwodays,insteadofwaitingweeksormonthsastheyhaveusuallydone.Thecommunityplanstocontinuedocumentingtheirnegotiationswiththecompany–akeytoolfortransparency.86

84TheseideasthatcommunicationshouldbeconceivedasasocialprocessratherthanastransactionsbetweenindividualsarebeingpromotedbytheCommunicationforSocialChangeConsortium,amongothers.Seewww.communicationforsocialchange.org

85AninfluentialthinkeraboutempoweringpoorpeoplewasPaoloFreire,whosawsocialchangeasresultingfromchangesinindividualandcommunityself-awareness,whichthemselvesresultedfromcommunity–leveldiscussion.SeeforexamplePFreire(1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed,newedition1996,transMyraBergmanRamos,London:Penguin

86Local voices, global choices: The Mocho oral testimony project,Jamaica:PanosCaribbean



Communityradio

Communityradioisatypeofcommunicationchannelthatisgainingsupportindevelopmentthinkingandpractice.Communityradio,accordingtothestrictdefinition,isradiothatisownedandrunbyacommunity(ageographiccommunityoracommunityofinterest).However,thetermisalsosometimesusedtocoverradiostationsthatarelocalbutownedbylocalornationalgovernment,privateownersorreligiousinstitutions.

Thedefiningcharacteristicofcommunityradioisthatitprovidesinformationrelevanttoitsaudience,localnews(thoughinsomecountriesbroadcastinglawforbidscommunitystationsfrombroadcastingnews,limitingthemto‘development’topicssuchashealthandagriculture)andaplatformforlocalvoicesanddebate.Throughphone-inprogrammes,studiodiscussionsandinterviewsanddebatesrecordedinthefield,communityradioprovidesopportunitiesforpeopletodiscussdevelopment,politicalandsocialissuesoflocalandcurrentconcern,andsometimestoquestionleadersandpublicfigures.Forexample,RadioProgress,amemberofGhana’sCommunityRadioNetwork,airedaprogrammeoftestimoniesfromlocalpeopleabouthowtheyexperiencepoverty.Oneofthespeakersmentionedlackofinformationaboutwhathealthcarewasavailabletopoorpeople.Afterthisbroadcast,healthcareofficialsrespondedbyincreasingpublicityabouttheNationalHealthInsuranceScheme.

Suchprogrammesareavaluablespaceforhelpingcommunitiesidentifyandunderstandissues,formulatesolutions,andensureinclusion–allaspectsofactivecommunity-levelengagementinpubliclifeanddevelopment.Communityradioalsoplaysavaluableroleinpromotinglocallanguagesandcultures.CommunityradioislongestablishedinLatinAmericaandsomepartsofAfrica,andgovernmentsinotherAfricancountriesarestartingtograntmorelicencestocommunitybroadcasters.87InIndia,legislationallowingcommunityradiowasadoptedin2006.Everywhere,akeyproblemisfinancing,aspoorcommunitiesgenerallylackresourcestomaintainaradiostationthemselves.Onesolutionissubsidyfromgovernmentorexternalaiddonors,butincreasingnumbersofcommunitystationsindifferentdevelopingcountriesareshowingthatself-relianceispossiblethroughpartnershiporotherwell-thought-outsustainabilitystrategies.88

Box 8 Community radio and popular protest in Nepal

CommunityradioiscreditedwithamajorroleinthetransitiontodemocracyinNepal.InFebruary2005,inresponsetoworseningconflictbetweenthegovernmentandMaoistrebels,theKingsackedthegovernment,closedthetelephoneandInternetsystemsandbannednewsreporting.Nepal’snetworkofcommunityradiostationsfoundingeniouswaysofdefyingtheban:forinstance,forbiddenfrombroadcastinganythingbutmusictheystartedtosingthenews.Thentheybecamemoreopenlydefiant,informingpeopleoftheirrightsandthedutiesofgovernment,hostingtalkshows,andencouragingpeopletocomposeprotestsongs.Theybroadcastregularmessagesurgingpeacefulratherthanviolentprotest.Thiscontributedtobringingfourmillionpeopleoutontothestreetscallingforaresolutionofthepoliticalcrisis.

87Foranoverviewofthecurrentstateofcommunityradio,seeCommunityRadioSocialImpactAssessment2007,AMARC,http://evaluation.amarc.org

88SeeSHughes,SEashwar,VJennings(eds)(2004)How to Get Started and Keep Going: A guide to Community Multimedia Centres,UNESCO

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Society and civil society organisations

Beyondlocalcommunities,publicopinion,socialattitudesandhabitsandaspirationsatnationalandinternationallevelareveryimportantfordevelopment.Forinstance,society’sattitudestowomen,ortheattitudesofthemajorityinacountrytominorities,shapethelifeopportunitiesofmanypeopleinthosesocieties,especiallythosewhoarepooranddisempowered.Communication,especiallythroughthemedia,playsakeyroleinshapingpublicattitudes.Themediacanprovideforumsfordiscussingchangesfacingsocieties,newideas,socialandpoliticalconflicts.Mediacanalsopresentemergingrolemodels(forexample,ascharactersinsoapoperas)andcanofferplatformsforminoritiesandmarginalisedgroupstospeakforthemselves.

Bothfactualandentertainmentmediaareimportant:developmentagenciesmakesophisticatedandsuccessfuluseof‘edutainment’,inwhichinformationanddebateonimportantandcomplexsocialchallengesareembeddedinappealingmusicordramaticstory-linesenactedbyengagingcharacters.SouthAfrica’sSoul Cityisawell-knownexampleofthelatter:along-runningandsuccessfulradioandTVdramaseriescoveringissuestodowithHIVandAIDS,healthandinterpersonalrelationships,thatreaches70percentofSouthAfrica’spopulation.89ResearchstronglysuggeststhatithasreducedHIV-andAIDS-relatedstigmainthecountry.

Thisismediawithadeliberatedevelopmentpurpose.Ofcoursemostmediacontentisnotlikethis.Increasingnumbersoftheworld’speopleenjoyentertainment,oftenforeign-produced,asnewtechnologiesandliberalisedglobalmediamarketsallowmushroomingnumbersofTVandradiochannels.Itistooearlytotellwhatimpactthiswillhave.Socialanalystsoftenworryaboutit;theyfearthatsuchimportedsoapoperasandmusic,thatappeartobearnorelationtopeople’sreallives,aredisempoweringpeople,creatingpassivityandunrealisticexpectations,aswellasintroducingalienculturalhabits.Butothersbelievethatentertainmentmediathatintroducenewideas,aspirationsandpossibilitiesmayalsohavepositiveresults.

Providingpeoplewithinformationisonlypartofthecommunicationthatisneededtochangesocietalattitudesandindividualbehaviour.The20-yearstruggletoovercometheHIVandAIDSpandemicoffersanobjectlessoninwhatkindofcommunicationworksandwhatdoesnot.AnanalysisbyPanosLondonin2003concludedthatwhileenormouseffortandhugeamountsofmoneyhadbeeninvestedinpreventioncampaignsusingthemedia,informationdisseminationandmessaging,themostsuccessfulcommunicationstrategieswentbeyondwhatiscalled‘socialmarketing’andtop-downmassmediacampaigns,andfosteredenvironmentswhere‘thevoiceofthosemostaffectedbythepandemiccanbeheard’.Itconcludedthat‘onlywhenpeoplebecometrulyengagedindiscussionsandtalkingaboutHIV,doesrealindividualandsocialchangecomeabout’.90

Someanalystslookingatsocieties–developedaswellasdeveloping–haveidentifiedwhattheycall‘socialcapital’asanimportantelementofahealthysociety.AmericanwriterRobertPutnam,whopopularisedtheconceptintheEnglish-speakingworldinrecentyears,definedsocialcapitalas‘socialnetworksandthenormsofreciprocityandtrustworthinessthatarisefromthem’,andhighlightedinterpersonalassociations,sharednormsgainedthroughpersonalinteraction,andindividuals’engagementinciviclifeaskeyelements.91Sincethe1990stheconcepthasbeenpartofmuchdevelopmentthinking.TheWorldBankidentifiedsocialcapitalasanassetthatreducesthevulnerabilityofpoorpeople.92Socialcapitalisalsoidentifiedaskeytopeople’slivelihoods,inthe‘livelihoodsanalysis’approachtodevelopmentusedbyDFIDandotheragencies.

89www.soulcity.org.za

90PanosLondon(2003)Missing the Message?20 years of learning fromHIV/AIDS,PanosLondon,pages1and46,www.panos.org.uk

91RPutnam(2000) Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community, NewYork:SimonandSchuster.Theconceptsunderpinningsocialcapitalcanbetracedbacktothe19thcenturyandworkbyJamesMadison,AlexisdeTocquevilleandothers.JohnDeweyreferredto‘socialcapital’inSchool and Societyin1900,whilePierreBourdieudistinguishedbetweeneconomic,culturalandsocialcapital.Theconceptisquitevariable,andincludesissuesofclassandpowertovaryingdegrees

92SeeforinstanceCMoser(1998)‘TheAssetVulnerabilityFramework:ReassessingUrbanPovertyReductionStrategies’,inWorld Development,Vol26No1,pp1–19,Elsevier



Communicationcapacitiesfacilitatethesekindsofassociationsandactivities.Thestudyoftheimpactoftelecommunicationsandlivelihoodscitedabove93foundthattelephonescontributetosocialcapital,andastudyofworldvalues,whichlookedatsocialcapitalin47nationsbetween1995and1997,foundapositivecorrelationbetweenwidespreadaccesstomassmediaandsocietieswithhighsocialcapital.94Ontheotherhand,PutnamarguesthattheriseofentertainmentmediawasamaincauseoftheperceiveddeclineinsocialcapitalintheUS–tohaveapositiveeffect,communicationhastobeinterpersonal.

SocialnetworksareenabledparticularlythroughtheinterpersonalcommunicationoftelephonesandtheInternet,andthroughphysicalassociation.Forexample,inUganda,discussionandknowledge-sharinginpersonalcommunicationnetworksmadepeoplefeelthatHIVandAIDSaffectedthempersonally,promotingchangesinbehaviour.95Similarly,theHIVandAIDSsocialmovementinSouthAfricawasenabledthroughinterpersonalcommunicationanddrivenbyadesiretobuildassociationsandfindinformationfromotherssharingthesameexperiences.96Theactive,empoweredandengagedcitizenswhoeventuallyformedtheTreatmentActionCampaignexercisedconsiderableinfluenceastheyharnessedthecommunicationtoolsofadvocacy,massmovementandpoliticalpressuretoinfluencetheSouthAfricanGovernment’spoliciesonantiretroviral(ARV)drugs.

Civilsocietyorganisations

Theterm‘civilsociety’issometimesusedtorefertoorganisationsandassociations.Thenumberandvibrancyofsuchassociationsistakenasanindicatorofthequalityofanation’slife.Civilsocietyorganisations(CSOs)canincludeorganisationsforculturalandleisureactivities,suchasfootballclubsorthebowlingclubsofPutnam’stitle;professionalassociations,tradeunionsandinterestgroups;activists’groupsandself-helporsupportgroupsonissuesoridentityquestions(forinstance,women’sgroups);andNGOsthatprovideservices.Sometimesreligiousinstitutionsareincludedinthedefinition,sometimesnot.

Clearlysuchassociationscanbeimportantinsupportingindividuals–supportingtheiridentityandprovidingopportunities,socialsupport,andservices.Theyalsoplayaroleinpoliticallifeandaspartofthe‘demandside’ofaccountabilityandgoodgovernance,functioningasameansofbringingtogetherindividualstolobbyforrightsortoinfluencepolicy,aggregatingdemand,andchannellingpeople’svoices.

Communicationofmanykindsisfundamentaltosuchgroups:interpersonaldialogue;networkingandorganisingviaphone,Internet,andemail;gatheringinformation,managingitandchannellingittomembers;debateandarticulationofissuesanddemands;outreachtowiderpublicsthroughpublications,performances,Internetormassmedia;linkswithsimilargroupsatgloballevelviaemailandInternet;andadvocacyanddirectlobbyingofgovernment.Forgroupsthatareformedbyorthatservepoorandmarginalisedpeople,strengtheningtheircapacitiestocommunicatecanboosttheorganisations’capacitiestoserveandempowertheirmembership.

93Seefootnote83

94PNorris(2002)EditorialVol7(1)Social Capital and the News Media,theHarvardInternationalJournalofPress/PoliticsOnline

95ECGreen(2003)Rethinking AIDS prevention: Learning from success in developing countries,WestportCT:GreenwoodPress

96PanosLondon(2006) Speaking freely, being strong:HIV social movements, communication and inclusive social change – a case study in South Africa and Namibia,PanosLondon.Availableatwww.panos.org.uk/speakingfreely

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CSOsrepresentingdifferentgroupswithdifferentinterestsmaycompeteandconflictwithoneanotheraswellaswiththewidernationalinterest.Anopen‘publicsphere’fordebate,inmediaandotherways,isneededforthiscompetitiontoworkitselfout.Mediacanprovideinformation,challengeandaskquestions,andprovideaplatformfordebates.TransparencyisalsoneededabouthowindividualCSOsaccessresourcesandinfluence,especiallyiftheygrowstrongenoughtobypassformalpoliticalprocessesandhaveinformalandnon-accountableinfluenceongovernments.ThemembershipandleadershipofCSOsaregenerallynotelected,makingthemvulnerabletoquestionsabouthowinclusivetheyareandwhotheyrepresent.AndtheremaybeissuesofinclusionandexclusionwithintheCSOsthemselves–whohaspower,whomakesdecisions?TransparencyisasdesirableforCSOsasitisforgovernments.97

Global civil society

Asdigitalcommunication–Internet,emailandtelephones–makesinternationalcommunicationeasier,people’shorizonsareexpandingmoreandmorebeyondthebordersofthecountryinwhichtheylive.Manyissuesgobeyondthejurisdictionofindividualstates–environmentalissuessuchasclimatechange,socialissuessuchaswomen’sequality,politicalissuessuchasmarginalisationofthepoor–andpeopleareusingnewcommunicationtechnologiestoexchangeinformation,debateandmobiliseforactionaroundsuchissues.The‘networksociety’98or‘globalcivilsociety’99isstartingtochangethecharacteroftheworldcommunity(althoughatpresentthe‘network’mainlyincludeswealthierandmoreurbanpeople).

