TEXTILE INDUSTRY 1

OBJECTIVES

To identify the different types of textiles

To name the different companies utilizing the different types of textiles

To determine the different manufacturing process chemical reactions and

equipment involved in the production of different types of textiles

To determine the historical evolution of textile fibers

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 2

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The textile industry is primarily

concerned with the production of yarn

and cloth and the subsequent design or

manufacture of clothing and their distribution

The raw material may be natural or synthetic

using products of the chemical industry

The word textile may be simply defined

in two ways as a woven or knit cloth and as

fiber (collective term for filaments) Filament is a very fine thread or threadlike structure

White yarn is thread made by twisting fibers used in making cloth

Textile is any product manufactured from fibers through twisting interlacing

bonding looping and any other means in such a manner that the flexibility strength

and other characteristic properties of individual fibers are not suppressed

Textile manufacturing is a major industry It is based in the conversion of three

types of fiber into yarn then fabric then textiles These are then fabricated

into clothes or other artifacts Cottonremains the

most important natural fiber so is treated in depth

There are many variable processes available at

the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with

the complexities of thefinishing and coloration

processes to the production of wide ranges of

products There remains a large industry that

uses hand techniques to achieve the same results

Fibers are the smallest units from which fabrics are made by on process or

another Some fibers are short other is very long some are kinky others are straight and

smooth some are scaly and some are twisted

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 2

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The textile industry is primarily

concerned with the production of yarn

and cloth and the subsequent design or

manufacture of clothing and their distribution

The raw material may be natural or synthetic

using products of the chemical industry

The word textile may be simply defined

in two ways as a woven or knit cloth and as

fiber (collective term for filaments) Filament is a very fine thread or threadlike structure

White yarn is thread made by twisting fibers used in making cloth

Textile is any product manufactured from fibers through twisting interlacing

bonding looping and any other means in such a manner that the flexibility strength

and other characteristic properties of individual fibers are not suppressed

Textile manufacturing is a major industry It is based in the conversion of three

types of fiber into yarn then fabric then textiles These are then fabricated

into clothes or other artifacts Cottonremains the

most important natural fiber so is treated in depth

There are many variable processes available at

the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with

the complexities of thefinishing and coloration

processes to the production of wide ranges of

products There remains a large industry that

uses hand techniques to achieve the same results

Fibers are the smallest units from which fabrics are made by on process or

another Some fibers are short other is very long some are kinky others are straight and

smooth some are scaly and some are twisted

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 3

Varieties of Textile Fibers (according to nature of source)

1 Natural- found in nature in fibrous form

Example vegetable fiber animal fiber and mineral fiber

2 Man-made- transformed by man from non-fibrous sources

Example natural polymer and synthetic fibers

3 Manufactured ndash made from cellulose or protein

Example viscose rayon acetate olefins

The difference between ldquomanufacturedrdquo and ldquosyntheticrdquo fibers is that the

manufactured fibers are derived from naturally-occurring cellulose or protein while

synthetic fibers are not And manufactured fibers are unlike natural fibers because they

require extensive processing (or at least more than is required by natural fibers) to

become the finished product The category of ldquomanufacturedrdquo fibers is often called

ldquoregenerated celluloserdquo fibers Cellulose is a carbohydrate and the chief component in

the walls of plants

MANUFACTURING PRODUCTION OF RAYON

I INTRODUCTION

For a very long period of human history

man depended on natural elements to

make fibers for clothing These were natural

fibers However with the technological

advances many man made synthetic

fibers were developed Man-made fibers have

two main categories One that are made from

natural products (cellulosic fibers) and the other

that are synthesized from chemical compounds (noncellulosic polymer fibers)

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 4

Rayon fiber is a natural-based material made from the cellulose

of wood pulp or cotton fiber In fact they are made from reformed or regenerated

cellulose As such they are identified as regenerated cellulose fibers

Rayon was developed in France in 1884 as an artificial substitute to silk It was

called artificial silk until 1924 when its name was changed to rayon to describe the

properties of the almost metallic lustrous fabric as it reflected the rays of the sun Rayon

is a semi-synthetic fiber made from cotton fiber or regeneratedreformed wood

cellulose Rayon is also known as a regenerated cellulose fiber

Federal Trade Commission Definition for Rayon Fiber

ldquoA manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose in which substituents have

replaced not more than 15 of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groupsrdquo

A TYPES OF RAYON

There are different types of rayon including viscose rayon high tenacity rayon

cupramonium rayon high wet modulus rayon and rayon microfibers

High Wet Modulus Rayon is a fiber that has an exceptionally high wet modulus of about

1 gden and is used as parachute cords and other industrial uses

Polynosic Rayon is a fiber that has a very high degree of orientation achieved as a

result of very high stretching (up to 300 ) during processing They have a unique fibrillar

structure high dry and wet strength low elongation (8 to 11 ) relatively low water

retention and very high wet modulus

Cuprammonium rayon is rayon made from cellulose dissolved

in cuprammonium solution It is produced by making cellulose a soluble compound by

combining it with copper and ammonia Cuprammonium rayon is usually made in fine

filaments that are used in lightweight summer dresses and blouses sometimes in

combination with cotton to make textured fabrics with slubbed uneven surfaces

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 5

High-tenacity rayon is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice the

strength of HWM This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire

cord

Microfibers are not a type of rayon but rather a very fine fiber that can be

manufactured from either regular or HWM rayons

B Uses and Application of Rayon

Yarns Neither build up static electricity nor will it pill unless the yarn is made from

short staple with low-twist thus preferred for sewing thread Easily dyed in vivid

colours so used as embroidery thread chenille cord novelty yarn

Apparel Rayon as a cloth is soft and comfortable It drapes well which is one of

the reasons it is so desirable as an apparel fabric Thus it is popularly used for

