the administrative service of malawi - a case study in africanisation

The Administrative Service of Malawi - A Case Study in AfricanisationAuthor(s): Colin BakerSource: The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Dec., 1972), pp. 543-560Published by: Cambridge University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/160013 .

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The Journal of Modern African Studies, Io, 4 (I972), PP. 543-60

The Administrative Service

of Malawi- a Case Study in Africanisation

by COLIN BAKER*

MALAWI has her origins, as a separate state, in the British Central Africa Protectorate, declared in 1891 to prevent the Portuguese from claiming the Lake Malawi region. In 1907 the Protectorate was renamed Nyasaland, a title which was retained until independence in I964. It is with the few years before independence, and the eight years since, that this article is concerned, and it deals with the Africanisation of the Administrative Service during this period.

Functionally, the work of the Service has always been divided between the headquarters, where it has been concerned with co- ordination and policy formation, and the districts, where it has been a mixture of local government, security, tax collection, and development, the proportions varying with the times and often with the individual administrators. The basic nature of the work changed very little during the first six decades of the twentieth century, and historically was rather like a sandwich of development enclosed between two substantial slices of law and order. Initially, the emphasis was on pacification, on ending the slave trade and internecine warring. Then followed a longish period of development, slow and unco-ordinated, not very impressive to start with, but gathering momentum as a result of the financial benefits of the 1929 Colonial Development Act, the 1940 and subsequent Colonial

Development and Welfare Acts, and the Central African Federation. It was the imposition of this in I953, however, which brought back the concentration - far from exclusive, but none the less marked - on law and order.

Opposition to Federation was closely interwoven with the steps taken towards political independence for Malawi. Briefly, these were: the return of Dr H. Kamuzu Banda inJuly 1958; the Emergency declared in March 1959; the appointment of the first two African members of the Executive Council in October I959; the release from detention of Banda in April I960; the introduction of an elected ministerial system of government late in I961; the Monckton Commission Report, and

* Deputy Director, Institute of Administration, University of Ife, Ibadan.



subsequent abandonment of the Federation at the end of I963; and independence in July I964. These political moves were paralleled by administrative progress towards Africanisation.

In I953 the first hesitant step was taken towards breaking the ex-

patriate monopoly of administrative posts - a Malawian was appointed as District Assistant, after an experimental period in which he had been

'gradually entrusted with a number of the routine duties which usually fall to an Assistant District Commissioner'. He was 'a middle-aged senior clerk of considerable personal standing', and the Government felt that District Assistants 'should be mature men, not under thirty, with general experience of work under Government, ability beyond those of the ordinary senior clerk...and some existing standing in African society'.1 His resignation within a few months of his promotion - to become a Federal Member of Parliament- fortunately did not

prevent similar appointments being made within a short time. Four others were promoted in 1955, and by 1958 there were eight Malawian District Assistants2- although all were members of the Executive and not the Administrative Class. In November 1959, however, four of them were promoted to be Administrative Officers.3

Another step was taken early in 1960 with the creation of a locally based civil service providing for the appointment of officers irrespective of race,4 and in August of the same year a Localisation Committee was

appointed. Their October I960 report formed the starting point of accelerated Africanisation.

THE LOCALISATION REPORT, 1960

The Nyasaland Localisation Committee, under the chairmanship of A. L. Adu, Head of the Civil Service of Ghana - seven years previously, a member of the Working Party on Africanisation in the Gold Coast5 - was charged with

carrying out a comprehensive examination of the existing structure and staffing of the Civil Service, of reviewing the training facilities available and of considering... a progressive and effective programme of localizing the base of the Civil Service... within the limitations imposed by finance, the educational system, available trained local personnel, competing demands on such personnel and any other relevant factors.6

1 T. D. Thomson, Domasi Community Development Scheme, 949g-g954 (Zomba, I955), pp. 8- 9. 2 Nyasaland Government, Staff List, 1958 (Zomba), p. 73. 3 Ibid. 1960, p. 5I. 4 Nyasaland, Legislative Council Proceedings (Zomba), 75th Session, ist Meeting, July I960,

p. 6. 5 Cf. A. L. Adu, The Civil Service in Commonwealth Africa (London, I969). 6 Report of the Localization Committee (Zomba, I960), p. 7.