GlobalgovernanceexpertMaryKaldorpointsoutthatmoreandmorepeopleareparticipatinginpublicdiscourse,andpoliticaldebatecannolongerbetheprovinceofasmallelite.Thecharacteroftheworldcommunitywillinfuture,shebelieves,beshapedbythewayitsmembersconfer.‘Acrosstheworld,socialmovements,singleissuegroups,students’,workers’,women’sandpeasants’associations,non-governmentalorganisations,churches,foundationsandInternet-basedcommunitiesaremobilisinginpursuitofobjectivesthatnosinglestatecandeliver.Governments,globalisedcorporationsandinternationalinstitutionsarerespondingtopressurefromsuchquartersonanevermoretransnationalbasis.’AlthoughnewcommunicationtechnologiescanalsobeusedeffectivelybygroupscommittedtoviolencesuchasAlQaeda,mostofthe‘growingthrongoftransnationalactors…relyondialogueratherthanviolence…Infuture,transnationaldialoguecouldenablenegotiationtosupersedeviolenceashumanity’sdefaultinstrumentforresolvingdifferences.’100

Thedangersandlimitationsofglobalcivilsocietyarethesameasthosefornationalcivilsociety.Itcanbedifficultforaudiencestojudgethecredibilityandlegitimacyofapieceofinformationoranorganisationtheyhavefoundintheultra-democraticspaceoftheInternet,anditcanbeaseasytomobilisepeoplearoundanextremistagendaasademocraticone.Thesolutionstotheseproblemsmustbemoretransparency,andfreedebateamonganincreasinglymedia-literateanddiscriminatingpublicandpoliticians.Massmediawhichcanfilterandanalyseinformation,provideobjectivesynthesisandestablishthemselvesastrustedandauthoritative‘brandnames’willbeincreasinglyimportantifavibrantcivilsocietyistobeforged.

97ThefirststepsarebeingtakentowardsstandardsoftransparencyforinternationalNGOs.TheInternationalNon-GovernmentalOrganisationsAccountabilityChartersetsoutcorevaluesandoperatingprinciplesthatincludegoodgovernanceandmanagement;andmulti-stakeholderengagement.Italsomakesspecificreferencetorespectforuniversalprinciplessuchashumanrights,independence,responsibleadvocacy,effectiveprogrammes,non-discrimination,transparencyandethicalfundraising.Asof2006signatorieswereActionAidInternational,AmnestyInternational,CivicusWorldAllianceforCitizenParticipation,ConsumersInternational,GreenpeaceInternational,OxfamInternational,theInternationalSavetheChildrenAlliance,SurvivalInternational,InternationalFederationofTerredesHommes,TransparencyInternationalandWorldYWCA

98‘Networksociety’isthetermcoinedbyManuelCastellstorefertothechangesthatthetechnologiesofelectroniccommunicationhavebroughttothefundamentalsofsociety(conceptualisedastheeconomy,thestateanditsinstitutionsandthewayspeoplecreatemeaningintheirlivesthroughcollectiveaction).However,Castellsrecognisedthatthemajorityoftheworld’spopulation,lackingaccesstomeansofcommunication,werenot(yet)partofthenetworksociety.SeeMCastells(1998)The end of the Millennium, the information age: Economy, society and culture,VolIII,CambridgeMA;Oxford:Blackwell(secondedition2000)

99‘Globalcivilsociety’isthetermusedbyMaryKaldor,directoroftheCentrefortheStudyofGlobalGovernanceattheLondonSchoolofEconomics

100MKaldor(2007)‘ThebeaconsofBabel’inGlobal Voice: Britain’s future in international broadcasting,London:Premiumpublishing


Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment �� Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment

A diverse, engaged and empowered civil society: conclusion

Peoplearethemainactorsinachievingdevelopment,whetherasindividuals,insocialgroupsorassociations,orinwidernetworks.Itistheactionsandattitudesofindividuals,shapedbythecommunitiesinwhichtheylive,thatcreateopportunities,protecthealth,andmanageresources.Goodgovernancerequires‘competentcitizens’andactivecivilsocietyorganisationsaspartnerswitheffectivegovernments,demandingafairshareofresourcesandholdinggovernmentaccountable.Communicationistheessenceoftheinteractionsthatshapesocietiesandindividuallives:communicationinfamiliesandcommunities,inassociationsandinstitutions,betweengovernmentsandpeople,betweenprovidersandusersofservices,andwithsocietyatlargethroughmassmedia.Allpeoplemusthaveaccesstodifferentcommunicationchannels–telephonesandInternet,face-to-facediscussions,andmedia–iftheyaretoplayanactivepartinpoliticalanddevelopmentprocesses.

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Mostpeopleacceptthatareductioninabsolutepovertyisoneofthemaingoalsofdevelopment,andthateconomicgrowthisanecessaryconditionforit.101Butthereisconsiderabledisagreementoverwhatkindofgrowthisneededandhowbestitcanworktoenablepoorpeopletoliftthemselvesoutofpoverty.102Theassumptionthatthebenefitsofeconomicgrowth‘trickledown’spontaneouslyandequitablytoallsectorsofsocietyisnolongerwidelyheld,andmosteconomistsagreethatgovernmentshavearesponsibilitytoregulateandinterveneinmarketstomeetpovertygoalssuchaspromotingtheparticipationofthepoorineconomicactivity.Whatis,andwillremain,contentiousiswhatshouldbethe‘mix’betweenfreedomandinterventioninmarketsinacountryatanygiventime,andwhatdegreeofredistributionisdesirableandeffectiveforreducingpoverty.

Thissectionofthepaperwillshowthatwhateverthemixoffreedomandcontrol,openandparticipatorycommunicationandinformationprocessesareattheheartofhealthyandsustainableeconomicdevelopment.Itwillshowtherolecommunicationplaysinimprovedandmoreeffectiveeconomicpolicymaking;anditscentralityinestablishingandsustaininganenablingenvironmentthatencourageshealthyandmoreequitableeconomicgrowth.Itexaminestheimportanceofinformationandcommunicationtoinfrastructuralinvestmentprojects,andtheircontributiontobuildingsustainablelivelihoodsforthemillionsofpeoplewholiveandworkinruralareas.Theenvironmentalchallengesfacingthewholeworld,suchasclimatechange,andthoseaffectingspecificlocalities,likesoilerosionorshortageoffreshwater,alsorequireintenseandpermanentcommunicationprocessesinwhichindividuals,statesandinternationalbodiesallhavetobeengaged–tolearnfacts,debateresponses,agreeonactionsandmonitorperformance.

Communicationinthefunctioningofmarkets

Theeconomictheoryofmarketshasalwaysrecognisedtheimportanceofcommunication.AdamSmith’stheoretical‘economicman’actedrationallyonthebasisofperfectmarketinformation.Thefactthatinformationisnearlyalwaysimperfect–highlightedamongothersbyNobellaureateProfessorJosephStiglitz103andhiscolleagues–onlyreinforcestheobviouspointthatthemoreinformationaproducer,traderorconsumerhas,thebetter.Whereinformationflowsfreely,marketsandbusinessesgrowandthestatecanregulateeffectively;andthisistruefordevelopingaswellasdevelopedeconomies.Informationandcommunicationarecriticalfactorsinsupportingalltypesofeconomicactivity,fromsmall-scaleagriculturetotransnationalfuturestrading.Communicationisfundamentaltocreatinganenablingenvironmentforinvestmentandenterprise;tothefunctioningofmarkets;totheefficiencyofproductionprocessesandprovisionofservices;andtocreditandbankingfacilities.

Fromadevelopmentperspective,thekeypointisthatpoorpeopleandsmallproducersaregreatlydisadvantagedbecausetheyusuallysufferfrompossessingmuchlessinformationandlessabilitytocommunicatethanrichpeopleandbigproducers.Effortsareneededtoovercomethisinformationdeficit,toimprovecompetitionandconsumerchoice,createmoreeffectivemarkets,andcontributetowardsmoreequitableeconomicgrowth.

Economic development

101Forinstance,DFIDdefinesitsobjectiveasriddingtheworldofextremepoverty(www.dfid.gov.uk);theWorldBankasglobalpovertyreductionandtheimprovementoflivingstandards(www.worldbank.org);andOxfamasfindinglastingsolutionstopovertyandsuffering.Povertyreductionasagoalofdevelopment–thoughheadlinedintheMDGs–isdisputedbysomecritics,whofeelthatitfocusesonthesymptomsratherthanthewidercausesofpoverty,whichtheyseeasimbalancesinpowerandaccesstowealthglobally

102Someanalystsobservethateconomicgrowthderivingfromparticipationintheglobalisedeconomywidenswealthgaps.Theyarguethatgrowthineconomicactivitywithincountries,andpromotionoftheneedsofsmallproducers,haveamorebeneficialimpactonpovertylevelsthanparticipationintheglobaleconomy.See,forinstance, The Least Developed Countries Report 2004: Linking International Trade with Poverty Reduction, UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment

103See,forinstance,‘TheContributionsoftheEconomicsofInformationtoTwentiethCenturyEconomics’Quarterly Journal of Economics,115(4),November2000,pp1441-78

��Economicdevelopment

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Box 9 Regulation, information and the market

InIndiainthe1970stherewasascarcityofgood-qualityfreshmilkbecausemuchofthemilkproducedwaswatereddowntoincreaseprofits.Becausetherewasnowayabuyercouldfindoutmilk’sbutterfatcontent,low-quality(cheaper)milkdroveouthigh-qualitymilk.TosolvetheproblemtheIndianNationalDairyDevelopmentBoardmeasuredbutterfatcontentandcreatedbrandnamesthatbuiltbuyers'trustinthemilkquality.AsaresultthequalityofmilkavailableinIndiaimproved.104

Makingeconomicpolicy

Aswehavealreadyexploredinthesectiononpoliticsandgovernance,openandparticipatorycommunicationprocessesarecentraltomoreinclusive,effectiveandpro-poordevelopmentoutcomes.Thisisalsotrueinthevitalareaofnationaleconomicpolicymaking,wheretheimplicationsofthechoicesmadehaveprofoundconsequencesonthescaleanddistributionofwealthandpower.Thearticulationanddebateofdifferenteconomicpoliciesandchoicesisacentralfeatureofpoliticaldiscourse,involvingthegovernment,politicalparties,tradeunions,businessgroups,academiaandothercivilsocietyorganisations.However,theviewsandinterestsofpoorpeopleandmarginalisedgroupsareoftenignoredordrownedout.

ItwaspartlytoredressthisimbalancethattheWorldBankintroducedthePovertyReductionStrategyprocessinthelate1990s,whichattemptedtoestablishamechanismforthedevelopmentofnationalstrategiestoreducepoverty,whichwouldberunbynationalgovernmentswiththeparticipationofawiderangeofstakeholdersandinterestedgroups,includingthepoor.ManyPovertyReductionStrategyPapers(PRSPs),aswellasaddressingwelfareissues,includesomeeconomicsectorsofparticularrelevancetothepoor;andconsultation,participation,monitoringandreviewarebuiltintothePRSPprocess.However,theconsultationprocessessofarhaveoftenbeenincomplete,notincludingadequateparticipationofpoorpeoplewhoarethetargetsofthestrategies.Forexample,Uganda’sfirstPRSPhighlightedagricultureasoneproductivesectorthatneededtogrowinordertoprovideopportunitiesformanypoorpeopletoimprovetheirincomes.Butitfailedtotakeintoconsiderationthefactthatlargepartsofthecountry’sproduction,andalargeproportionofitspoorpeople,werepastoralists.ThePRSPfocusedoncommercialhorticultureforexport,andfailedtoincludesomesimplemeasuresthatcouldhavehelpedpastoralistsincreaseandprofitmorefromtheexportofmeatandlivestock.Pastoralists–inmostcountriesamongthemostmarginalisedgroups–hadnotbeenconsultedbecausetheywerenot‘visible’tothecity-basedpolicymakers.

Debatehasbeenlimitedinotherrespects.SomecriticshavepointedoutthatwhiletheoverallcontentofPRSPsmaybeopentodebatewithinacountry,thefundamentaleconomicpolicyorientationofthePRSPhasnotbeenupfordiscussion.Theychargethattheliberalisationoftradeandmarketsandotherfeaturesofthe‘WashingtonConsensus’havebeenassumedasthemacro-economicbasisforpovertyreduction,andtherehasbeennopossibilityofanalysingandchallengingtheimpactoftheseinanindividualcountry’suniquesituation.Norhavethespecificmeasurestoimplementthestrategiesoftenbeenopenfordiscussion.Debateandpolicyprescriptionshavebeenchannelledandincomplete.105

104RKlitgaard(1991)Adjusting to Reality,SanFrancisco:ICSPress

105FormoreinformationondebatesaboutPRSPs,seeWho’s richer, who’s poorer? A journalist’s guide to the politics of poverty reduction strategies,PanosmediatoolkitonPRSPsNo1,London:PanosLondon(2005)


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Communication,informationandparticipationchallengesarealsoattheheartoftacklingtheinequalitiesrelatedtointernationaleconomicpolicymaking.Theopenness,transparencyandaccountabilityofmanyinternationaleconomicbodiesandforums–suchastheIMF,WorldBankandWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)–isweakorsubjecttocontroversy;andfrequentlytheinformationavailabletonegotiatorsfromdevelopingcountriesonmanyhighlycomplexandtechnicalissuesisfarfromadequate.

Thisproblemisnotconfinedtopolicymakersandtechnicians.Thelackofsufficientlydetailedlocalmediacoverageindevelopingcountriesofthekeyexternaldrivingforcesofchange–suchastheimpactofclimatechange,andinternationaltradeandsubsidyregimes–leadstopublicdisengagementfromtheseissues,andtheviewsandperspectivesofmembersofthepublicarenotintegratedintonationalandinternationalfora.Asaresult,policymakingispoorerandpolicyisalmostcertainlymoredifficulttoimplement.Thepublicneedstobeinformedmoreconsistentlyandtoahigherlevelonthesepoliticalandeconomicpolicyissues.Thiscanonlyhappenifthemediaitselfunderstandsandreportsaccuratelyandknowledgeablyonwhatareoftenhighlytechnicalissues.Journalistsmustbesupportedtounderstandthesecomplexissues,whileeditorsandownersmustfindwaystobalancetheircommercialimperativeswiththeirpublicinterestfunctiontoenableinformedstakeholderdecision-making.106

The enabling environment

Ruleoflaw,transparencyandreducedcorruption

Someaspectsofgoodgovernancearefundamentalforcreatinganenvironmentinwhichenterpriseonanyscalecanflourish.Establishingtheruleoflaw,securityandstability,transparencyofbusinessandeconomicrelationships,andpredictabilityofcontractsallcreateconfidenceandencourageinvestment,bothinternationalandlocal.Theyareessentialpartsofacultureofopennessandtransparency,accesstoinformation,andeffectivepublicscrutinyprocesses.Forexample,researchhasshownthatwhereinformationaboutcontractsandtheirenforcementistransparent,privateinvestmentisstronger.107(Therearecounter-examples:forexample,therewasaflourishingandcompetitivemarketinmobilephoneprovisioninSomaliaduringyearswhentherewasnogovernment.108However,thisexampleshowstheeffectoffreedomfromgovernmentconstraintsinSomalia,comparedwiththedominanceofcumbersomestatemonopolyprovidersinmanyothercountriesatthetime.)