making blouses dresses saris jackets lingerie linings millinery (hats) slacks sport

shirts sportswear suits ties work clothes

Fabrics Rayon is the most absorbent of all cellulose fibers even more so than

cotton and linen (table 1) Because of this rayon absorbs perspiration and allows

it to evaporate away from the skin making it an excellent summer fabric Its high

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 6

absorbency applies equally to dyes allowing beautiful deep rich colours Thus it

is preferred for crepe gabardine suiting lace outer wear fabrics and linings for

fur coats

Domestic Textiles Fabrics made out of viscose rayon has silk-like aesthetic with

superb drape and feel so used for bedspreads blankets curtains draperies

sheets slip covers tablecloths and upholstery

Industrial Textiles high-tenacity rayon is used as reinforcement to mechanical

rubber goods (tires conveyor belts and hoses) applications within the

aerospace agricultural and textile industries braided cord tapes It is also used

for medical surgery products non-woven products tire cord etc

Other Rayon is a major feedstock in the production of carbon fiber

II BRIEF HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Rayon is the generic term used for fiber (and the resulting yarn and fabric)

manufactured of regenerated cellulose Its historical development started by an

ldquoartificial silkrdquo theory As natural silk was incredibly tedious to produce and therefore

was more expensive chemists sought to synthesize their own silk which was given the

name ldquoartificial silkrdquo English naturalist Robert Hooke has theorized ldquoArtificial Silkrdquo first in

1664 He suggested that artificial filaments might be spun from a substance similar to

that which silkworms secrete to make silk This was often tried by various scientists in the

ensuing years but not succeeded

Finally George Audemars the Frenchman was able to make a thread by

dipping a needle into a viscous solution of mulberry bark pulp and gummy rubber in

1855 While interesting from a scientific standpoint this process was hardly viable

economically - it was very slow and required a great deal of skill and precision The first

commercial synthetic fiber was produced by Hilaire de Bernigaud Count of

Chardonnay (1839-1924) after 29 years of research was patented in 1884 and

manufactured by him in 1889 He came to be known as the father of rayon

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 7

Initially rayon was called Artificial Silk and many other names In 1924 a

committee formed by the US Department of Commerce and various commercial

associations decided upon the name rayon for Artificial Silk It was called rayon for

one of two reasons either because of its brightness and similarities in structure with

cotton (sun = ray on = cotton) The name Viscose was derived from the word ldquoviscousrdquo

which means sticky spinning solution out of which ldquoRayonrdquo was manufactured Thus the

innovative cellulosic derivative has taken the present name of ldquoViscose rayonrdquo

III PROPERTIES

Rayon is a versatile fiber and has the same comfort properties as natural fibers It

can imitate the feel and texture of silk wool cotton and linen The fibers are

easily dyed in a wide range of colors Rayon fabrics are soft smooth cool comfortable

and highly absorbent but they do not insulate body heat making them ideal for use in

hot and humid climates

The following are the unique properties of Rayon

1 Strength

The tensile strength of viscose rayon is greater than wool but only about

half as great as that of silk

2 Elasticity

Viscose rayon has greater elasticity than cotton or linen but less than wool

or silk

3 Resilience

Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it

is deformed elastically and release that energy upon unloadingViscose rayon

lack the resilience like that of wool and silk and creases readily

4 Drapability

Drapability is the manner in which fabric hangs or fallsViscose rayon have

a good quality of drapability as it is a relatively heavyweight fabric

5 Heat Conductivity

Viscose rayon is a good conductor of heat and thus is appropriate for

summer clothing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 7

Initially rayon was called Artificial Silk and many other names In 1924 a

committee formed by the US Department of Commerce and various commercial

associations decided upon the name rayon for Artificial Silk It was called rayon for

one of two reasons either because of its brightness and similarities in structure with

cotton (sun = ray on = cotton) The name Viscose was derived from the word ldquoviscousrdquo

which means sticky spinning solution out of which ldquoRayonrdquo was manufactured Thus the

innovative cellulosic derivative has taken the present name of ldquoViscose rayonrdquo

III PROPERTIES

Rayon is a versatile fiber and has the same comfort properties as natural fibers It

can imitate the feel and texture of silk wool cotton and linen The fibers are

easily dyed in a wide range of colors Rayon fabrics are soft smooth cool comfortable

and highly absorbent but they do not insulate body heat making them ideal for use in

hot and humid climates

The following are the unique properties of Rayon

1 Strength

The tensile strength of viscose rayon is greater than wool but only about

half as great as that of silk

2 Elasticity

Viscose rayon has greater elasticity than cotton or linen but less than wool

or silk

3 Resilience

Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it

is deformed elastically and release that energy upon unloadingViscose rayon

lack the resilience like that of wool and silk and creases readily

4 Drapability

Drapability is the manner in which fabric hangs or fallsViscose rayon have

a good quality of drapability as it is a relatively heavyweight fabric

5 Heat Conductivity

Viscose rayon is a good conductor of heat and thus is appropriate for

summer clothing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 8

6 Absorbency

Viscose rayon is one of the most absorbent fabrics more absorbent than

cotton or linen Only wool and silk exceed rayon in absorbency

7 Shrinkage

Viscose rayon fabrics tend to shrink more than cotton fabrics of similar

construction Spun Viscose rayon fabrics shrink more with repeated laundering

than fabrics made of the filament yarns

8 Washability

Viscose rayon fiber due to its smoothness produces such fabric that

sheds dirt Some of them wash easily Finishes given to them decides whether

theyll become yellow on washing or dry cleaning Since viscose rayon

temporarily loses strength when wet it must be handled with care when washed

Rayon Fiber Characteristics

Highly absorbent

Soft and comfortable

Easy to dye

Drapes well

Variations during spinning of viscose or during drawing of filaments provide a wide

