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THE BREATH OF LIFEComparing Energetic Traditions

Steve Kippax

Introduction

In her book New Green Pharmacy Barbara Griggsstates that ‘Herbal medicine is the oldest form oftherapy practised by mankind.’ [1] In the 1960s anarchaeological dig in the mountains of Iraquncovered a tomb in which there was a body of aNeanderthal man who had various seeds buriedwith him. Archaeological studies at the site inShanidar, Iraq have shown that this Neanderthalman, living over 60,000 years ago may well havehad an understanding of herbal medicine. He had 8species of plant found at the burial site, and mostof those are still being commonly used as herbalmedicines throughout the world. Some of thespecies found were yarrow, marshmallow,groundsel, centaury, ephedra, and muscari(hyacinth). [2] Herbal medicine has been used bythe human species all over the planet, it seems forat least the past 60,000 years, and in some parts ofthe world up to 80% of the populations still useherbal medicine as a primary source of health care.[3]

The earliest surviving reference to herbal medicineis debatable. Some claim that it is from theUpanishads of Ayurevdic medicine from Indiadating from 800-1000 BCE [4], others say theEbers papyrus from Egypt dating from 1,500 BCE[5], while yet others claim it to be the Shen nongben cao from China, attributed to the mythicalEmperor Shen nong who was reputed to have beenalive around 2,800 BCE, with the extant copydating back to 200 BCE. [6]

In the 21st century there are three principal“energetic” systems of traditional / herbalmedicine: Humoral medicine, Traditional ChineseMedicine (TCM), and Ayurvedic medicine. Thisarticle will discuss the foundations of these systemsand compare and contrast a few aspects.Comments which contain summary reflections onthose comparisons and contrasts are given initalics.

Humoral medicine

Humoral medicine, or the “Art of Physick” from theGreek physis meaning nature, traces its roots toHippocrates and Galen. [7] It is the tradition whichwas popularised and used in Europe and fromwhich orthodox medicine subsequently developed.It held sway for approximately 1,400 years beforeits European decline, but has continued to bepracticed in a modified way as Unani Tibb medicine

in Bangladesh. Thefounders of what is nowknown as humoralmedicine originatedfrom Greece. The bestknown is Hippocrates,who was born about 460 BC on the island of Cos,and died in approximately 377 BC. Orthodoxmedicine likes to fondly call Hippocrates the fatherof medicine [8] and it was not so long ago that theHippocratic Oath was still a part of the process ofbecoming sworn in as a doctor. The survivingHippocratic writings are believed to be a collectionof a variety of writers not solely, if at all, byHippocrates himself.[9]

Hippocrates based his practice on observations andstudy of the human body, and thought that diseasehad a physical and a rational explanation, thusrejecting the prevailing views of his time, accordingto which illness was caused by evil spirits and thedisfavour of the gods. [10] He thought that weshould be treated as whole beings, and not just aseries of parts. He accurately described diseasesymptoms and was the first to list the symptoms ofpneumonia and childhood epilepsy. He believed inthe natural healing process, and the benefits ofrest, good diet, fresh air and cleanliness. He notedthat there were individual differences in theseverity of disease symptoms and that someindividuals were able to cope with their disease andillness better than others. He is also believed to bethe first physician to hold the belief that thoughts,

The Hippocratic Oath

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ideas, and feelings come from the brain and not theheart, contrary to most of his contemporaries. [11]

Galen

Galen (130 - 210 AD) was of Greek extraction butbecame celebrated in the Roman Empire and wasphysician to five emperors. He took on anddeveloped the theory that illness was caused by animbalance of the four humours: blood, phlegm,black bile and yellow bile, which were the basicsubstances of the body and when healthy were inbalance. [12] These four humours had “primaryqualities” which in turn related to the four elementsof earth, air, fire, and water, and to fourtemperaments, four seasons and four stages of life.

Galen’s works were translated into Arabic byHunain ibn Ishaq and others in the 9th century, andafter 1000 AD translations from the Arabicstrengthened Galenism as a medical system in theChristian west.