Wheretransparencyandtheruleoflawareabsent,inpoliticalsystemsofallkinds,corruptionflourishes.Economicandbusinesscorruptiondistortsandreducesgrowthandinvestmentbecauseitintroducesinefficienciesandunderminestheknown‘rulesofthegame’.Studiesshowthatanincreaseofonepoint(onascaleof1-10)inthecorruptionindexofacountrytranslatesintoa0.9percentreductioningrowthrate,andreducestheproportionthatinvestmentcontributestoGDPby4.7percent.109Obviouslytherearewinnersaswellasloserswhencorruptionisthenorm–butthewinnersarethosewithmostmoney,powerandcontactswiththeelite.Reducingcorruptioncreatesamorelevelplayingfieldforsmallerbusinesses,aswellasbuildingtrustandasenseofempowermentamongordinarycitizens.

106Tobegintoaddressthe‘informationgap’withinthemediaandinthepublicsphere,inDecember2005PanosbroughtateamofjournalistsfromAfricanandAsiancountriestotheWorldTradeOrganization’ssixthministerialsummitinHongKong.Theaimwastostrengthenthejournalists’knowledgeoftheissuessothattheycouldreportmoreeffectivelyinthemediaathome.Forsomeofthefeaturestheyproduced,seewww.panos.org.uk

107ZDrabekandWPayne(2002)‘TheImpactofTransparencyonForeignDirectInvestment’,Journal of Economic Integration,Vol17No4

108HHassan,‘Thephoneskeepringinginworld’spoorestcountry’,PanosFeature,22July2003,www.panos.org.uk

109S-JWei(1997)‘HowTaxingisCorruptiononInternationalInvestors’,NationalBureauofEconomicResearch(US)WorkingPaperSeries,WorkingPaper6030

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Box 10 The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

TheExtractiveIndustriesTransparencyInitiative(EITI)waslaunchedattheWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopmentin2002toincreaselevelsoftransparencyaboutpaymentsbyminingcompaniestogovernments,andaboutthesharingofrevenues.Itreliesongovernmentsofcountriesrichinnaturalresourcestotakethelead–soitwillnotworkifthepoliticalwillislacking.BySeptember2006around20countrieswereimplementingit,andthreecountrieshadproducedreports(Nigeria,GuineaandAzerbaijan).AconsortiumofinternationalNGOsismonitoringtheimplementation,andtheycommentthatsofarthereisnomechanismforencouragingcompaniestobeastransparentabouttheiroperationsincountriesthatarenotpartoftheinitiativeasinthosethatare.Theinitiativewouldbestrengthened,intheviewoftheseNGOs,iftherewaspressurefromthecompanies’homecountriesforthesamestandardsoftransparencyacrossalltheiroperations.110

110TheNGOconsortiumincludesSavetheChildren,OpenSocietyInstitute,CAFOD,Care(UK),WorldVision,SecoursCatholique,andGlobalWitness

111DKaufmannandABellver(2005)‘TransparentingTransparency’inInitial Empirics and Policy Applications,Preliminarydraft,September,WorldBank

112www.doingbusiness.org/ExploreTopics/StartingBusiness/

113HdeSoto(2000)The Mystery of Capital,London:BlackSwan,p232

114GlobalInternetGeography–TeleGeography2004,PriMetricaInc.Seewww.telegeography.com

115‘TradePolicyTrends:ServingtheBusinessInterests’,SpeechbyHaruhikoKuroda,President,AsianDevelopmentBank,attheAsia-EuropeBusinessForum,Helsinki,Finland10September2006

Simplerandmoretransparentbureaucraticprocedures

Governmentscanfacilitateeconomicactivitybymakingbureaucraticandregulatoryproceduressuchasbusinessregistration,licensingprocesses,andimport/exportproceduressimpler,faster,cheaperandmoretransparent.ICTs,massmedia,systemsreform,knowledgeandinformationmanagementcanallbebroughtintoplaytoachievethis.Reducingtimeandcostsandincreasingtransparencyandpredictabilityarebeneficialforlargeenterprisesbutevenmoresoforsmallones,forwhomthecostsofcomplyingwithbureaucracyarehigherinrelationtotheirsize.Incountrieswithlowlevelsoftransparency,registeringanewbusinesscostsmorethanfourtimeswhatitcostswheretheleveloftransparencyishigh.111InMozambique,totakejustoneexample,toregisterabusinessofficiallyrequires13procedures.Thewholeprocesstakesanaverageof113daysandcosts85.7percentofaveragepercapitaannualgrossnationalincome(GNI).InSweden,bycontrast,threeproceduresarerequired,takinganaverageof16daysandcostingonly0.7percentofpercapitaGNI.112

Accesstocapital

Accesstocapitalisoftenamajorproblemforsmallbusinessesandthusasignificantconstraintonincreasingeconomicactivity.Poorpeoplelackassetswhichcanbeacceptedassecurityforloans.Thisisnotnecessarilybecausetheydonothaveassets,ratherthattheycannotreleasethecapitalwithinthem.EconomistHernandodeSotopointedoutthatmillionsofpoorpeoplepossesslandandhouseswhicharenotformallyregistered.Systemsto‘obtainandorganiseknowledgeaboutrecordedassetsinformswecancontrol’couldenablemanypoorpeopletobecome‘bankable’.113Thisisamassivepotentialeconomicbenefitofmoreorganised,transparentandaccessibleinformationsystems.TheexperienceoflandregistrationinKarnataka(seeBox5onpage20)demonstrateshowICTscanmakelandregistrationinformationmoreaccessibletoreleasecapitalandsupportgrowth.

ICTinfrastructureandservices

Inthepastcoupleofdecades,theexplosionofglobaltradeandwealthhasmatchedtherevolutionarygrowthininformationandcommunicationtechnologies.Forexample,between2003and2004AsiasawaverageInternettrafficgrowby434percent,114whileintra-regionaltradeinEastAsiaroseto55percentoftotalworldtradebytheendof2005,upfrom43percentoftotaltradeintheearly1990s.115Althoughthepreciserelationshipofcauseandeffecthasnotbeendefinitivelyproven,itistruethattoattractinternationalbusinessandcapitaltodayacountryneedstoprovideinternational-standardICTfacilities.


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Reliableandaffordabletelephonesanddigitalconnectivityarealsoimportantforsmallbusinesses.InvestmentinICTscanleadtoefficiencygains,increasedproductivityandgrowthforsmallandmediumenterprises(SMEs)aswellasformajorenterprises.116Onestudyfoundthatindevelopingcountries,salesgrewby3.8percentandemploymentby5.6percentforenterpriseswhichutilisedICTs,comparedto0.4percentand4.5percentforthosethatdidnot.117Untilafewyearsago,telecomscompaniestendednottoinvestinprovidinginfrastructureandserviceswheretheuserswouldmostlybepoorpeople,astheythoughtthereturnsontheirinvestmentwouldbesmall.RecentlytheyhavebeguntorecognisethatthepotentialdemandamongSMEs(andamongpoorpeopleingeneral–seepreviouschapter)fortelecomsservicesdoesinfactofferprofitableinvestmentopportunities.

Mobilephonesubscriptionshavegrownfivefoldto1.4billionindevelopingcountriessince2000.118Before2006only10percentofthepopulationofsub-SaharanAfricahadnetworkcoverage,buttodaymorethan60percentdoandthisisexpectedtoreach85percentby2010.119OneofthewaysICTsarestartingtohelpsmallproducersinmanycountriesisbyenablingthemtofindoutthepricestheirproductsarefetchinginlocalandnationalmarkets–usingtelephones,textmessaging,ortheInternet.Accesstothisinformationputstheminastrongerpositionfornegotiatingpriceswithmiddle-men;orenablesthemtocutoutthemiddle-menaltogetherandincreasetheirownincome.

116Global Trends and Policies – Information and Communications for Development,2006,WorldBank

117SDutta(Insead),ALopez-ClarosandIMia(WorldEconomicForum), Global Information Technology Report 2005–2006

118MFoster,‘CellPhonesVitalinDevelopingWorld’,WashingtonPost,27January2007

119‘Buy,cell,hold:ThespreadofmobilephonesinAfrica’,The Economist25January2007

120DUptonandVFuller,The ITC eChoupal Initiative,28October2003.Revisiondate:15January2004

121AnoverviewofICTsatIDRC,www.idrc.ca/en/ev-48418-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

122www.manobi.net

Box 11 ICTs empowering producers

TheIndianTobaccoCorporation(ITC),amajoragriculturalconglomerate,createdanetworkof‘e-Choupals’(Internet-connectedcomputers)inruralcommunities.TheoriginalpurposewastoimprovethesupplychainforproducebeingsolddirectlytoITC–providingfarmerswithlower-costinputs,informationandtransparentguaranteedprices.SinceJune2000,over5,200e-ChoupalInternetkioskshavebeenestablishedtoserve3.5millionfarmersin31,000villages.IntimeITCrespondedtodemandandallowedfarmerstousethekioskstofindinformation,includingmarketpriceinformation,aboutotherproducts.Farmerscanaccessdailyclosingpricesonlocalmarkets,whichallowsthemtotaketheirproducetothebestpayingmarket.Usingthesystem,farmers’earningsincreasebyupto20percent,whilethecompanybenefitsfromareliablesupplychainanddistributionmechanism.120

In2003Manobi,aprivatetelecommunicationscompanyinSenegal,formedapartnershipwiththreelocalfishingunions,twotelecommuni-cationscompanies(AlcatelandSonatel)andtheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre(IDRC).Fishermenandfarmerscancheckthemarketpricesfortheirproducetwiceaweekusingtheircellphones.Onefarmer,MrCheikhBa,saidheusestheknowledgegainedofworldmarketpricestomorethandoublethepricehereceivesfromintermediariesforhisgrapefruit.‘IfIdidnothavetheManobisystem,’hesaid,‘Iwouldcertainlyhaveacceptedabargainpriceinfearthatthebuyerwouldleaveandleavemestuckwithmyproduce.’

Researchshowsthatfoodproducersusingthisservicehaveseentheirincomesincreasebyanaverageof15percent.121By2006therewereover3,500SenegaleseproducersconsultingtheManobiagriculturalmarketpricesbyshortmessageservice(SMS).122In2006,ManobiandtheInternationalInstituteforCommunicationandDevelopment(IICD)enteredintoapartnershiptodevelopsimilarinitiativesinBurkinaFaso,Ghana,Mali,UgandaandZambia.

Ofcourse,theinformationcouldalsobeprovidedfreeonlocalradiostationsorinnewspapers!


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ManyotherexamplesexistofhowthespreadofICTsisthrowingupnewandinventivesolutionstotheproblemsofcredit,moneytransfersandbankingforthepoor.Forinstance,palmtopcomputerslinkedbywirelesstotheirbank’smaincomputersystemcanbeusedbyloanofficersvisitingclientsinruralareastoinputdatadirectlyandspeeduptransactions.Similarly,low-costcomputerconnectivityallowsbankstofranchisecreditservicestooperatorsinruralareas123–forinstance,villageshop-keepers–ortooperatecreditandbankingfacilitiesthroughcreditcardsandATMsinruralareas.Theneedforsuchservicesisenormous:forinstance,in2005,accordingtotheUnitedNations,globalmigrantsremittedUS$232billion,ofwhichupto20percentwaslostontheway,mostlyinbankchargesorfraud.

Box 12 Mobile banking

SouthAfricanssendabout12billionrand(US$1.5billion)eachyeartotheirrelativesinotherpartsofthecountry–moneythatisusuallysentinformallyandoftenbyortosomeofthe16millionpeoplewithoutabankaccount.Butwhattheydohave–atleast30percentofthisgroup–aremobilephones.ThesepeoplearenowbeingtargetedbymobilephonecompaniessuchasWizzitofferingbankingservicesviatextmessagethatpromiseasecurewayofmovingmoneywithoutthecostsofinformaltransferorthetravelrequiredtoaccessmoney.In2006Wizzithadhalfamillioncustomers–eightoutoftenofwhomhadnobankaccountandhadneverusedanATM.124

Intellectualpropertyandthecostofknowledge

Intoday’sworld,thecreationandexchangeofknowledgeisamajoreconomicactivity–whetheritisthroughpatentsontechnologyanddiscoveries,forinstanceinthefieldsofmedicine,informationtechnology(IT)oragriculture;brands;orcopyrightsonartisticproductsorscientificarticles.Inrecentyearstheintellectualproperty(IP)systemhasextendedintonewareas(tocover,forinstance,micro-organismsanddiscoveriesconnectedwithagriculture)andaroundtheworld(becausenationalintellectualpropertyprotectionisarequirementforcountriesjoiningtheWTO).

Theargumentforitisthatthediscovery,creationandsharingofknowledgemustbeprofitable,inordertostimulatethecontinuedflowofinnovation,creativityandexchangethatisanessentialelementofmodernsocietyandmoderneconomies.WithastrongIPsystem,knowledgeisindeedprofitableforitscreators,ownersanddistributors.However,thedownsideofastrongIPsystemisthatacquiringandusingknowledgecanbeexpensive.Ingeneral,developingcountriesareatadisadvantageandbenefitlessfromintellectualpropertythanrichones,becausehistoricallytheyhaveproducedlesspatentedknowledge,andfewervaluablebrandsandsaleableresearchfindings–partlybecausemosthaveonlyrecentlyintroducedintellectualpropertylegislation.

123SMathison(2005)‘BuildingMicrofinancethroughICTinnovation’,in Information and Communication Technologies and large-scale poverty reduction: Lessons from Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean,PanosandtheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation

124‘Phoneyfinance:Mobiletelephonyandbanking’, The Economist,26October2006


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ThespreadofIPprotectionthrowsupchallengesfordevelopingcountriesandpoorpeopleandinstitutions,forwhichsolutionsareonlystartingtobefound.Somecriticshavearguedthatdevelopingcountriesshouldbeallowedtoutilisenewtechnologies,patentsandintellectualpropertyforfree–asmanynowdevelopedcountriesdidwhentheywereatanequivalentstageofdevelopment.125Onechallengeisthattraditionalcommunitiesarevulnerabletohavingtheirtraditionalknowledgeandresources‘pirated’byrichcompanies(whicharegenerallyfromdevelopedcountries).Inordertoturnsuchknowledgetotheirownprofit,developingcountriesmustintroduceIPrulesoftheirown–butdesigningsystemsforprotectingcollectively-ownedandtraditionalknowledgeresourcesisdifficult,sincethepurposeofpatentandcopyrightwasspecificallytorewardnewcreationbyindividuals.

Asecondchallengefordevelopingcountriesisthatscientificknowledgeisoftensubjecttocopyright,andacquiringithasbecomeverycostly.(ThiswasoneofthesubjectsofanAfricanUnionmeetingonscienceandtechnologyinFebruary2007.)Thepriceofscientificjournalscanbeprohibitive.Forexample,anannualsubscriptiontoElsevierBrainSciencecostsoverUS$15,000,andtheInternationalJournalofSocialEconomicscostsoverUS$9,000.ResearchfromCornellUniversityonthecostof312coreagriculturalandbiologicaljournalsfoundthatintheperiod1988to1994,thepriceperpageincreasedby64.7percentforalltitles.126Thepricesofagriculturaljournalsfromcommercialpublishersincreasedasmuchas77.8percent.Thecostofsuchjournalsputsessentialknowledgewellbeyondthereachofmanyinstitutionsandorganisations,despitethefactthattheresearchisoftenpubliclyfunded.