variety of fibers with a wide variety of properties These include

Fibers with thickness of 17 to 50dtex particularly those between 17 and 33 dtex

dominate large scale production

Tenacity ranges between 20 to 26 gden when dry and 10 to 15 gden when

wetTenacity is the customary measure of strength of a fiber or yarn In the US it is

usually defined as the ultimate (breaking) strength of the fiber (in gram-force units)

divided by the denier

Wet strength of the fiber is of importance during its manufacturing and also in

subsequent usage Modifications in the production process have led to the problem of

low wet strength being overcome

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 9

Dry and wet tenacies extend over a range depending on the degree of

polymerization and crystallinity The higher the crystallinity and orientation of rayon the

lower is the drop in tenacity upon wetting

Percentage elongation-at-break seems to vary from 10 to 30 dry and 15 to 40

wet Elongation-at-break is seen to decrease with an increase in the degree of

crystallinity and orientation of rayon

Thermal properties Viscose rayon loses strength above 149 C chars and

decomposes at 177 to 204 C It does not melt or stick at elevated temperatures

Chemical properties Hot dilute acids attack rayon whereas bases do not seem to

significantly attack rayon Rayon is attacked by bleaches at very high concentrations

and by mildew under severe hot and moist conditions Prolonged exposure to sunlight

causes loss of strength because of degradation of cellulose chains

Abrasion resistance is fair and rayon resists pill formation Rayon has both poor

crease recovery and crease retention

IV COMPANIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

1 Polara Chemical Corporation

Polara Chemical Corporation

(formerly Colokem Corporation) has

evolved from a mere marketer of dyestuff

and auxiliaries into a source of a wide

variety of specialty chemicals

The company has been supplying the textile industry for over 27 years and has

diversified over the years to specialty chemicals The company continues to provide

high quality products and services in developing testing and repackaging

merchandise that have contributed in the continuous development of our clientele

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 10

2 Chung Nan Textile (Phils) Corp

Chung Nan Textile (Phils) Corp is a

company primarily engaged in weaving

and manufacturing greige (grey) cloth and

other clothing materials The company was

registered with the Securities and Exchange

Commission (SEC) on October 24 1994 and

with the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA) on November 10 1995 in compliance

with the Philippine laws and Republic Act No 7227

V RAW MATERIAL

The production of viscose rayon begins with purified cellulose The major source

of cellulose isspecially processed wood pulp harvested from pine spruce or hemlock

trees Bamboo hasrecently become a popular source for cellulose in rayon

manufacturing favored because of itsrapid growth cycle Bamboo is commonly

regarded as the worlds fastest growing plant

The chemical composition of bamboo fiber is mainly cellulose hemicelluloses

and lignin Cellulose is the main material composed of bamboo fiber cells as it is the

significance of the textile fibers Different bamboo ages will have different cellulose

content tender bamboo has 75 1-year-old has 66 and 3-years-old has 58 Average

content of bamboo is about 227 and content also declined when ages are getting

older 2-year-old is 249 and 4-year-old is 236

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 11

VI MANUFACTURING PROCESS (VISCOSE RAYON)

The process of manufacturing viscose rayon consists of the following steps

mentioned in the order that they are carried out (1) Steeping (2) Pressing (3)

Shredding (4) Aging (5) Xanthation (6) Dissolving (7)Ripening (8) Filtering (9)

Degassing (10) Spinning (11) Drawing (12) Washing (13) Cutting

The manufacture of viscose rayon starts with the purification of cellulose Bamboo

trees are cut into timber Their barks are removed and cut into pieces measuring 78 x

12 x 14 These pieces are treated with a solution of calcium bisulphite and cooked

with steam under pressure for about 14 hours

The cellulosic component of the wood is unaffected by this treatment but the

cementing material called lignin which is present in the wood is converted into its

sulphonated compound which is soluble in water This can be washed off thereby

purifying the remaining cellulose This cellulose is treated with excess of water After this

it is treated with a bleaching agent (sod hypochlorite) and finally converted into paper

boards or sheets This is called wood pulp which is normally purchased by the

manufacturers of viscose rayon

1 Steeping

Cellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20 aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

at a temperature in the range of 18 to250C in order to swell the cellulose fibers

and to convert cellulose to alkali cellulose

2 Pressing

The swollen alkali cellulose mass is pressed to a wet weight equivalent of

25 to 30 times the original pulp weight to obtain an accurate ratio of alkali to

cellulose

3 Shredding

The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely

divided fluffy particles called crumbs This step provides increased surface area

of the alkali cellulose thereby increasing its ability to react in the steps that

follow

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 12

4 Aging

The alkali-cellulose has to pass through an Aging process to adjust the

degree of polymerization The shredded alkali-cellulose is aged in a belt ageing

device

The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and

temperature (between 18 and 30 C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to

the desired degree of polymerization In this step the average molecular weight

of the original pulp is reduced by a factor of two to three Reduction of the

cellulose is done to get a viscose solution at right viscosity and cellulose

concentration Ageing contributes to viscosity of viscose The longer the ageing

time the less viscosity and the higher its degree of polymerization it will have And

the higher the DP of the fiber the higher the tensile strength it will possess

5 Xanthation

In this step the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are

allowed to react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to

30OC) to form cellulose xanthate

(C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ----gt (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n

Side reactions that occur along with the conversion of alkali cellulose to

cellulose xanthate are responsible for the orange color of the xanthate crumb

and also the resulting viscose solution The orange cellulose xanthate crumb is

dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide at 15 to 20 oC under high-shear mixing

conditions to obtain a viscous orange colored solution called viscose which is

the basis for the manufacturing process The viscose solution is then filtered (to

get out the insoluble fiber material) and is deaerated

The rough homogenizer ensures that the viscose discharged from the

xanthation machine contains virtually no particles larger than the gap between

the two shredding rollers Additionally the twin roller design can reduce the

discharge time of the xanthation machine to minimize the batch cycle time

thereby raising the production capacity per machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 10

