the age of revolution (1750-1914) -...

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION (1750-1914)

In this unit, you will learn about the "Age of Revolution" and how this period transformed the world politically and economically. Political revolutions broke out on three continents - North America, Europe and South America. Both the American and French Revolution were the products of Enlightenment ideas that emphasized the ideas of natural rights and equality. They challenged the traditions and structures of the Old Regime. This was an exciting time when empires were broken apart, kings were overthrown, new democracies emerged, dictators rose and fell, devastating wars were waged, and new social structures were forged. As a result, the world moved much closer to what it is today.

The Industrial Revolution was an economic revolution that dramatically changed the way things were

Robespierre is executed by guillotine during the French Revolution.

produced. It unleashed forces that transformed people's ways of living. Imperialism then carried many of these changes overseas to the peoples of Africa and Asia.

Chapter 14. The Age of Democratic Revolution. In this chapter, you will learn about the American and French Revolutions and the independence of Latin America. They brought great political changes as well as decades of bitter conflict. In the early nineteenth century, peace was restored but the continuing contest between the forces of change and resistance remained just below the surface.

Chapter 15. The Industrial Revolution. In this chapter, you will learn about the conditions that led to economic changes in Europe and America in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The industrialization of Europe led to the unification of Italy and Germany as well as the rise of new social movements.

Chapter 16: Imperialism: Europe Reaches Out. In this chapter, you will learn about the causes and impact of European imperialism in the 19th century.

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THE AGE OF DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION

•History l(E) Describe the Enlightenment's impact on political revolutions. • History 9(A) Compare the causes, characteristics, and consequences of the

American and French Revolutions, emphasizing the role of the Enlightenment, the Glorious Revolution, and religion.

• History 9(8) Explain the impact of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Wars on Europe and Latin America.

• History 9 (C) Trace the influence of the American and French Revolutions on Latin America, including the role of Simon Bolivar.

• History 9(D) Identify the influence of ideas such as separation of powers, checks and balances, liberty, equality, democracy, popular sovereignty, human rights, constitutionalism, and nationalism on political revolutions.

• Geography 16(A) Locate places and regions of historical significance directly related to major eras and turning points in world history.

• Government 19(8) Identify the characteristics of ... a democracy and republic. •Government 20(8) Identify the impact of political and legal ideas contained in ... the

Declaration of Independence, the U.S. Constitution, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

•Citizenship 21(A) Describe how people have participated in supporting or changing their governments.

• Citizenship 21 (8) Describe the rights and responsibilities of citizens and non-citizens in civic participation throughout history.

• Citizenship 21 (C) Identify examples of key persons who were successful in shifting political thought, including William Wilberforce.

In this chapter, you will learn about the causes of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. You will explore their impact on history, especially in Europe and Latin America. You will also learn about the origins of nationalism.

SOCIAL STUDIES TERMINOLOGY IN THIS CHAPTER

• AtMericat1 Revolutiot1 • Peclaratiot1 of Rights of Mat1 • Cot1gress of Viet1t1a • Peclaratiot1 of lt1depet1det1ce • Robespierre • Jalat1ce of Power • U.S. Cot1stitutiot1 • Natiot1al AssetMbly • Natiot1alistM • Checks at1d Jalat1ces • Liberty, Equality, Fraternity • Mettert1ich • Louis XVI • CotMtMittee of Public Safety • SitM6t1 Jolivar • Fret1ch Revolutiot1 • Reigt1 of f error • foussaittt l'Ouverture • Estates ~e.,eral • Napoleot1 Jot1aparte • WilliatM Wilberforce

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UNLAWFUL TO PHOTOCOPY CHAPTER 14: The Age of Democratic Revolution 217

Q- How were the American and French evolutions alike and different?

0- Was the violence of the French Revolution justified?

0- Was Napoleon Bonaparte's impact more harmful or beneficial?

0- How did Latin American colonies achieve their independence?

- IMPORTANT IDEAS -A. During the American Revolution (1775-1783), the American colonists fought

for their independence from Great Britain. Traditions of English political liberty, such as the legacy of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the ideas of John Locke and other Enlightenment writers influenced their thinking. The Declaration of Independence reflected many of these Enlightenment ideas.

B. In the U.S. Constitution, Americans adapted the ideas of Montesquieu to create a new republican government based on a separation of powers among the branches of government and a system of checks and balances.

C. Social divisions, Enlightenment ideas, and a severe financial crisis triggered the French Revolution. When the King asked the nobles to give up their tax exemptions, they demanded a meeting of an Estates General.

D. Once the Estates General met, the deputies of the Third Estate declared themselves as the National Assembly. The storming of the Bastille prevented the King from using force against them. The National Assembly abolished hereditary privileges, wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, and wrote a new constitution turning France into a constitutional monarchy.

E. King Louis XVI refused to cooperate. He was overthrown and executed.

F. France was soon at war with Europe. French leaders introduced mass conscription and a Reign of Terror. Later, radical leaders themselves were executed.