Communication and participation in major infrastructure projects

Thehistoryoflarge-scalepublicandprivatesectorinfrastructureinvestmentsinthedevelopingworldislitteredwithfailures.Why?Therearemanyreasons,butoftenprojectsareplannedwithoutsufficientconsultationandinvolvementofpotentialusersandbeneficiaries–inshort,thereistoolittlecommunication.Large-scaleinfrastructure,extractiveandcommercialprojectshaveamassiveimpactonpeopleinthevicinity;andgovernmentsneedtoanalysethegainsandlossesinconsultationwiththoseaffected,andnegotiateprofit-sharing,compensationmeasuresandmitigationstepswiththeinvestorbeforegrantingthelicencestobeginthework.Governmentconcerntoattractinwardinvestmentsinanincreasinglycompetitiveinternationalenvironment,oritsunwillingnesstohavelocalpeopleinvolvedorsharefullyinthebenefitsofprojects,meansthattheconsultationandresponseprocessisfrequentlynominalorhighlyconstrained.Evenwherelegitimatenationaleconomicorpoliticalobjectivesclashwithlocalinterestsorviews,includingpeopleaffectedatthebeginningofprojectplanninggivesthebestchancethatcompromisecanbereached,costsandbenefitssharedmoreequitablyandagreaterlevelof‘ownership’andacceptancecreated.

125SeeHChang,‘Protectingtheglobalpoor’,Prospectmagazine,July2007

126WOlsen(1998)‘PriceStudyofCoreAgriculturalandBiologicalJournals’,reportfromtheFacultyTaskforce,DivisionofBiologicalSciences,AlbertRMannLibrary,CornellUniversity


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Thisisevenmorethecaseforprivatesectorinvestments,becauselocalorinternationalcompaniesdonothavethesamelegitimacyasnationalgovernmentsindealingwiththeaffectedpopulation.Realdialogueandparticipationandeffectivecommunicationwithlocalpeoplecanmakeanenormousdifferenceinhelpingcompaniesobtaina‘sociallicence’tooperate.This‘sociallicence’comesfrompeoplefeelingconfidentthattheyknowwhatwillhappenandwhatcostsandbenefitswillaccruetothemandtheircommunitiesfromtheinvestment.Investmentsinhigh-impactdevelopmentssuchasmining,orsensitivepublic–privatepartnershipsfordeliveryofpublicservicessuchaswater,canbeunderminedbypublicoppositionifcommunicationisneglected–despitethecompaniesconcernedhavinglegalauthoritytodobusiness.127Wherethepublicandprivatesectorengageindialogue,thesenseofownershipincreases,reducinginefficiencyandwaste.128Sometimes,itisnottheobjectivesofdevelopmentprojectsthatpeopleobjectto,butthefactthattheyhavenotbeenincludedineithertheplanningorthebenefits.Peoplewantasayintheirfuture.Wherecommunicationprocessesareusedproperly,investmentsaremoreefficient.

Allaspectsofgoodgovernanceapplytomajorinvestmentprojectsforbothpublicandprivatestakeholders:governmentandprivatecompaniesmusthavethecapacitytodelivertheprojectefficientlyandeffectively;beresponsivetotheconcernsandinterestsoflocalpeople;andaccountable tothem–thegovernmentfornegotiatingandstickingtoafavourabledealanddistributingbenefitswidely,andthecompanyforfulfillingitsobligations.Communicationandparticipatoryprocessesofallkindswillhelpcompaniestofulfilthesecriteria(forinstance,communityconsultationsandscrutinyprocesses,information-sharinganddebatethroughappropriatemediatoensurepeopleaffectedunderstandtheimpacts,andinvolvementoflocalpeopleinpolicydecision-making).Therealityisthattheremaybeablurrylinebetweensophisticatedcommunicationwhichseeksto‘manufactureconsent’,andgenuineconsultationwithawillingnesstoengagewithpeopleandpossiblychangeplans.Butincreasedandopeninformationandcommunicationprocessesarebytheirnaturemorelikelytoexposewhereconsultationsanddialoguearespeciousorineffectual.

Building sustainable livelihoods

Accesstoandmanagementofnaturalresources–forestry,agricultureandfisheries–isthebasisoflivelihoodsformillionsofruralpeoplearoundtheworld.Naturalresourcesareamajorelementinmanynationaleconomies,andhowtheyareexploitediscrucialtothelong-termfoodsecurityandsustainability,ornot,ofhumanity’sdevelopment.

Thechallengesofpoverty,naturalresourcedegradationandfoodinsecurityareallcloselylinked.Incountrieswheremorethanonethirdofthepopulationareundernourished,70percentofpeoplerelyonagriculturefortheirlivelihoods.Intheworld’sleastdevelopedcountries,82percentofruralhouseholdsarepoor.129Producers,andtheircommunities,sufferthemostandhavethemosttogainfrommanagingtheirresourcestoincreaseproductivity.Theymustdealwiththesharpendofresourcedegradation.Themanagementofnaturalresourcesisthereforeakeychallengeindevelopmentandpovertyreduction.

Thehistoryofenvironmentandnaturalresourcemanagementhasbeendrivenbytheprovisionoftechnicalpackages.Communicationtopromotethesehastendedtobemainlythetop-downgivingofinformation–forinstance,informationaboutdifferentagriculturaltechniquesorinstructionsnottocutdowntrees.However,theseapproacheshaveproducedverylittleprogresstowardstheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalofreducingthenumberofundernourishedpeoplebyhalffrom1990to2015.130Thenumberofhungrypeoplegrewfrom791millionin1997to852millionin2002.131Technicalinputsandtop-downone-waycommunicationarenotenough.

127Forinstance,areportcommissionedbyShellconcludedthatthecompanies’‘sociallicence’(publicsupportforthecompanytooperate)tooperateinNigeriawas‘fasteroding’.Unlessthecompanychangeditscommunicationandengagementstrategy,itwouldbeunabletooperateinNigeriabeyond2008.WACGlobalServices(December2003)‘PeaceandSecurityintheNigerDelta:ConflictExpertGroupBaselineReport,WorkingPaperforSPDC’,Lagos

128BHerzbergandAWright,‘Competitivenesspartnerships–Buildingandmaintainingpublic-privatedialoguetoimprovetheinvestmentclimate:Aresourcedrawnfromthereviewof40countries’experiences’www.publicprivatedialogue.org

129‘TheStateofFoodInsecurityintheWorld2004’,FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

130‘TheStateofFoodInsecurityintheWorld2006’,FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

131WorldFoodProgramme,2007


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Recently,fornaturalresourcesasforotheraspectsofdevelopment,therehasbeenashifttowardsrecognisingthat‘peopleareattheheartoftheecosystem’.132Toaddresspovertyandenhanceproductivity,producersmustbeempoweredtoparticipateinthemeansandprocessesofproduction.Overthelast30years,communicationfordevelopmentprojectsallovertheworldinthissectorhaveshownhowfarmersmustbeinvolvedinthedevelopmentandadoptionofnewcropsandtechnologies,andthemanagementofcreditfacilities,marketinformationandaccessstrategiesinordertoensurethattheyareappropriate,effectiveandefficient.

Communicationstrategieswhichareinclusiveandparticipatoryarekeytothis,forwheneffortstosupportthemanagementofnaturalresourcesdonotincludesufficientcommunicationcomponents,theyoftenfail.Forexample,anevaluationofanunsuccessfulprogrammetosupportbetterwaterandsanitationmanagementinGhanafoundthatthe‘absenceofamediaandcommunicationsstrategymeantthatissuesliketraditionaluse,familyandhouseholddynamicsappeartohavebeenjustplainignored’.133Whenparticipatoryformsofcommunicationareusedwhicharegenuinelyreceptivetowhatlocalpeoplehavetosay,resource-managementeffortshaveagreaterchanceofbeingsustainable.134

Box 13 Communication for natural resource management

InTanzania,droughtandfloodaremajorproblems–particularlyasrainwaterrun-offcausesfurtherfloodinganderosion.Initialgovernmenteffortsencouragedfarmerstousedrought-resistantcropsanddivertrun-offwaterawayfromcrops,butwithlittlesuccess.Throughparticipatoryapproaches,theSoil-WaterManagementResearchGroupatSokoineUniversityhelpedfarmerssharelocalknowledgewithotherstakeholderssothattogether,usingGeographicInformationSystems(GIS),theycoulddeveloprun-offwatermanagementtechniquesthatweresharedthroughmedia,workshopsandtrainingcourses.

Asaresult,farmersdemandrainwaterharvestingtechnologyandgovernmentpolicyrecognisesrainwaterharvestingasasolutionratherthanaproblem.WhenthePresidentofTanzaniaannouncedanewWaterManagementStrategy,rainwaterharvestingwasthetoppriority.135

Theimportanceofcommunicationisbecomingevenmoreapparentgiventhegrowingimpactofthemajorenvironmentalchallengesthatthreatenthelong-termdevelopmentofalltheworld’spopulation.Someofthesechallengesareglobal,wherethethreattothe‘commons’affectseveryone–suchasclimatechange,over-fishingandlossofbiodiversity–andaneffectiveresponsemustbesharedbyallcountries.Othersaremorelocalintheirincidenceandimpact,suchaslossofsoilfertility,shortageoffreshwater,pollutionandwastedisposal.Dealingwithalloftheseissuespresentssomeofthemosturgentcommunicationchallengesfacingtheworldtoday.Theyrequirethesharingoffactualandscientificinformation;debateonimpactsandpolicyresponses;negotiatingactionbetweengovernmentsandcivilsocietynationally,andgovernmentsamongthemselvesglobally;discussingandagreeingtrade-offs,compensations,mechanismsandmeasures–allofwhichdependontransparentmonitoringprocessesandaccountabilitymechanisms.

132QuarryandRamírez(2004),seenote19

133SKendie(1999)‘WaterSupply,SanitationandHygiene:AnalysisofConnectingFactorsinNorthernGhana’,UniversityofBradfordDevelopmentandProjectPlanningCentreDiscussionPaperSeries2No20;seeSummaryandLinksatwww.comminit.com/evaluations/idkdv2002/sld-2388.html

134Ruralextensionisthesharpendofcommunicationlearningeffortstobringagriculture,healthandbusinesspracticestoruralpeople.Extensionworkersareavitallinkbetweencommunitiesandruraldevelopmentinstitutionsandenablethecommunicationofinformationbetweenboth.StudiesinKenyasuggestthatonaveragea100percentincreaseinextensionworkersperfarmtranslatestoa13percentincreaseinyield:seeEEvenson(1998)‘TheEffectsofAgriculturalExtensiononFarmYieldsinKenya’,DiscussionPaperno.798,EconomicGrowthCenter,YaleUniversity

135QuarryandRamirez(2004),seenote19

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Economic development: conclusion

Inthissectionwehavearguedthatopenandparticipatoryinformationandcommunicationprocessesarecentraltorealisingthepotentialofallformsofeconomicdevelopment.TherearestrongcorrelationsbetweenthegrowthofICTsandtheexplosionofglobaltradeandwealth,butcommunicationalsosupportstheeconomicactivitiesofsmallproducersandthepoor.Anenablingenvironmentoftransparencyandsimplebureaucracyencouragesenterpriseandinvestment;low-costandreliableICTssupportproduction,marketingandaccesstocapital.Anopenpoliticalenvironmentinwhichthepoorareabletoparticipateineconomicpolicymakingsupportsthedevelopmentofpro-poorpolicy.Information,participatorydiscussionsandnegotiationsarealsoessentialforthesuccessofmajorprojectssuchaslargeinfrastructureprojects,andforsustainablemanagementofthenaturalresourcesthatareessentialtolivelihoodsofmanysmallfarmers,tonationaleconomies,andtothefutureoftheworld.


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Inthispaperwehaveshownthatcommunication–theexchangeofinformation,anddialogue–isanessentialpartofallthefundamentalprocessesofdevelopment.Itispartofgoodgovernance,ofthelifeofanempoweredanddynamicsociety,andofeconomicdevelopmentandpovertyreduction.Noneoftheseprocessescantakeplacewithoutcommunicationbetweenandamongallsectorsofsocieties,withinandamongnations.

Wearguethatsupportforcommunicationshouldbeakeyelementinanydevelopmentsupportandplanning.Theroleofcommunicationshouldbemoreclearlyidentifiedindevelopmentanalysisandplanningbygovernmentsanddevelopmentagencies,fromhigh-levelinternationalagreementsdowntolocal-levelresourcemanagementprojects.Atpresentcommunicationisoftentakenforgrantedorneglected,withtheresultthattoofewresourcesandtoolittleexpertisearedevotedtoit.Butifmoreattentionwaspaidtocommunication,developmentoutcomeswouldbebetter–specificsectoralinitiativeswouldbemoreeffective,andthecapacitiesofsocietiesandgovernmentstorespondtodevelopmentchallengeswouldbeincreased.

Whyarewesayingthatmoresupportneedstobegiventocommunication?Withthespreadofpoliticalfreedomandofnewcommunicationtechnologiesinthepasttwodecades,thequantity,speedandaccessibilityofcommunicationareadvancingrapidlyallovertheworld:newmediahouseshaveblossomed,thedevelopmentoftheInternethasintroducedaquantumleapintheamountofinformationandcommunicationpossible,andthedemandformobilephoneshasfarexceededexpectations,includingamongrelativelypoorpeopleindevelopingcountries.Thisallsuggeststhatcommunicationisdoingwellanddoesnotneedmoredevelopmentsupport.Butitdoes,asthefollowingsectionwillshow.

Communication as a public good

Marketmechanismsarenotalwaysthemosteffectiveinmeetingtheneedsofpoorandmarginalisedpeople–anditistheirneedsthatshouldbeattheheartofdevelopmentstrategies.Poorpeopleareoftenunabletoaccesscommunicationchannelstoreceiveinformationandmaketheirviewsknownoutsidetheirimmediatesocialenvironment.Thereisnonewspaperdistribution,telephonelandlinesorsatellitefootprintinmanyruralareas;thereislittlebroadcastingandlessInternetcontentinminoritylanguages;politiciansdonotvisitconstituentswhohavenoeconomicpower.Inaddition,manypeople–women,youngandoldpeople,theverypoor,andothermarginalisedgroups–arefurtherconstrainedintheircapacitytocommunicatebylocalculturesandpowerstructures.Ifthereisoneradioinahousehold,themanlistenstoit;ifanInternetkioskisajourneyaway,awomanmaynotbeallowedtogothere.