544 COLIN BAKER



THE ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE OF MALAWI 545 The policy which emerged in discussions between the Government

and the Committee was that Africanisation should proceed at the

greatest possible speed, and should aim at eventually producing sufficient trained and suitable Malawians to fill all civil service posts; promotion should be on the basis of seniority, merit, and experience, with no retrenchment or supersession of expatriates, except 'in certain circumstances' (not specified) when accelerated promotion, 'particularly in the higher levels', would be possible. The Government was confident that Africanisation could be accomplished solely by the

replacement of expatriate officers, as vacancies occurred, without any effect upon their service, and by ordinary promotion.1

The Committee dwelt at great length on the Administrative Service because they felt that the way the Government handled this would determine the stability of the Civil Service as a whole; the present time

provided optimum conditions for Malawians to benefit from the ex-

perience of expatriates, and there should be no delay in taking advantage of this. Delay was 'more dangerous than the calculated risk of having faith in the ability of carefully selected non-graduates, after adequate professional training, to measure up to the challenge of the new era'.2

It was recognised, however, that there were special problems about Africanisation at this level. In the first place, the Administration was

particularly sensitive to political and constitutional changes, and it was felt that many expatriates would wish to retire. Secondly, Malawians would regard self-government as a contradiction in terms, unless there were plans to replace expatriate administrators by Africans. Thirdly, it was considered that multi-function District Officers would continue to be needed, and that expansion would occur in the Ministries, so that additional staff would be required. Fourthly, the shortage of local

graduates - there were only 27 employed in the country at that time3 - from whom recruits could be drawn, made it unlikely that by normal means any substantial reinforcement could be relied upon by promotion of non-graduates from the Executive Class.

Having examined these special difficulties, the Committee made two

major and related recommendations: that there should be no further

expatriate recruitment into the Administrative Officer grade, and that a School of Administration should be set up to train local candidates.

Apart from two cadets already on a course in England preparing to go to Malawi, no more expatriates were recruited as Administrative Officers on permanent and pensionable terms; but subsequently some

1 Ibid. p. 8. 2 Ibid. pp. 47-52. 3 JVyasaland: Reportfor the rear, 1960 (London, 1961), p. 102.



546 COLIN BAKER

30 others were appointed on contract. The second recommendation, however, was followed: the Institute of Public Administration (later renamed the Staff Training College) was established in 1962, and closely followed the Zaria pattern which had been proposed by the Committee.

THE PROCESS OF AFRICANISATION

In I960, of the 122 officers in the Administrative Service, only four were Malawians; two years later, the number of expatriates had increased by three and Malawians by one. In 1965, however, a year after independence, the situation was very different: there were 67 expatriates, and 60 Malawians - although they were entirely confined to the lowest level. Since then each year has seen a decrease in the total number of expatriates, and an increase in the number of Malawians in each of the hierarchical levels of the Administrative Service, as may be seen from Table I. At the beginning of 1972, out of a total of 158, only 25 officers or 15 per cent were expatriates.

The method and pace of Africanisation have been closely determined

by the personal views of President Banda, who has repeatedly made it clear that he does not propose to Africanise merely for the sake of it.1

Except for a few early holders of politically sensitive posts (such as the

Secretary for African Affairs,2 the Provincial Commissioners, and the District Commissioner of an area where shooting had taken place during the Emergency),3 and except for a few incompatible personalities, no

expatriates were required to resign. Nor has any Malawian been appointed without being either a university graduate or professionally trained, unless - as in a very few cases - he had long or specialised ex-

perience in administration. Similarly, promotions have taken place only after advanced training, or after a relatively lengthy period of service.

Not only were political pressures to Africanise absent, but the physical need - which would have arisen if there had been a near-total exodus of expatriates - did not occur. A number of factors combined to per- suade many of them to remain in the Administrative Service. The reasons why an officer left or stayed were intensely individual; but,

1 For example, in an Open Letter to Civil Servants, dated 25 February I963; Legislative Council Proceedings, 76th Session, 7th Meeting, March 1963, p. 590; Proceedings of Parliament

(Zomba), 3rd Session, 4th Meeting, January 1966, p. 452; ibid. 6th Session, ist Meeting, October I968, pp. 13-I4; and ibid. 8th Session, Ist Meeting, July I97I, p. 22.

2 The dislike of politicians for the post of Secretary for African Affairs had been expressed several years previously; e.g. Legislative Council Proceedings, 72nd Session, 3rd Meeting, March 1958, p. 29, and 73rd Session, Ist Meeting, July 1958, p. I60.

3 Ibid. 76th Session, ioth Meeting, December 1963, p. I008.



THE ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE OF MALAWI 547

TABLE I

Africanisation of the Administrative Service, I96o-721

Administrative Senior Principal Under Officer Admin. O. Admin. O. Secretary

Year M E A M E A M E A M E A

I960 4 88 92 - 7 7 - 8 8 - 2 2 1962 5 83 88 7 7 8 8 7 7 I965 60 9 79 - I3 I3 - I4 14 - 6 6 I967 80 20 I00 - 5 5 6 12 I8 7 8 I5 I969 70 io 80 2 3 5 23 I4 37 7 7 14 I970 81 io 91 3 2 5 21 Ii 32 8 7 I5 I97I 72 I0 82 4 2 6 2I 8 29 8 7 I5 I972 77 I0 87 7 I 8 20 2 22 I2 5 I7