2 Chung Nan Textile (Phils) Corp

Chung Nan Textile (Phils) Corp is a

company primarily engaged in weaving

and manufacturing greige (grey) cloth and

other clothing materials The company was

registered with the Securities and Exchange

Commission (SEC) on October 24 1994 and

with the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA) on November 10 1995 in compliance

with the Philippine laws and Republic Act No 7227

V RAW MATERIAL

The production of viscose rayon begins with purified cellulose The major source

of cellulose isspecially processed wood pulp harvested from pine spruce or hemlock

trees Bamboo hasrecently become a popular source for cellulose in rayon

manufacturing favored because of itsrapid growth cycle Bamboo is commonly

regarded as the worlds fastest growing plant

The chemical composition of bamboo fiber is mainly cellulose hemicelluloses

and lignin Cellulose is the main material composed of bamboo fiber cells as it is the

significance of the textile fibers Different bamboo ages will have different cellulose

content tender bamboo has 75 1-year-old has 66 and 3-years-old has 58 Average

content of bamboo is about 227 and content also declined when ages are getting

older 2-year-old is 249 and 4-year-old is 236

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 11

VI MANUFACTURING PROCESS (VISCOSE RAYON)

The process of manufacturing viscose rayon consists of the following steps

mentioned in the order that they are carried out (1) Steeping (2) Pressing (3)

Shredding (4) Aging (5) Xanthation (6) Dissolving (7)Ripening (8) Filtering (9)

Degassing (10) Spinning (11) Drawing (12) Washing (13) Cutting

The manufacture of viscose rayon starts with the purification of cellulose Bamboo

trees are cut into timber Their barks are removed and cut into pieces measuring 78 x

12 x 14 These pieces are treated with a solution of calcium bisulphite and cooked

with steam under pressure for about 14 hours

The cellulosic component of the wood is unaffected by this treatment but the

cementing material called lignin which is present in the wood is converted into its

sulphonated compound which is soluble in water This can be washed off thereby

purifying the remaining cellulose This cellulose is treated with excess of water After this

it is treated with a bleaching agent (sod hypochlorite) and finally converted into paper

boards or sheets This is called wood pulp which is normally purchased by the

manufacturers of viscose rayon

1 Steeping

Cellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20 aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

at a temperature in the range of 18 to250C in order to swell the cellulose fibers

and to convert cellulose to alkali cellulose

2 Pressing

The swollen alkali cellulose mass is pressed to a wet weight equivalent of

25 to 30 times the original pulp weight to obtain an accurate ratio of alkali to

cellulose

3 Shredding

The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely

divided fluffy particles called crumbs This step provides increased surface area

of the alkali cellulose thereby increasing its ability to react in the steps that

follow

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 12

4 Aging

The alkali-cellulose has to pass through an Aging process to adjust the

degree of polymerization The shredded alkali-cellulose is aged in a belt ageing

device

The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and

temperature (between 18 and 30 C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to

the desired degree of polymerization In this step the average molecular weight

of the original pulp is reduced by a factor of two to three Reduction of the

cellulose is done to get a viscose solution at right viscosity and cellulose

concentration Ageing contributes to viscosity of viscose The longer the ageing

time the less viscosity and the higher its degree of polymerization it will have And

the higher the DP of the fiber the higher the tensile strength it will possess

5 Xanthation

In this step the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are

allowed to react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to

30OC) to form cellulose xanthate

(C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ----gt (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n

Side reactions that occur along with the conversion of alkali cellulose to

cellulose xanthate are responsible for the orange color of the xanthate crumb

and also the resulting viscose solution The orange cellulose xanthate crumb is

dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide at 15 to 20 oC under high-shear mixing

conditions to obtain a viscous orange colored solution called viscose which is

the basis for the manufacturing process The viscose solution is then filtered (to

get out the insoluble fiber material) and is deaerated

The rough homogenizer ensures that the viscose discharged from the

xanthation machine contains virtually no particles larger than the gap between

the two shredding rollers Additionally the twin roller design can reduce the

discharge time of the xanthation machine to minimize the batch cycle time

thereby raising the production capacity per machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 11

VI MANUFACTURING PROCESS (VISCOSE RAYON)

The process of manufacturing viscose rayon consists of the following steps

mentioned in the order that they are carried out (1) Steeping (2) Pressing (3)

Shredding (4) Aging (5) Xanthation (6) Dissolving (7)Ripening (8) Filtering (9)

Degassing (10) Spinning (11) Drawing (12) Washing (13) Cutting

The manufacture of viscose rayon starts with the purification of cellulose Bamboo

trees are cut into timber Their barks are removed and cut into pieces measuring 78 x

12 x 14 These pieces are treated with a solution of calcium bisulphite and cooked

with steam under pressure for about 14 hours

The cellulosic component of the wood is unaffected by this treatment but the

cementing material called lignin which is present in the wood is converted into its

sulphonated compound which is soluble in water This can be washed off thereby

purifying the remaining cellulose This cellulose is treated with excess of water After this

it is treated with a bleaching agent (sod hypochlorite) and finally converted into paper

boards or sheets This is called wood pulp which is normally purchased by the

manufacturers of viscose rayon

1 Steeping

Cellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20 aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

at a temperature in the range of 18 to250C in order to swell the cellulose fibers

and to convert cellulose to alkali cellulose

2 Pressing

The swollen alkali cellulose mass is pressed to a wet weight equivalent of

25 to 30 times the original pulp weight to obtain an accurate ratio of alkali to

cellulose

3 Shredding

The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely

divided fluffy particles called crumbs This step provides increased surface area

of the alkali cellulose thereby increasing its ability to react in the steps that

follow

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 12

4 Aging

The alkali-cellulose has to pass through an Aging process to adjust the

degree of polymerization The shredded alkali-cellulose is aged in a belt ageing

device

The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and

temperature (between 18 and 30 C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to

the desired degree of polymerization In this step the average molecular weight

of the original pulp is reduced by a factor of two to three Reduction of the

cellulose is done to get a viscose solution at right viscosity and cellulose

concentration Ageing contributes to viscosity of viscose The longer the ageing

time the less viscosity and the higher its degree of polymerization it will have And

the higher the DP of the fiber the higher the tensile strength it will possess

5 Xanthation

In this step the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are

allowed to react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to

30OC) to form cellulose xanthate

(C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ----gt (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n

