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Second Revised Edition

Doctrinal Guide to Military Decision Making andTactical OperationsThe Battle Staff SMARTbook provides an outline of the authoritative doctrine bywhich the Army plans and conducts tactical operations -- namely FM 5-0, ArmyPlanning and Orders Production; FM 6-0, Mission Command; FM 1-02, OperationalTerms and Graphics; and FM 34-130, lntelligence Preparation of the Battlefield.

Doctrinal Guide to Military Decision Making and Tactical Operations

Compiled, Edited, and lllustrated by Norman M. WadeCopyright @ 2005 Norman M. Wade|SBN: 0-97424864-9

All Rights ReservedNo part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or other means, electronicor mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage andretrieval systems, without permission in writing by the author. lnquiries should beaddressed to The Lightning Press.

Notice of LiabilityThis is an independent publication published by The Lightning Press. Use of militarydoctrine, symbology, graphics and/or materials in no way constitutes endorsementor collaboration by the Department of Defense or military Services The informationin this SMARTbook and quick reference guide is distributed on an "As ls" basis,without warranty. While every precaution has been taken to ensure the reliabilityand accuracy of all data and contents, neither the author nor The Lightning Pressshall have any liability to any person or entity with respect to liability, loss, ordamage caused directly or indirectly by the contents of this book. lf there is adiscrepancy, default to the source document. This SMARTbook does not containinformation restricted from public release. "The views presented in this publicationare those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of theDepartment of Defense or its components."

SMARTbook is a trademark of The Lightning Press.

Special thanks to the Ft. PoIUJRTC Public Affairs Ofiice for the DoD photograph foruse on the cover.

Printed and bound in the United States of America.

Rderenc$ are providedfordocumentation and

This is the second revised edition of The Baftle Staff SMARTbook, incorporating thelatest editions of FM 5-0, FM 6-0 and FM 1-02. FM 5-0 marks the sixth revision ofFM 101-5 since it was first published. Together, FM 5-0 and FM 6-0, replace FM101-5, which was the basis forthe first edition Battle Staff SMARTbook. FM 5-0now addresses only planning. FM 6-0 addresses C2, staff organization andoperations, the duties of and relationship between the commander and staff,information management, rehearsals, and liaison. FM 5-0 includes MDMP andformats for plans, orders, and briefings formerly found in FM 101-5. Staffresponsibilities, staff officer duties during preparation for and execution ofoperations, rehearsals, information management, and liaison duties formerlyaddressed in FM 101-5, are now covered in FM 6-0.Readers are also provided with the fundamentals of full spectrum operationsdescribed in FM 3-0, the art of tactics described in FM 3-90, an overview of theJoint Operations Planning and Execution System (JOPES), and sections coveringtargeting, rehearsals, after-action reveiws (AARs), and much, much morel

A note about our SMARID@kS,..Chapters and sections are organized in the same fashion as the source manualswhere possible. For example, chapter one from a reference equates to sectionone in this SMARTbook; chapter two is section two, etc. Furthermore, the text isas close to the original source text as possible to replicate approved doctrinalpublications and procedures.SMARTregister for UpdatesKeep your SMARTbooks upto-date! The Lightning Press provides e-mail notifica-tion of updates, revisions and changes to our SMARTbooks through it'sSMARTnews mailing list. Readers can register for the SMARTnews e-mail listonline at www.ThelightningPress.com. Updates and their prices will be an-nounced by e-mail as significant changes or revised editions are published.

Bulleled ltemgrepresenl kev terms,on@pts, orgeneralr@uiremnMtems -thatdo nd n@ssarilynd ro be cmdeld

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Evaluate COA advantages and

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Intrcduction - I

The Battle Staff SMARTbook

BeletGnGGsThe following primary references were used to compile The Battle Staff SMARTbook' Allreferences aie available to the general public and designated as "approved for public,.i""."; distribution is unlimitedl The Battle Staff SMARTbook does not contain classifiedor sensitive information restricted from public release'

Field Manuals (FMs)Operational Terms and GraPhicsOperationsTacticsCombat Commander's Handbook On lntelligence

lntelligence Officer's Handbooklntelligence Preparation of the BaftlefieldArmy Planning and Orders ProductionMission Command: Command and Control ofArmy ForcesRisk Management

A Leader's Guide to After-Action Reviews

Doctrine for Planning Joint Operations

Learned (CALL) Publicationslntelligence Preparation of the Baftlefield

RehearsalsTactical OPerations Center (TOC)

Battle Command Techniques and Procedures

The Battle Staff SMARTbook

IaileotGomenm

l. Fundamentals of Planning ...................1-1l. The Nature of Planning ... .................... 1-1

A. Science and Art of Planning .............. 'l-2B. Planning as Part of Command and Control . ........... ....... 1-4C. Operational-level and Tactical-level Planning . . ...... 1-6D. The Joint Operations Process ............... ..... 1-6

ll. Fundamentals/Functionsof Planning ............. 1-3lll. Planning and Decision Making . ........................... . 1-5

ll. Key Planning Goncepts .......................1-7A. Nested Concepts .................. 1-8B. Sequencing Operations ........ 1-9C. Control Measures ................ 1-10D. RiskReduction ...........--..... .......................... 1-10E. Hasty and Deliberate Operations ................. 1-11F. lntelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance .................... ... 1-11G. Planning Horizons ............ . 'l-12H. Parallel and Collaborative Planning ............. 1-13l. Forward and Reverse Planning 1-14J. Onethird/Twothirds Rule ...... .... 1-14H. Planning Pitfalls ............ ....... 1-14

lll. Battle Gommand ............1-15l. Visualize . 1-16

- The Foundations of Army Operations ....................... 1-17- The Principles of War..... ................... 1-17- The Tenets of Army Operations ............... 1-17

ll. Describe ....... 1-2O-ElementsofOperationalDesign............ .....................1-18- Operational Framework ....................... 1-21

lll. Direct ......... . 1-20- Battlefield Operating Systems ........... 1-24

lV. Joint Planning ................1-25l. Types of Joint PlanninS .... ..... ...................... . 1-25

A. Mobilization Planning ........................ 1-26B. Deployment Planning .......... 1-26C. Employment Planning .......... 1-26D. Sustainment Planning ........ 1-26E. Redeployment Planning .................... 1-26

ll. Joint Planning Concepts .... ... . 1-26lll. Types of Joint Plans .... . 1-27lV. Joint Operations Planning and Execution System (JOPES) Overview ..... 1-28V. The Joint Planning and Execution Community (JPEC) ............... ....... .. 1-30

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FM 1-02FM 3-O

FM 3-90FM 34.8FM 34-8-2FM 34-130FM 5-O

FM 6-0

FM 100-14

21 Sep 200414 Jun 20014 Jul 200128 Sep 19921 May 19988 Jul 199420 Jan 200511 Aug 2003

23 Apr 1998

Training Circulars (TCs)rc25-20 30 Sep 1993

Joint Publications (JPs)JP 5-O 13 Apr 1995

Genter for ArmY LessonsCALL 96-12 Dec.1996CALL 9B-5 MaY 1998CALL 95-7 MaY 1995

Other PublicationsBCBL 1995

tunilamentals ofPlanni

2 - Introduction Table of Contents - I

V. lntegrating Targeting ................ .........131Targeting Process and Activities...... .. ... .. 1-31L Decide .......... 1-32ll. Detect

... ... .. 1-33lll. Deliver ........ ................ 1 -33lV. Assess .. . ... . 1-34

Vl. Problem Solving ............135Solving Problems in a Group Setting ............ ... .. 1-36ldentifying the Problem .. 1-37Problem Solving Steps .............. ....................... 1-38Critical Reasoning and Creative Thinking ........... ... . 1-40

MDMP Overview & Staff Estimates ..........2-'ll. Commander's Role in P|anninS..................... ....................... ... 2-3ll. Staff's Role in PlanninS...... ............. . .... ... . 2-3Staff Estimates ......2-4Cdr, Staff and Subordinate lnteraction .......... . 2-G

MDMP Step L Receipt of Mission ............2-7Step 1. Alert the Staff ........... .2-BStep 2. Gather the Tools .. . . .......... . . 2-BStep 3. Update Staff Estimates .................... .... 2-BStep 4. Perform an initial Assessment 2-B

- lnitial Operational Time Line ................ ......... .............. 2-9Step 5. lssue the lnitial Guidance ............ ... .. 2-10Step 6. lssue the lnitial Warning Order........ 2-10

MDMP Step ll. Mission Analysis .............2-11Staff Guidelines for Mission Analysis ........... ... 2-14Step 1. Analyze the Higher Headquarters' Order .............. ... 2-12Step 2. Perform lnitial lntelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (lPB) ... .. 2-12Step 3. Determine Specified, lmplied, & Essential Tasks ............................. . 2-12Step 4. Review Available Assets............ ...... ... 2-13Step 5. Determine Constraints .... .. 2-13Step 6. ldentify Critical Facts and Assumptions ............................................ 2-16Step 7. Conduct RiskAssessment.. ....... .. .... 2-16