All Officers Deputy Permanent r

Secretary Secretary No. Percentage

Year M E A M E A M E A M E A

I960 - 3 3 - Io Io 4 II8 I22 3 97 I00 I962 - 3 3 - 3 13 5 I21 126 4 96 Ioo I965 - - - - 5 15 6o 67 127 47 53 Ioo I967 - I I - 3 I3 93 59 I52 6i 39 0oo I969 4 4 4 o 14 io6 48 154 68 32 Ioo I970 3 3 5 8 13 ii8 41 I59 73 27 Ioo 197I 3 3 12 9 2I II7 39 I56 74 26 Ioo 1972 I 3 4 i6 4 20 133 25 I58 85 i5 Ioo

whether financial, personal, domestic, political, or professional, they varied broadly with age, as may be seen from Table 2.

Only in the case of those over 41 years of age did political factors play a clear part, because several held politically sensitive posts which had to be either Africanised or abolished. Financially, these expatriates had a sufficiently large pension not to be bothered about continued employ- ment; and, under a scheme which became operative on I November 1963, providing for premature retirement and compensation for loss of career, their 'compensation peak' occurred at the age of 4I, and would not have increased with extended service.2 Their families were either grown up, or nearly out of school, so that the need for educational allowances over a long period no longer applied. From a personal point of view, also, many of these senior officers would have found it difficult to adjust to vastly changed political and professional conditions. Of this group, 77 per cent left at independence.

1 Sources: Staff List, 1960, and subsequent years until I971; figures for 1972 have been calculated from the Malawi Government Gazette (Zomba), up to I May 1972. Key: M= Malawian Officers, E= Expatriate Officers, and A =All Officers.

2 Legislative Council Proceedings, 76th Session, 6th Meeting, October I962, p. 491.



COLIN BAKER

TABLE 2

Departure of Expatriates from the Administrative Service, 1962-51

Number Number leaving Percentage Age group, 1963 in 1962 during 1962-5 leaving then

Over 41 years 48 37 77 3I-41 years 52 30 57 Under 31 years 13 9 69

All I13 76 67

Although those expatriates under 31 years of age would have found it easier to adapt to changing circumstances, their very adaptability influenced them in leaving, because they were young enough to start

afresh, and any delay would merely postpone the commencement of a new career elsewhere. Although they were at the bottom of the seniority list, and had thus most to fear from supersession by Africanisation, this

probably carried little weight. Being mainly unmarried (half of the 12 bachelors in the Administrative Service were in this group, and five of them left), they had few domestic ties to restrain them from resigning and risking a period of unemployment before finding a new appointment. The financial considerations were insufficient to retain them; the rates at which their pensions and compensation would have increased were too small to outweigh other factors. Of this group, 69 per cent left at independence.

It was the administrators between the ages of 31 and 4I years who least tended to leave at independence - 43 per cent of them remained.

They were young enough, yet mature enough, to accept the changes which were to take place. They were sufficiently old to make it uncertain that they would readily find new jobs, and yet they were not old (or

wealthy) enough for this consideration to be immaterial to them. Being married (only two out of the 52 were bachelors), and mainly with young families, they could not risk the uncertainty of leaving, nor could they afford to forego the educational allowances, particularly those who had

already embarked upon relatively expensive education for their children.

Financially, their rates of compensation increased rapidly - and con-

tinued to do so up to the maximum, if they remained in the Service.

Professionally, they had the most to gain, since the departure of older

colleagues left attractive vacancies to which they were promoted; they were sufficiently high up the seniority ladder not to be too obviously threatened by the accelerated promotion of local officers, then only just

reaching the lowest rungs. 1 Source: Staff List, 1962 and 1965 - no List was published for 1963 or 1964.

548




So, although two-thirds of the members of the Administrative Service in 1962 had left by 1965, this exodus - less than the Government feared at independencel - was not so great as to make immediate Africanisa- tion a physical necessity. Indeed, the need was less than has been

indicated, because 30 additional expatriates entered the Administration between 1964 and 1966, mainly at the lowest level: of these, five were transferred from the Federal Service, five who had been recruited during the 1959-60 Emergency to assist District Commissioners with their office work were promoted from the Executive Class, and nine young American graduates joined under the fellowship programme of Syracuse University.

The Staff Training College was formally opened in July 1962, 20 months after the Localisation Committee report, but the first course did not actually commence until October I963.2 Thus, although the Com- mittee had been appointed four years before independence, the initial

group of 22 Malawians completed their administrative training just in time for their first formal duties at the Independence Day celebrations! This delay was only partially caused by lack of finance, but much more

by the failure to perceive the need for haste, and the inability to agree on precisely who of the many applicants should be selected for training. However, the lost ground was recovered as quickly as possible, and by the end of 1969 over 60 non-graduate but well-experienced officers had been trained and appointed to the Service.