G. Napoleon Bonaparte defeated France's enemies and seized power in 1799. Later, he crowned himself emperor. Napoleon spread the achievements of the French Revolution throughout Europe, but he also created anti-French feelings and stirred new nationalist feelings by his conquests.

H. Napoleon was defeated after his failed invasion of Russia. The allies restored Louis XVIII and other rulers. At the Congress of Vienna, the allied leaders redrew the borders of Europe to achieve legitimacy and a balance of power.

I. During the period from 1815 to 1848, European leaders like Metternich crushed revolutions and stifled the rising nationalist spirit in Europe.

J. The American and French Revolutions influenced Latin America. Leaders like Simon Bolivar led the fight for independence from Spain.

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fHE AMERICAN REVOLUflON

ORIGINS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Since the founding of Jamestown in 1607, the American colonists had been subjects of Great Britain. This meant that they were entitled to all the rights of Englishmen gained in the Magna Carta (1215), the English Civil War (1642-1649), the Glorious Revolution (1688), and the English Bill of Rights (1689).

In the course of the 18th century, the colonists became involved in Britain's global contest with France for commercial and naval power and colonies. Britain protected the American colonists from Indian attacks and their French neighbors in Canada. During the French and Indian War (1754-1763), the British defeated the French. France was forced to surrender Canada to Britain. As a result, the colonists no longer feared the threat of a French invasion. They also hoped to expand settlements westward into the Ohio River Valley.

The French and Indian War.

However, the British government had different concerns. The British government had run up a massive debt during the French and Indian War. The British government introduced various ways to tax the colonists, but each time the colonists objected. The colonists felt that tJ:tese new taxes had been imposed without their consent, violating their rights as English subjects. No one thought that the colonists could be represented in Parliament in London - which was too far away. Instead, the colonists favored greater self-government, while the British Parliament felt it should be able to tell the colonists what to do.

ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION Religious beliefs, the legacy of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and Enlightenment ideals all influenced the outbreak of the American Revolution. For example, churches were places where colonists often gathered, and some ministers delivered sermons critical of the British government.

The Glorious Revolution had demonstrated that English subjects could be justified in overthrowing an oppressive ruler. John Locke and later Enlightenment philosophers made the colonists think it was unjust for the government to tax them without considering their views. The cry, "taxation without representation is tyranny" went up throughout the colonies.

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To prevent unrest, the British government sent in more troops. They gave up on many taxes, but insisted the colonists pay a duty (tax) on tea to help the struggling East India Company. A group of colonists, disguised as American Indians, climbed on board a ship carrying some of this tea, and dumped it into Boston Harbor. The British responded by closing the harbor.

Colonists sent representatives to Philadelphia to discuss the growing problem. In

Boston Tea Party ( 1773).

1775, violence finally erupted near Boston between British troops and colonial volunteers. From Massachusetts, the war quickly spread to the other colonies. An English writer, Thomas Paine, published a pamphlet, Common Sense, applying the Enlightenment idea of reason to the problem. Paine argued that it was reasonable for the colonies, so far from England, to become independent. In 1776, the colonists in fact declared their independence .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ACTING- AS AN AMATEUR HISTORIAN In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson put forth many of the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers:

f(a A 1 e fwtif tliese trutfis to 6e self-evilknt, tfiat al[ men are create/ equal, p Y V tliat tfiey are entfowetl 6y tfieir Creator witfi certain 'llna£iena6fe

1?.jgfits, tfiat amo11£J tliese are Life, Li6erty antl tfie pursuit of !Jlappiness. '11iat to secure tliese rigfits, (jovernments are institute/ among Men, tleriving tfieir just powers from tfie consent of tlie governetl. '11iat wfienever any :Form of (jovernment 6ecomes tlestructive of tliese enJs, it is tfie rigfit of tfie Peopfe to alter or abofisli it, antl to institute new <jovernment ... n

Which Enlightenment ideas did Jefferson use in this opening paragraph?

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• New demands were now heard in other parts of the world. Many Enlightenment reform

ers in Europe supported the American Revolution. They saw it as the realization of their own ideas.

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220 MASTERING THE TEKS IN WORLD HISTORY UNLAWFUL To PHOTOCOPY

Volunteers like the Marquis de Lafayette from France and Tadeusz Kosciuszko from Poland traveled to America to assist the colonists. They also helped persuade the King of France to ally with the colonists in their dispute with Britain. The French thirsted for revenge for their defeat in 1763 and the Joss of Canada. In Ireland, groups demanded more rights from the English government in imitation of the colonists.

Shortly after winning their independence in 1783, the Americans sent representatives to a Constitutional Convention. The basic challenge faced by the authors of the Constitution was to create a strong national government, but not so strong that it would threaten individual liberties. The new U.S. Constitution created a system in which power was shared between the national government and state governments. The Constitution further divided the three different types of government powers - legislative, executive, and judicial - among three separate branches of government, as advocated by the Enlightenment thinker Baron de Montesquieu.