Why communication needs support

��Whycommunicationneedssupport

Noraremarketmechanismsgenerallygoodatprovidingpublicgoods.‘Publicgoods’isaneconomictermreferringtogoodswhich,onceproduced(orexisting),benefitall–forinstance,education,orjudicialsystems.Acharacteristicofpublicgoodsisthatthemorepeopleusethem,thegreaterthecommonbenefit.Panosbelievesthatcommunicationshouldberegardedasapublicgoodbecauseitcontributestodevelopment,goodgovernance,peaceandprosperity.Likeotherpublicgoods,communicationprocessescostmoneytoproducebuttheproducercannotalwaysprofitfromthem.Therearemanyexamples.Forinstance,inruralareaswhereincomesarelow,theprovisionofICTservicesmaynotbeprofitableeventhoughitenablesmanydevelopmentprocessestotakeplace.Goodqualityjournalismisexpensiveandessentialtogoodgovernance,butmaynotsellenoughnewspapersorattractenoughadvertisingtothenewspaperorradiostationtobeprofitable.Manykindsofknowledgeandinformationarepublicgoods–theybecomemorevaluablethemoretheyareused;andsodonetworkingsystemslinkingdifferentsourcesofinformation.

Weargue,therefore,thatdevelopmentplanningshouldregardinformationandcommunicationaspublicgoods,andshouldseektosupportthem.‘Support’doesnotnecessarilymeanfinancialsupport.Itmayalsomeangovernmentsmakingpolicychanges,andopeninguporinterveninginmarketsforcommunicationservices;orinternationalorganisationsleadingbyexampleinopeningtheiroperationstopublicscrutiny;orCSOsgivingmorestatusandpowertotheircommunicationofficers.Supportshouldgenerallyseektofillgapsandredressmarketfailures(forinstance,failuretoprovideICTservicesinruralareas)ratherthantoover-ridethemarket–becausethemarketisbetterthanmonopolyorgovernment-managedservicesatensuringtheinnovation,competitionandefficiencythatarenecessaryifcommunicationistomakeitsfullcontributiontodevelopment.

Treatingcommunicationasapublicgooddoesnotmeanthatgovernmentsshouldcontrolit.Freedomofexpression,andfreedomtoestablishandusedifferentchannelsofexpression,isasine qua nonofavibrantcommunicationenvironmentsupportiveofdevelopment.

The public service role of media

Indevelopingcountries,patternsofmediareachvaryenormously,withnewspaperreadershipstrongerinurbanareas,radiothesinglemostimportantmediuminAfrica,andtelevisionbecomingincreasinglypervasiveinAsiaandSouthAmerica.Forpeopleeverywhere,richandpooralike,themediaaretheprimaryprovidersofnewsandinformationfromoutsidethecommunity,andmediacoveragereflectsandaffectseveryaspectofcultural,social,politicalandeconomiclife.Themedia(referringheremostlytotraditionalmassmedia–printandbroadcasting)playafundamentalroleininformationandcommunicationprocesses.Mediasupportandenableallaspectsofgoodgovernance:politicalprocessesandthenegotiationofpower;relationshipsbetweenpeopleandgovernment;andgovernmentresponsiveness.Mediaareaforumfordebatingpolicyoptionsandstrategiesandforgovernmenttogainpeople’sconsentandtrust.Mediaplayadefiningroleinaccountability,transparency,monitoring,andreducingcorruption.Communitymediaarejustasimportantasnationalmedia.Forexample,‘inNorthernMalilocalradiostationsbroadcasttheannualEvaluationofCommuneperformanceanditsconsequencesforcapitalbudgetsupport.Followingthesebroadcaststhemayorsofpoorlyperformingareaswhosegrantshavebeenreducedareoftensaidtohidefromtheirconstituentstoavoidrecrimination.’136

136KYAmoako,ExecutiveSecretaryofUNECA,writinginNewEconomy,September2004,citedinMaryMyersetal(2004)The Impact of ICD in Africa: A paper for the Commission for Africawww.commissionforafrica.org/english/report/background/mary_myers_et_al_background.pdf

Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment ��

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Mediaarealsopartofcivilsociety.InMozambique,thecommunitymediamovementhasbeendescribedas‘themostpowerfulpeople’smovementinMozambiqueatthemoment’.137Mediacanreflectthedifferentvoicesthatmakeupsociety,thedifferentissuesthatconcernitandtheclashofopinionswithinit.Mediahelparticulateneedsanddemands,shapeopinionandattitudes,formcoalitionsandmovements.Mediaareaplatformforpoliticalandculturalexpressionandself-realisationofindividualsandgroups,andcanplayaroleinsocialcohesion.Theyenabledebateonsocialandculturalissuesassocietiesdealwithchange(forinstance,ingenderrelations).Mediacanenablereflectionandengagementinglobalaswellaslocalandnationalissues.

Allthesefunctionsrequiremediathatareableandwillingtoperformapublicservicerole.138Apublicserviceroleisnotlimitedtopublicly-owned,state-ownedorcommunitymedia.Commercialandreligiousmediacanalsofulfilit,combinedinvariousdegreeswiththeirotherfunctionsofentertainment,profitorevangelism.UKjournalistandwriterJohnLloydhasnotedthatforthemediatofulfilthispublicserviceroleinempoweringcitizenstheymusttelltruthsinthreeways:throughthe‘clashofopinion’thatcharacterisesthepoliticalprocess,throughinvestigationthatfuelstheengineofaccountability,andthe‘truthofcitizenship’–theexplanationofcontextandevents,thenarrativeofwhichopinionandrevelationarepart.139Theessentialsofpublicservicemediaareaccessibility,includingforpoorandmarginalisedpeople,andqualitycontent:contentthatistrue,informative,andreflectsdifferentvoicesandperspectives.Inotherwords,contentthatisbasedongoodjournalism.

Buttheexistenceofmediaabletofulfilthepublicservicerolecannotbetakenforgranted.Apartfromgovernmentinterference,therearemanyotherchallengestogoodqualitymediaservingthepublicinterest.Indeedsomeanalystsquestionwhethermediacanbeexpectedtofulfilthisfunctionatall.Inafreesociety,itisargued,mediaarecommercialventuresandmustoperateassuch,providingwhatevertypeofcontentisprofitable.Theveryconceptofpublicservicemediaisalsosometimeschallenged.Itimpliesanidealofmediaastellersofobjectivetruth–anidealthatsomeanalystsfeelisaWesternconcept,notuniversallydesiredorexpectedbymediaprofessionalsoraudiencesinalldevelopingcountries.Developmentsupportseekingtostrengthenthepublicserviceroleofmedianeedstotreadadelicatepathamongthedifferentrealitiesoffreemarket-drivenmediainafreesociety.

Muchdevelopmentdiscussionofandsupportformediafocusesonmedia’sfreedomfromgovernmentcontrolandinterference.Ithighlightsthisasthecriticalfactorinenablingmediatoplaytheir‘watchdog’roleinpoliticalaccountabilityprocesses.Freedomfromgovernmentcontrolorinterferenceisofcourseanessentialconditionforthis,butitisnotasufficientconditionforthekindofpublicservicemediawhichwearguearesoimportant.Mediamayhaveformalindependencefromgovernment,butbecontrolledbypeopleclosetopoliticalparties,specialinterestgroupsorrulingelites.Theconcentrationofmediaownershipbyelitesisamajorissueinmanypartsofthedevelopedaswellasthedevelopingworld.

137BJallov,‘WomenandCommunityRadioinMozambique’,tobepublishedinFeminist Media Studies,Vol7.3,September2007

138Theterm‘publicservice’mediaisusedheretorefertomediacontentthataddressesissuesofpublicconcern,forthepublicgood–asdistinctfrommediathatispurelyforentertainmentorcommercialpurposes,andfrommediathatpromotesconflictanddivision.Itdoesnotimplyownershipofmediabythestateorthepublic

139Lloyd(2004),seenote63


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Economicconsiderationsalsolimittherealfreedomofmanymedia.Privately-ownedmedia,andsomegovernment-andpublicly-ownedmedia,havetomakeaprofit,byappealingtoanaudienceandadvertisers.Competingforanaudience,mediaareunderpressuretoprovideentertainmentandtosoothetheirreadersorlistenerswithwhattheywanttohearratherthanchallengingthem.Theneedtoattractadvertisersalsocreatespressure–toappealtorichersectionsofthepopulationratherthanthepoorwhodonotconstituteaprofitablemarketforadvertisers.Theexperienceofmanycountrieswhentheyliberalisedtheirmediainthe1980sand1990saspartofthedemocratisationprocesswasthattheygainedenormouslyinnumbersofmediaoutlets,butthenewoutletswereconcentratedincities,andthequalityofwhatwaspublishedorbroadcastdidnotimprove.Thekindofjournalismthatfulfilsthepublicservicerole–journalismthatinvolvesseekingandcheckinginformation,questioningandanalysingit,andgatheringdifferentperspectivesonissues–isexpensivetocarryout,andmaynotbeprofitable.

Itisthequality of content thatmakesmedia,whetherpubliclyorprivatelyowned,meaningfulactorsindevelopment.Thatiswhatneedstobesupported–becauseitmaynotthrivewithoutsupport.High-qualitymediacontentthatpromotesthevoicesandinterestsofthepoorrequiresmanyconditions,inthecreationofwhichgovernments,aiddonors,themediathemselves,andcivilsocietyallhavearoletoplay.

Supportingthepublicserviceroleofmedia

Onedesirableconditionisfinancialsecurity.Someanalystsseefinancialsecurityasthemostimportantfactorinbuildingstrongpublicservicemedia.Ifmediaaresufficientlywellresourced,theyargue,professionalismandthequalityofcontentwillimproveandtheneedsofaudienceswillbemet.

Communityradiosoftenneedfinancialsupport,sincetheresourcesofthepoorcommunitiestheyservearenotsufficienttosupportthem.Communitymediahelptoempowerpoorpeopleandareavitalelementinpromotingtheirparticipationinpoliticallife.Commercialandpublicmediacanalsobenefitfromfinancialsupport,toenablethemtosendjournalistsaroundthecountryandgivethemthetimeneededtoinvestigateissuesandanalyseinformation.

Fordevelopmentagencieswhosesupportmainlygoestogovernments,itmaynotbeeasytofindwaysofsimultaneouslysupportingmediawhichthegovernmentmayseeashostile.Ontheotherhand,insomecountriesgovernmentsthemselvesseethatgoodqualitymediaareapublicgoodevenwhentheyvoiceopposition,andsupporttheminvariousways–throughreducedtaxes,subsidisedinputs,ordirectfinancialsupport.

Adequatebasicinfrastructureandservicesarealsoimportant.Itisdifficulttorunamediahouseiftheelectricitysupplyiserratic,whileInternetconnectivityandtelephonesfacilitategoodandtimelyjournalism.

Pluralownershipofmediaisessential.Regulationisneededtolimitconcentrationofownership,promotecompetitionandperhapsfacilitatetheentryofsmallactorssuchascommunityradiostationsintothemarket.Legislationandlicensingconditionsshouldnotimplycontrolbygovernment:theyshouldbeindependentandcontrolledbycivilsocietyorthemediaitself,andbeimplementedtransparently.Inmanycountriesatpresentlicencesforcommunitymediainparticulararebannedorheavilyregulated,limitingtherangeofperspectivesandbreadthofdiscussioninthepublicsphere.Likefreedom,pluralownershipisnotasufficientconditionforavibrantpublicmediasphere:ownershipbyanoppositionpoliticalparty,forinstance,isnomorelikelytoprovidebalancedandhigh-qualityreportingthanownershipbythepartyinpower.


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Goodmedianeedskilledandprofessionaljournalists.Inmanycountriestraininghasnotbeenabletokeepupwiththenumberofjournalistsrequiredbyliberalisedmedia,andthetrainingonofferdoesnotmeettoday’sneeds.Supportforjournalismtraining(andmediamanagement)isneeded,buttheprofessionalism,standardsandstrengthofthemediaprofessionscanalsobehelpedbysupportingstrongermediainstitutionssuchaseditors’associationsandjournalistunions.Financialviabilityisalsorelevant:whenmediastrugglefinancially,journalists’salariesarenothighenoughtoattractandretainskilledpeople,soexperienceandlearningarelost.

Journalistscannotpractiseunlesstheycangetinformation,includinginformationfromgovernmentandstateinstitutions.Accesstoinformationlegislationandeffectiveimplementationofitareessentialifmediaaretoholdgovernmentandotherpublicactorsaccountable.

Thereareverydifferentviews,inallcountries,aboutthedegreetowhichmediacontentshouldbecontrolled.Shouldthepublicbeprotectedfrom‘hatemedia’andfromsociallyunacceptablecontentsuchaspornography?Isregulationthebestwaytoensurethattheinterestsofminoritiesandmarginalisedgroupsarerepresented,andthatthemediaprovides‘publicservice’contentandobservesprofessionalstandards?Thisisacontentiousareaineverycountryintheworld.Whatdegreeofoversight,regulationandobligationiscompatiblewithfreedomandafunctioningmarket?Andbywhom?PanosLondonbelievesthatoversightbythemediaitself,andbycivilsociety,ratherthanbygovernment,ismostlikelytobecompatiblewithgoodgovernance.RadioMilleCollines,whichhelpedtoincitethegenocidalviolenceinRwandain1994,issometimespresentedasanexampleofthedangersoffree,unfetteredmedia.Whilethisisanextremeexample,mediamanipulationofpublicopinionisunfortunatelynotuncommon.Thebestantidotetosuchmanipulation,however,isadiversityofmedia,notrestriction.Pluralisticindependentmediathatareinclusiveandresponsivetodiversityhavehistoricallyplayedavitalroleinpreventing,mockingorchallengingvoicesthatbreedextremism.Asarecentpublicationlookingattheeffectofmediaondevelopmentpointsout:‘Healthypublicspherescanhostawiderangeofviewswhichcandiluteintolerance.Policymakersshouldincreasesupportformediaassistanceprogrammestowidenaccessformoderatevoicesandbalanceddiscourse.’140Inshort,liberalisation,pluralisationandregulationarerequiredforbalancedmediaenvironmentsandcontentprovision.

Civilsocietyorganisationsandgovernmentcancontributetoimprovingthequalityofdebateinthemedia,iftheyseemediaasapartner,valueitscontributionasanindependentsocialactorandactivelyseektoengagewithit.

Lastbutnotleastoftheconditionsinwhichpublicservicemediacanthrive,iscriticalanddemandingaudiences.Mediawillbeabletosupplygood-qualitypublicinterestcontentifaudiencesdemandit,butareunlikelytodosootherwise.Audiencesshouldbeabletodistinguishgood-qualitymediafrombad,objectivityfrompartisanship,opinionfromanalysis,andinvestigativereportingfromslander.

Theimportanceofmediafordevelopmenthasbeenrecognisedinseveralrecentinitiativesbygovernmentandmultilateraldevelopmentagencies,andbymediaorganisationsthemselves.Therehasalsobeenmuchdiscussionamongmediasupportorganisations,inconsultationwithdevelopingcountrymedia,onhowmediacanmosteffectivelybesupported.Theoverarchingchallengeistostrengthentheperception–amonggovernmentsandmainstreammedia–thatactiveandpluralmediaareapublicgood.