- Risk Management Steps ..... .................. 2-17Step 8. Determine lnitial CCIR and EEFI ............ 2-18Step 9. Determine the lnitial ISR Plan .......... ....... 2-19Step 10. Update Operational Time Line ........-....... .................. 2-19Step 11. Write the Restated Mission .2-2O

- Tactical Mission Tasks. ..... ... 2-21Step 12. Deliver a Mission Analysis Briefing........... ....... ........ 2-22Step 13. Approve the Restated Mission ... 2-22Step'14. Develop the lnitial Commander's lntent ... 2-22Step 15. lssue the Commander's Planning Guidance .... ..... .... 2-23

- Commander's Guidance by BOS ... 2-24lssue a Warning Order........... ...... ... 2-26Review Facts

"io n..rrpiio;; ... ::..:.::.::::.: .... 2-26Review Facts and Assumption

MDMP Step lll. GOA Development ........2-27Criteria for Courses of Action (COAs) ...........2-31Step 1. Analyze Relative Combat Power ............ .................... 2-28Step 2 Generate Options .......2-30Step 3. Array lnitial Forces .. ..2-32Step 4. Develop the Concept of Operations ............-..............2-34Step 5. Assign Headquarters ........ 2-35Step 6. Prepare COA Statements and Sketches ............................................. 2-35COA Briefing ........ 2-38

MDMP Step lV. GOAAnalysis (War Gaming) ...........29General War-gaming Rules .......... ..................2-40Wargaming Responsibilities ..................... .......2-42War Gaming - What it Looks Like ......... ......... .2-46Products/Results of the War Game .... ......... . 2-47Step 1. Gather the Tools .......... 2-40Step 2. List all Friendly Forces ............ ............2-41Step 3. List Assumptions ......... 2-41Step 4. List Known Critical Events and Decision Points......... ................... ..2-41Step 5. Determine Evaluation Criteria ........... ......... . 2-41Step 6. Select the War-Game Method ..................... 2-44Step 7. Select a Method to Record and Display Results ................2-44Step 8. Wargame the Battle & Assess the Results ................ 2-46War-game Briefing (Optional) ... ..... ................2-48

MDMP Step V. GOA Gomparison ........--.249Step 1. Evaluate COA Advantages/Disadvantages .............. .......................... 2-49Step 2- Compare COAs ...........2-49

- Decision Matrices .......... 2-50- Sample COA Evaluation Criteria (by BOS) ........ .............2-51

Step 3. Develop a Recommended COA ..........2-52MDMP Step Vl. GOA Approval ............. .....................263

Step 1. Staff COA Recommendation (Decision Briefing) ........ 2-53Step 2. Commander's Decision ....................... 2-53Step 3. Commander's Finial Planning Guidance ...................... 2-54

MDMP Step Vll. Orders Production .......2-55Step 1. Prepare the Order or Plan ........... ........ 2-55Step 2. lmplement Risk Controls .................... ............ 2-55Step 3. Commander Reviews and Approves Order....................................... 2-55

Planning in a Time-Gonstrained Environment...........................2-57l. The Commander's Role ......... 2-58ll. The Staff's Role .. .......... ...........2-62General Time-Saving Techniques ................... 2-59Specific Time-Saving Techniques During the MDMP ....................................... 2-60

Troop Leading Procedures (TLP) ......... ....................263Step .t. Receive the Mission .... 2-66Step 2. lssue a Warning Order.. ... ... .... 2-67Step 3. Make a Tentative Plan ...............- .......... 2-68Step 4 lnitiate Movement ......... 2-72Step 5. Conduct Reconnaissance................. ..........................2-72Step 6. Complete the Plan ........ 2-73Step 7. lssue the Order ..............2-73Step 8. Supervise and Refine ............ .............2-73Rehearsals - Company Level and Sma||er........... ................... 2-74

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Step 16.Step 17.Step 17.

Ihe lllilitary llecision-lllaftin Process lillllilPl

2 - Table of Contents Table of Gontents - 3

IPB Overview............... ..........3-1Staff lntegration into the IPB ... 3-3IPB in a Time-Constrained Environment ..... 3-4

IPB Step l. Define the Battlefield Environment............................3-5Step 1. ldentify Significant Characteristics of the Environment .................... 3-6Step 2 ldentify the Limits of the Command's AO and Battle Space ... . . .. . 3-6Step 3. Establish the Limits of the Al .................... 3-7Step 4 ldentify the Amount of Detail Required and Feasible .. .. ... 3-8Step 5. Evaluate Existing Data Bases and ldentify lntelligence Gaps ....... ... . 3-8Step 6. Collectthe Required lntelligence and Materials ........ .. 3-8

IPB Step ll. Describe the Battlefield's Effects ............3-9Step I Analyze the Battlefield Environment... .. 3-10

A Terrain Analysis .. .. 3-10- OCOKA - Military Aspects of the Terrain .. . . .........3-12- Development of Avenues of Approach (AAs) .. .. ... 3-14- Obstacle/Terrain Classifications . ... .. . . 3-17

B. Weather Analysis .. ... ..... 3-18C. Analyze Other Characteristics of the Battlefield.... ... 3-19

Step ll. Describe the Battlefield's Effects . ..................... . 3-20IPB Step lll. Evaluate the Threat ...........3-21

Step I Update or Create Threat Models ... 3-22A Convert Threat Doctrine or Patterns of Operations to Graphics.. . 3-24

- Developing the Doctrinal Template ..... 3-23B Describe the Threat's Tactics and Options ... ... .......3-24C. ldentify HVTs . ... .....3-24Developing Target Sets (HVTs).. . .. ... ... . ......... 3-25

Step ll ldentify Threat Capabilities... .. .. 3-26IPB Step lV. Determine Threat GOAs ....3'27

Step '1. ldentify the Threat's Likely Objectives and Desired End State ... .3-28Step 2. ldentify the Full Set of COAs Available to the Threat ....... 3-28Step 3. Evaluate and Prioritize Each COA... . .. ... 3-29Step 4. Develop each COA in Detail (as Time Allows).... ..... ... ... ........ 3-30

A. Situation Template (SITEMP) .................... 3-32B. Description of the COA and Options ......... 3-31C. Listing of High Value Targets (HVTs) ........... . . . ... .......... 3-31

Step 5. ldentify lnitial Collection Requirements ...... ... 3-34A Event Template . .... .. 3-34B EventMatrix..... .. ... .... ... .3-34

The Decision Support Template (DST) ..3.39Developing the DST ...... . ... .... .. 3-40

1 MCOO/AA Overlay Development .. . 3-402. Enemy Situation Template (SITEMP) Development ...... .... ... ... 3-403. EventTemplate (EVENTEMP) Development 3-404. Targeted Area of lnterest (TAl) Development 3-415. Friendly Course of Action (COA) Development 3-416. Decision Point and Critical Event Development . . ..... .... 3-41

Elements of the DST ... . ... 3-424 - Table of Contents

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f . Characteristics of Plans and Orders .......................+1ll. Plans ..............4

A. Operation Plan (OPLAN) ... .... ... 4-3B. Service Support Plan ... .......... .... 4-4C. Supporting Plan .. . ..... . ... . . 4-4D. Contingency Plan .. ..... .. .... 4-4E. Branch ....... 4-4F. Sequel ... .. . ..... 4-4

lll. Orders ...........4-5A Operation Orders (OPORD)................... ... .. 4-5B. Service Support Orders ........... ................ . . 4-6C. Movement Orders ... .... .. 4-6D. Warning Orders (WARNO) ... .. ... ... .. .... ...4-6E Fragmentary Orders (FRAGO) .. .. ... .. 4-7TechniquesforlssuingOrders... .....4-8

lV. Administrative lnstructions ................4-9A. General lnformation ...................... 4-9B. Abbreviations..................... ...........................4-9C. Place and Direction Designations . .. .. . . 4-9D Naming Conventions .... . 4-10E. Classification Markings.. .... 4-10F. Expressing Unnamed Dates and Times ... ... .. ... . 4-10G. Expressing Time. ..... ... . . ... 4-12H. ldentifying Pages ... ... .. 4-12l. Numbering Pages .. .... . .. 4-12

V. Task Organization ................ .............4-13l. Fundamental Considerations ... ... ... . 4-13ll. Task Organization Formats ... ........ 4-15

A Outline Format... ... ... . 4-15B Matrix Format .... ... . . . 4-18C Unit Listing Sequence ... ... . . . .. 4-19

Command and Support Relationships ... . 4-16Order of Listing Units in a Task Organization ... ... . 4-20

Vl. Examples & Procedures ..................4-21l. Standing Operating Procedures (SOPs) .... . . . .. . ... ... . 4-21ll. Matrixes & Templates .. 4-21

A Decision Support Template .. .. . . 4-21B Synchronization Matrix .. .. ... ... 4-21C. Execution Matrix. ... .... . ...... 4-21

lll. Attachments (Annexes, Appendixes, Tabs and Enclosures) ... .. ... .... . 4-22Warning Order (WARNO) Format ... ... . .. .4-24Annotated OPLAN/OPORD Format ..................... 4-26Fragmentary Order (FRAGO) Format ........... 4-32

Plans&0rderc0f the aillefi il flPBI

Table of Contents - 5

Mission GommandIGP ORerationsl

l. The C2 System ....................5-1

l. The Nature oI C2 .............. ................... .. 5_1

ll. Location otC2.............. .......... S_2

lll. Command and Control Functions .................. 5_3

lV. Observe-Orient-Decide-Act (OODA) Cycle......... ....... ..... S_4

V. C2 Design & Organization Considerations ........ 5_6

ll. Command Posts...... .........--F.T

l. CPOrganization .................. ............................ S_8

1 Tactical Command post (TAC Cp)............... .................. .. b_82. Main Command Post (MAIN Cp)................. .................. ... 5-93. Rear Command Post (REAR Cp) ................ ................ S_94. Alternate Command Post ................ ............................ 5_g5. Assault Command Post............