To the work of the Staff Training College had been added that of the

University of Malawi's Institute of Public Administration, founded in

I966.3 This conducts (i) a three-year course leading to the diploma in

public administration - a qualification for the Administrative Class, although holders normally enter, at least initially, the Executive Class; (ii) a one-year postgraduate diploma in public administration, a

'requirement' for most graduate entrants to the Administrative Class, although few in fact now attend the course; and (iii), starting in October

1972, a four-year degree programme in public administration. The major part of the training necessary for the Africanisation of the

Administrative Service, then, was carried out between i963 and I969. During this six-year period the number of expatriates fell from 121 to

48, and Malawians rose from five to 106. 1 Proceedings of Parliament, 5th Session, 2nd Meeting, December I967, p. 182. 2 M. J. Bennion, 'Training for Localization of the Public Service in Malawi', in Journal

of Local Administration Overseas (London), v, I, January I966, p. 25. 3 See C. A. Baker, 'The Institute of Public Administration and the Staff Training College,

Malawi', in Journal of Administration Overseas (London), vII, 2, April I968.

37



COLIN BAKER

THE EFFECTS OF AFRICANISATION

The Africanisation of the Administrative Service in Malawi has affected its size, structure, age composition, educational background, and experience, notably as reflected in length of service. Since 1960 the Civil Service as a whole has increased by 56 per cent, from Io,o69 to

15,611 members,' and the Administrative Service by 22 per cent, from 122 to 148, as may be seen in Table 3. Part of this growth is the result of additional governmental activities, and an increased number of administrative districts;2 but the uncertain supply of Malawian recruits and rate of departure of expatriates have also been relevant factors, because in these circumstances the Government could not afford to keep recruitment precisely to the required minimum.

TABLE 3 Growth of the Administrative Service, i96o-723

Admini- strative Senior Principal Under Deputy Permanent All Officer Admin. 0. Admin. 0. Secretary Secretary Secretary Officers

Year No. Index No. Index No. Index No. Index No. Index No. Index No. Index

1960 92 I00 7 Ioo 8 oo 2 00oo 3 I00 Io I00 I22 I00

1962 88 95 7 I00 8 Ioo00 7 350 3 I00 13 I30 I26 I03 I965 79 85 13 I85 14 I75 6 300 - 15 150 127 Io3 1967 Ioo I04 5 72 I8 225 I5 750 I 33 I3 I30 152 I24 1969 80 86 5 72 37 460 I4 700 4 I33 I4 I40 154 I26 1970 91 99 5 72 32 400 15 750 3 Ioo I3 130 159 I30 1971 82 88 6 85 29 360 15 750 3 I00 2I 2Io 156 127 1972 77 83 8 II4 22 275 17 850 4 33 20 200 148 122

The growth which has taken place has not been uniform throughout the Administrative Service, and this has altered the profile. The lowest

grade is now smaller than it was in I960, because promotion has out-

paced recruitment, and the total volume of work done by Administra- tive Officers has decreased. In colonial times the District Administra- tion - which is where the majority of such officers were and are still found - was composed of District and Assistant District Commissioners, but now the latter have largely been replaced by Executive Officers.

Also, some tasks formerly performed by Administrative Officers are now the responsibility of professional specialists - for example, Magistrates, Labour or Information Officers - and there is a tendency, especially in

agricultural and rural development projects, deliberately to exclude 1 Estimates of Revenue and Expenditure on Revenue Account (Zomba), 1960 and I 971. 2 Proceedings of Parliament, Ist Session, 4th Meeting, January I965, p. 406. 3 Sources: same as for Table I.

550



THE ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE OF MALAWI

professional administrators, possibly as a reaction to the colonial practice of using them in almost any innovation, no matter how technical.

The number of Permanent Secretaries has more than doubled, partly due to an increase in Ministries, but mainly to the inclusion within this grade of the country's Ambassadors and High Commissioners. The most significant changes, however, have occurred at the critical levels where Under Secretaries and Principal Administrative Officers under- take much of the detailed work of formulating plans and proposals. This is where policy begins to crystallise, and where most 'bureaucratic oscillation' takes place - the sending back for more information, and the sending forward of clearly-defined suggestions. These critical levels have to be well staffed, but there were other reasons for expansion. Here were the posts to which the majority of retained expatriates were promoted, where their experience and training could be of most value, and where they could find the greatest personal interest and challenge. These also were the jobs to which the most promising Malawians were first appointed, not only to signify that Africanisation was genuinely being implemented, but also as a testing ground for further promotion.'