In England perhaps the most outstanding figure inthe Humoral tradition was the 17th century herbalistNicholas Culpeper (1616-1654), who translatedGalen into English. Culpeper was a devout Christianwho believed that, as stated in Genesis, Godbreathed life (pneuma) into Adam’s nostrils tomake him a living soul. ([7], p.76) As this form of

pneuma was divine it was incorruptible, andsustained the higher mind or rational soul, whichallowed man to be aware of spirituality and todevelop spiritual beliefs. Pneuma was regarded asbeing very hot, providing the original innate heat ofthe body, integral to life, and expiring at death. Airtaken in via the lungs contained “accidental”pneuma which helped to replenish the inbredpneuma, and also performed the vital function ofcooling the heart.

The heart was of central importance. This can inpart be explained by the role of the vital spirit. Theheart was implicit in the concept of spirit, whichradiated from it passing via the arteries throughoutthe body and affecting the vital faculty. This spiritactivated the natural spirit in the liver, and theanimal spirit in the brain. The spirits within thebody are also called pneuma, meaning air, spirit,wind, or breath (of life). Pneuma can be likened tothe Chinese concept of Qi and the Indian concept ofPrana as the warming motive force in the body. Inone form this is the energy that makes us and theworld live. In people it is generated by the air webreathe and the food we eat, and is a central andintegral concept in all energetic medicine systems .

Innate heat and radical moisture

The metaphor of the oil lamp has been used inrelation to Humoral medicine. The flame is arepresentation of innate heat, and the oil isrepresentative of radical moisture. The flame andoil combined determines life span. At birth theflame is rekindled and the lamp is replete with oil,the flame burns bright and uses up the excess of oil– the burning up of this excess allows for(childhood) growth. As a youth the flame burnsmore intensely, the oil is sufficient to keep theflame going but not in excess, thus growth ceases.As middle age is approached the flame becomesless intense which reduces the digestive function

The fourelements

Fire Air Water Earth

Primaryqualities

Hot andDry

Hot andMoist

Cold andMoist

Cold andDry

The fourtemper-aments,seasonsandstages oflife

CholericSummerYouth

SanguineSpringChildhod

Phlegm-aticWinterOld age

Melanch-olicAutumnMiddleage

TheHumours

Yellowbile

Blood Phlegm Black bile

Galen130-210 AD

Nicholas Culpeper 1616-1654

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which allows extraneous water to be producedwhich in turn reduces the intensity of the flamethus creating a negative cycle by further weakeningthe digestion. In old age the oil and radicalmoisture are consumed and the flame goes out. [7]This closely mirrors the TCM concept of Ming men,the Gate of Vitality, with the fire in the Kidneys andmoisture related to Jing or essence. In Ayurvedathere is the fire or Agni and moisture of Ojas whichvitalises.

Health is about maintaining and preserving thebalance of heat and moisture. A fine energeticbalance was essential to keep all substances inequilibrium. Radical moisture cherished andmaintained the flame and ensured that the heatwas controlled to give the correct amount ofwarmth, rather than going out of balance andbecoming destructive.

If unchecked the heat had the potential to dry outthe body, while the moisture, if excessive, coulddampen the heat, both of which could result in areduced life span. The heart being hot and dryneeded moisture for it to be at ease, the radicalmoisture needed warmth and movement to stop itputrefying. Innate heat was necessary for all bodilyfunctions, from the digestion to the menses. As acontemporary of Culpeper, Riviere, wrote: “..after50 or 55 the effluxions of the menstrual bloodcease because the heat being weakened is not ableany more to generate such plenty of blood”. [13]Again, in close similarity to Chinese medicine, hotand cold, fire and water and the balance betweenthem constitutes health.

Diagnosis

In Humoral medicine observation of the patient wasseen as very important: "First of all the doctorshould look at the patient’s face. If he looks hisusual self this is a good sign. If not, however, thefollowing are bad signs – sharp nose, hollow eyes,cold ears, dry skin on the forehead, strange facecolour such as green, black, red or lead coloured. Ifthe face is like this at the beginning of the illness,the doctor must ask the patient if he has lost sleep,or had diarrhoea, or not eaten." [10]

The pulse was also regarded by Galen with greatenthusiasm. He composed seven extended treatieson the pulse, filling nearly a thousand pages. Lateranother celebrated physician Hercules Saxonia(1551- 1607) said, referring to the pulse: “Nothingis or ever will be more significant in medicalscience” [14] The Humoral tradition also consideredthe tongue to be an important indicator of health ordisease.