140GlobalForumforMediaDevelopment,MediaMatters,London,2007,p6



Mediaasapublicsphere

Anassumptionimpliedinmuchdiscourseaboutmedia,includingintheprecedinganalysis,isthatthereisa‘publicsphere’forwhichmassmediaareaprincipalforum.141Debateofpublicissues,buildingconsensusonpolicy,shapingopinion,buildingcohesionandinclusion–alltheserequirethatthepublicinanycountryshouldhavetosomedegreeacommonexperienceofmedia.Thismightbethroughasmallnumberofagenda-settingnewspapersorbroadcastprogrammes,forexample,andalimitednumberofnewsbulletinsregardedasauthoritative.Thissituationhasexistedinthepastandstilldoestoday.Mostcountrieshavehadalimitednumberofmainstreamnationalnewspapers,andinmanycountriesthegovernmentorapublicbroadcasterhashadamonopolyoftheairwaves.Thecontentofthislimitedmediaworldwassubjecttoknown,ifnotalwaysapplied,professionalnormsandstandards.

Butthisshared‘publicsphere’isstartingtofragment,indevelopedandalsoindevelopingcountries.Withmedialiberalisationandcheapertechnology,audienceshavemanymoreformalmediaoutletstochoosefrom,whiletheInternetisenormouslyexpandingthepossibilitiesofinformalmedia.Anyindividualorgroupcanproduceitsownmediaoutput:websites,blogs,citizenjournalism.Theincreaseinfreedomand‘voice’iscertainlydemocraticinsomerespects,butwhatdoesitmeanforaudiences?Theyhavetochoosebetweenanenormousrangeofoptions.Thecontentofthe‘informal’mediahasgenerallynotbeenfilteredbyprofessionaljournalisticstandardsandoftenmakesnoclaimstobeingobjectiveorauthoritative–theoppositeisoftentrue.Boththevolumeofmediacontentavailable,andnewdeliverymechanisms–forinstance,selectedTVstreamedstraighttoamobilephone–makeitpossibleforeveryindividualtoselecthisorherownmediacontent,avoidingthemainstreamandpublicdiscoursealtogetherifsheorhewishes.Thisrepresentsanincreaseinindividualfreedomandself-expression,butpotentiallyalossforpublicengagement.

Wecannotyetknowwhatwillbethelong-termconsequencesofthesechangesinthemediascene.ItwillalmostcertainlybeimpossibleandundesirabletorestricttheproductionofinformalmediacontentontheInternet.Traditionalmassmediaarestrugglingtoadapttothecompetitionfromnewmedia,butthehighcostsofprovidingprofessionalpublicservicejournalismwillbeincreasinglyhardtomeet.Fromthepointofviewofsupportingthemedia’sroleindevelopment,afewthingsareclear:

n Mediathemselvesneedsupporttoreflectonandadapttothechangingscene

n Thepublicneedtobecomemoreeducatedanddiscriminatingintheirconsumptionofmedia–sothattheycanmakemeaningfulchoicesfromthewealthofmediaavailabletothem

n Governmentsneedtolearnhowtoengagewiththenewpossibilities.(Asalways,thelinebetweenengagementindebateandattemptingtocontrolandinfluencedebateisafineone.)

n Public,governmentandmediamustdebatethechangingsceneandagreeonrules,expectationsandlimitationsandhowtorealisethese.

141TheconceptofthepublicspherewasdevelopedbyJurgenHabermas.SeeforinstanceJHabermas(1962)The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society,transTBurger,1991,MITPress,CambridgeMA;JHabermas(1985)The Theory of communicative action: Reasons and the rationalisations of society (Vol 1) and Lifeword and system: A critique of functionalist reason(Vol2),TransTMcCarthy,BostonMA:BeaconPress


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Box 14 Media for peace and democracy, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

‘Citizen’sjournal’(JournalduCitoyen)isaweeklyinsertinKinshasa’smaindailypapers,aimedatstrengtheningcitizens’understandingofdemocracyandDRC’speaceprocess.EstablishedinSeptember2005,aheadofthe2006elections,Journal du CitoyenisajointprojectofPanosParisandBelgianNGOApefe,undertheauspicesoftheDRC’sHighMediaAuthority.

InthetenseandvolatileatmosphereofDRC’stransitionfromcivilwartopeace,highqualityinformationandeditorialneutralityareessential.Journal du Citoyenoffersacombinationofnewsreports,practicaladvice,graphics,andprofilesofcandidates–thequalityofwhichhasbeenuniversallypraised.Itisproducedbyaneditorandateamoffreelancejournalists.

Through2006theJournal du Citoyengrewrapidlytoachievethelargestprint-runofanyCongolesenewspaper.InKinshasa,8,500copiesareprintedandafurther11,000areproducedbyphotocopyingoremailedandprintedintheprovinces.Itisalsodisseminatedelectronicallyandhasawebsite.

InDecember2006,aspartoftheUN/AfricanUnion-supportedpeaceprocessintheGreatLakesregion,theheadsorrepresentativesof11statesintheregionsignedapactforsecurity,stabilityanddevelopmentattheendofasummitheldattheUNinNairobi.TheeditorofJournal du Citoyenand17journalistsfromDRC,RwandaandBurundiweretheretocoverthesummit–almosttheonlyindependentAfricanjournalistspresent.SomeoftheirreportsweregatheredintoaspecialGreatLakeseditionofthe Journal du Citoyen,whichmarkedtheendofitssuccessfulfirstyear.

Gettingmediasupportright

Indevelopingcountriestheresourcesorpoliticalwillaresometimeslackingtosupportindependentmedia.Howcandonorsandotherstakeholderssupportmediaandcommunicationfordevelopment?Thisisparticularlychallengingwhenanincreasingmajorityofaidisbeingchannelledthroughdirect‘budgetsupport’togovernmentsinthedevelopingworld,makingitmorepoliticallydifficultfordonorstosupportnon-governmentmediaorpressuregovernmentstoliberalisemediaandaccesstoinformation.Whatcantheydo?Possibilitiesinclude:

n pressingdevelopingcountrygovernmentstorecognisethelong-termvalueofmediaandinformationandpassfreedomofinformationandaccesstoinformationlegislation

n supportingthelegislativedevelopmentofopenmediaregulatoryenvironmentsbygovernments;andensuringthattheyaremaintainedbyindependent,well-financedregulators

n supportingtheprofessionalismofmediathroughcapacitybuilding,includingsupportforcollegialself-regulatoryandcapacity-buildingprocessesamongmediathemselves

n supportingdevelopmentofinfrastructure

n strengtheningcivilsociety’scapacitiestoproduce,consumeandengagewithmediaandcommunication.


ICT Issues

Likethetraditionalmassmedia,ICTsarespreadingrapidly,includinginpoorcountries,andsoatfirstglancetheymaynotseemtobecandidatesfordevelopmentsupport.Indeed,themobilephonesectorissometimestakenasanexampleofhowwellthemarketprovideswithoutinterventionfromgovernmentordevelopmentagencies–atechnologywillspreadifthedemandexists.142ThesimpleviewofadigitaldividebetweenrichcountriesthathaveplentifulaccesstoICTsandpoorcountriesthatdonot,common10yearsago,isnotoftenheardtoday,butaswithmassmedia,therearemanyareasinwhichtheunfetteredmarketisnotshapingtheICTsectortoprovide‘publicgoods’mosteffectively.Ontheotherhand,inmanycountriestheconstraintonpoorpeople’saccesstoICTsisnotthefailureofafreemarketbutcontinuinggovernmentintervention,throughprotectionofanationaltelecommunicationsprovider.

ICTsasapublicgood

ICTsareapublicgoodatthenationallevel,forseveralreasons.Aswehaveseen,ICTsenableeconomicgrowth:inthewordsofManuelCastells,‘Informationtechnologyisnotthecauseofthechangeswearelivingthrough.Butwithoutnewinformationandcommunicationtechnologiesnoneofwhatischangingourliveswouldbepossible.’143SmallbusinessesaswellaslargeonescanbenefitfromICTs,aswehaveshown.GovernmentscanuseICTsinmanywaystoimprovetheirperformance,forinstanceintheprovisionofhealthandotherservices.ICTsarepotentiallyatooltodevelopandexpandallthesocialinclusionandpoliticalengagementprocessesthispaperhastouchedon,whichareincreasinglyseenasfundamentaltodevelopment.ButallthesebenefitsofICTsfordevelopmentwillonlyberealisedifICTsareuniversallyaccessible,reliableandaffordable,whichisunlikelytobeachievedbythemarketalone,butrequiresdeliberatepolicyfromgovernments.

The‘publicgood’characteristicsofICTsareevenclearerattheglobalthanatnationallevel.Communicationisaglobalnetwork,theInternetisaglobalphenomenon;thusmanyaspectsofinfrastructureandserviceprovisionarealsoglobal,suchasradiospectrum,androutingofinternationalcalls.

SomedevelopmentanalystshavearguedthatnewICTsshouldnotbetheobjectofdevelopmentaidbecausetheyarenotusefultothepoor:comparedwithbasicneedssuchasfoodandwater,theycontendthatcommunicationisaluxury,andtheInternethaslittlecontentthatisrelevantforpoorpeople.Attheotherextreme,inthe1990stherewastremendousenthusiasmforthestepchangesitwasthoughtICTscouldmakeforpoorandruralpeopleiftheywereintroducedasdevelopmentprojects,anenthusiasmthathasnotbeenborneoutbyexperiencesofar.TherealtruthaboutthevalueofICTsfordevelopmentprobablyliessomewhereinbetween.Thesceptics’argumentsareheardlessoftenasthemomentumofusingICTsgrowsandasmanyofthebenefitsoutlinedinthispaperarerecognised;whiletheenthusiasts’fervouristemperedbyamorenuancedunderstandingthattechnologiesintroducedwithoutbeingbasedintheexistingcommunicationculturesandhabitsofpeopledonotbringchange.ThegapbetweenICT‘haves’and‘have-nots’isitselfadevelopmentissue:asNorthern/rich/urbanlifebecomesmoredependentonICTs,theexclusionofthosewithoutaccesstothetechnologiesortheskillstousethembecomesmoreserious.

142Fourtimesasmanypeoplehadaccesstomobilephonesthantofixed-linephonesinsub-SaharanAfricanin2004;by2010,85percentareprojectedtohavenetworkcoverage.Mobilephonesubscriptionshavegrownfivefoldto1.4billionindevelopingcountriessince2000.InIndia,7millionnewsubscribersjoinedmobilenetworksinJune2007.(Source:JRibeiro‘Indiaaddsrecord7millionmobileusersinJune,’www.infoworld.com,25July2007).(Forsourcesoffigures,seePanosLondon(2007)At the heart of change: The role of communication in sustainable development,footnotes35and36)

143MCastells(1999)‘InformationTechnology,GlobalisationandSocialDevelopment’,UnitedNationsResearchInstituteforSocialDevelopment(UNRISD),DiscussionPaperNo114,September1999

Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment �0

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Likemedia,ICTsneedsupportfromgovernmentsanddevelopmentagenciesiftheyaretofunctioninwaysthatfullysupporttheinclusionofthepoorindevelopmentprocesses.ICTsshouldbetreatedasanelementofdevelopment,intermsofbothfinancialsupportand(equallyimportant)asregardspolicy,regulationandplanning.Iftheyarenot,theymayinsteadcontributetowideningthewealthgapbetweenrichandpoorwithinandbetweencountries.Anumberofissuesthatneedparticularattentioninclude:therightpolicybalanceforinvestmentandinclusion;theopensourcesoftwaredebate;andinternationalinfrastructure.

Therightpolicybalanceforinvestmentandinclusion

Experienceshowsthatcompetitionamongprivateprovidersresultsinbetterandlower-costtelecommunicationsservicesthanprovisionbyagovernmentorpublicly-ownedprovider.Butatthesametime,thispaperisarguing,themarketcannotbereliedontomeettheneedsofthepoor.Governmentshavetofindtherightbalancebetweenpoliciestoattractprivateinvestmentintotheirtelecommunicationssectorsandpoliciestoensureinclusionanddevelopment.

Opinionsdifferwidelyaboutthesocialimpactsofprivatisingprovisionofotherserviceslikewaterorhealthcare,butintheICTsectorthebenefitsofcompetitionareveryclear:lowercosts,higherqualityofservices,technologicalinnovation,andinnovationinservicesandpricingstructures.ThereneedstobecompetitionamongdifferentprovidersofphoneandInternetinfrastructureandservices,forinstancebetweenrivalmobilephoneoperators.Governmentsmostlyrecognisethis,andsincetheadventofmobilephoneservicesinthemid-1990s,thetelecommunicationssectorhasbecomeoneoftheveryfewsectorstoattractahighlevelofforeigndirectinvestmentindevelopingcountries,accountingfor11.5percentofthetotalforeigndirectinvestment(FDI)flowsofUS$1.7trillion.144Between1990and2003,122of154developingcountriesfinancedtheirtelecommunicationsinfrastructurewithforeigninvestment.

WTO’sBasicTelecommunicationsAgreementhasbeenastronginfluenceonopeningupthemarket.AsofJune2005,104ofthe148WTOmemberstateshadmadecommitmentstoopeninguptelecommunicationsservices.However,inmanycasestheopeningupislimitedandthecompetitionplayingfieldskewed.Fiftypercentofdevelopingcountriesretainedmonopoliesoninternationaltelephony,largelybecausetheyseethisasasourceofrevenueforthemselvesratherthanasapublicserviceandpublicgood.Manygovernmentsprotectandprivilegetheirnationaltelecommunicationsoperator.Protectionmaybedeliberate,forinstancebyallowingthenationallandlineoperatortoenterthemarketformobileservices,orbyrestrictingprivatecompanies’accesstoessentialinfrastructuresuchassatellites.Otherbarrierstoinvestmentmayresultfrominertiaratherthandeliberatepolicy:outdatedpolicyontheallocationofspectrum,forinstance,orcumbersomeproceduresforapprovalofimportedtechnologies.TheWTOAgreementallowsmemberstatesatransitionperiodofprotection,andmanystatesaremakingfulluseofthis,withtheresultthatthemovetowardsfullandopenmarketcompetitionishappening,butmoreslowlythanitmight.