With these alterations in the size of the various levels, the profile of the Administrative Service has changed: this is now a less-broadly based and less-sharply narrowing pyramid, with a double-waist instead of a bulge at the top. But Africanisation has also affected the internal composition - notably as regards age, education, and experience - and these elements are important as a measure of the probable quality of the hierarchy. Maturity cannot be quantified, although it varies broadly with age and experience; nor can the quality of experience be equated with its quantity; and it is difficult to weigh the value of education against practical knowledge. The main elements are linked, and a shortfall in one may be compensated by other assets. A highly educated, mature, well-experienced Service is ideal, and a poorly educated, immature, and inexperienced Service could be disastrous; but between these two extremes lie several acceptable situations.

The theoretical pattern of change in average age during Africanisa- tion is as follows: (i) an initial drop, as the requirement of experience gives way to that of accelerated promotion; (ii) a substantial period of increase with the mere passage of time, lengthened by the fact that the intake of recruits in a 'young' Service (unless there is an increase in size) is limited by the slow exodus of those above; (iii) a gentle reduction, as older officers reach retirement age; and (iv) an eventual levelling off,

1 Proceedings of Parliament, 3rd Session, 4th Meeting, January 1966, p. 453; and Staff List, 1967, p. I00.

37-2

55I



COLIN BAKER

TABLE 4

Average Age of Officers in the Administrative Service, I960-7I1

Admini- strative Senior Principal Under Deputy Permanent All

Year Officer Admin. 0. Admin. 0. Secretary Secretary Secretary Officers

1960 35 42 45 50 44 47 37 1962 35 43 43 47 45 47 38 1965 35 36 4 44 - 49 38 1967 35 40 37 38 37 5? 37 1969 36 44 39 42 48 47 39 I970 37 45 39 43 45 44 39 1971 32 47 40 41 52 46 38

once the Service has 'settled down', and when the rate of outflow at the

top and sides is matched by the inflow at the bottom. In Malawi this pattern has only partially been evident. There was an

initial minor increase in the average age of the Administrative Service

prior to independence, as the recruitment of expatriates slowed down and eventually ceased. A slight drop in 1966, as young graduates from overseas universities were recruited, was followed by a rise during 1968-9, as this inflow slowed down. As expatriates continued to leave - for example, at the Under Secretary level - they have been replaced by younger Malawians, while recruitment at the bottom has been from the new graduates of the University of Malawi. Thus, although the average age of the Service as a whole is now slightly higher than it was in 1960, some categories are clearly younger than formerly, as may be seen from Table 4. The fact that Senior Administrative Officers and Deputy Secretaries are significantly older is probably a reflection of the fact that these tend to be the peak career posts of a number of civil servants.

Only minor changes have so far taken place in the total number of

years spent in the Malawi Civil Service by members of the various

grades, as may be seen in Table 5. But there have been significant variations in the length of service in each. In colonial times, most

expatriates spent the whole of their career in the Administrative Officer

grade. Generally speaking, they were District Officers with little inclination to give up the variety, independence, and responsibilities of rural life for the more humdrum, routine existence of the central secretariat. Consequently, the average number of years spent in this

particular grade was relatively long. In independent Africa, however, the district holds fewer attractions for administrators - they are removed from the mainstream of promotion, the amenities of urban life are

absent, and the political pressures are often greater and more direct. 1 Source: Staff Lists, 1960-71.

552




TABLE 5 Average Number of Years in the Malawi Civil Service, 1960-711


Year Officer Admin. O. Admin. O. Secretary Secretary Secretary Officers

1960 8 II 12 I2 8 I6 9'2 1962 8 17 13 I2 I2 12 9'5 1965 4 I I 14 7 - 8 65 1967 6 9 12 Io 7 I 7'6 I969 8 12 Io 13 I0 13 9'6 1970 8 15 I2 14 9 I2 9'9 1971 6 I7 13 3 I0 I3 9'4

TABLE 6

Average Number of Years in Current Grade of Administrative Service, 1960-7I2


Year Officer Admin. 0. Admin. 0. Secretary Secretary Secretary Officers

i960 7-2 o-9 3'3 6.2 4'2 4'4 63 I962 8.2 1*2 4'2 I 2 4'2 3'2 6*4 I965 2*0 I.2 I.2 2'2 -- 2'0 I8 I967 I'9 2'6 I-2 0-9 -I2 2'9 1. 8 969 3'5 2'7 2-6 3'8 24 3'6 3'3

I970 4'4 2-5 3'5 2'3 2'4 2'5 3'7 I97I 4*4 3'5 2'5 2-5 3'4 2-6 3-6

Also, the greater complexity of government, and the increase in the number of departments, has expanded the proportion of policy-making posts, speeded up promotion to these levels, and consequently reduced the size of what is still, nevertheless, the largest category. As may be seen from Table 6, the number of years spent in any of the current grades (apart from that of Senior Administrative Officer) is now noticeably less than in 1960.