Degrees of temperature

In common with the other energetic traditions,Humoral medicine not only listed substances as hot

or cold, but classified them into varying degrees. Itwas also important to treat the correct part of theperson “…if the head be distempered by heat, andyou give such medicines as cool the heart or liver,you will bring another disease, and not cure theformer” ([16] p.556) In the English PhysicianEnlarged medicines are categorised on a scale of1-4 degrees, so a medicine hot in the first degreewas said by Culpeper to “ induce a moderate andnatural heat to the body”, but the first effect is“…by there sweat and temperate heat to reduce thebody to its natural heat”. Whereas a medicine hotin the fourth degree “burn the body of man, beingoutwardly applied… Crowfoot, Mustard seed,Onions..” ([16] p. 558).

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) provides atheoretical understanding of health and disease,practically applied via acupuncture, herbalmedicine, qi gong, massage, and diet therapy. If adiagnosis can be attained, then any of those fivemodes of treatment can be used. Each are betterfor certain conditions. The tradition is underpinnedby Taosim: “Tao is eternal without doing and yetnothing remains not done” [17]. From the originalchaos (the void or “Wu”), came the One (“Tai ji” orthe Supreme ultimate) which split into Yin andYang, thus creating an energetic tension withinitself which allowed the universe to manifest [18]Health is attained when Yin and Yang are inbalance, and all interventions in TCM can bereduced to trying to regain and reassert thisbalance. Yin and Yang, signifying the shady andsunny side of a hill, are opposites (cold and hot,female and male, night and day, contractive andexpansive), interdependent (one cannot existwithout the other), transform one into the other (ifthere was no night how could you posit day?), andmutually consume (when they are out of balancethey affect each other, when one goes up the othergoes down).

Qi is the stuff of the universe. Everything is madeup of it. In the body Qi is associated with Yang, asit is energetic, motive, and warming. Blood (whichis also Qi but denser and more nourishing) has amuch broader scope of action compared to thewestern medicine understanding of blood. InChinese medicine Blood is associated with Yin, andis nourishing, moistening, and cooling. There is anexpression which says that “Qi is the commander ofBlood. Blood is the mother of Qi”. Qi and Blood flowthroughout the body and through the meridianswhich link us exteriorly interiorly. In the body thereare many forms of Qi. Qi is made primarily in theSpleen from the food that we eat and the Lungsfrom the air that we breathe.

In TCM diagnosis is made through looking, hearing,asking, feeling, and smelling, though now smellingtends not to have the significance of the other four.

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The practitioner looks at the patient, theirdemeanour, body type, skin, gait, and posture, andtongue. Different areas of the tongue relate todifferent organs, and colour, cracks, and coatingprovide relevant information which contributestowards the final diagnosis. Hearing body sounds,such as, strength of voice, nature of cough,abdominal sounds is of use. However the easiestand most accurate use of hearing is listening towhat the patient has to say!

Healing ultimately comes from inside each of us.The process of recovering health is often a learningexperience, which allows growth and developmentfor the individual. Thus accurate and clearcommunication is essential. Asking relevantquestions is necessary to obtain a clear case historywhich in turn leads to an accurate diagnosis andtargeted treatment. Feeling is the final part of thejigsaw. Touch is essential for the human condition,How does the skin feel? Is it warm, cold, dry,clammy etc. And above all, together with thetongue, the pulse can provide immediateinformation about the individual. Is it fast(indicating heat) or slow (indicating cold)? Is it fullor weak? The importance of pulse and tonguediagnosis in traditional Chinese medicine closelyparallels their importance in Humoral medicine andAyurveda.

Ayurvedic medicine

Ayurveda is the traditional medicine system of theIndian sub continent. Ayurveda translates as “thescience of life” or “the art of wise living”. The wordAyurveda comes from the Vedas, the ancientsacred books of the Aryans.

Two main source text books on Ayurveda may besingled out: the Sushruta samhita which reallyconcentrates on surgical techniques, and theCharaka samhita, which is more based aroundinternal medicine and was written around 800-1000BCE. [19]

“It is called Ayurveda because it tells us whichsubstances, qualities and actions are life enhancingand which are not” (from the Charaka samhita).

Ayurveda roots itself in the same Sankhyaphilosophy as yoga. [19] Though Humoral medicinedid not develop a systematised form of exercise,but Yoga is to Ayurveda what Tai ji/ Qi gong is toChinese medicine.