In addition, the new Constitution gave each of these government branches several ways to "check" the other branches (known as the system of "checks and balances") in order to ensure that no one branch became too powerful or tyrannical. Later, a Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution to include protections of individual liberties. Finally, ultimate power rested with the people who elected officials - creating a system of popular sovereignty, where the people are supreme.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION The American Revolution ended in 1783 when Britain signed the Treaty of Paris with the new United States. Only six years later, the desire for change crossed the Atlantic Ocean and erupted in France. Paris became the center of this revolutionary explosion, sending shock waves throughout Europe.

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Historians still debate whether the French Revolution could have been avoided, or whether it was inevitable. Most historians agree that changes in French society were needed, but they disagree on whether or not the changes could have taken place through peaceful reform or whether a violent revolution was necessary.

FRENCH SOCIAL DIVISIONS Old Regime French society was divided into three classes or "estates." The First Estate was the clergy - consisting of priests and Church officials. The Second Estate was the nobility. The nobles held many special privileges, such as being exempt from many taxes and having the right to collect feudal dues. Nobles also served as officers in the army and held high positions at court.

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The Third Estate, the largest of the three estates, was made up of the common people. This estate included the bourgeoisie - the middle classes of merchants, professionals, and shopkeepers. It also included urban workers and the largest group in France - the peasantry.

THE IMPACT OF ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS Enlightenment ideas made many Frenchmen unwilling to accept the divine right of kings and the privileged positions of the Church and nobility. Many bourgeoisie, influenced by their rising wealth and Enlightenment ideas, resented the special privileges of the nobles. Many liberal nobles and clergy actually shared their beliefs. Although there was censorship, a flourishing "underground" press poked fun at the King and his unpopular queen, Marie Antoinette.

FINANCIAL CRISIS

THE THREE ESTATES IN FRANCE, 1789 60%--------------

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FIRST ESTATE

SECOND ESTATE

THIRD ESTATE

The financial system of France was based on tradition. Different social classes and even different geographical regions paid different tax rates. For example, some provinces had joined France later in history and had been given special rights. Towns and provinces taxed each other 's goods, hurting trade. Over time, the King had sold off the rights to collect many taxes to "tax farmers" and office-holders. By the late 1700s, many saw this whole system as outdated and unfair. Although France was actually a wealthy country, the government did not have an efficient means for taxing this wealth.

To finance their wars with Britain, French ministers had relied heavily on borrowing. Because of the high costs of helping the American colonists during their war for independence, the Crown now faced a severe financial crisis. By 1786, France's finances were in a desperate situation. The finance minister informed the King he could no longer obtain any more loans. To deal with the problem, The Estates General first met at Versailles in May 1789. the king's ministers summoned the nobility to Paris in 1787 for a special Assembly of Notables. The government suggested that the nobles surrender their privileges to help the Crown pay off its debts.

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The nobles said that before they could take any such step, the government must hold an Estates General - a national assembly in which each of the three social classes was represented in its own chamber.

No Estates General had met since 1614. The nobles felt they would be able to control the Estates General, since the First and Second Estates would vote similarly. King Louis XVI gave in to their demands. Elections were held all over France to select delegates from the different estates. People became very excited as they debated issues and drew up instructions for the delegates.

MAIN EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION What began as a contest for power between the king and the nobles quickly turned into a struggle over the future of the monarchy and the existence of hereditary privileges. In the course of the revolution, power shifted first to the liberal nobles and moderate bourgeoisie, then to the radical shopkeepers and craftsmen, and finally back to the bourgeoisie.

Because of the greater number of people in the Third Estate, they elected twice as many delegates to the Estates General as the First and Second Estates. Enlightenment thinkers like Abbe Sieyes wrote that only the Third Estate repre

Storming of the Bastille.

sented the "productive and useful citizens" of the nation. Sieyes called the nobles and clergy mere parasites. When the Estates General met in May 1789, the delegates from the Third Estate quickly declared themselves to be a National Assembly.

The King sought to break up the Assembly. When word of this attempt reached the people of Paris in July, they seized the royal prison known as the Bastille in a search for weapons. The King, fearful of popular unrest, reluctantly recognized the new National Assembly.

In August 1789, the National Assembly abolished the privileges of the nobles. They also confiscated Church lands to pay off the state's debts. The Assembly next issued a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, proclaiming that government rested on the consent of the people (popular sovereignty), not on the divine right of the king. The Declaration also announced that all Frenchmen were "free and equal." The slogan of the Revolution became "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity." A written constitution was drafted and adopted, creating a national legislature and making France a constitutional monarchy. A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which the monarch 's power is shared with a popular assembly and is limited by law and tradition.

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••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ACflN& AS AN AMAfEUR fflSfORIAN The Declaration of the Rights of Man was a basic document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all French citizens.