The formal educational qualification for direct entry to the Admini- stration in the late colonial period was a good honours degree; but an attempt has been made to raise the standard, because now a candidate is also expected to acquire a diploma in public administration. In neither era, however, have the formal requirements always been insisted upon. The Localisation Committee recognised that the supply of Malawian graduates was likely initially to be no more than 'a thin trickle' - hence their recommendation for a School of Administration. The officers who went to the Staff Training College at present form the

553

1 Source: Staff Lists, 1960-7I. 2 Source: ibid.



554 COLIN BAKER

TABLE 7 Educational Background of Administrative Service Officers, I960-721

Administrative Senior Principal Under Officer Admin. O. Admin. O. Secretary

Year a b c a b c a b c a b c

1960 63 - 29 6 I 7 I I I 1962 60 2 26 2 - 5 6 - 2 4 3 1965 22 40 17 1I - 2 6 - 8 6 1967 31 54 5 2 - 3 13 2 3 8 2 5 1969 28 41 I I - 2 3 I8 I2 7 7 I 6 1970 27 52 12 - 3 2 II I2 7 8 3 4 I97I 23 48 I - 3 3 I3 II 5 Io 3 2

1972 26 52 9 - 6 2 9 8 5 12 I 4

All Officers Deputy Permanent r

Secretary Secretary No. Percentage

Year a b c a b c a b c a b c

I960 3 - - 9 - 89 - 33 73 - 27 I962 2 - I I2 - I 86 2 38 68 2 30 1965 - - - 10 - 5 55 4? 32 42 32 25 1967 - - 8 - 5 63 58 31 41 38 21

1969 4 - - o I 3 67 57 30 43 37 20 I970 3 - - 0 I 2 6i 71 27 38 45 I7 I971 3 - - 14 4 3 63 69 24 40 45 15 1972 4 - - 3 5 2 64 72 22 40 46 I4

largest single educational category in the Service, although they will soon be overtaken numerically by university graduates. It is difficult to

compare a non-professional degree with a highly intensive vocational

course, especially when graduates usually come straight from secondary school, while those who enter the Staff Training College have often had several years experience in the public service; but the part which the latter have played in maintaining the strength and quality of the Administration should not be underestimated.

The proportion of graduates had decreased immediately before inde-

pendence, not so much because of Africanisation - which was minimal, and included some Malawian graduates - but because of the appointment during I960-I often expatriate temporary Administrative Officers, only one of whom had a university degree. In 1960 graduates accounted for 73 per cent of the Service, but at independence this dropped to about

40 per cent, and has since remained at this level. But the number and

1 Sources: same as for Table I. Key: a = officers with university degrees or professional qualifications; b = officers who successfully completed Staff Training College courses- or who hold an equivalent diploma; and c = other officers.




proportion of those who have neither a degree nor any professional training has also decreased - from 38 officers or 30 per cent in 1962, to 22 or 14 per cent in 1972 - as may be seen from Table 7. This is mainly as a result of appointing over 70 officers who have taken specialist courses at the Staff Training College or the Institute of Public Administration.

Changes in age, experience, and education could affect efficiency a

great deal, and although it is difficult to demonstrate and assess what has happened, an indication may be gathered from a recent report of the Public Accounts Committee. The members noted the great expansion of government activities - often in highly technical fields - since

independence, the exodus of expatriate officers, and the 'almost un- bearable load' which these factors placed on the Administration. None the less, they were able to assure Parliament that

steady improvement and control is being maintained... the House can be satisfied that the money they vote.. .is being spent correctly and economi- cally...there is no doubt that control is being properly scrutinised and everything is being done as this House wishes it to be done and as all our donor nations would wish too.'

A further indication lies in the public acknowledgement of the good work being done by members of the Administrative Service not in-

frequently made by Ministers, Members of Parliament, and visitors.2 One is left with the distinct impression that the continuing emphasis on

experience, training, and proven ability has been largely successful in

maintaining at least a satisfactory level of efficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

It is now over a decade since the Africanisation policy was formulated. As agreed then, only a small number of expatriates were required to

leave; the great majority retired when they wished to, and there has been no pressure to force the remainder to leave Malawi. It was to the Senior and Principal Administrative Officer levels that most were promoted after independence, and there has hardly been any supersession here. Even then the general pattern has been that only when a senior

expatriate decides to retire, has his post been filled by a Malawian and 1 Second Report, 1970, from the Select Committee on Public Accountsfor the rear ending 31st December

1968 (Zomba, 1970), p. I. 2 See, for example, Proceedings of Parliament, Ist Session, 4th Meeting, January 1965,

pp. 362, 376, and 416; 4th Session, 3rd Meeting, December 1966, p. 249; 5th Session, 2nd Meeting, December I967, p. 179; 6th Session, Ist Meeting, October I968, pp. II2-13; and 7th Session, 2nd Meeting, March 1970, pp. 305, 312, 315, 328, 369, and 392.