................... 5_10ll. CP Survivability and Effectiveness Considerations .................. 5_10

lll. Exercising C2 (CP Operations) ......... ................... $11L Assessment

.......................... S_13A. Monitoring

. .. S_13B. Evaluating

......... .... S_13Sample Standardized Charts (to assist Situational Awareness/Cop)........... S_j5ll. Planning

........ 5_16lll. Preparation

... 5_16Preparation Activities

........ .......... S_1glV. Execution

.... S_17A. Assessment During ExecutionB Decide........

... . S_20C. Direct

... S_21

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rt. rhe Liaison om".' ... ......... .:.......::......:....:....:.........:...:..::........................ "-'"

io|i:::l'r,",',": ::: : ::: :::::: : :: : :: :: ::::z:i: tV Liaison Responsibilities .... ............... ........ ....... 5_28

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B. Joint Operations ....... S_30

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6 - Tabre ofconrents ||

l. Rehearsals ............... ...........6-ll. Rehearsal Techniques ........... 6-2

A. Full-dress Rehearsal ....... ................. 6-2B. Reduced-force Rehearsal ................. 6-2C Terrain-model Rehearsal .................... 6-2D. Sketch-map Rehearsal ....................... 6-3E. Map Rehearsal ................... ................. 6-3F- Network Rehearsal (WAN/LAN) ........ 6-3

ll. Rehearsal Structure ................... 6-4lll. RehearsalTypes .. .... ....................... 6-5A. Confirmation Brief ............ ............................. 6-5B. Backbrief ....... 6-5C. CombinedArms Rehearsal .... .........-............. 6-5D. Support Rehearsal ... .......... 6-5E. Battle Drill or SOP Rehearsal ..... ........... 6-5lV. Rehearsal Responsibilities ..................... ...... 6-6

- Rehearsal Planning ............ 6-6- Rehearsal Preparation ... ... ......... 6-6- Rehearsal Execution .............. 6-6

lV. Conducting a Rehearsal ....... 6-8During the Rehearsal ....-- 6-8Step 1 - Deployment of Enemy Forces............ .............. . 6-BStep 2 - Deployment of Friendly Forces ........... ............. 6-8Step 3 - Advancement of the Enemy.. ............................ 6-BStep 4 - Decision Point............... ............. 6-8Step 5 - End State Reached .... ............. 6-9Step 6 - Recock ... .............. 6-9Following the Rehearsal .........-............... 6-9

ll. After-Action Reviews (AARs) .............. Gl1AAR Key Points ............. ..... .......... .6-11Types of AARs ...... ............... 6-12

A. Formal ....... ................6-12B. lnformal ............ 6-13

L Plan theAAR ................ 6-14ll. PreparefortheAAR ............ 6-16

- Example AAR Observation Worksheet .......-..............6-17lll. Conduct theAAR ....-.......... ..-.........-............. 6-18

1. lntroduction and Rules ......................6-182. Review of Objectives and lntent....... ....................... 6-183. Summary of Recent Events (What Happened) ....... 6-194. Discussion of Key lssues ................ 6-195. Discussion of Optional lssues ............ ..................... 6-196. Closing Comments (Summary) ......... 6-19

lV. Follow-Up (using the results of the AAR) ......................... 6-201-ldentifyTasksRequiringRetraining ..........................6-202. Fixthe Problem ............ 6-203 Use to Assist in Making Commander's Assessment..... ... .... ........ 6-20

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BehearcalsaAfter-AGtion Beuiews

Table of Contents - 7

0Rerational letms &GraRhics ltil l-021

f. OperationalTerms.... ..........7-1tt. Acronyms/Abbreviations & Country Codes ..........7-27

Acronyms/Abbreviations ......... 7-27Two-Letter Geographical Entity Codes . .........7-34

fff. Mifitary Symbols -............737Composition of a Military Symbol ..................... 7-38Echelons ..........7-40

fV. Unit Symbols ...................741Locating Unit Symbols ... ... ...........7-41Building Unit Symbols ... .... ... .... .. 7-42Mobility and Capability Modifiers ..........-.......... 7-44CombatArms ...7-44Combat Support ..................... .......................... 7-44Combat Service Support ......... 7-45Classes of Supplies ........ ................. 7-45Special Operations Forces (SOF) . ... .... ................7-45Multifunctional CSS Units.. .............. 7-46Headquarters Types............. ........................... 7-46Named Command and Control HQ .................. ......................... 7-46

V. Equipment Symbols ........747Building Equipment Symbols ... .... 7-48Mobility Modifiers .. . .................... 7-50Weapon Systems .... 7-50Vehicle Symbols ...................... 7-50Helicopters ....... 7-50

Vl. Graphic Control Measures ................7-51Building Graphic Control Measures ......... .............7-52General .... . .............7-54A2C2lAir Defense ....7-54Defense ........... 7-55Offense ........... 7-55Specia1............ ..........................7-56Manuever and Fire ............... 7-56Fire Support ... ............ 7-56Command and Control .... ... .... ...7-57Mobility and Survivability . .................. .... .... 7-57Survivability (NBC) ............ ...... 7-58Combat Service Support ......... 7-58

Vll. TacticalMission Graphics ................7-59Decision Graphics .......... 7-59Shorthand Unit Symbols .. .......... 7-60Mission Symbols .......... ...... .. 7-60Effects on Enemy Forces -.......7-6'lActions by Friendly Forces............ .................7-62

8 - Table of Contents

Planning is the means by which the commander envisions a desired outcome, laysout effective ways of achieving it, and communicates to his subordinates hisvision, intent, and decisions, focusing on the results he expects to achieve.

(Plannlng) I. Fundamntals 1-l

I. The Naturc of Planning

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Ref: FM i0 Army Planning and Orders Production, chap. 1, pp. 1-1 to 1-15.Military operations are uncertain and unpredictable. They are complex endeavors-struggles between opposing human wills. Commanders face thinking and adaptiveenemies. They can never predict with certainty how enemies will act and react, orhow events will develop. Even friendly actions are difficult to predict because offriction, such as human mistakes and the effects of stress on individuals. Leaderswho understand the dynamic relationship that time and uncertainty have on enemyand friendly forces are befter equipped to develop effective plans Given thenature of operations, the object of planning is not to eliminate uncertainty but todevelop a framework for action in the midst of it.Full spectrum operations demand a flexible approach to planning that adaptsplanning methods to each situation. An effective planning process structures thethinking of commanders and staffs while supporting their insight, creativity, andinitiative. The Army uses three different, but related processes to guide planning:

Ref: FM 5-0, p 1-2.Nofe: See pp. 1-35 to 1-42 for a description of Army problem solving, pp. 2-1 to2-62 for the military decision making process (MDMP), and pp. 2-62 to 2-74 fortroop leading procedures (TLP).Army problem solving provides a standard, systematic approach to define andanalyze a problem, develop and analyze possible solutions, choose the bestsolution, and implement a plan of action that solves the problem. Problem solvingapplies to all Army activities and provides the base logic for the Army's two tacticalplanning processes: MDMP and TLP. The MDMP is more appropriate for headquar-ters with staffs. lt provides a logical sequence of decisions and interactionsbetween the commander and staff for developing estimates and effective plansand orders. At lower tactical echelons, commanders do not have staffs. Leadersat company level and below use TLP to plan and prepare for an operation.

l. Jundamentals oIPlannin

The outcome of planning is a plan or an order that:. Fosters mission command by clearly conveying the commander's intent. Assigns tasks and purposes to subordinates. Contains the minimum coordinating measures necessary to synchronize the

operation. Allocates or reallocates resources. Directs preparation activities and establishes times or conditions for execution

A. Science and Art of PlanningPlanning is both science and art. For example, many aspects of military operationsare quantifiable such as, movement rates, fuel consumption, and weapons effectsThey are part of the science of planning. Other aspects belong to the art ofplanning. The combination of forces, choice of tactics, and arrangement ofactivities, for example, belong to the art of planning. Effective planners understandand master both the science and the art of planning.