Everything evolves from an Absolute Reality(Purusha) which is consciousness without anycharacteristics whatsoever, beyond time, space andcausation, a single point which encompasseseverything and which cannot be perceived by themind or accurately described in human language”[19]. Purusha is the male and Prakriti the femaleenergy. In Lad’s explanation, Purusha is

“unmanifested, formless, passive, beyondattributes, cause and effect, space and time”, whilePrakriti is “the creative force of action, the sourceof form, manifestation, attributes and nature”. [20]Purusha and Prakriti unite to create movement thatcauses the dance of creation to begin. Purusha canbe compared to the Tao in Chinese medicine and toGod in Humoral medicine.

From this Absolute Reality evolves Relative Reality/Nature (Prakriti), the difference being that AbsoluteReality (Purusha) knows itself to be identical withNature (Prakriti), but Nature (Prakriti) believesitself to be different from Absolute Reality(Purusha). The passive awareness of differenceevolves into an undifferentiated or cosmicIntelligence (Mahat), a faculty through which thisdifference is actively perceived; it is the archetypalforms behind the manifest world. Intelligence(Mahat) is thus Nature’s unlimited self awareness.This undifferentiated Intelligence individuates intodiscrete limited bundles of awareness called Ego(Ahamkara). Ahamkara means “the I maker” as theego is a process not an intrinsic reality. Thisprocess involves identification with different aspectsof the created world. Ahamkara is a series ofdivisive thoughts, not a separate entity that existsin itself, despite the fact that we conceive it as aconsistent self with which we identify. It is thisaspect of ourselves that creates the illusion ofseparateness from cosmic consciousness and isthus the cause of so much suffering.

Nature as manifested through Ahamkara has threeattributes or Gunas. These three Gunas are thefoundation for all existence [20], and are moresubtle than the five elements which arise throughtheir activity. They are Sattva (Equilibrium,Stability, Pure aspect, Awakening, Essence andlight); Rajas (Activity, Dynamic movement);Tamas (Inertia, Potential energy, Darkness,Ignorance and Matter). [20] These three Gunashave been likened to the three alchemical elementsSalt, Sulphur, and Mercury, singled out in thewestern tradition in particular by Paracelsus (1493-1541).

“Ego, Ahamkar manifests into the five senses andthe five motor organs with the help of Sattva thuscreating the organic universe. The same ego furthermanifests into the five basic elements with the helpof Tamas to create the inorganic universe.” ([20],p.16)

Rajas is the active vital force in the body whichactivates the potential energies of Sattva andTamas. Under the predominance of Tamas the 5elements evolve with the diversification accordingto the three Gunas. However the Gunas are toosubtle to satisfy living requirements so theymetamorphose into Doshas, which means a “fault,error or something that can go wrong”. ([19], p.50)

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Doshas

The three Doshas are Vata (Air), Pitta (Fire) andKapha (Earth). The mingling and combination ofthese makes up your constitution or Prakriti.Individual human constitution is a balance of thethree, and controls everything from appearance tocellular function. Each person is a combination ofthe Doshas, but often one will tend to predominate.This individual balance of Doshas is unique andindividual specific. Which one predominates andthe balance of the Doshas indicates where diseasesusceptibility will manifest, and provides advice onhow to live to maximise wellness by balancing theDoshas.

Vata types are full of bright ideas and verycreative, visionaries – they are often in constantmotion and have “air” problems and “gaps”… whenthey are out of balance this can manifest as beingforgetful and spaced out, not in touch with realityand often they will get symptoms that will moveabout. Vata compares to Wind in Chinese medicineand Air/Sanguine in Humoral medicine.

Pitta types tend to be perfectionists. They can beconfident, fiery and hot. If exacerbated this willmake them angry and irritable and will oftenmanifest for example as skin conditions andstomach ulcers. Pitta compares to Firemanifestations in Chinese medicine andFire/Choleric types in Humoral medicine.

Kapha types tend to be solid, steady, loyal, andcalm. The best athletes tend to be Kapha typesbecause if they train this balances out theirinherent sluggishness and they develop greatstrength. If their tendencies are magnified they willtend to put on weight and become catarrhal withsluggish digestion. Thus vigorous exercise andcompetition, for example, while being of benefit forKapha types would tend to be detrimental to themore naturally active and competitive Pitta type.Pitta on the other hand would benefit from noncompetitive exercise and certain calmer types ofyoga to balance out their constitution. Kapha canbe compared to the Phlegmatic type in Humoralmedicine, and Water/Earth in Chinese medicine.