TABLE 8 Position on Seniority List of 28 Selected Malawian

Administrative Officers, 1960-7I1

Officers I960 1962 I965 1967 1969 1970 971

I I20 I07 53 37 37 34 42 II 122 Io8 54 53 64 57 57

III - IIO 6i i8 12 7 8 IV - I I 62 38 29 II I6 V 63 58 78 72 76

VI 131 64 39 II 9 io VII - - 65 2I 27 I9 I3

VIII 67 - -

IX - 73 -

X 74- -

XI - - 75 47 38 36 33 XII - - 76 65 48 41 46

XIII - - 79 66 58 20 30 XIV - - 80 67 85 78

XV - 8 41 40 35 32 XVI - 83 66 86

XVII - 84 - -

XVIII - 85 69 46 42 47 XIX - - 93 76 47 43 35 XX 98 32 29 21

XXI IOI 83 3I 28 19 XXII 19 20 17 II

XXIII - 20 21 i8 12 XXIV - - 22 I3 8 9

XXV - 23 I4 Io 15 XXVI -24 I9 20 14

XXVI -40 39 -

XXVIII - - - -- 20

has supersession of others occurred. There has been no marked expansion of the Service deliberately to provide vacancies for nationals; the increase in Under Secretaries during I966-7 was to cater as much for

expatriates as for Malawians: two expatriates and seven Malawians were promoted in 1966, and five others - all expatriates - the following year.

Concerning promotion criteria, the policy was that advancement should have regard to seniority, merit, and experience. In practice, emphasis has been placed on what the Government calls 'selective

promotion', or 'promotion by results and not mere dead seniority'.2 Certainly the highest responsibilities have been given to those considered most capable, without too much regard to seniority and length of experience. For example, the first Malawian Head of the Civil

Service, appointed on I May 1972, then had less than eight years experience in the Administration, but had received the highest award

1 Source: Staff Lists, 1960-71. 2 Proceedings of Parliament, 5th Session, Ist Meeting, October 1967, p. I I I.

556 COLIN BAKER




of any officer attending the Staff Training College. Table 8 suggests that promotions bear little relation to length of service: it records the

changes in the order of seniority from I960 to 1971 of the i8 most senior Malawian officers in 1965,1 together with the Io others who by January I972 had become Permanent Secretaries.

Another part of the original policy, however, has been very consider-

ably modified during implementation. It was originally intended that Africanisation 'should proceed at the greatest possible speed at all levels'. Although individual interpretations of what is 'possible' vary considerably, it is unlikely that the intention in I960 was (i) that the

training of administrative officers should be delayed for over three years; (ii) that the 'crash' programme of training should not be completed for nine years; (iii) that a year after independence less than half the members of the Administration should be Malawians; (iv) that no Malawian Under Secretaries should be appointed until two and a half

years after independence, and no Permanent Secretaries until three and a half years; and (v) that the Headship of the Civil Service should not be filled by a Malawian until nearly eight years after independence.

The overwhelming influence determining the actual pace has been the personal views of Dr Banda, who returned to Malawi in 1958, after over 40 years uninterrupted absence. His avowed intentions at the out- set were threefold: to secede from the Federation, to obtain self-

government, and to build a bridge between the races. The Marlborough House constitution, implemented in February 1963, granted internal

self-government, and Banda later claimed to have 'secured' secession

(which took place at the end of that year) as the result of a 'quiet private and personal negotiation' with R. A. Butler before the Con- ference even started.2

Banda's third aim was reflected in his Africanisation policy. He

repeatedly stated his intention to build a bridge between the races, and not to Africanise merely for the sake of it:

I do not want to dismiss any European just because he has a white skin... our African civil servants...must be patient, they must be trained, they must become efficient before they can expect me to promote them into the jobs now occupied by Europeans.3 I would rather be shot dead... than Africanise just to please anyone who wants Africanisation.4

1 The year 1965 has been selected because this was the first time that the published Staff List contained a significant number of Malawian members of the Administrative Service.

2 Legislative Council Proceedings, 76th Session, 7th Meeting, March 1963, p. 554. 3 Ibid. 76th Session, 8th Meeting, July I963, pp. 756 and 759. 4 Proceedings of Parliament, ist Session, 2nd Meeting, September I964, p. 14.