1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. 2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural rights of

man. These rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. 3. The principle of all sovereignty resides in the nation. No body nor individual may

exercise any authority which does not [come] directly from the nation. 4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence

the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights.

5. Every citizen has a right to participate personally or through his representative in [the law's] formation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to [serve in] all public positions.

6. No person shall be accused, arrested or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law.

7. As all persons are innocent until they shall be declared guilty: if arrest shall be [necessary], all harshness not essential to securing the prisoner shall be limited.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • t • • • % • • • • • • • • • t • • • • * Which provisions of the Declaration of the Rights of Man took away the hereditary :

privileges of the nobility? : •

- - ----------- ------------------- . • • - - ----------- ------ ------------- . • * How was the Declaration of the Rights of Man similar to and different from the •

Declaration of Independence? : • • --- ----- ------ ---------- --------. • --------- ----------------------- . • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

THE REVOLUTION TAKES A RADICAL TURN Meanwhile, there was a poor harvest in 1789. Hungry Parisians marched to the King's palace at Versailles in October 1789, and dragged the royal family back to Paris.

For a short time, it seemed the King might accept the changes brought by the revolution. In July 1790, Louis XVI took an oath to the Constitution. However, in June 1791, Louis and his family tried to escape. They were caught and returned to Paris. Soon after, the monarchy was overthrown and France became a republic- a government without a king, in which citizens are given the right to elect their representatives. Under a new constitution, every adult male in France could vote. A single-chamber legislature, known as the Convention, was elected. Louis XVI was put on trial for crimes against his people and executed in 1793.

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224 MASTERING THE TEKS IN WORLD HISTORY

The new French republic was seen as a threat by other European rulers. Since 1792, France had been at war with other European countries. Parts of France were in open rebellion, and it seemed that France might lose the war until a Committee of Public Safety took over in 1793. The Committee began a "Reign of Terror." They were directed by Robespierre and other radical leaders, who were idealistic followers of Rousseau. They felt they needed to use force to achieve their goals. The Committee of Public Safety used savage repression to crush the rebels. Laws were passed allowing the government to arrest anyone. People even lost the right to defend themselves. Nobles, Catholic priests, and other suspected traitors were executed. Historians estimate as many as 40,000 suspects may have been killed.

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In 1793, the Convention executed Louis XVI.

Meanwhile, France needed to raise a large army to fight against neighboring European powers. France introduced mass conscription, requiring all males to serve in the army. France's large armies and other forceful measures turned the tide of the war. Once the risk of losing the war ended, the Convention turned against its leaders. Afraid for their own safety, Convention members seized Robespierre and his followers, who were executed. The terror ended and power shifted back to the moderates.

The Revolution challenged the idea of the divine right of kings and the privileges of the nobility in Europe.

The Revolution stood for democratic government and social equality. Political power in France shifted from the king and his nobles to the bourgeois class.

IMPACT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION l The Revolution removed feudal restrictions from France, clearing the way for the creation of a modern capitalist economy.

Both the American and French Revolutions served as models for citizens in other countries seeking political change.

APPLYING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED What conditions made the French Revolution different from the American Revolution?

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COMPARISON OF THE AMERICAN AND FRENCH REVOLUTIONS

+ Issues of taxation helped spark each revolution. In each revolution, Enlightenment ideas contributed to the popular desire for more rights and liberties. The American Revolution was based on Locke; the French Revolution on Rousseau.

+ Each revolution sought to establish democratic principles of government. The American Revolution established a limited democracy in which only propertyowners could vote. During its radical phase, the French Revolution established a democracy of all adult males.

+ The American Revolution guaranteed freedom of religion; the French Revolution challenged the role of the Catholic Church.

+ Both revolutions established republican governments, although the French Republic did not last. It was replaced by the dictatorship of Napoleon and then by Louis XVIII.

+ The American Revolution overthrew a distant colonial ruler. In the French Revolution, the people overthrew their own existing social order.

+ Both revolutions led to violence. However, the French Revolution proved much more violent than the American Revolution.

:"":-llllfLEARNING WITH GRAPHIC ORGANIZER<• JI

Complete the graphic organizer below by describing some of the major aspects of the French Revolution.

Impact of Enlightenment Ideas France's Financial Crisis

KEV ASPECTS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

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._ Declaration of the Rights of Man The 11 Reign of Terror"

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THE RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) came from the lower nobility on the island of Corsica. As a imy, he had been sent to military school in France. Napoleon prayed t~ be one of the most gifted generals of all times. He developed new tactics for mass armies in the Age of Revolution.

THE RISE OF NAPOLEON After the fall of Robespierre, France remained at war with Britain, Austria, and Russia. Under Napoleon's leadership, French armies invaded Italy and defeated the Austrians in 1797. His rapid movements took his enemies by surprise.