Ayurveda recognises the flow of “sap” or Rasathrough the body which irrigates the tissues. ManySrotas or “channels” are recognised which includethe digestive, respiratory and cardiac systems. Thehuman body has a number of interwoven layers –the channels, the body of muscles bones andnerves, the subtle body and the causal body.Subtle anatomy is where Prana flows throughconduits - Nadis and plexuses or Chakras. The mostimportant Nadi is the central Sushumna conduitwhere the Chakras are arranged. This flows throughthe same space as the central sulcus of the spinalcord on the physical plane. The nostrils are the nextmost important Nadis. There are Marmas which arepoints where vital channels intersect. Some areidentical to acupuncture points.

In Ayurvedic medicine the importance of thedigestion generally and the maintenance of thedigestive fire (Jathara agni) is central to goodhealth. If the digestion does not function effectivelythen Ama is produced which is generated due toimproper or incomplete digestion, and is the “rootof all disease” [20]. Ama and Damp are very similarconcepts: in Humoral medicine weakness ofdigestion leads to increase in extraneous waterwhich leads to reduction in innate heat which leadsto weakness of digestion In Chinese medicineimpaired Spleen function leads to Damp, whichleads to impaired Spleen function.

Diagnosis

There are three techniques traditionally used todiagnose in Ayurveda: Darshana (see and observe),Sparshana (touch), Prashana (enquire byasking).[21] Ayurveda includes pulse diagnosis,and uses three positions naming them Vata, Pitta,Kapha which correlate to Cun, Guan, and Chi inChinese medicine. On the right wrist the firstposition (most distal, closest to the cun in CM)relates superficially to the Large intestine and deepto the Lungs. Second position relates superficiallyto Gall bladder and deep to Liver, and the thirdposition superficially to Pericardium and deep toVatta, Pitta, and Kapha. On the left wrist the firstposition relates superficially to Small intestine anddeep to Heart, the second position relatessuperficially to Stomach and deep to Spleen, andthe third position relates to superficially Bladderand deep to Kidney. [20]

Conclusions

CM and Ayurveda are more “complete” how-to-livesystems than Humoral medicine, incorporatingdiet, exercise, meditational practises (yoga, tai ji,qi gong ), internal (diet and traditional remedies)and external (Acupuncture/Marma points,massage) treatment modalities. Also Humoralmedicine, with a shorter history and lessgeographically inculcated than the other two, wasexposed to the western predilection towards the

AyurvedaElements and

Temperaments

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contradiction of opposites (the table is square orthe table is not square), which when applied to anenergetic system is always going to be limiting.How is Qi, Prana or Pneuma to be measured?However for westerners having an awareness andempathy with the west’s historical energetictradition can be vastly rewarding, and thecorrespondences that Culpeper documents help todeepen knowledge and awareness of the floraindigenous to these islands. It is not possible tohave the same relationship with a dried herb as it iswith a fresh living plant; a personal relationshipwith growing, living plants can never be surpassedby a powder, pill or dried herb.

Though terminology and cultural settings aredifferent, there are many important similarities:

Central to these is the need for balance,balance of water and fire, activity and rest.The importance of the individual existing inharmony with the environment and seasonsis also a core similarity.

Shiva and Shakti – in some senses could beanalogised God and Goddess, and Yin andYang – but without the anthropomorphicattributes.

The constitution of the individual has moreemphasis placed on it in Humoral andAyurvedic medicine than in TCM, but TCMdoes have the five elements and manycorrespondences relating to them, includingbody type and basic characteristics, and fiveelement acupuncture places particularimportance on the constitution

Purusha/Tao/God – now I am sure that manyof us will not want to put God in that list, butin humoral medicine ,certainly as practisedby Culpeper, God is probably the closestcomparison available.

Acupuncture points/Marma points – some ofthe locations of these points are identical,other are not. TCM has a much moresystematised approach and rationale totreatment via Acupuncture. Humoralmedicine was not aware of external points.

Each of the three systems traditionally usednon plant substances.

Pulse and tongue diagnosis was emphasisedin all three traditions as an essential tool fordiagnosis.

This discussion has only scratched the surface ofthese three immense traditions, but I would humblypropose that the similarities between them is fargreater than their differences, and often thedifferences that exist are in terminology rather thanvastly different understandings of the universe andour place in it.