LimitedfreedomofthemarketisamajorfactorintheprohibitivelyhighcostsoftelephoneandInternetuseinmanydevelopingcountries.In2004theaveragecostofathree-minutecalltotheUSwasUS$0.77fromhigh-incomecountries,andUS$1.95fromlow-incomecountries.Onemonth’saverageuseoftheInternetwasUS$45.50inlow-incomecountriesin2004,comparedwithUS$20.90forthesameusageinhigh-incomecountries.145

144Global Trends and Policies (2006) Information and Communication for Development, WashingtonDC:WorldBank

145Asinnote144above

�1Whycommunicationneedssupport

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PromotinglowerpricesisoneofthemostimportantthingsgovernmentscandotoenablepoorpeopletomakeuseofICTs.‘Bottomofthepyramid’marketsaregainingrecognition,intelecommunicationsasinothereconomicsectors,whereasufficientnumberofsmallusersbringcostsdownandmakeaserviceviable;butdespitethisthereisclearevidenceinmanyemergingeconomieslikeIndiathatunregulatedmarket-drivengrowthtendstoleadtoconcentrationofservicesaroundurbanareas,whereinfrastructureandsupportareeasierandcheapertoprovide,andthemarketcontinuestoneglectruralvillages.MostgovernmentshavemadeacommitmenttoprovidinguniversalaccesstotelephonesandInternet,thatis,toputtingtelephonesandInternetwithineasyreachofeveryoneinthecountry.Theyareexploringwaysofachievingthis,forinstancethroughcross-subsidyschemesordirectfundingofruralICTdevelopment.Spectrumallocationisanotherareainwhichgovernmentinterventionmaybeneeded.Ifbandwidthisauctionedfreely,thehighestbiddersarelikelytobemobilephoneorcommercialTVcompanies,whereasifgovernmentshaveanoverallviewofcommunicationasapublicgood,theycanreservesomespectrumfornon-profitableuserssuchascommunityradiostations.

Overall,governmentsandtheprivatesectoraremakingprogresstowardsrealisingthepotentialofICTsforthepoor,butthereisstillalongwaytogo.Developmentagenciescanprovidefinancialsupportaswellassupportforpolicymakingprocessesandstrengtheningcapacitytomanagenewsystemsandinstitutions.

Box 15 Mission 2007: Taking ICTs to every Indian village

India’s‘Mission2007:Everyvillageaknowledgecentre’programmeaimstoscaleuptonationalleveltheuseofICTsforpovertyreductionandsocialequity,introducingtoeveryvillageinIndiatelecentresthat‘areopentoall,irrespectiveofage,sex,religion,caste,andlevelofliteracyandeducation’.146

Thekeytothisinitiative’ssuccesswillbethatitisdrivenbytheGovernmentofIndiainpartnershipwithcivilsociety(professionals/academics,includingtheMSSwaminathanResearchFoundationandOneWorldSouthAsia),theprivatesector(theNasscomFoundation),anddonors(InternationalDevelopmentResearchCenter(IDRC),CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA)andtheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation).Mission2007isimportantbecauseitrepresentsamodelforthekindof‘scaling-up’necessaryifICTsaretorealisetheirpotentialfordevelopment.

146‘India’s“Mission2007”:Everyvillageaknowledgecentre’,byMSSwaminathan,www.panos.org.uk/iwitness


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Theopensourcesoftwaredebate

Manygovernmentsandinstitutionsareconsideringwhethertoswitchtousingopensourcesoftwareastheirnationalorinstitutionalstandard.147Theopensourcemovementisspreading–in2006‘Apache’operatingsystemswereusedby61.44percentofwebserversandApachewasgrowingfasterthanproprietaryalternatives.TheperceivedadvantagesofopensourcesoftwareincludelowerICTcostsinthelongterm;proprietarysoftwarefirmsprofitbyconstantlyupgradingtheirproductsandensuringtheoldproductsbecomeobsoleteandhavetobereplaced.Forpoorcountries,makingmajorinvestmentsinsystemsthatwillsoonbeobsoleterepresentsaconsiderablecost.Oneadvantageofanopensource-basedsystemisthatitcanbedesignedinsuchawaythatitcanbeupdatedincrementally.AnotheradvantageisthatopensourceisseentooffermoreflexibilityfordevelopmentofsoftwareusinglanguagesotherthanEnglish:atpresent,InternetcontentisoverwhelminglyinEnglish,andthelanguageofsoftwareandsystemsisEnglish.Opensourcewillmakeiteasierfornon-Englishspeakerstocreatetheirowncontentandfindcontentthatisusefultothem–akeyfactorintheusefulnessoftheInternetforthepoor.ChampionsofopensourcealsopointoutthatadoptingopensourcefreesagovernmentorinstitutionfromdependenceonNorthern/richcountrytechnologies,allowingthemtofosterdevelopmentoftalentandICTresourcesintheirowncountries.

Butthechoiceofopensourceisnotclearcut.Opponentspointtothelackofskillsandexperienceinusing,supportinganddevelopingopensourcesoftwareinmostdevelopingcountries,andtothepossibleinefficienciesthatwillresultfrommovingawayfromtheproprietarysystemsthatdominateallfields.Theshort-termcostsofswitchingarealsosignificant:staffofinstitutionsandallusersofIThavetobetrainedinnewsystems,forinstance.

Theargumentshavebeenintenseoverthepastfewyearsandwhethertoswitchfromproprietarytoopensourceisamajorpolicydecision,forprivateinstitutionsaswellasforgovernments.(GovernmentsaremajorpurchasersofICTs:inAfrica,governmentspendingsupports70percentoftheICTindustry.)Thechoicemaybecomelessdifficultinthefutureasproprietarysoftwarecompaniesarestartingtoseevalueinembracingopennessratherthanresistingit:forinstance,MicrosoftCorporation’sSharedSourceInitiative,announcedin2001,allowsalimitedsharingoftheWindowssourcecodewithgovernments,companiesandeducationalinstitutions.Itisalsopossibleforgovernmentstoadoptprocurementpoliciesthatallowforamixtureofopenandproprietarystandards.148

Supportisneededtohelpgovernmentsandinstitutionswiththedecision-makingprocesses.Iftheydecideinfavourofopensource,supportisalsoneededforthehighinitialcostsoftransition–training,adaptingsystemsandinstitutions,softwaredevelopment,andpubliceducation.149

Internationalinfrastructure

Internationalcommunicationfrommanydevelopingcountriesisverycostly,contributingtothehighcostsofICTuse,particularlyincountriesthatlackup-to-dateinternationalinfrastructure.Forexample,thecountriesofEasternAfricadonothaveanunderseaopticalfibrenetworklinkingthemwithoneanotherortherestoftheworld.Internetusersintheregionareforcedtoaccessoverseaswebsitesviasatellitelinksthatareslow,unreliableandprohibitivelyexpensive.Thecurrentratefor1MegabitofbandwidthinEasternAfricaisbetweenUS$7,500andUS$12,000permonth.IfaprojectedcablelinkwasinstalledalongtheeastAfricancoast,expertscalculatethatthecostwouldcomedowntoaslittleasUS$500toUS$800amonth.150

147Opensourcesoftware,orFreeandOpenSourceSoftware(FOSS),isdistinctfrom‘proprietary’software.Proprietarysoftwareisdevelopedandsoldasaprofitablebusiness,oftenbymajorcorporationssuchasMicrosoft,whichholdcopyrightoverthesoftware,oftenrestricthowitcanbeused,andgenerallykeepthe‘sourcecode’–thebasicinstructions–hiddensothatuserscannotcopyoradaptthesoftware.Opensourcesoftwaredevelopersbelieveinthefreesharingofknowledgeandsellorgiveawaytheirsoftwarewiththesourcecodeincluded,toenableuserstocopyandadaptthesoftwarethemselves

148See,forexample,RGhosh(2005)OpenStandardsandInteroperabilityReport:Aneconomicbasisforopenstandards,MERIT,UniversityofMaastricht,http://flosspols.org/deliverables/FLOSSPOLS-D04-openstandards-v6.pdf

149Formoreinformationonopensourcepolicyoptions,see Giving away secrets: Can open source convert the software world?PanosmediatoolkitonICTsNo5(2007),PanosLondon

150BJopson(2007)‘Kenyalaysgroundforcablebroadbandlink’,FinancialTimes,9July2007,London


��

EastAfricamaybelaggingfurthestbehind,butotherregionswouldalsobenefitfromupgradingandincreasingthebandwidthavailablethroughtheirexistingunderseafibreopticcables.ThecostofcommunicationacrosstheAtlanticisatitslowestleveleverandstillfalling,whichexpertsattributetothelargenumberandhugecapacityofunderseacablesacrosstheAtlantic.151

Internationalcommunicationinfrastructurebenefitsallparties,andistoocostlyordifficultforasingleinvestortoprovide.Ithashistoricallybeenbuiltlargelybycollaborationbetweenstates,whohavebeen,forexample,theprincipalstakeholdersinsatellites.Butthiswasforreasonsofstate,particularlyforsecuritypurposes,andtherewaslimitedscopeforwiderinvolvement.Now,aswithnationaltelecommunicationssystems,privateinvestmentoramixtureofpublicandprivateisgenerallyseenasmostdesirable:privateinvestmentbringsthebenefitsofinnovationandflexibilityaswellasfinance.Butthechallengesofmanagingcollaborationamongdifferentgovernmentsandlocalandglobalprivateinvestorsareenormous,withthevarietyofstakeholdershavingdifferentinterestsandwaysofworking.

TheEastAfricanSubmarineCableSystem(EASSy)projectillustratessomeofthechallenges.Theprojectplanstoinstallabadly-neededhigh-bandwidthsubmarinecablefromSouthAfricatoSudan,whichwilllinkAfrica’seastcoast,aswellasseveralland-lockedcountriestooneanotherandtherestoftheworld.Theprojectwasfirstmootedbytelecommunicationscompaniesintheregionin2002.TheEASSyinvestors’consortiumnowconsistsof21companiesfrom15countries,aswellasthreeinternationalcompanies.Gettingfromtheinitialproposaltosigningtheconstructioncontract(on29May2007)152hastakenoverfouryears–andsomeimportantissuesofhowthedifferentstakeholderswilluse,financeandprofitfromthecablearestillunresolved.Oneofthedifficultissuesstilltobefinalisedisthedefinitionof‘openaccess’tothecableandwhatexactlythismeans.Theinvestorsagreethateveryoperatorintheregionthatwishestoshouldhaveaccesstobandwidth,butnotnecessarilythesamecapacityoratthesameprice–marketcompetitionshouldapply.Opponentsofthisview,whoincludetheNewPartnershipforAfrica'sDevelopment(NEPAD),Internetserviceproviders,networkoperators,andNGOs,wantEASSytoberegardedasapublicgoodwhichcouldcontributesignificantlytouniversaltelecommunicationsservice,andthustodevelopment,intheregion.Theyarguethattheinvestors’preferredmodelwoulddisadvantagesmallertelecommunicationsoperators,smallerorpoorercountries,andlessprofitableusers.Theywant‘openaccess’tomeanthateveryoperatorhasequalaccessintermsofcapacityandpricing.

ThereisaneedfordevelopmentagenciesanddonorstosupporttheprocessesofdebateandnegotiationforEASSy,andtoensurethattheneedsofthepoorareproperlyconsidered.

151

Seewww.telegeography.com/productsGlobalBandwidthForecastService

152www.eassy.org

Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment Thecaseforcommunicationinsustainabledevelopment ��


What needs to be done and who needs to do it

153ForacompilationbyPanosLondonoftherecommendationsmadebysomekeyinternationalconferences,seeMapping declarations and statements on communication for development.Availableatwww.panos.org.uk/heartofchange

Thereismuchtobedone.Aswehighlightedinthispaper’sintroduction,manygovernments,donors,internationaldevelopmentorganisationsandNGOsalreadyknowmanyofthethingsthatneedtobechangedandthereisaplethoraofdeclarations,charters,agreements,pledgesandotherstatementsofprincipleandcallstoactioninthisfield.153Whatismissingisa‘holisticview’thatputsallofthesepiecestogetherintoanintegratedframework.Supporttothemedia,theestablishmentoflegalrightstofreedomofspeechandaccesstoinformation,thedevelopmentandexploitationoftherevolutionarynewopportunitiesaroundinformationandcommunicationtechnologies,buildinggreaterparticipationofpoorandmarginalisedpeopleandintegratingtheir‘voices’intosocial,economicandpoliticalprocesses,shouldallbeseenasanintegrated,mutuallyreinforcingwhole.

Suchacoherentvisionwouldpromotetheformationof‘opensocieties’whereinformationandcommunicationprocessesareseenaspublicgoodsthatbenefitallcitizensandgenerateandmultiplydevelopmentimpacts.Thefollowingrecommendationsneed–fundamentally–therequisitepoliticalwilltobeaccomplished.Buttheyalsorequiregreaterfinancialresources,leadership,expertiseandawillingnesstoenterintopartnershipsofmutualinterestwithmanystakeholders.

Agenda for action

1 Buildmoreopen,transparentinformationandcommunication

systemsandpoliticalcultures

n Governmentsshouldpromotemoreopen,participatoryinformationandcommunicationenvironmentsandthedevelopmentofapublicspherewitharighttocommunicate,byestablishingfreedomofexpressionandfreedomofinformationlegislationandsupportingtheiruse.

n Governmentsneedtowinthesupportandengagementoftheircitizensiftheyaretogovernpeacefullyandeffectively.Todothis,theyneedtoengagewithcitizensusingthemultiplechannelsofinformationandcommunicationthatareincreasinglyavailable,andsupportpeople’sexpectationsoftransparencyandtheirdesiretoshareinformationfreely.

n Governmentsshouldensuretheirowninternalcultureandadministrativesystemsareorientedaroundtransparency,dialogueandlistening.Thisrequiresinstitutionalchangeandtraining,aswellaspoliticalcommitment.

n Tobenefitfromnewopennessonthepartofgovernments,citizensneedtohavethecapacitiesandskillstomakeuseoftheopportunitiesofferedtothem.Thisrequiresinvestingineducation,skillsandbasicinfrastructure,aswellasdesigningcommunicationprocessesthatmatchtheculturesandsocialconditionsoftheintendedusers.

n Donorscansupportcivilsocietyorganisationsandotheractors(suchastheprivatesector)tousefreedomofinformationlaws,tomonitorgovernmentperformanceandholdgovernmentsaccountable,tolobbyandparticipateinmoreopenpolicymaking(suchasPRSPs);andtobeincreasinglytransparentthemselves.Alltheseprocessesneedexpertisetodesignandleadthem,andtrainingandorganisationalchangetoimplementthem.


n Donorscanpersuade,helpandsupportgovernmentstoseethelong-termbenefitsanddevelopthepoliticalwillforopenandparticipatorycommunicationsystemsandprocesses;andsupporttheirdevelopment.