1. Science of PlanningThe science of planning encompasses aspects of operations-capabilities,techniques, and proceduresthat can be measured and analyzed. These includethe physical capabilities of friendly and enemy organizations and systems ltincludes a realistic appreciation for time-distance factors and an understanding ofhow long it takes to initiate certain actions. The science of planning includes thetactics, techniques and procedures (TTP) used to accomplish planning tasks andthe operational terms and graphics that compose the language of tactics. While noteasy, the science of planning is straightfomrard.Planners master the science aspect of military operations to understand thephysical and procedural constraints under which units operate. Because militaryoperations are an intensely human activity, planning cannot be reduced to aformula This fact necessitates understanding the art of planning

2. Art of PlanningThe art of planning requires understanding how the dynamic relationships betweenfriendly forces, adver-saries, and the environ-ment create complexity withinoperations. This understanding helps planners develop simple and flexible plans fora variety of circumstances. The art of planning includes knowing the effects ofoperations on soldiers. lt involves the cdr's willingness to take calculated risksPlanning requires creative application of doctrine, TTP, units, and resources. ltrequires a thorough knowledge and application of the fundamentals of fullspectrum operations (FM 3-0) and the art of tactics (see FM 3-90). The art ofplanning involves developing plans within the commander's intent and planningguidance by choosing from interrelated options, including:

. Types and forms of operations, forms of maneuver, and tactical mission tasks

. Task organization of available forces

. Arrangement of activities in time, space, and purpose

. Resource allocation

. Choice and arrangement of control measures

. Tempo

. Risk the commander is willing to takeThese options define a starting point from which planners create distinct solutionsto particular tactical problems. Each solution involves a range of options. Eachbalances competing demands and requires judgment. The factors of mission,enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, civilconsiderations (METT-TC) always combine to form a different set of circum-stances. There are no checklists that adequately apply to every situation1-2 (Planning) I. Fundamentals

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ll. Junilamenlals/Iunctions oI PlanningRef: FM 5-0, pp. 1-8 to 1-15.Effective planning is both art and science. lt can involve a detailed, systematicanalysis to produce an optimal COA. Alternatively, planning may be a rapid processthat reaches an acceptable COA quickly by considering only critical aspects of theproblem When planning under time-constrained conditions, the staff is usuallyresponding to existing conditions and needs a quick plan for immediate or nearfuture execution All planning takes time and must facilitate generating or maintain-ing the tempo the commander desires.

Ref: FM 5-0, pp.1-8to 1-12.Planning is a dynamic process of several interrelated activities. lt starts when thecommander receives or perceives a new mission. lt supports decision making byanalyzing the factors of METT-TC and by providing a context for developing situ-ational understanding. The outcome of planning is the commander's decision abouthow to conduct the operation After this decision, the staff continues planning bycreating an order or plan. Planning continues during preparation and execution,whether by refining the plan or by creating or refining branches and sequels.

Ref: FM 5-0, pp.1-12to 1-15Mission command requires plans that give subordinates the flexibility to exploitopportunities and respond to threats. Commanders decentralize planning to thelowest possible level so subordinates have maximum freedom of action A planshould not be a script that establishes specific actions and timetables. Suchscripting severely limits possibilities to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative whenunexpected threats or opportunities arise. A good mission order creates opportuni-ties for subordinates' initiative within the commander's intent and the circumstances

Commanders and staffs consider certain planning fundamentalsto assist them in developing effective plans:,l, Commanders focus planning* Planning is continuous* Planning is time sensitivew Keep plans simple* Build flexible plans* Design bold plans

Planning and plans accomplish several key functions:* Planning helps leaders think criticallyx Planning builds situational understanding, Planning helps leaders anticipates Planning helps simplify complexitys Plans designate task organization/resource allocation# Plans direct and coordinate actions* Plans guide preparation activities

(Planning) I. Fundamentals l-3

B. Planning as Paft of Command and ControlPlanning is part of the extended field of command and control. FM 6-0 describestwo C2 concepts, detailed command and mission command.

1. Detailed GommandDetailed command centralizes information and decision making authority. Ordersand plans are detailed and explicit. Successful execution depends on strictcompliance to the plan with minimal decision making and initiative by subordinates.Detailed command emphasizes vertical, linear information flow; information flowsup the chain of command and orders flow down. lt stems from the belief thatimposing order and certainty on the battlefield brings successful results. ln detailedcommand, commanders command by personal direction or detailed directive.ln detailed command, commanders impose discipline and coordination from aboveto ensure compliance with all aspects of the plan. Detailed orders may achieve ahigh degree of coordination in planning, however, after the operation has com-menced, it leaves little room for adjustment by subordinates without reference tohigher headquarters. Detailed command is not suited for taking advantage of arapidly changing situation. lt does not work well when the chain of command andinformation flow is disrupted. Detailed command is less effective in fluid militaryoperations requiring judgment, creativity, and initiative Because of these disadvan-tages, mission command is the Army's approved technique.

2. Mission CommandMission command is the conduct of military operations through decentralizedexecution based on mission orders for effective mission accomplishment.Successful mission command results from subordinate leaders at all echelonsexercising disciplined initiative within the commander's intent to accomplishmissions. lt requires an environment of trust and mutual understanding (FM 6-0).Mission command is the preferred C2 concept for planning. lt emphasizes timelydecision making, subordinates understanding of the commander's intent, and theclear responsibility of subordinates to exercise initiative within that intent.Mission command accepts the uncertainty of operations by reducing the amount ofcertainty needed to act. ln such a philosophy, commanders hold a "loose rein "allowing subordinates freedom of action and requiring initiative on their part.Commanders make fewer decisions, allowing them to focus decision making on themost important ones. Mission command tends to be decentralized, informal, andflexible. Orders and plans are as brief and simple as possible. Commanders rely onsubordinates' coordination ability and the human capacity to understand withminimum verbal information exchange. The elements of mission command are:

. The commander's intent

. Subordinates' initiative

. Mission orders

. Resource allocationEffective planning supports mission command by stressing the importance ofmission orders-a technique for completing combat orders that allows subordinatesmaximum freedom of planning and action in accomplishing missions and leaves the"how" of mission accomplishment to subordinates (FM 6-0). Mission orders statethe task organization, commander's intent and concept of operations, unit mission,subordinates'missions, and the essential coordinating instructions. Missionsassigned to subordinates include all normal elements (who, what, when, where,and why). However, they place particular emphasis on the purpose (why) in orderto guide, along with the commander's intent, subordinates' initiative.

1-4 (Planning) I. Fundamentals

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lll. Planning and llecision MalingRef: FM 5-0, pp. 1-6 to 1-7.

Decision making is selecting a course of action as the one most favorable toaccomplish the mission (FMnot all decisions require thedecisions during operationsand constant change. Somecomplete staff to create a fuother decisions very quickly. This results in a fragmentary order (FRAGo). whendeveloping plans, commanders normally choose between analytic or intuiiive meansof decision making.

1. Analytic Decision Making

Note: The Army's analytical approach to decision making is Army problem sotving(see pp. 1-35 to 1-42) and the MDMp (see chap. 2, pp.2-1 to 2_i4).The analytic approach to decision making serves well when time is available toanalyze all facets affecting the problem and its alytic decisionmaking consumes time and does not work well ally duringexecution, where circumstances often require i

2. lntuitive Decision Makinglntuitive decision making is the act of reachi tternrecognition based on knowledge, judgment,boldness, perception, and character. This a thesituation vice comparison of multiple options (FM 6-0). lt is used when time is shortor speed of decision is important. lntuitive decision making is faster than analyticdecision making in that it involves making decisions based on an assessment of thesituation rather than a comparison of multiple courses of action (COAs).lntuitive decision making is especially appropriate in time-constrained conditions. lt

time permits MDMp in a nment,many of the only one Cdecisions. E ;c decision nmaking help is and fills i

(Planning) I. Fundamentals l-s

C. Operational-level and Tactical-level PlanningIt is important to understand planning within the context of the levels of war Thelevels of war are doctrinal perspectives that clarify the links between strategicobjectives and tactical actions (see FM 3-0). The three levels are strategic,operational, and tactical, although there are no distinct limits or boundariesbetween them. The strategic and operational levels provide the context for tacticaloperations.Operational- and tactical-level planning complements each other but have differentaims. Operational-level planning focuses on developing plans for campaigns andmajor operations Planners at the operational level focus on operational art-the useof military forces to achieve strategic goals through the design, or organization,integration, and conduct of theater strategies, campaigns and major operations.Operational-level plans link the tactical employment of forces to strategic objec-tives.

Tactical-level PlanningTacticallevel planning revolves around battles and engagements conducted toaccomplish military objectives assigned to tactical units (see FM 3-90). Activities atthis level focus on tactics Tactics is the employment of units in combat. lt includesthe ordered arrangement and maneuver of units in relation to each other, theterrain, and the enemy to translate potential combat power into victorious battlesand engagements (FM 3-0), Tactical-level planning emphasizes flexibility andoptions. Planning horizons for tactical actions are relatively short. At the tacticallevel, comprehensive planning may be feasible only for the first engagement orphase of a battle; succeeding actions could depend on enemy responses andcircumstances. A key to effective tactical planning lies in anticipating and develop-ing sound branches and sequels.

Operational-level PlanningOperational-level planning involves broader dimensions of time and space thantacticallevel planning. lt is often more complex and less defined. Operational-levelplanners are often required to define an area of operations (AO), estimate forcesrequired, and evaluate the requirements for the operation. ln contrast, tactical-levelplanning proceeds from an existing operational design. Normally AOs are pre-scribed, objectives and available forces identified, and sequences of activitiesspecified for tactical-level commanders. Operational- and tactical-level planning,however, are not limited to particular echelons Major Army Command (MACOM)headquarters may engage in tactical planning, and echelons normally associatedwith tactical missions increasingly find themselves undertaking operational-leveldesign.