If, as we are told, knowledge is power, then thedeeper our individual understanding can be of all

medical systems the greater likelihood of successfulpractice, whichever energetic system resonatesmostly harmoniously with the individualpractitioner.

References

[1] Griggs B. 1997 New green pharmacy. 2nd

edition. London. Vermillion[2] Edwards. O 2010 The Skeletons of ShanidarCave. Available athttp://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/The-Skeletons-of-Shanidar-Cave.html Accessed07.03.2012[3] World Health Organisation 2008 Traditionalmedicine fact sheet No 134. Geneva . available athttp://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/ Accessed 07.03.12[4] Svoboda. R 1992 Ayurveda life health andlongevity. 1st edition. London. Arkana Penguin.[5] Nunn J. 1996. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. 1st

edition. London. British museum press.[6] Chen and Chen 2004 Chinese medicalHerbology and pharmacology. 1st edition. City ofindustry CA. Art of medicine press inc.[7] Tobyn G. 1997 Culpepers medicine. 1st edition.Shaftesbury Dorset. Element books[8] Internet archive 2008 Available athttp://web.archive.org/web/20080228084033/http://www.geocities.com/trepanationz/hippocrates/Accessed 07.03.2012[9] Boylan M. 2005 Hippocrates. InternetEncyclopaedia of Philosophy. Maryland. Available athttp://www.iep.utm.edu/hippocra/#SH1dAccessed 07.03.2012[10] Trueman C. 2000 History learning site,History of Medicine, Hippocrates. Brighton.Available athttp://www.iep.utm.edu/hippocra/#SH1dAccessed 07.03.2012[11] Delvey J. 1996 SJSU Virtual museum.Hippocrates. Available athttp://www.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/hippoc.htmlAccessed 07.03.21012[12] Nuland S. 2007 Sunday book review. Badmedicine New York. Available athttp://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/08/books/review/Nuland.html?ex=1341547200&en=28b87289415e5d35&ei=5088 Accessed 07.03.2012[13] Riviere L. 1657 Universal body of physick[14] Kuriyama S. 2006 The Expressiveness of theBody. 1st paperback edition, 3rd printing. New York.Zone books.[15] Warren – Davis D. 2005. Skyscript. Culpeperherbalist of the people. Available athttp://www.skyscript.co.uk/culpeper.htmlAccessed 13.03.12[16] Culpeper N. 1995 Culpeper’s Complete Herbal.1st edition. Ware Hertfordshire. Wordsworthreference.[17] Wilhelm R. 1987 Translation of Lao tzu The TaoTe Ching. 3rd Edition. New York. Arkana

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[18] Maciocia G. 1998 The Foundations of ChineseMedicine. 1st edition. Edinburgh. ChurchillLivingstone.[19] Svoboda R. Lade A. 1995 Tao and Dharma. 1st

edition. Twin Lakes WI. Lotus press[20] Lad V. 2004 Ayurveda The science of Self –Healing. 2nd edition. Twin lakes WI. Lotus press[21] Amrita veda 2001 Ayurvedic articles. SanDiego. Available athttp://www.amritaveda.com/learning/articles/pulsereading.asp Accessed 14.03.12

The Author: Steve Kippax started growing herbsat the age of 13 and enrolled at the School ofHerbal Medicine (Phytotherapy) in 1980. He joinedthe National Institute of Medical Herbalists (NIMH)in 1985 and has been practising herbal medicineever since. He became interested in Chinesemedicine in the late 1980s, attended the School ofChinese herbal medicine and went to further andbroaden his learning to include acupuncture, Qi

gong, Tai ji, massage and diet therapy inGuangzhou TCM University hospital PRC in 1992,1993,1995 and 2007.

His eclectic interests have led him to examine otherenergetic systems – Homeopathy, Ayurveda andHumoral medicine; which while being of interestand expanding his knowledge base do not detractfrom but enhance his main passion - herbs andTCM.

Steve is Head of Complementary Medicine at TheThird Space Medicine, London’s leading integratedmedicine centre, also practices in Suffolk as well aslecturing on TCM and herbal medicine. He is a pastpresident of NIMH.

Steve says: “I would like to thank Annie McIntyreand Graeme Tobyn for their expertise and helpfulcomments while writing this article”.