Wherever French armies went, they acted as liberators, helping local "patriots" against their former rulers. The French set up new republics in Holland, Switzerland, and Italy. In 1799, Napoleon seized power in France, where the government had become unpopular. He then negotiated a peace with the other powers, including Britain.

Napoleon used this breathing space to introduce domestic reforms, including a new legal code combining traditional laws with the changes of the revolution. He also reached a settlement with the Catholic Church. Napoleon attempted to combine the social reforms of the Fren\ f Revolution with his own absolute power.

Five years later, Napoleon crowned himself emperor in December 1804. He was again at war with

NAPOLEON'S EUROPEAN EMPIRE, 1810

• French Empire

0 French satellite kingdoms

Q French Allies

• Nations hostile to Napoleon

QNeutrals

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

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Europe. By the end of 1805, Napoleon had defeated all of the other powers except Britain. He created a new French empire covering much of Europe. Napoleon put his relatives and friends in power in Italy, Germany, Holland, Poland, and Spain.

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THE FALL OF NAPOLEON I

Napoleon's mighty ambitions united most of Europe against him. His inability to invade England, economic problems in Europe caused by his attempted boycott of British goods, and the unpopularity of French rule throughout Europe created increasing strains on his empire. His conquests and wars awakened nationalist feelings in Britain, Spain, Germany, Italy, and Russia.

In 1809, the people of Spain rebelled against Napoleon's brother, whom Napoleon had put on the throne. In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with his "Grand Army" of more than 600,000 men, the largest army ever assembled up to that time. He defeated the Russians, but Tsar Alexander I refused to surrender. As winter approached, the Russians burned Moscow to the ground rather than provide shelter and supplies to the French army. Napo"" leon's forces were defeatecfon their retreat by the bitter Russian winter. Faced with typhus, hunger, and suicide few survived the long march back to France.

NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN, 1812

R U S S I

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Napoleon himself returned to Paris to prevent rising discontent. After his failure in Russia, the other European powers combined to overthrow him. Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria formed a coalition, which was also joined by smaller states. The allies invaded France early in 1814. When Napoleon would not make concessions, the allied powers brought back the old French royal family. The new king, Louis XVIII, granted his subjects a charter that guaranteed the people their basic civil rights and a national legislature.

Napoleon was sent into exile. He suddenly reappeared in March 1815 and took over France for a brief time. He was defeated again at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. This time, the allies imprisoned him on a distant island in the Atlantic, where he died in 1821 .

THE IMPACT OF NAPOLEON Although Napoleon ruled France for only fifteen years, he had a tremendous impact on France, Europe and the rest of the world. 1

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NAPOLEON'S IMPACT ON FRANCE, EUROPE, AND THE WORLD

France. Napoleon created stability by establishing the Code Napoleon, a law code that consolidated such achievements of the Revolution as social equality, religious toleration, and trial by jury.

Europe. Napoleon seized a large portion of Europe, introducing the ideas of the French Revolution and ending feudal restrictions and serfdom wherever he conquered. For example, his conquests in Germany led to the liberation of Jewish citizens from traditional restrictions.

The World. French rule stimulated the growth of nationalism. Napoleon weakened Spain, causing it to lose its colonial empire in Latin America. He sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States in 1803.

APPLYING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED Was Napoleon a positive or negative force in world history? Support your answer with specific examples.

RESTORING THE OLD ORDER After the defeat of Napoleon, the chief European rulers met in Paris and then at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) to redraw the boundaries of Europe. Their main objective was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. They invited all the other states of Europe to participate.

THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA The allies restored many former rulers and borders, bringing Europe back in some measure to the way it had been before the French Revolution. At one level, this gathering of crowned heads was a triumphant celebration of the defeat of Napoleon. Against a brilliant backdrop of balls, concerts, and festivities, the allied leaders of Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia met privately, keeping all of the major decisions in their own hands.

Diplomats meet at the Congress of Vienna.

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The allies sought to establish a balance of power - a sys-

( Boundary of German Confedera11on

tem in which no single power like France could become so powerful that it could threaten to dominate the other countries in the system. To accomplish this pur- ATLANTIC

pose, Belgium was given OCEAN

to the Netherlands, the Rhineland to Prussia, Genoa to Savoy, and Northern Italy to Austria. The leading powers disagreed about Poland and Germany. The Tsar wanted to take all of Poland and give Saxony

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

to Prussia as compensation. Britain and Austria feared the growth of Russian power and signed a secret treaty with their old enemy, France, to resist some of these demands.

Fortunately for the allies, they reached a compromise just before Napoleon reappeared. The Congress also dealt with many other issues, including steps to abolish the slave trade and the rights of German Jews. Later in 1815, the allied statesmen agreed to hold further meetings and to cooperate to resist revolutionary change.

William Wilberforce, an English reformer and devout Christian, was horrified by the plight of slaves. He was responsible for leading the fight to abolish slavery in England. In 1807, he persuaded Parliament to pass the Slave Trade Bill, which banned the slave trade. At his request, the British delegate at Vienna pressed France and Spain to also abolish the slave trade. Later, Wilberforce achieved the abolition of slavery itself throughout the British Empire in 1833.