D. The Joint Operation Planning ProaessThe joint operation planning process (deliberate, crisis action, and campaign) isbeyond the scope of FM 5-0. However, Army forces operate in a joint environment,and Army leaders must understand joint operation planning. Army servicecomponent commands (ASCCs) routinely participate in joint operation planningincluding planning for the joint force land component. Corps and divisions performor participate in joint operation planning when serving as joint task force (JTF) orARFOR headquarters. Appendix I summarizes joint operations planning andprovides a joint formatted order as a quick reference for Army planners. JP 5-0covers joint operation planning in detail. Additionally, FM 100-7 outlines Armyoperational-level planning considerations./Vofe; See pp. 1-25 to 1-30 for an overview of the joint operation planning process

1-6 (Planning) I. Fundamentals

Ref: FM 5-0 Army Planning and Orders Production, chap 1, pp. 1-15to 1-27.Effective planning requires dedication, study, and practice. Planners must betechnically and tactically competent and understand basic planning concepts. Thissection discusses the key planning concepts that aid in effective planning.

ll. l(eU PlanningGonce[ts

Nested concepts

Sequencing operations

Control measures

Risk mitigation

Hasty and deliberate operations

lntelligence, surveillance andreconnaissance

Planning horizons

Parallel and collaborative planning

Forward and reverse planning

The one-third/two-thirds rule

Planning pitfalls

Ref: FM 5-0, chap 1-

(Planning) II. KeV Planning Concepts 1-7

l" nested ConcePtsAs part of the planning process, commanders visualize their battlespace

and

determine how to arrange tn"iiio'"""' The battlefield organization t",ff.:HTi':l3-0). PurPose

ommon focusbY determining

whether each unit's operation will be decisive, shaping, or sustaining' These

J""i.ion" form the basis of the concept of operations'The concept of operations describes how commanders see the actions

oftti plish the mission' As a minimum' thes uver and concept of fires The concept of

' lected course of action and expresses

o rate to accomplish the mission-(FM 3-0)Wherethecommander'sintentfocusesontheendstate'theconceptofoperationsfocuses on the method by which the operation uses and synchronizes

the BOS to

achieve the end state. Commanders ensure that the concept of operations is

consistentwithbothtneircommander'sintentandthatofthenexttwohighercommandersNested concepts is a planning technique to achieve unity of

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rin the higher commander's concept' A nesting

diagram provides a snapshot of the relationship of shaping operations to the

decisive operation. fne statf may choose to use this technique as a possible wayt" rt"ip

""lryt" the nigher heaJquarters' order and understand its mission' the

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B. $eflucnoing 0RerationsRef: FM 5-0, pp 1-16 to 1-17.Part of the art of planning is determining the sequence of activities that accomplishthe mission most efficiently. Commanders consider a variety of factors whendeciding on the sequence of an operation, the most important factor beingresources. Commanders synchronize subordinate unit actions in time, space, andpurpose to link the higher headquarters concept of operations with their ownoperational design. ldeally, commanders plan simultaneous operations against theenemy system's critical points throughout the AO. However, the size of the friendlyforce and resource constraints may limit the ability of commanders to executesimultaneous operations. ln these cases, commanders phase the operation

1. Phasinglf a force lacks the means to overwhelm an enemy in a single simultaneousoperation, then commanders normally phase the operation. Commanders concen-trate combat power at successive points over time, achieving the mission in acontrolled series of steps or phases. A phase is a specific part of an operation thatis different from those that precede or follow. A change in phase usually involves achange of task (FM 3-0). Phasing assists in planning and controlling operations.Considerations of time, distance, terrain, resources, and critical events contributeto the decision to phase an operation.lndividual phases gain significance only in the larger context of the operation. Linksbetween phases and the requirement to transition between phases are criticallyimportant. Commanders establish clear conditions for how and when thesetransitions occur An effective plan conceals these distinctions from opponentsthrough concurrent and complementary actions during transitions between phases.

2. Branches and SequelsOperations never proceed exactly as planned. An effective plan places a premiumon flexibility. Commanders incorporate branches and sequels into the overall plan togain flexibility. Visualizing and planning branches and sequels are importantbecause they involve transitions-changes in mission, type of operations, and oftenforces required for execution. Unless planned, prepared for, and executedefficiently, transitions can reduce the tempo of the operation, slow its momentum,and surrender the initiative to the adversary.A branch is a contingency plan or course of action (an option built into the basicplan or course of action) for changing the mission, disposition, orientation, ordirection of movement of the force to aid success of the current operation, basedon anticipated events, opportunities, or disruptions caused by enemy actions. Armyforces prepare branches to exploit success and opportunities, or to counterdisruptions caused by enemy actions (FM 3-0). Commanders anticipate and devisecounters to enemy actions to mitigate risk. Although anticipating every possiblethreat action is impossible, branches anticipate the most likely ones. Commandersexecute branches to rapidly respond to changing conditions.Sequels are operations that follow the current operation. They are future opera-tions that anticipate the possible outcomes-success, failure, or stalemate-of thecunent operations (FM 3-0). A counteroffensive, for example, is a logical sequel toa defense; exploitation and pursuit follow successful attacks. Executing a sequelnormally begins another phase of an operation, if not a new operation. Command-ers consider sequels early and revisit them throughout an operation. Without suchplanning, current operations leave forces poorly positioned for future opportunities,and leaders are unprepared to retain the initiative. Both branches and sequelsshould have execution criteria.

c. control lrleasurcsPlanners develop and recommend control measures to the commander for eachCOA being considered. Control measures are directives given graphically or orallyby a commander to subordinate commands to assign responsibilities, coordinatefires and maneuver, and control operations. Each control measure can beportrayed graphically. ln general, all control measures should be easily identifiableon the ground.Control measures help commander's direct action by establishing responsibilitiesand limits to prevent units from impeding one another and to impose necessarycoordination. They aid the cooperation among forces without imposing needlessrestrictions on their freedom of action. Control measures can be permissive (whichallows something to happen) or restrictive (which limits how something is done).Control measures may be graphical, such as boundaries, or procedural, such astarget engagement priorities or certain airspace control measures.Well-thoughlout control measures established in advance, facilitate freedom ofaction of subordinates and limit subordinates referring to higher headquarters forpermissions to act or not to act during operations. Commanders, however,establish only the minimum control measures necessary to provide essentialcoordination and deconfliction between units. Effective control measures imposethe minimum restrictions on subordinates. The fewer restrictions the more latitudesubordinates have to exercise subordinates' initiative. The commander removesrestrictive control measures as soon as possible. FM 1-02 discusses the rules fordrawing control measures on overlays, maps, and graphic displays, such asannotated aerial photographs.

D. Risk ReductionUncertainty and risk are inherent in tactical operations. Commanders cannot besuccessful without the capability of acting under conditions of uncertainty whilebalancing various risks and taking advantage of opportunities. Planning helpscommanders reduce uncertainty and risk. lt is a risk management tool.During planning, commanders and staffs perform risk management (see FM 100-14). They identify potential hazards to mission accomplishment and assess theprobability and severity of each hazard. Commanders determine the acceptablelevel of risk and express this determination in their planning guidance; The staffuses the commander's risk guidance as a guide for developing control measures toreduce identified hazards and for developing branches. Risk guidance is alsoincorporated into each COA developed, and in turn, each COA considered isevaluated by its acceptability. (Acceptability is the degree to which the tacticaladvantage gained by executing the COA justifies the cost in resources, especiallycasualties.)Because uncertainty exists in all military operations, every military decision incurssome risk. ln designing plans, the commander decides how much risk to acceptRisk reduction does not always mean increasing knowledge of the enemy at theexpense of time. A flexible plan can partially compensate for a lack of intelligenceUnclear situations may require increasing the depth of the security area, size andnumber of security units, or size of the reserve. Combat and movement formationsthat provide for initial enemy contact with the smallest possible friendly force mayalso be appropriate. Another way to compensate for increased risk is to allocatetime and resources for developing the situation to subordinate elements.

one of the first decisions commanders make when they receive a new mission ortuation is how much time and effort tonment of military operations means this

ing how time relates to planninotradeoffs between hasty and

es between hasty and deliberatee available for planning and prepara_

1. Hasty Operationsa commander directs his immediately, to perform activities with minimalon time for speed of execution (FM 3_a force encounters an unexpected

2. Deliberate Operationsh a commande/s detailed intelligencep and coordinate detailed plans,task-organizes his forces specificallyed combined arms team. He

conditions for the conduct of his decisiv" #:':illiPrilsiperations to set the

]f-e d::isio-n to plan an operation as hasty or deliberate is based on severalcompeting factors. These incrude the commanoeib current knowredge of thesituation and his assessment of whether *te a=.ets avairabre (incruding time) andmeans to coordinate and synchronize them can accomprish tn" ,i..i"".-ii ir.'!vcannot' the commander takes additionar time to pt"n, prup"r", or bring additionarforces.to be.ar on the probrem. This decision d;i;;in"" the extent to which theoperation will be hasty or deliberate.Analytic decision making normally suplanning and preparing for a deliberatminimum time necessary to assure a

incur calculated risks. Commandersr the possible advantages merit the

lntelligence, surveitance, and re-connaissance (rsR) combine the production ofintelligence with the coilection or inrormationiriro'ujn surveiilance and reconnais_

e of making a poor decision.