Side reactions that occur along with the conversion of alkali cellulose to

cellulose xanthate are responsible for the orange color of the xanthate crumb

and also the resulting viscose solution The orange cellulose xanthate crumb is

dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide at 15 to 20 oC under high-shear mixing

conditions to obtain a viscous orange colored solution called viscose which is

the basis for the manufacturing process The viscose solution is then filtered (to

get out the insoluble fiber material) and is deaerated

The rough homogenizer ensures that the viscose discharged from the

xanthation machine contains virtually no particles larger than the gap between

the two shredding rollers Additionally the twin roller design can reduce the

discharge time of the xanthation machine to minimize the batch cycle time

thereby raising the production capacity per machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 12

4 Aging

The alkali-cellulose has to pass through an Aging process to adjust the

degree of polymerization The shredded alkali-cellulose is aged in a belt ageing

device

The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and

temperature (between 18 and 30 C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to

the desired degree of polymerization In this step the average molecular weight

of the original pulp is reduced by a factor of two to three Reduction of the

cellulose is done to get a viscose solution at right viscosity and cellulose

concentration Ageing contributes to viscosity of viscose The longer the ageing

time the less viscosity and the higher its degree of polymerization it will have And

the higher the DP of the fiber the higher the tensile strength it will possess

5 Xanthation

In this step the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are

allowed to react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to

30OC) to form cellulose xanthate

(C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ----gt (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n

Side reactions that occur along with the conversion of alkali cellulose to

cellulose xanthate are responsible for the orange color of the xanthate crumb

and also the resulting viscose solution The orange cellulose xanthate crumb is

dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide at 15 to 20 oC under high-shear mixing

conditions to obtain a viscous orange colored solution called viscose which is

the basis for the manufacturing process The viscose solution is then filtered (to

get out the insoluble fiber material) and is deaerated

The rough homogenizer ensures that the viscose discharged from the

xanthation machine contains virtually no particles larger than the gap between

the two shredding rollers Additionally the twin roller design can reduce the

discharge time of the xanthation machine to minimize the batch cycle time

thereby raising the production capacity per machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 13

A viscose pump situated after the rough homogenizer sucks the xanthate

from the wet churn through this rough homogenizer and pumps it through fine

homogenizers to the dissolving tank

6 Dissolving

The yellow crumb is dissolved in aqueous caustic solution The large

xanthate substituents on the cellulose force the chains apart reducing the

interchain hydrogen bonds and allowing water molecules to solvate and

separate the chains leading to solution of the otherwise insoluble cellulose

Because of the blocks of un-xanthated cellulose in the crystalline regions the

yellow crumb is not completely soluble at this stage Because the cellulose

xanthate solution (or more accurately suspension) has a very high viscosity it has

been termed viscose

7 Ripening

The viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to ripen Two

important processes occur during ripening Redistribution and loss of xanthate

groups The reversible xanthation reaction allows some of the xanthate groups to

revert to cellulosic hydroxyls and free CS2 This free CS2 can then escape or

react with other hydroxyl on other portions of the cellulose chain In this way the

ordered or crystalline regions are gradually broken down and more complete

solution is achieved The CS2 that is lost reduces the solubility of the cellulose and

facilitates regeneration of the cellulose after it is formed into a filament

(C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2O ---gt (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNaOH

8 Filtering

The viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt

the spinning process or cause defects in the rayon filament

9 Degassing

Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion

or they would cause voids or weak spots in the fine rayon filaments

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 14

10 Spinning - (Wet Spinning) Production of Viscose Rayon Filament

The viscose solution is metered through a spinnerette into a spin bath

containing sulphuric acid (necessary to acidify the sodium cellulose xanthate)

sodium sulphate (necessary to impart a high salt content to the bath which is

useful in rapid coagulation of viscose) and zinc sulphate (exchange with sodium

xanthate to form zinc xanthate to cross link the cellulose molecules)

Once the cellulose xanthate is neutralized and acidified rapid

coagulation of the rayon filaments occurs which is followed by simultaneous

stretching and decomposition of cellulose xanthate to regenerated cellulose

Stretching and decomposition are vital for getting the desired tenacity and other

properties of rayon Slow regeneration of cellulose and stretching of rayon will

lead to greater areas of crystallinity within the fiber as is done with high-tenacity

rayon

(C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + (n2)H2SO4 --gt (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + (n2)Na2SO4