THE SPIRIT OF NATIONALISM

William Wilbe1force

Nationalism is the belief that each nationality (ethnic group) is entitled to its own government and national homeland. The French Revolution had ignited the spirit of nationalism throughout much of Europe by teaching that each government should be based on the will of the people. Napoleon's conquests also inspired nationalist resentment against the French. Despite the stirrings of nationalism, the statesmen at the Congress of Vienna failed to take into account the desire of many people to control their own governments. Instead, they favored legitimacy - maintaining traditional rulers. As a result, many European peoples were still not united; others lived under foreign rule.



, .................................................... . : ACTING- AS AN AMATEUR HISTORIAN • • With which of these statements about the Congress of Vienna ; would you most in agree? Explain your answer. ' • • • • • • • ' • ' • • • • • • ' • • ' • • •

"1815 is the one and only time in European history when statesmen sat down to construct a peaceful international system after a great war and succeeded. This astonishing accomplishment in international politics made possible much of the change and progress in 19th century European society."

- Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics

"[T]here was certainly no lack of awareness of the strength of national feeling in Germany, Poland and Italy, and by failing to take it into account in their arrangements the architects of the settlement defeated their own purpose and sowed the seeds of untold problems in the future."

-Adam Zamoyski, The Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna

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THE METTERNICH -ERA (1815-1848) Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria was one of the leading statesmen at the Congress of Vienna. He was instrumental in establishing a system that prevented attempts at nationalism or political change in Europe. The allies held several "Congresses" until 1822 to suppress revolutions. The thirty years following the Congress of Vienna witnessed a series of unsuccessful revolutions in Italy, Germany, and Poland. In each of these countries, national groups sought to achieve independence but were defeated by the armies of Austria or Russia. However, in two cases nationalism triumphed: Greece and Belgium both achieved their independence in 1830. France overthrew the restored monarchy and established a new constitutional monarchy in the same year.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 The year 1848 is considered one of the turning points of the 19th century. In 1848, the constitutional monarchy of France was overthrown and a new French republic was created. Events in France inspired a new wave of revolutions in Italy, Gerf11any, Austria and Hungary. Revolutionaries in ~ome of these countries sought to establish their pwn unified nation.

Cheering crowds during the upheavals of 1848.

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German liberals even elected representatives to a "Parliament" in Frankfurt representing the entire German nation. These liberals offered the crown of a united Germany to the King of Prussia, but he refused their offer. By 1849, the tide began to tum. The Austrian army, with Russian support, proved too powerful for the revolutionaries. Each revolutionary regime collapsed, except in France, where Napoleon's nephew took power and proclaimed himself as Napoleon III.

THE INDEPENDENCE OF LATIN AMERICA One of the most far-reaching effects of the American and French Revolutions was that they led to the independence of Latin America.

THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE

ABUSES OF THE COLONIAL SYSTEM In the late 18th century, the Spanish and Portuguese colonial system caused increasing unrest in Latin America. Although the Creoles were the descendants of Europeans, they had been denied political power and resented European-born Peninsulares. The colonists also resented Spanish economic restrictions that made it difficult for them to trade directly with countries other than Spain or to manufacture their own goods.

REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS SPREAD TO LATIN AMERICA Both the American and French Revolutions spread revolutionary ideas to Latin America. These revolutions taught that people should be entitled to a government that protected their interests. During the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the colonists in Latin America had to govern themselves. When Napoleon was defeated in 1814, the King of Spain was restored to his throne. He re-imposed the old colonial system, prohibiting the colonists from trading directly with Britain or other countries except Spain. Latin American leaders refused to return to Spanish rule and demanded independence. Brazil declared its independence from Portugal in 1823. By 1824, Latin American independence was firmly established.

Toussaint L'Ouverture led an uprising of African slaves in 1791, forcing the French out of Haiti - making Haiti t he first Latin American colony to achieve independence.

Jose de San Martin worked to liberate Argentina and Chile from Spanish rule in the years 1816 to 1818.

l.r

LEADERS IN THE WARS FOR INDEPENDENCE I Simon Bolivar defeated Spanish forces between 1819 and 1825, liberating Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

Miguel Hidalgo, a priest, began a rebellion against Spanish rule in Mexico in 1810, but the uprising failed. Mexico later achieved its independence in 1821. Ir

Name Date _______ _

232 MASTERING THE TEKS IN WORLD HISTORY UNLAWFUL TO PHOTOCOPY ,;

BOLIVAR AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE Simon Bolivar (1783-1830), was born in Venezuela and became known as the "Liberator." A Creole aristocrat who trained in a military academy, he emerged as the most important leader in the struggle for the independence of South America from Spain. Bolf var also left a legacy of military control over political affairs in South America.