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lsR operations contribute significantly to the commander's visualization anddecision making. commanders aggressively seek information linked to criticaldecisions by employing ISR units and assets early in planning-usually well beforepublishing the plan. Employing ISR assets early improves planning quality byproviding the commander and staff with current information and confirming ordenying assumptions.lsR operations cut across the Boss. They demand an integrated combined armsapproach to planning, preparation, execution and assessment. Units conductingISR missions are normally first to employ, operating in unclear and vague situationscommanders make skillful yet aggressive use of their lsR assets because thereare never enough of them to accomplish all tasks They do this by setting priorities,primarily through their planning guidance and CCIR (FM 3-0).

G. Planning HorizonsTension exists between how far ahead commanders can plan effectively without

futurestaffs.

that areto

ensuring the command is focused on the right planning horizon.A planning horizon is a point in time commanders use to focus the organization'splanning efforts to shape future events. Planning horizons are measured fromweeks or months for operational-level commanders to hours and days for tactical-level commanders. organizations often plan within several different horizonssimultaneously. To guide their planning efforts, commanders use three planninghorizons-commitment planning (short-range), contingency planning (mid-range),and orientation planning (long-range). Commanders focus the staff on theappropriate planning horizon

1. Commitment PlanningCommitment planning is short-range focused under condition of relative certaintycommitment planning occurs when commanders believe they can reasonablyforecast events; assign resources, and commit to a particular plan. commitmentplanning directs the physical preparations necessary for action such as stagingsupplies, task organizing, and positioning of forces for execution. Commitmentplanning results in an OPORD or FRAGO.

2. Gontingency Planningln conditions of moderate certainty and within a mid-range planning horizon,commanders plan for several different possibilities without committing to any one(contingency planning). Units and resources are programmed-but not physicallycommitted-for several projected circumstances under conditions of moderateuncertainty Developing branches and sequels is normally the focus of contin-gency planning

3. Orientation PlanningBeyond the contingency planning horizon, ihe situation is too uncertain to plan forspecific contingencies. Commanders develop broad concepts addressing anumber of different circumstances over a longer time period This orientationplanning allows them to respond quickly and flexibly to a broad variety of circum-stances. Developing oPLANs in concept form for several scenarios in the distantfuture is an example of orientation planning.

1-12 (Planning) II. Key Planning Concpts

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H. Parallel anil Gollaboratiue PlanningRef: FM 5-0, pp.1-16to 1-17. Note; See also pp.2-59 and 2-64.Commanders ensure that plans are sent to subordinates in enough time to allowthem to adequately plan and prepare their own operations1. Parallel PlanningParallel planning is two or more echelons planning for the same operation nearlysimultaneously. lt is facilitated by continuous information sharing by the higherheadquarters with subordinate units concerning future operations Parallel planningrequires significant interaction between echelons. With parallel planning, subordi-nate units do not wait for their higher headquarters to publish an operations order tobegin their own planning and orders development processParallel planning emphasizes the early, continuous, and rapid sharing of planninginformation among subordinate, supporting, adjacent, and higher staff elements. Theresult of this continuous information sharing is that units at all echelons receiveinformation on a future mission early in the higher headquarters' planning processThis information sharing enables subordinates to begin planning concurrently withtheir higher hqs instead of waiting until the higher headquarters completes its plan

Ref: FM 5-0, fig 1-7, p.1-23-2. Gollaborative PlanningCollaborative planning is the real{ime interaction among commanders and staffs attwo or more echelons developing plans for a single operation Collaborativeplanning greatly speeds decision making by providing the higher commander withreal-time information about what subordinates can and cannot do. Collaborativeplanning enables subordinates to provide the higher commander with their currentassessment and status, and how they are postured for various operations Thisinformation helps the higher commander determine what is possible for subordinateunits. ln addition, collaborative planning allows sharing ideas and concepts for COAdevelopment Often, subordinates have insights into how an operation might unfold,based on their intimate knowledge of the enemy and terrainCollaborative planning is enabled by information systems that allow realtimeexchange of information by voice, and video. This capability allows commandersand staffs to collaborate throughout planning. Collaborative planning enhancesunderstanding of the commander's intent and plannrng guidance throughout theforce and decreases the time required for all echelons to complete a plan

(Planning) II. Key Planning Concepts 1-13

I. Forward and Reverse PlanningCommanders and planners use two planning techniques: forward planning andreverse planning.

1. Forward PlanningForward planning involves starting with the present conditions and laying outpotential decisions and actions fonrvard in time, identifying the next feasible step,the next after that, and so on Forward planning focuses on what is feasible in therelatively short term. ln foruvard planning, the envisioned end state serves as adistant and general aiming point rather than as a specific objective. Forwardplanning answers the question, where can we get to next?

2. Reverse PlanningReverse planning involves starting with the envisioned end state and workingbackward in time toward the present. Planners begin by identifying the last step,the next-to-last step, and so on They continue until they reach the step that beginsthe operation. Reverse planning focuses on the long-term goal. lt answers thequestion, where do we eventually want to get?

J. One-thid/Tiro-thirds RuleCommanders and staffs often underestimate the time required for directives topass through the echelons of an organization Effective planning demands issuingtimely plans to subordinates. Timely plans are those issued soon enough to allowsubordinates enough time to plan, issue their orders, and prepare for the opera-tions- Few factors are more important than giving subordinates enough time toprepare.Commanders follow the "one-third/two-thirds rule" to allocate time available forplanning and preparation: they use onethird of the time available for their planningand allocate the remaining two-thirds to their subordinates. However, moderninformation systems and parallel and collaborative planning techniques can enablecommanders to obtain more of a one-fifth/four-fifths planning ratio.

K. Planning PitfallsCommanders recognize both the benefits and the potential pitfalls of planning. Theyensure that planning is performed properly to avoid them. Planners' guard againstseveral common mistakes. These pitfalls generally stem from a common cause: thefailure to appreciate the unpredictability and uncertainty of military operations'Pointing these out is not a criticism of planning but of improper planning' Command-ers discipline the planning process and teach staffs the relevance of productcontent. Common pitfalls include:

. Attempting to forecast and dictate events too far into the future

. Delaying planning to gain more detailed information

. Planning in too much detail

. Using planning as a scripting process

. Applying planning techniques inflexibly

. Attempting to forecast events too far into the future

Ref: FM 3-0 Operations, chap. 5 and FM S-0, pp. 3-4 to 3-9.Battle command is the exercise of command in operations against a hostile, thinkingenemy. Skilled judgment gained from practice, reflection, study, experience, andintuition often guides it. The art of command lies in conscious and skillful exerciseof command authority through visualization, decision making, and leadership. Usingjudgment acquired from experience, training, study, and creative thinking, com-manders visualize the situation and make decisions. ln unclear situations, informedintuition may help commanders make effective decisions by bridging gaps ininformation. Through the art of command, commanders apply their values,attributes, skills, and actions to lead and motivate their soldiers and units.

Ref: FM 3-O, ftg. 5-1, p. 5-4.

Visualize, Describe, DirectVisualizing, describing, and directing are aspects of leadership common to allcommanders. Technology, the fluid nature of operations, and the volume ofinformation increase the importance of commanders being able to visualize anddescribe operations. Commanders' perspective and the things they emphasizechange with echelon. operational art differs from tactics principally in the scopeand scale of what commanders visualize, describe, and direct. Operationalcommanders identify the time, space, resources, purpose, and action of landoperations and relate them to the joint force commander,s (JFC's) operationaldesign. ln contrast, tactical commanders begin with an area of operations (AO)designated, objectives identified, the purpose defined, forces assigned, sustain-ment allocated, and time available specified.

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I. VisualizeCommander,svisualizationisthementalprocessofachievingaclearunderstand-

nt state with reing), and develnt and the keY

state to the end state (commanders inteno"tin. in planning and continues throug rceaccomplishes the mission.To visualize the desired outcome, commanders must clearly understand the

situation in the battlespace: what is the mission? what are the enemy's capabilitiesandlikelyactions?WhatarethecharacteristicsoftheAO?Doweatherandterrainfavor friendly or enemy actions? How much time is available? What combat,"*i"".upport (CSSifactors are most important? What role do civil consider-ations play? Thii framing of the battlespace takes.place during mission.analysisG";;ilt s-o;. Rooition"iiy' commanders draw on the principles of war' tenets ofoperations. and their experience'Nofe: See facing page for the principles of war and tenets of operations'

Operational FrameworkAftLr receiving a mission, commanders develop their initial commander's visualiza-tion.Duringmissionanalysis,theyvisualizeanoperationalframeworkbydefiningand arranging its three

"L*pon"ntt-"ea of operations (AO)' baftlespace' and

o"itr"ii"ro-org;nization (see FM 3-0). The operational framework helps command-ersvisualizethearrangementoffriendlyforcesandresourcesintime'space'andpurpose with respect to each other' the enemy or situation'

Factors of METT-TCThey consider the factors of mission, enemy, terrain and weather' troops andsupiort available, time available, and civil considerations (METT-TC)' staffesiimates, input from other commanders, experience' and judgment to developsituational understanding.Note: See p. 2-69 for a description of the factors of METT-TC'

Desired End StateFromthissituationalunderstanding,commandersdeterminethedesiredendstateand develop a construct of how tJ get from their current position to that desiredend state.

lnput from Other Commanders and StaffSubordinate,adjacent,andhighercommandersusesimilarfactorsbutdifferentp""tp".tlu". to visualize theiibattle the depth andlophistication of their visualizations r commanders'Advanced C2 systems support this manders to sharea common operational piciure (COP) | ut' in the form ofestimates, piovides focused analysis of the situation and its potential effects'

The Gommander's Experience and JudgmentCommandersconsiderthecontextoftheoperation,therelationshipofArmyforceswithin the joint team' and JFC-designated roles and missions'Experience, combined with situationsetting around which commanders vprovides the basis for the considered eways adapted to new situations' ln cirfewanswers,commanderscombinetheirexperience,intuition,andjudgmentwiththerecommendationsofthestaffandsubordinatestocreatenewstrategies.