Elongation-at-break is seen to decrease with an increase in the degree of

crystallinity and orientation of rayon

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 15

11 Drawing

The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still

relatively mobile This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fiber

axis As the chains become more parallel interchain hydrogen bonds form

giving the filaments its properties necessary for use as textile fibers

12 Washing

The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water

soluble impurities which need to be removed Several different washing

techniques may be used

13 Cutting

If the rayon is to be used as staple (ie discreet lengths of fiber) the group

of filaments (termed tow) is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber

which can be processed in much the same way as cotton

Production of Rayon Fabrics

After treatment with textile chemicals

various weaving processes are carried out to

produce rayon fabrics Different varieties of yarns

such as monofilament yarns multifilament yarns

spun yarns etc permit the manufacturing of a

wide variety of fabrics Spun rayon yarns can be

used for making fabrics similar to cotton fabrics linen fabrics orwool fabrics Rayon

filament yarns can make fabrics resembling silk fabrics

Finally various finishing processes are carried out to enhance the appearance of

these fabrics and to improve their serviceability Most common finishes include

calendaring for smoothness embossing for decorative effects flame resistance

napping (spun rayons only) for softness amp warmth preshrinking for greater dimensional

stability stiffening water resistance wrinkle resistance etc

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 14

10 Spinning - (Wet Spinning) Production of Viscose Rayon Filament

The viscose solution is metered through a spinnerette into a spin bath

containing sulphuric acid (necessary to acidify the sodium cellulose xanthate)

sodium sulphate (necessary to impart a high salt content to the bath which is

useful in rapid coagulation of viscose) and zinc sulphate (exchange with sodium

xanthate to form zinc xanthate to cross link the cellulose molecules)

Once the cellulose xanthate is neutralized and acidified rapid

coagulation of the rayon filaments occurs which is followed by simultaneous

stretching and decomposition of cellulose xanthate to regenerated cellulose

Stretching and decomposition are vital for getting the desired tenacity and other

properties of rayon Slow regeneration of cellulose and stretching of rayon will

lead to greater areas of crystallinity within the fiber as is done with high-tenacity

rayon

(C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + (n2)H2SO4 --gt (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + (n2)Na2SO4

Elongation-at-break is seen to decrease with an increase in the degree of

crystallinity and orientation of rayon

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 15

11 Drawing

The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still

relatively mobile This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fiber

axis As the chains become more parallel interchain hydrogen bonds form

giving the filaments its properties necessary for use as textile fibers

12 Washing

The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water

soluble impurities which need to be removed Several different washing

techniques may be used

13 Cutting

If the rayon is to be used as staple (ie discreet lengths of fiber) the group

of filaments (termed tow) is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber

which can be processed in much the same way as cotton

Production of Rayon Fabrics

After treatment with textile chemicals

various weaving processes are carried out to

produce rayon fabrics Different varieties of yarns

such as monofilament yarns multifilament yarns

spun yarns etc permit the manufacturing of a

wide variety of fabrics Spun rayon yarns can be

used for making fabrics similar to cotton fabrics linen fabrics orwool fabrics Rayon

filament yarns can make fabrics resembling silk fabrics

Finally various finishing processes are carried out to enhance the appearance of

these fabrics and to improve their serviceability Most common finishes include

calendaring for smoothness embossing for decorative effects flame resistance

napping (spun rayons only) for softness amp warmth preshrinking for greater dimensional

stability stiffening water resistance wrinkle resistance etc

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 15

11 Drawing

The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still

relatively mobile This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fiber

axis As the chains become more parallel interchain hydrogen bonds form

giving the filaments its properties necessary for use as textile fibers

12 Washing

The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water

soluble impurities which need to be removed Several different washing

techniques may be used

13 Cutting

If the rayon is to be used as staple (ie discreet lengths of fiber) the group

of filaments (termed tow) is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber

which can be processed in much the same way as cotton

Production of Rayon Fabrics

After treatment with textile chemicals

various weaving processes are carried out to

produce rayon fabrics Different varieties of yarns

such as monofilament yarns multifilament yarns

spun yarns etc permit the manufacturing of a

wide variety of fabrics Spun rayon yarns can be

used for making fabrics similar to cotton fabrics linen fabrics orwool fabrics Rayon

filament yarns can make fabrics resembling silk fabrics

Finally various finishing processes are carried out to enhance the appearance of

these fabrics and to improve their serviceability Most common finishes include

calendaring for smoothness embossing for decorative effects flame resistance

napping (spun rayons only) for softness amp warmth preshrinking for greater dimensional

stability stiffening water resistance wrinkle resistance etc

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 16

High-Wet-Modulus (HWM) Rayon

Viscose rayon has its own limitations It loses up to 70 of its strength when wet In

fact in 1950s when first developed rayon was used in industrial products and home

furnishings only and not for clothing This was due to the fact that viscose rayon fibers

were too weak as compared to other fibers intended to be used in apparel making In

1960 commercial production was started for a rayon that had similar strength as of

cotton fabrics and retained most of the strength even when wet It was high-wet-

modulus (HWM) rayon It is also known as modified rayon The process for

manufacturing high-wet-modulus rayon is almost similar to that for making viscose rayon

but with a few exceptions

o Initially when the purified cellulose sheets are bathed in a caustic soda solution a

weaker caustic soda is used while making HWM rayon

o Alkali crumbs or the viscose solution neither of the two are aged in the HWM process

of making rayon

o When making HWM rayon the filaments are stretched to a greater degree than when

making viscose rayon

BYPRODUCTS

As one of the industrys major problems the chemical by-products of rayon have

received much attention in these environmentally conscious times The most popular

method of production the viscose method generates undesirable water and air

emissions Of particular concern is the emission of zinc and hydrogen sulfide

At present producers are trying a number of techniques to reduce pollution

Some of the techniques being used are the recovery of zinc by ion-exchange

crystallization and the use of more purified cellulose Also the use of absorption and

chemical scrubbing is proving to be helpful in reducing undesirable emissions of gas

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 17

bullCellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20 aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a temperature in the range of 18 to250C in order to swell the cellulose fibers and to convert cellulose to alkali cellulose

STEEPING

bullThe swollen alkali cellulose mass is pressed to a wet weight equivalent of 25 to 30 times the original pulp weight PRESSING

bullThe pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely divided fluffy particles called crumbs SHREDDING

bullThe alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and temperature (between 18 and 30 C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to the desired degree of polymerization