In 1813, Bolf var led the fight for the independence of Venezuela. His Decree of War to the Death threatened those who opposed him and sided with Spain. In 1815, Bolfvar was forced to flee South America. He fled to Jamaica, where he defined his goals and appealed for English help. He next visited Haiti, where the government gave him support in exchange for his promise to abolish slavery. In 1817, he returned to South America and with Haitian support Simon Bolfvar

recaptured New Granada. He used this area as a base to liberate Venezuela and Ecuador. In 1819, Bolfvar joined together Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia in the newly independent country of Gran Colombia. He established himself as its first President, and set out to unite all of South America. Bolivar next joined with Argentine leader Jose San Martin and sought the liberation of Peru. In 1824, Bolivar successfully defeated Spanish forces.

The Monroe Doctrine, issued by the United States in 1823, also helped protect the newly independent countries of South America by warning European powers against further intervention. Bolfvar's dream was to create a democratic South American federation like the United States. However, in 1828 he declared himself dictator just as Napoleon had done in France. In 1830, Bolivar resigned the Presidency, and died shortly thereafter.

APPLYING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED

Use the events described in this section about Simon Bolfvar to create a timeline of the major events in his life. Add two additional events from your research on the Internet or in your school of public library. For example, you might have found that in 1804, Bolivar personally witnessed Napoleon's imperial coronation in Paris.

1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830

Name _____________________ Date ________ _


CHAPfER 9fUDV CARDS ------------------------------9------------------------------~

American Revolution

* Colonists objected to the British government's imposing new taxes without their consent: "taxation without representation." * Colonists were influenced by religion, legacy of the Glorious Revolution and Enlightenment philosophers like John Locke. * Declaration Independence, written mainly by Jefferson, applied Enlightenment ideas. * U.S. Constitution established a stable government with a separation of powers, as suggested by Baron de Montesquieu. * Impact. The success of the American Revolution encouraged outbreak of French Revolution; also led to the rise of independence movements throughout Latin America.

French Revolution

* Causes: Inequality among Estates (sodal classes); severe financial crisis; spread of Enlightenment ideas questioned privileges. * Louis XVI summoned the Estates General (clergy, nobles, commoners) to vote on new taxes in 1789 to relieve the financial crisis. * Third Estate declared itself a National Assembly, they issued the Declaration of Rights of Man. * Bastille: Citizens stormed the Bastille. * Convention executed Louis XVI in 1793. * France at war with most of Europe. * Robespierre launched revolutionary Reign of Terror against all dissenters; introduced mass conscription (draft).

I I I I I I I I

~

~------------------------------+------------------------------~ Napoleon Bonaparte/ Napoleonic Wars

* General during French Revolution; seized power in 1799; declared himself emperor. * Napoleonic Code combined traditional laws with principles of the Revolution. * Introduced French revolutionary ideas to other European countries. * Conquered most of Europe; attacked Russia but invasion ended in defeat; his army was defeated by a coalition of European rulers. * Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). Allies restored rulers (legitimacy) and established a "balance of power" to prevent any one country from being dominant .

Latin American Independence

* Enlightenment ideas, the success of the American Revolution and the outbreak of the French Revolution encouraged Latin American leaders to seek independence. * Free blacks and slaves of Haiti rebelled and achieved independence. * When France occupied Spain during the Napoleonic Wars, Latin American colonies governed themselves. * In 1814, King of Spain tried to impose old restrictions on Latin American commerce. * Latin American leaders, led by Simon Bolivar, fought Spain to win independence.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ACTING- AS AN AMATEUR HISTORIAN In this chapter, you learned about some of the events surrounding the American and French Revolutions, the independence of Latin America, and the early nationalist rebellions in post-Napoleonic Europe. Revolutionary and government leaders played key roles in these events.

From the list on the following page, select one leader or statesmen. Then complete the questionnaire that follows. Finally, prepare a two-page report on this leader or roleplay the part of this person in a speech delivered to your classmates.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••lCONlINUEDI



••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Abbe Sieyes Jose de San Martin Klemens von Metternich

Jean Paul Marat Louis XVI of France Napoleon Bonaparte

Maximilien Robespierre Prince Talleyrand Miguel Hidalgo

Toussaint l'Ouverture Lord Castlereagh Simon Bolivar

Thomas Paine Marquis de Lafayette Mary Wollstonecraft

William Wilberforce Manuela Saenz Alexander I of Russia

, Name of Person selected: ----------------------

Background about the person:---------------------

Major beliefs/views:------------------------

. ---------------------------------~ • : Achievements/Significance: ______________________ ~

• . ---------------------------------~ • • . -----------------------------------• . -----------------------------------• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

CHECK IN& YOUR UNDERSf ANDIN& Directions: Put a circle around the letter that best answers the question.