1-16 (Plannins) IIL Battle Gommand

Ihe ]oundations ol Amy 0RerationslUisualizelRef: FM 3-0, chap. 5.

The Principles of WarUnderstanding the principles of war and tenets of Army operations is fundamentialto operating successfully across the range of military operations. The principles ofwar and tenets of Army operations form the foundation of Army operationaldoctrine.A. The Principles of WarThe nine principles of war provide general guidance for conducting war andmilitary operations other than war at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels.The principles are the enduring bedrock of Army doctrine. The US Army publishedits original principles of war after World War L ln the following years, the Armyadjusted the original principles, but overall they have stood the tests of analysis,experimentation, and practice.

The Tenets of Army OperationsThe tenets of Army operations

- initiative, agility, depth, synchronization, and

versatility -

build on the principles of war. They further describe the characteris-tics of successful operations. These tenets are essential to victory. While they donot guarantee success, their absence risks failure.

1. Objective2. Offensive3. Mass4. Economy of force5, Maneuver6. Unity of command7. Security8. Surprise9. Simplicity

Ref: FM 3-0, pp. 4-1 1 to 4-1 5.

1.lnitiative2. Agility3. Depth4. Synchronization5. Versatility

Ref: FM 3-0, pp 4-15to 4-18

(Planning) IU. Battle Gommand l-U

Ilements of 0Rerational llesignlllescfi[elRef: FM 3-0, chap. 5.

A major operation begins with a design-an idea that guides the conduct (planning,preparation, execution, and assessment) of the operation. The operational designprovides a conceptual linkage of ends, ways, and means. The elements of operationaldesign are tools to aid designing major operations. They help commanders visualizethe operation and shape their intent. See FM 3-0 for the fundamentals of full-spectrumoperations, to include the elements of operational design

Ref: FM 3-0, p 5-61. End State and Military ConditionsAt the strategic level, the end state is what the National Command Authorities want thesituation to be when operations conclude

- both those where the military is the

primary instrument of national power employed and those where it supports otherinstruments. lt marks the point when military force is no longer the principal strategicmeans At the operational and tactical levels, the end state is the conditions that, whenachieved, accomplish the mission. At the operational level, these conditions attain theaims set for the campaign or major operation.2. Center of Gravity (COG)Centers of gravity are those characteristics, capabilities, or localities from which amilitary force derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or will to fight Thecenter of gravity is a vital analytical tool in the design of campaigns & major operationsOnce identified, it becomes the focus of the cdr's intent and operational design

3. Decisive Points and ObjectivesA decisive point is a geographic place, specific key event, or enabling system thatallows commanders to gain a marked advantage over an enemy and greatly influencethe outcome of an attack Decisive points are not centers of gravity; they are keys toattacking or protecting them Normally, a situation presents more decisive points thanthe force can control, destroy, or neutralize with available resourcesSome decisive points are geographic, for example, a port facility, transportationnetwork or node, or base of operations. Events, such as commitment of the enemyoperational reserve, may also be decisive points Once identified and selected foraction, decisive points become objectives

4. Lines of OperationsLines of operations define the directional orientation of the force in time and space inrelation to the enemy. They connect the force with its base of operations and itsobjectives. An operation may have single or multiple lines of operation. A single line ofoperations concentrates forces and simplifies planning. Multiple lines of operationsmake it difficult for an enemy to determine the friendly objectives and force him todisperse resources against several possible threats.A force operates on interior lines when its operations diverge from a central point Aforce operates on exterior lines when its operations converge on the enemy. Whenpositional reference to an enemy or adversary has little relevance, commanders mayvisualize the operation along logical lines.

5. Culminating PointCulminating point has both operational and tactical relevance ln the offense, theculminating point is that point in time and space where the attacker's effective combatpower no longer exceeds the defender's or the attacker's momentum is no longersustainable, or both. Beyond their culminating point, attackers risk counterattack andcatastrophic defeat and continue the offense only at great peril Defending forcesreach their culminating point when they can no longer defend successfully or counter-attack to restore the cohesion of the defense. The defensive culminating point marksthat instant at which the defender must withdraw to preserve the force. Cdrs tailortheir information requirements to anticipate culmination early enough to either avoid it or,if avoiding it is not possible, place the force in the strongest possible posture.

6. Operational Reach, Approach, and PausesGood operational design balances operational reach, operational approach, andoperational pauses to ensure the force achieves its objectives before it culminates.Commanders carefully assess the physical and psychological condition of friendly andenemy forces, anticipate culmination, and plan operational pauses if necessary. Cdrsaim to extend operational reach while avoiding culmination and operational pausesOperational reach is the distance over which military power can be employed deci-sively. Operational approach is the manner in which a commander attacks the enemycenter of gravity. Operational pause is a deliberate halt taken to extend operationalreach or prevent culmination.

7. Simultaneous and Sequential OperationsThe sequence of operations is closely related to the use of resources. ARFORcommanders synchronize subordinate unit actions in time, space, and effects to link thetheater strategy and design of joint major operations to tactical execution. Without thislinkage, major operations deteriorate into haphazard battles and engagements thatwaste resources without achieving decisive results.Simultaneous operations place a premium on information superiority and ovenivhelmingcombat power. Sequential operations achieve the end state by phases

8. Nonlinear and Linear OperationsNonlinear operations are now more common than ever. Stability operations and supportoperations are normally nonlinear.

9. TempoTempo is the rate of military action Controlling or altering that rate is necessary to retainthe initiative. Army forces adjust tempo to maximize friendly capabilities. Commandersconsider the timing of the effects achieved rather than the chronological application ofcombat power or capabilities. Tempo has military significance only in relative terms.When the sustained friendly tempo exceeds the enemy's ability to react, friendly forcescan maintain the initiative and have a marked advantage.

1. End state and military conditions2. Center of gravity3. Decisive points and objectives4. Lines of operation5. Culminating point6. Operational reach, approach and pauses7. Simultaneous and sequential operations8. Linear and nonlinear operations9. Tempo

1-18 (Planning) UI. Battle Gommand (Planning) III. Battle Command 1-19

II. DescribeTo describe operations, commanders use operational framework and elements ofoperational design to relate decisive, shaping, and sustaining operations to timeand space. Commanders clarify their description, as circumstances require Theyemphasize how the combination of decisive, shaping, and sustaining operationsrelates to accomplishing the purpose of the overall operation. When appropriate,commanders include deep, close, and rear areas in the battlefield organization.Whether commanders envision linear or nonlinear operations, combining theoperational framework with the elements of operational design provides a flexibletool to describe actions Cdrs describe their vision in their cdr's intent and planningguidance, using terms suited to the nature of the mission and their experience

Cdr's Intent, Planning Guidance and CCIRDuring the MDMP, commanders describe their commander's visualization throughthe commander's intent, planning guidance, and commander's critical informationrequirements (CCIR). Commanders describe an operation in terms suited to theirexperience and nature of the mission.Note; See following pages (pp 1-22 to 1-23) for an overview of these terms.Operational FrameworkThey use an operational framework and the elements of operational design todescribe the relationship of decisive, shaping, and sustaining operations to timeand space (see FM 3-0). They emphasize how the combination of decisive,shaping, and sustaining operations relates to accomplishing the purpose of theoverall operation./Vofe; See facing page for an overuiew of the operational framework.

Elements of Operational DesignThe elements of operational design are tools that help commanders visualizeoperations and shape their intent. They provide commanders a framework toconceptually link ends, ways, and means. While the elements of operational designgive commanders a framework to think about operations, their usefulness andapplicability diminishes at each lower echelon. For example, a corps commandermay consider all the elements of operational design, while a brigade commandermay focus his visualization on decisive points, objectives, and tempo. A battalioncommander may focus on a decisive point and objectives. See FM 3-0 for a fulldiscussion on the fundamentals of full-spectrum operations, to include theelements of operational designNote: See previous pages (pp. 1-18 to 1-19) for a description of the elements ofoperational design.