AGING

bullThe aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are allowed to react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to 30 OC) to form cellulose xanthate

XANTHATION

bullThe yellow crumb is dissolved in aqueous caustic solutionBecause the cellulose xanthate solution has a very high viscosity it has been termed viscose DISSOLVING

bullThe viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to ripen RIPENING

bullThe viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt the spinning process or cause defects in the rayon filament FILTERING

bullBubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion or they would cause voids or weak spots in the fine rayon filaments DEGASSING

bullThe viscose solution is metered through a spinnerette into a spin bath containing sulphuric acid sodium sulphate and zinc sulphate which is followed by simultaneous stretching and decomposition of cellulose xanthate

WET STEEPING

bullThe rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively mobile DRAWING

bullThe freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble impurities which need to be removed Several different washing techniques may be used WASHING

bullIf the rayon is to be used as staple the group of filaments (termed tow) is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber which can be processed in much the same way as cotton

CUTTING

VII PROCESS LAYOUT

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 18

VIII EQUIPMENT LAYOUT

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 19

SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF EQUIPMENT

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 20

IX CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVED

A OVERALL REACTION

Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield Viscose Rayon

B SUB REACTIONS

(1) C6H9O4OH + NaOH rarr C6H9O4ONa+H2O

(Cellulose is converted to alkali cellulose during Steeping)

(2) C6H9O4ONa + CS2rarr C6H9O4OCSSNa+Na2CS3

(Carbon disulphide reacts with alkali cellulose Sodium cellulose xanthate amp

sodium trithiocarbamate is produced during Xanthation)

(3) C6H9O4OCSSNa + NaOH rarrViscose Solution

(Viscose solution is formed during Dissolution)

(4) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2O rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+NaOH

(Sodium cellulose xanthate is decomposed to get cellulose during Ripening)

(5) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2SO4rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+Na2SO4

(Recovery of cellulose from cellulose xanthate by acid decomposition during

Spinning)

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 21

COTTON YARN MANUFACTURING

Introduction

Yarn consists of several strands of material twisted together Each

strand is in turn made of fibers all shorter than the piece of yarn

that they form These short fibers are spun into longer filaments to

make the yarn Long continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make

them into yarns Sometimes they are put through an additional process called texturing

The characteristics of spun yarn depend in part on the amount of twist given to the

fibers during spinning A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn a low twist

produces softer more lustrous yarn and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn Yarns

are also classified by their number of parts A single yarn is made from a group of

filament or staple fibers twisted together Ply yarns are made by twisting two or more

single yarns Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply yarns

Almost eight billion pounds (36 billion kg) of spun yarn was produced in the United

States during 1995 with 40 being produced in North Carolina alone Over 50 of spun

yarn is made from cotton Textured crimped or bulked yarn comprised one half of the

total spun Textured yarn has higher volume due to physical chemical or heat

treatments Crimped yarn is made of thermoplastic fibers of deformed shape Bulked

yarn is formed from fibers that are inherently bulky and cannot be closely packed

Yarn is used to make textiles using a variety of processes including weaving knitting

and felting Nearly four billion pounds (18 billion kg) of weaving yarn three billion

pounds (14 kg) of machine knitting yarn and one billion pounds (450 million kg) of

carpet and rug yarn was produced in the United States during in 1995 The US textile

industry employs over 600000 workers and consumes around 16 billion pounds (7 billion

kg) of mill fiber per year with industry profits estimated at $21 billion in 1996 Exports

represent more than 11 of industry sales approaching $7 billion The apparel industry

employs another one million workers

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 18

VIII EQUIPMENT LAYOUT

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 19

SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF EQUIPMENT

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 20

IX CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVED

A OVERALL REACTION

Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield Viscose Rayon

B SUB REACTIONS

(1) C6H9O4OH + NaOH rarr C6H9O4ONa+H2O

(Cellulose is converted to alkali cellulose during Steeping)

(2) C6H9O4ONa + CS2rarr C6H9O4OCSSNa+Na2CS3

(Carbon disulphide reacts with alkali cellulose Sodium cellulose xanthate amp

sodium trithiocarbamate is produced during Xanthation)

(3) C6H9O4OCSSNa + NaOH rarrViscose Solution

(Viscose solution is formed during Dissolution)

(4) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2O rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+NaOH

(Sodium cellulose xanthate is decomposed to get cellulose during Ripening)

(5) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2SO4rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+Na2SO4

(Recovery of cellulose from cellulose xanthate by acid decomposition during

Spinning)

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 21

COTTON YARN MANUFACTURING

Introduction

Yarn consists of several strands of material twisted together Each

strand is in turn made of fibers all shorter than the piece of yarn

that they form These short fibers are spun into longer filaments to

make the yarn Long continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make

them into yarns Sometimes they are put through an additional process called texturing

The characteristics of spun yarn depend in part on the amount of twist given to the

fibers during spinning A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn a low twist

produces softer more lustrous yarn and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn Yarns

are also classified by their number of parts A single yarn is made from a group of

filament or staple fibers twisted together Ply yarns are made by twisting two or more

single yarns Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply yarns

Almost eight billion pounds (36 billion kg) of spun yarn was produced in the United

States during 1995 with 40 being produced in North Carolina alone Over 50 of spun

yarn is made from cotton Textured crimped or bulked yarn comprised one half of the

total spun Textured yarn has higher volume due to physical chemical or heat

treatments Crimped yarn is made of thermoplastic fibers of deformed shape Bulked

yarn is formed from fibers that are inherently bulky and cannot be closely packed