1 Historians often try to learn about a particular historical event by studying the artwork of the period. What is the best conclusion that can be drawn from this painting? A The French Revolution saw an erup-

tion of popular violence. B The painter opposed the outbreak of

the French Revolution. C The French people were united against

the rule of Louis XVI. D Ordinary French citizens were angered

by years of abuse by the Catholic Church. (Cult 26(8) )

Siege of the Bastille, by Jean-Pierre-Louis-Laurent Houel

Name _____________________ Date _______ _


J;xAMINE. This question tests your ability to interpret a histor ica l artwork. The painting shows crowds storming and burning the Bastille, a prison in Paris. 1SECALL that crowds attacked the Bastille to obtain arms when it was rumored that Louis XVI would dismiss the Estates General. APPLY what you know and you will see that the picture shows popular violence during the French Revolution. It does not show that the painter opposed the Revolution or that the people were united or angry at the Catholic Church. The best answer is Choice A, since the painting shows the chaos and violence often associated with the French Revolut ion.

Now try answering some additional questions on your own.

2 Many French people supported Napoleon because they believed that he would -F introduce the ideas of the Protestant Reformation ( Hist 9{B) )

G restore Louis XVI to power H provide stability and defeat France's enemies J end British control of France

3 Which list of European leaders is in the correct chronological order? A Louis XIV~ Napoleon~ Robe~pierre ~Metternich B Robespierre~ Metternich -7 Napoleon -7 Louis XVI C Louis XVI~ Robespierre~ Napoleon~ Metternich D Napoleon ~ Metternich ~ Louis XVI ~ Robespierre

( Hist 9(A) )

Use the circle graphs and your knowledge of social studies to answer the following question.

4 Based on these two circle graphs, which statement is most accurate? F The three estates in

France owned land equally.

THE THREE ESTATES IN FRANCE: 1789

G The Second Estate was the most numerous of the three.

H The First and Second Estates had landholdings out of proportion to their population

J size. The combined population of the First and

THIRD ESTATE

97%

Population by estate

Second Estates was larger than the Third Estate.

THIRD ESTATE

55%

Land ownership by estate

( Hist 9{A) )

Name Date--------


5 Which was an important effect of the American Revolution? A France lost its control of North America. ( Hist 9(C) )

B Americans recognized the rights of slaves. C Latin American leaders drew inspiration from the Americ;an Revolution. D The British were able to repay their debts from the French and Indian War.

6 Simon Bolfvar, Jose de San Martfn, and Toussaint l'Ouverture were important individuals in Latin American history because they were -F conquerors of pre-Columbian Empires ( Hist 9{C) )

G leaders in the struggle for independence H active in converting Native Americans to Christianity J influential Enlightenment thinkers

7 A major goal of the allied statesmen at the Congress of Vienna was to -A establish democratic governments throughout Europe ( Hist 9(B) )

B maintain a balance of power in Europe C return Napoleon Bonaparte to power D support nationalist movements in Poland, Italy, and Germany

8 What was one major impact of the French Revolution? F Belief in the divine right of kings was strengthened. ( Hist 9(C) )

G Protestants broke away from the Catholic Church. H Colonists in Latin America demonstrated their independence. J Europeans avoided armed conflicts for a generation.

Use the passage and your knowledge of social studies to answer the following question.

"If the mainspring of popular government in peacetime is virtue, in revolution it is both virtue and terror: virtue without terror is fatal; terror without virtue is powerless."

- Robespierre in a speech before the Convention, February 1794

9 What conduct was Robespierre trying to justify in this speech? A French conquests in the rest of Europe ( Hist 9(A) )

B the use of violence against political opponents C the execution of Louis XVI D the protection of individual rights against claims by French royalists

10 After the defeat of Napoleon, allied leaders reacted to the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars by attempting to -F restore several old regimes to power ( Hist 9(8) ) G spread the idea of democracy H encourage nationalist movements J promote a European free-trade zone

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UNLAWFUL TO PHOTOCOPY CHAPTER 14: The Age of Democratic Revolution 23 7

Use the maps and your knowledge of social studies to answer the following question.

Possessions

British, Dutch, and French

D Spanish

~ Portuguese

Possessions

• British, Dutch, and French

D Independent

11 Based on these maps of South America, which statement is accurate? A All of South America was independent by 1828. ( Geog t6(C) )

B Many regions of South America gained their independence between 1790 and 1828.

C Spain continued to acquire South American colonies in the 19th century. D Between 1790 and 1828, Sou th American political boundaries remained unchanged

except for Brazil.

Use the passage and your knowledge of social studies to answer the following question.

"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good .... "

- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789

12 Which principle of the Enlightenment is expressed in this quotation from the Declaration of the Rights of Man? F natural law H free trade ( Hist t(E) )

G nationalism J socialism

13 One way in which Robespierre and Napoleon were similar was that they both -A played an important role at the Congress of Vienna B led armies against the Haitians C took power during different stages of the French Revolution D were executed for treason by French monarchs

( Citi 21(C) )

the age of revolution (1750-1914) -...

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