IIL DilctCommanders direct throughout the operations process. Their directions takedifferent forms during planning, preparation, and executions During planning,commander guide their staff during the MDMP, preparing mission orders, andestablishing control measures.During the MDMP, commanders direct when they select a COA and communicatethat decision to subordinates in a plan or order. They or their staff analyzes eachpossible COA for suitability, feasibility, and acceptability to select COAs for furtheranalysis After COA analysis and COA comparison using screening and evaluationcriteria developed during MDMP, commanders select or approve the COA.Commanders also direct when they issue and revise planning guidance

1-20 (Planning) III. Battle Command

0Rerational ltamewofi [llescfi belRef: FM 3-0, Jun 2001, p.4-21 to 4-27.

Battlefield OrganizationAs part of the military decision-making process, commanders visualize theirbattlespace and determine how to arrange their forces. Battlefield organization isthe allocation of forces in the Area of Operation (AO) by purpose:Decisive Operations Directly achieves mission of the higher HHQ; conclusively

determines the outcome of major operations, battles & engagements. There isonly one decisive operation for any major operation, battle, or engagement forany given echelon.

Shaping Operations Creates the conditions for the success of the decisiveoperation lncludes lethal and nonlethal activities conducted throughout the AOat any echelon. Reserves shape until committed Reconnaissance and securityare also shaping operations.

Sustaining Operations. Sustainment operations are operations at any echelonthat enable shaping and decisive operations by providing combat servicesupport, terrain management and infrastructure developmets.

Deep, Glose and Rear AreasDespite the increasing nonlinear nature of operations, there may be situationswhere commanders describe decisive, shaping and sustaining operations in spatialterms. Typically, linear operations involve conventional combat and concentratedmaneuver forces.Deep Area Forward of close area; Shape enemy forces before their arrival in the

close areaGlose Area. Area where close combat is imminent or in progress; decision

produced through maneuver & firesRear Area. Generally behind close areas, operations assure freedom of action

and continuity of operations

(Planning) III. Battle Command 1-21

llirect - Baillelield 0Rerating $ystemsRef: FM 3-0, pp. 5-15 to 5-17.

1. lntelligenceThe intelligence system plans, directs, collects, processes, produces, and dissemi-nates intelligence on the threat and environment to perform intelligence preparation ofthe battlefield (lPB) and the other intelligence tasks Other intelligence tasks includesituation development, target development and support to targeting, indications andwarning, battle damage assessment, and support to force protection.

2. ManeuverManeuver systems move to gain positions of advantage against enemy forces.lnfantry armor, cavalry and aviation forces are organized, trained, and equippedprimarily for maneuver. Commanders maneuver these forces to create conditions fortactical and operational success. By maneuver, friendly forces gain the ability todestroy enemy forces or hinder enemy movement by direct and indirect application offirepower, or threat of its application.3. Fire SupportFire support consists of fires that directly support land, maritime, amphibious, andspecial operations forces in engaging enemy forces, combat formations, and facilitiesin pursuit of tactical and operational objectives. Fire support integrates and synchro-nizes fires and effects to delay, disrupt, or destroy enemy forces, systems, andfacilities. The fire support system includes the collective and coordinated use oftarget acquisition data, indirect-fire weapons, fixed-wing aircraft, electronic warfare,and other lethal and nonlethal means to aftack targets. At the operational level,maneuver and fires may be complementary in design, but distinct in objective andmeans.

4. Air DefenseThe air defense system protects the force from air and missile attack and aerialsurveillance.Ground-based air defense artillery units protect deployed forces andcritical assets from observation and attack by enemy aircraft, missiles, and un-manned aerial vehicles. The WMD threat and proliferation of missile technologyincrease the importance of the air defense system Theater missile defense is crucialat the operational level.

5. Mobility/Countermobility/SurvivabilityMobility operations preserve friendly force freedom of maneuver. Mobility missionsinclude breaching obstacles, increasing baftlefield circulation, improving or buildingroads, providing bridge and raft support, and identifying routes around contaminatedareas. Countermobility denies mobility to enemy forces. Survivability operationsprotect friendly forces from the effects of enemy weapons systems and from naturaloccurrences. Military deception, OPSEC, and dispersion can also increase survivabil-ity. NBC defense measures are essential survivability tasks.

6. Combat Service SupportCSS includes many technical specialties and functional activities. lt includes the useof host nation infrastructure and contracted support. CSS provides the physicalmeans for forces to operate, from the production base and replacement centers inthe continental US to soldiers engaged in close combat.

7. Command and GontrolC2 is the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commanderover assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission.

1-24 (Planning) III. Battle Gommand

lU. lointPlanningRef: FM 5-0 Army Planning and Orders Production, app I.Joint planning is focused at the strategic- and operational-levels of war. Whilecorps and below Army units normally conduct Army tactical planning, Army forcesfrequently participate in or conduct joint operations planning. For example, Armyservice component commands (ASCCS) routinely participate in joint operationplanning, to include developing plans as the joint force land component. Corps anddivisions perform joint operations planning when serving as a joint task force (JTF)or ARFOR headquarters. Corps, divisions, and brigades, directly subordinate to aJTF, participate in joint operations planning and receive joint-formatted orders. Armyleaders serving in headquarters above baftalion should understand the jointplanning process and are familiar with the joint format for plans and orders.

I. Tlpes of Joint PlanningJoint operation planning directs the military strategic use of military forces to attainspecified objectives for possible contingencies. Joint operation planning isconducted through the chain of command, from the President and Secretary ofDefense to combatant commanders, and is the primary responsibility of theChairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and combatant commanders.

;

T Ref: FM 5-0, pp. l-2 to l-3 and JP 5-0, tig l-2, p. l-3(Planning) IV. Joint Planning 1-25

t;ttIrFTt;tr;Irt;T;T;IlttITF;I

ff. Joint Planning Concepts

Joint operation planning includes the preparation of operation plans (OPLANs),concept plans (CONPLANs), functional plans, campaign plans, and operationorders by joint force commanders. Joint operation planning encom-passes the fullrange of activities required for conducting joint operations, to include the following:A. Mobilization PlanningPrimarily a responsibility of the Services, mobilization planning assembles andorganizes national resources to support national objectives in times of war and inmilitary operations other than war.

B. Deployment PlanningDeployment planning is the responsibility of the combatant command in closecoordination with US Transportation Command.

C. Employment PlanningEmployment planning prescribes how to apply force to attain specified militaryobjectives. Employment planning concepts are developed by the combatantcommanders through their component commands.

D. Sustainment PlanningSustainment planning provides and maintains levels of personnel, materiel, andconsumables required to sustain the planned combat activity for the duration of theactivity at the desired intensity.

E. Redeployment PlanningRedeployment planning transfers units, individuals, or supplies deployed in onearea to another, to another location in the area, or to the zone of interior (JP 5-0)

Joint operation planning is an integrated process using similar policy and proce-dures during war and military operations other than war. lt provides orderly andcoordinated problem solving and decision making. During peacetime, the processsupports the thorough and fully coordinated development of deliberate plans.During crisis, the process is shortened, as necessary to support the dynamicrequirements of changing events. During wartime, the process adapts to accom-modate greater decentralization of joint operation planning activities.Joint Operations Planning and Execution System(JOPES)lnteroperable planning and execution systems are essential to effective planningfor joint operations. Activities of the planning community must be integrated throughan interoperable joint system that provides uniform policy, procedures, andreporting structures supported by modern communications and computer systems.The system designed to provide this is the Joint Operations Planning and ExecutionSystem (JOPES).Nofe: See following pages (pp 1-28 to 1-30) for an overview of JOPES.

1-26 (Plannlng) IV. Joint Planning (PlannhS) Ill. loint Planning 1-27

coordinate the execution of an operation

lll. Ty[es ol loint PlansRef FM 5-0, PP. l-3 to I-4 and JP 5-0'

Deriberate pran ?i,:::lT:':fr,',,n:T.":'",'J"as an OPLAN,(TPFDD)), or a ^..--^*i-

rs request supporting plans to

their detiberate supporting ::Tb:tTi::Il::::::;"l?:r".:HiJi::nt force commanders' component comiranders' or other agencies'

1. OPLANecific

o theand

oRD)'

2. Goncept Plan (GONPLAN) Yr'"t1"t:lJ:-:1""*. or arteration toOPORD' A CONPLAN contains aand those annexes and aPPendices

ilities plan (JSCP) or deemed necessaryPlanning'Phased force and dePloYment data

(TPFDD)

nt ofomPellingthe near

term.

4. Functional Plans (for examPle'tions, or continuitY ofsive environment Aeacetime oPerations

istance, or counterdrug operations'

5. OPORDPrepared under joint procedures in prescribed formats during CAP' OPORDS

are tn

the form of a directive iJ; ;t a command to subordinate commanders to

1. OPLAN2. CONPLAN Without TPFDD3. CONPLAN With TPFDD4. Functional Plan (FUNCPLAN)5. OPORD

;r;I;HI;I;I;;

;

I;Iilr;;

ElU.loint ORerations planninu andIrecution System ll0pl$l 0uerviewRef: JP 5-0 and FM S-0, app. t, pp. t-2 to t_3.Note: For additionat information on JopES, see The Joint Fo