557



Although this policy of qualified Africanisation was 'accepted' by his lieutenants, it is most unlikely that they genuinely subscribed to it. Warning signs and an indication of their true feelings came in July I963, when the Legislative Council debated the action of certain ex-

patriates who had drafted a telegram to the British Government com- plaining about what they called 'the break down of law and order' in the country.' This was widely reported in the press, and incensed leading members of the Malawi Congress Party, who hinted that only the restraining hand of Dr Banda prevented violence and retribution against the expatriate civil servants: 'the hands of the tough Youth League are itching'.2

This was an ugly debate, and although the signs of dissent, at least on the surface, quickly died down, they no doubt caused continuing anxiety. The country proceeded quietly to independence on 6 July I964, but within two months a policy confrontation between Dr Banda and his Cabinet resulted in the dismissal or resignation of all but two Ministers.3 The slow pace of Africanisation was one cause of the split, particularly the absence of Malawians from the policy levels.4 Banda survived, gradually formed a new Cabinet, and continued his policy of qualified Africanisation. The confidence which he felt he could place in the

loyalty and support of his fellow countrymen must, however, have been shaken; nearly all the leading politicians and some - possibly only two or three - of his Administrative Officers had openly turned against him. Soon afterwards, Banda assumed personal and direct ministerial

responsibility for Africanisation and training.5 It is probable, as a result of this Cabinet crisis, that Africanisation

thereafter was slower than it would otherwise have been. The President has never publicly announced a time-table for his programme, but has

merely said that when a Malawian has acquired sufficient experience, and has proved his ability to perform well in a senior post, he should be

promoted.6 An indication that this is genuinely Banda's policy lies in his willingness to reverse long-established practice, and even twice to amend the constitution to enable Malawians to be promoted to high office: in 1968, so that a new Director of Public Prosecutions could be

appointed,7 and in I970, so that a lawyer could be made a High Court

Judge, within five years of both being called to the Bar.8

1 Legislative Council Proceedings, 76th Session, 8th Meeting, July I963, pp. 708 if. 2 Ibid. p. 745. 3 Malawi Government Gazette, 1964 (Zomba), pp. 69 and 7I. 4 Proceedings of Parliament, Ist Session, 2nd Meeting, September I964, p. 86. 5 Ibid. 3rd Session, 3rd Meeting, November i965, p. 276, and 3rd Session, 5th Meeting,

March 1966, p. 250. 6 Ibid. 6th Session, Ist Meeting, October I968, p. 1I4. 7 Ibid. p. I02. 8 Ibid. 7th Session, 2nd Meeting, March 1970, p. 303.

558 COLIN BAKER




TABLE 9 Distribution of Expatriate Officers, May I9721

Admin. Senior Principal Under Deputy Permanent All Ministry Officer Admin. 0. Admin. 0. Secretary Secretary Secretary Officers

Works and Supplies - I I I I 4 Agriculture and

Natural Resources - - I I 2 Finance - - I 2 Justice - - - - I Health - - -

Transport and Communications - - - -

President's Office: General 2 - - - 3

President's Office: Development -- I -- -I

President's Office: District Admin. 8 I -- - 9

External Affairs - - - - - II

All Officers xo I 2 5 3 4 25

An apparently chance remark which Banda made in Parliament in June 1968 may give some idea of how long he privately thought it would take to Africanise all the top administrative posts: '...in five to ten years' time - fifteen years' time - all the Permanent Secretaries will be Africans'.2 Only three of the 14 were then, but in the past year or two, as the President's confidence in the loyalty and competence of the Service has returned, Africanisation has proceeded at a faster rate, particularly at the highest levels. This has not been confined to the Administrative Service, but included the Commissioner of Police in July 197I,3 and the Attorney General and the Commander of the Army in May I972.4

The number of expatriates in the Administrative Service had dropped to 25 by early I972; Table 9 shows their location and the type of posts which are the last to be Africanised. Of the remaining four expatriate Permanent Secretaries, one is at the Ministry of Works and Supplies, and another at the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, both large and technical organisations playing a vital role in economic development. The third is at the Malawi Embassy in Pretoria, and the delicacy of the situation accounts for this posting; the fourth is the Solicitor-General in the Ministry ofJustice, where a Malawian has only

1 Sources: same as for Table i. 2 Proceedings of Parliament, 5th Session, 5th Meeting, June 1968, p. 557. 3 Malawi Times (Blantyre), 15 July 197I. 4 The Times of Zambia (Ndola), 6 January I972.



recently been made Attorney General. The three expatriate Deputy Secretaries and five Under Secretaries are mainly in the various

development ministries. At the lower end of the scale, eight of the

remaining ten expatriates are District Commissioners, in either the

regional headquarters, or districts with 'security' problems and/or a

relatively large expatriate population. The Administrative Service of Malawi is now 85 per cent Africanised,

and this figure is likely to increase significantly. The rate of departure of

expatriates was greater during I97I than during any other year since

independence,l and there are signs that this will be maintained during 1972. It is likely that the most numerous departures will be from the lowest level, not because of pressures on them to leave, but because eight of the ten Administrative Officers have already reached or passed the normal age of retirement. It is unlikely that complete Africanisation will be accomplished for several years to come, but it is probable that the present accelerated rate will continue until, in a relatively short time, all but a very few posts in the Administrative Service will be held by Malawians.

1 Malawi Government Gazette, 1971, passim.

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the administrative service of malawi - a case study in africanisation

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