2 Treatinformation,communicationandthemediaas‘publicgoods’

andinvestaccordingly

n Governments,donorsandtheprivatesectorshouldapproachcommunicationandinformationprocesses–includingthemedia–as‘publicgoods’,withinvestmentandresponsibilitiesdividedaccordingly.

n GovernmentsshouldensurethatreliableandaffordableICTsareavailableforeveryone.TheyshouldfacilitatetheoperationofthemarketbyopeningnationalICTsectorstocompetitionininfrastructureandservices:competingprivateprovidersaremoreeffectivethanstateprovidersinbringinginnovation,qualityandlowcosts.

n Governmentsshouldalsofillthegapsinmarketprovisionofcommunicationsandmediathroughregulationorsupport,inareaswherethemarketdoesnotmeettheneedsofpoorandmarginalisedpeople.Thismightmean,forinstance,subsidiesfortheprovisionoftelephoneservicestopoorpeopleorremoteareas;orregulationoffrequencyallocationtoensurethatnon-profitusers(suchascommunityradiostations)arenotsqueezedoutbyprofitableactors(suchasmobilephonecompanies).

n Mediainafreecompetitivemarketsufferfinancialpressuresthatoftenmilitateagainsttheircapacitytocarryouthigh-qualitypublicinterestjournalism.Governmentsanddevelopmentorganisationsshouldseekinnovativewaystoprovidefinancialsupportforpublicinterestmediacontentwithouteditorialinterferenceandwithoutundulyunderminingtheoperationofthemarket.(Thisisachallengefordevelopedaswellasdevelopingcountries.)

n Governmentsshouldacttoaddressissuesthatarebeyondthecompetenceofindividualprivatesectoractors.Suchissuesmightinclude,forinstance,provisionofelectricitytoruralareas;developmentofsoftwareforlocallanguages;orleadershiptobringtogetherneighbouringgovernmentsandprivatesectoractorstosolveproblemsofinternationalICTinfrastructure.

n Governmentsandotherinstitutionsneedtolearnaboutandreflectonthecostsandbenefitsofswitchingtoopensourcesoftwarestandards.Potentialbenefitsincludedesigningandintroducingsystemswhichwillbeabletoabsorbnewtechnologicaldevelopmentsinthefutureratherthanneedingtobereplaced.

n Developmentaiddonorsshouldsupportgovernmentsintheiractionstoredressmarketfailures.

n Aiddonorsshouldalsosupportgovernmentsintheprocessesofdesigningandintroducingnewinformationandcommunicationsystems;andinbuildingtheenvironmentofskills,training,andbasicinfrastructure(suchaselectricity)withoutwhichnewICTscannotbeeffectivelyused.

n InternationaldonorsshouldalsosupportthedifficultprocessesofnegotiatinginternationalICTagreements–forgovernance,andforbuildingandmanaginginternationalinfrastructure.Thedifferentpartnersinvolved–includinggovernments,privatesectorandcivilsocietyorganisations–oftenhavedifferentshort-terminterests,andthemodalitiesofworkingtogetherforlong-termandwiderbenefitareonlystartingtoemerge.

�� Section ��Whatneedstobedoneandwhoneedstodoit

3Takeaholisticviewofcommunicationprocessesandintegratecommunicationsintodevelopmentplanningandimplementation

n Governmentsshouldtakeaholisticviewofinformationandcommunicationprocesses.Theyshouldestablishanoverarchingpolicyframeworkforenablingcommunicationtohelpmeettheirdevelopmentgoals(incorporatingmedia,ICTs,knowledge,skillsandcapacities,institutionalreforms).Aholisticapproachmeansstartingfromtheperspectiveofthepoorandthemarginalisedandunderstandingtheflowsofinformationandcommunicationthataffecttheirlives.Thiscommunicationanalysiswillinvestigatethesocialaspectsofinclusion/exclusionfromcommunication.Whoisexcluded,whyandwhatcanbedone?

n Supportforcommunicationshouldbeakeyelementinanydevelopmentsupportandplanning.Theroleofcommunicationshouldbemoreclearlyidentifiedindevelopmentanalysisandplanningbygovernments,internationalorganisationsanddevelopmentagencies,fromhigh-levelinternationalagreementsdowntolocal-levelresourcemanagementprojects.

n Governmentsanddevelopmentorganisationsshouldbuildtheirownknowledgeofandexpertiseincommunicationinallitsaspects,atseniorlevels.Addressingthisshouldbeamatterofurgency.154

4Investinmediadevelopment

Theestablishmentandmaintenanceofadiverse,dynamicandfreemediaisvitaltodevelopment.Theimportanceofgettingthemedia‘right’isespeciallygreatinyoungdemocracies,asmediaplaysanimportantroleinformingthenatureofsociety.Theimportanceofmediafordevelopmenthasbeenrecognisedinseveralrecentinitiativesbygovernmentsandmultilateraldevelopmentagenciesandbymediaorganisationsthemselves.Therehasalsobeenmuchdiscussionamongmediasupportorganisations,inconsultationwithdevelopingcountrymedia,onhowmediacanmosteffectivelybesupported,mostrecentlyintwoinitiativesaimedatstrengtheningAfrica’smedia.155Theseanalyseswereconsistentinhighlightingthefollowingareasifmediadevelopmentistotakeplace:

i) Establish media freedom and an enabling and supportive regulatory environment

n Governmentsshouldestablishasecurebaseofindividualfreedomofexpressionandaccesstoinformation;andlegislationwhichsupportsandcodifiesitsoperation.Thisincludeslegislationonlibelanddefamation,whichshouldbeclearandconsistentlyapplied.

n Regulationisneededtolimitconcentrationofownershipandpromotecompetition.Legislationandlicensingconditionsshouldnotimplycontrolbygovernment;theyshouldbeindependentandcontrolledbycivilsocietyorthemediaitself,andbeimplementedtransparently.

n Regulationtofacilitatetheentryofsmallactorssuchascommunityradiostationsintothemediasectorshouldbeadopted.Inmanycountriesatpresent,licencesforcommunitymediainparticulararebannedorheavilyregulated.

n Internationaldonorsshouldsupporttheprocessesofdevelopmentoflegislation,includingpublicconsultation,andthetrainingandinstitutionalchangesneeded–ingovernments,mediaandcivilsociety–toensurenewlawsareproperlyimplemented.

154Seealsotherecommendationsfromthe2006WorldCongressonCommunicationforDevelopmentinRomeatwww.devcomm.org/devcomm/OutcomesTheRomeConsensus/tabid/250/Default.aspx?macroId=15&microId=1501

155SeetheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica(Draft-2006)The case for strengthening media in Africa: Framework and proposals at:www.uneca.org/africanmedia/;andtheBBCWorldServiceTrust(2006)African Media Development Initiative at:www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/specials/1552_trust_amdi/index.shtml


n Internationaldevelopmentorganisationsfaceadilemma:theirdevelopmentpartnersaregenerallygovernments,andsotheycannotsupportmediafreedomdirectlyincountrieswhosegovernmentsareopposedtoit.However,theymaybeabletosupportprocessesofdebateandreflectionamonggovernments,mediaandcivilsocietyinthesecountries,inordertopromoteaclimateinwhichthegovernmentsmighteventuallymovetowardsopeningupthemedia.

ii) Support the development of media infrastructure and long-term sustainability

n Governmentsshouldfindwaysofprovidingdirectandindirectsupporttofosterhigh-qualitypublicinterestmediacontent.

n Governmentsshouldensuretheprovisionofadequatebasicinfrastructureandservices,whicharevitallyimportantforthemediatoworkeffectively–suchaselectricitysupplies,Internetconnectivityandtelephones.

n Communityradiostationsinparticularmayneedfinancialsupport,sincetheresourcesofthepoorcommunitiestheyservearenotsufficienttosupportthem.Suchsupportmaybeprovidedbygovernmentsbutalsobyinternationaldonorsandcivilsocietyorganisations.

iii) Build media capacity and professionalism

n Governments,internationaldonorsandmediasupportorganisationsshouldallcontributetosupporting:

n traininginjournalism(andmediamanagement).Goodmedianeed skilledandprofessionaljournalists

n establishinganddevelopingjournalismandmediainstitutionssuch asassociationsandunions.Thesecanhelptobuildthe professionalism,standardsandstrengthofthemediaprofessions

n Initiativestogivejournaliststhespecialistknowledgetheyrequireto understandandreportoneconomic,environmental,healthandother policyissues,bothatthenationalandinternationallevels.

iv) Support improvement in the quality and diversity of media content

n Governmentsshouldintroducepolicyandregulatoryframeworksandsupportsystemsforencouragingandsupportinglocalmediacontent(whichcostsmuchmoretoproducethanreproducingglobalmediacontentsuchasimportedsoapoperas).Internationaldevelopmentandmediasupportorganisationscandirectlysupportsuchinitiativesandlocalcontentproduction.

n Media,mediainstitutionswithincountries,andinternationalsupportorganisationsshouldallplayaroleindevelopingthepublic’s‘medialiteracy'.Thiswouldenableaudiencestodistinguishgoodqualitymediafrombad,objectivityfrompartisanship,opinionfromanalysis,andinvestigativereportingfromslander.

n Governments,internationalorganisationsandthemediathemselvesshouldsupportpublicdebateonthenorms,standardsandexpectationsofthemedia–tobuildawarenessandsharedstandardsonfreedom,content,andsocialresponsibility.

n Civilsocietyorganisationsandgovernmentcancontributetoimprovingthequalityofdebateinthemediaiftheyseethemaspartners,valuetheircontributionasindependentsocialactorsandactivelyseektoengagewiththem.


Helpingthebillionsofpeoplecurrentlylivinginabsolutepovertytoimprovetheirlivesisthegreatestchallengefacingtheworld.Atthesametimetheeffectsofclimatechangeandotherenvironmentalproblems–whicharelikelytoaffectpoorpeopledisproportionately–havetobeaddressed.Governments,theprivatesector(increasinglywithstate-levelresources–theBillandMelindaGatesFoundationhasresourcesofapproximatelyUS$31.9billion)andtheinternationalcommunityrecognisethemoralandpracticalurgencyofthechallenge.

Theessentialcomponentsofwhatneedstobedonearesimplystatedbutexceedinglydifficulttoaccomplish:leadersmustestablishtheruleoflawandhealthy,responsivepoliticalsystems;governmentsmustgovernbetter;sustainableandequitableeconomicgrowthmustbeachieved;andcivilsocietymustbestrengthenedandempowered.TheMDGshavesetaseriesofambitioustargetsthataddresssome–butnotall–oftheessentialneeds.AchievingtheMDGsandthelarger,morefar-reachingtaskswillrequirehugeinvestmentsofpoliticalwillbygovernmentsinthedevelopedandthedevelopingworld;thecreationofmoreequitableeconomicgrowthandinternationaltrade;andtheestablishmentofamoreopenpublicspaceinwhichcitizensindividuallyandcivilsocietycollectivelycandiscuss,critique,contendandcontributetogether.

Asthispaperhasargued,noneofthiswillhappeninasustainablewayunlessfree,openinformationandcommunicationflowsandprocessesaredeveloped,nurturedandmaintained.Communicationiscentraltoallaspectsofdevelopment.Itisaprerequisiteforbetter,moretransparentandaccountablegovernance,andforwealthcreationandeconomicgrowth.ItunderpinsalltheMDGsandisarguablyascentralaneedofhumanbeingsasfood,shelter,healthandsecurity.

Governmentsanddevelopmentactorsneedtorecognisethecentralroleofinformationandcommunicationindevelopment–especiallytheimportanceofstrengtheningthecapacitiesofpoorandmarginalisedpeopletoparticipateinpoliticalanddevelopmentprocesses.Addressingthechallengeofcommunicationisurgent.NewICTscanexpandopportunitiesforpoorandmarginalisedpeopletoparticipate–butstrategicsupportisneededtoensurethatICTsfulfiltheirdevelopmentpotentialratherthanwideningthewealthgapbetweenrichandpoor.Theestablishmentandmaintenanceofdiverse,dynamicandfreemediaisalsovitaltosuccessfuldevelopment.Theimportanceofgettingthemedia‘right’isespeciallygreatinyoungdemocracies,asmediaplayanimportantroleinformingthenatureofsociety.

Conclusion


Strategicsupportforcommunicationmustbebasedontherecognitionthatopennessandtransparencynurturegoodgovernanceandparticipatorypoliticalanddevelopmentprocesses;thatcommunicationandmediaarepublicgoods;andthatcommunicationmustbeincludedinalldevelopmentinterventions.Aholisticviewofcommunicationisneeded,whichstartsfromtheperspectiveofthepoorandembracesallchannelsandtypesofcommunication–ICTs,media,face-to-facecommunication,sector-specificinitiativesandgeneralinfrastructureandsystems.Neglectingortakingapartialviewofcommunicationleadstomissedopportunities,failuresofdevelopmentinitiatives,highercostsandmaligneffectssuchasdivisivenessandexclusion.

Allstakeholdersindevelopmenthavearoletoplayintheagendaforactionproposedinthispaper–governments,donors,privatesectorinvestors,civilsocietyorganisationsandthemedia.Communicationshouldbeidentifiedasanessentialelementofalldevelopmentcommitments,analysesandplans–atglobal,nationalandsectorallevels.FormalcommitmentstocommunicationshouldbeincludedinsuchundertakingsastheParisDeclarationonAidEffectivenessandtheUNMillenniumDeclaration,aswellasinnationaldevelopmentstrategies.Thesecommitmentsmustbemorethanemptyrhetoric–tobecomerealitytheyneedinputsofplanning,skillsandresources,justlikeanyotherdevelopmentgoal.Theyrequireleadershipandexpertiseatthehighestlevel.Unlesssuchcommitmentsaremadeandactedupon,developmentinterventionswillcontinuetofailandtheworld’spoorwillcontinuetobesidelined.

About Panos London

Inclusive

Webelievethatembracingtheviewsofpoorandmarginalisedpeopleisessentialforsustainableandeffectivedevelopment.

Takingpartindialogueanddebatecontributestoahealthyandvibrantsociety.

Empowering

Webelievethatpoorandmarginalisedpeopleshoulddriveandshapethechangesneededtoimprovetheirlives.

Weenablepeopletoshareinformationandideas,speakoutandbeheard.

Balanced

Webelievepeopleneedaccessibleinformationreflectingawiderangeofviews.

Thisallowsthemtomakeinformedchoicesaboutcrucialissuesthathaveanimpactontheirlives.

Diverse

Werespectdifferentviews,valuelocalknowledgeandencouragearangeofapproachesinourworkworldwide.

Webelievethatfreedomofinformationandmediadiversityareessentialfordevelopment.

Illuminating

Weshedlightonignored,misrepresentedormisunderstooddevelopmentissues.

Webelievethattheviewsofpoorandmarginalisedpeoplegivegreaterinsightintotheirlivesandofferuniqueperspectivesonthechallengestheyface.

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ThetargetdatefortheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsisonlyeightyearsawayyetmillionsofpeoplestillliveinpoverty,withoutaccesstocleanwater,agoodeducationandanyhopeofequalaccesstolocalandinternationaleconomies.

Whilepoliticians,economistsanddevelopmentexpertsdisagreeonthebestwaytochangethissituation,The case for communication in sustainable developmentarguesthatcommunicationandinformationareessentialtowhateverdevelopmentpathisfollowed.Communicationcanbeapowerfulagentofchangeandcanenablepeopletocreatechangeforthemselves.Indeed,withoutcommunicationandinformationbeinganintegralpartofeverydevelopmentintervention,thereportconcludesthattheseinterventionswillcontinuetofailandtheworld’spoorwillforeverbesidelined.

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CoverimageBelongingtoacooperativegroupgivesthesewomeninCameroonthechancetocommunicatetheirviewsmorewidely.Sustainabledevelopmentdemandsthatpeopleparticipateinthedebatesanddecisionsthataffecttheirlives.

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