Yarn is used to make textiles using a variety of processes including weaving knitting

and felting Nearly four billion pounds (18 billion kg) of weaving yarn three billion

pounds (14 kg) of machine knitting yarn and one billion pounds (450 million kg) of

carpet and rug yarn was produced in the United States during in 1995 The US textile

industry employs over 600000 workers and consumes around 16 billion pounds (7 billion

kg) of mill fiber per year with industry profits estimated at $21 billion in 1996 Exports

represent more than 11 of industry sales approaching $7 billion The apparel industry

employs another one million workers

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 19

SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF EQUIPMENT

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 20

IX CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVED

A OVERALL REACTION

Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield Viscose Rayon

B SUB REACTIONS

(1) C6H9O4OH + NaOH rarr C6H9O4ONa+H2O

(Cellulose is converted to alkali cellulose during Steeping)

(2) C6H9O4ONa + CS2rarr C6H9O4OCSSNa+Na2CS3

(Carbon disulphide reacts with alkali cellulose Sodium cellulose xanthate amp

sodium trithiocarbamate is produced during Xanthation)

(3) C6H9O4OCSSNa + NaOH rarrViscose Solution

(Viscose solution is formed during Dissolution)

(4) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2O rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+NaOH

(Sodium cellulose xanthate is decomposed to get cellulose during Ripening)

(5) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2SO4rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+Na2SO4

(Recovery of cellulose from cellulose xanthate by acid decomposition during

Spinning)

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 21

COTTON YARN MANUFACTURING

Introduction

Yarn consists of several strands of material twisted together Each

strand is in turn made of fibers all shorter than the piece of yarn

that they form These short fibers are spun into longer filaments to

make the yarn Long continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make

them into yarns Sometimes they are put through an additional process called texturing

The characteristics of spun yarn depend in part on the amount of twist given to the

fibers during spinning A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn a low twist

produces softer more lustrous yarn and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn Yarns

are also classified by their number of parts A single yarn is made from a group of

filament or staple fibers twisted together Ply yarns are made by twisting two or more

single yarns Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply yarns

Almost eight billion pounds (36 billion kg) of spun yarn was produced in the United

States during 1995 with 40 being produced in North Carolina alone Over 50 of spun

yarn is made from cotton Textured crimped or bulked yarn comprised one half of the

total spun Textured yarn has higher volume due to physical chemical or heat

treatments Crimped yarn is made of thermoplastic fibers of deformed shape Bulked

yarn is formed from fibers that are inherently bulky and cannot be closely packed

Yarn is used to make textiles using a variety of processes including weaving knitting

and felting Nearly four billion pounds (18 billion kg) of weaving yarn three billion

pounds (14 kg) of machine knitting yarn and one billion pounds (450 million kg) of

carpet and rug yarn was produced in the United States during in 1995 The US textile

industry employs over 600000 workers and consumes around 16 billion pounds (7 billion

kg) of mill fiber per year with industry profits estimated at $21 billion in 1996 Exports

represent more than 11 of industry sales approaching $7 billion The apparel industry

employs another one million workers

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 20

IX CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVED

A OVERALL REACTION

Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield Viscose Rayon

B SUB REACTIONS

(1) C6H9O4OH + NaOH rarr C6H9O4ONa+H2O

(Cellulose is converted to alkali cellulose during Steeping)

(2) C6H9O4ONa + CS2rarr C6H9O4OCSSNa+Na2CS3

(Carbon disulphide reacts with alkali cellulose Sodium cellulose xanthate amp

sodium trithiocarbamate is produced during Xanthation)

(3) C6H9O4OCSSNa + NaOH rarrViscose Solution

(Viscose solution is formed during Dissolution)

(4) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2O rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+NaOH

(Sodium cellulose xanthate is decomposed to get cellulose during Ripening)

(5) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2SO4rarr C6H9O4OH+CS2+Na2SO4

(Recovery of cellulose from cellulose xanthate by acid decomposition during

Spinning)

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 21

COTTON YARN MANUFACTURING

Introduction

Yarn consists of several strands of material twisted together Each

strand is in turn made of fibers all shorter than the piece of yarn

that they form These short fibers are spun into longer filaments to

make the yarn Long continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make

them into yarns Sometimes they are put through an additional process called texturing

The characteristics of spun yarn depend in part on the amount of twist given to the

fibers during spinning A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn a low twist

produces softer more lustrous yarn and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn Yarns

are also classified by their number of parts A single yarn is made from a group of

filament or staple fibers twisted together Ply yarns are made by twisting two or more

single yarns Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply yarns

Almost eight billion pounds (36 billion kg) of spun yarn was produced in the United

States during 1995 with 40 being produced in North Carolina alone Over 50 of spun

yarn is made from cotton Textured crimped or bulked yarn comprised one half of the

total spun Textured yarn has higher volume due to physical chemical or heat

treatments Crimped yarn is made of thermoplastic fibers of deformed shape Bulked

yarn is formed from fibers that are inherently bulky and cannot be closely packed

Yarn is used to make textiles using a variety of processes including weaving knitting

and felting Nearly four billion pounds (18 billion kg) of weaving yarn three billion

pounds (14 kg) of machine knitting yarn and one billion pounds (450 million kg) of

carpet and rug yarn was produced in the United States during in 1995 The US textile

industry employs over 600000 workers and consumes around 16 billion pounds (7 billion

kg) of mill fiber per year with industry profits estimated at $21 billion in 1996 Exports

represent more than 11 of industry sales approaching $7 billion The apparel industry

employs another one million workers

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 21

COTTON YARN MANUFACTURING

Introduction

Yarn consists of several strands of material twisted together Each

strand is in turn made of fibers all shorter than the piece of yarn

that they form These short fibers are spun into longer filaments to

make the yarn Long continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make

them into yarns Sometimes they are put through an additional process called texturing

The characteristics of spun yarn depend in part on the amount of twist given to the

fibers during spinning A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn a low twist

produces softer more lustrous yarn and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn Yarns

are also classified by their number of parts A single yarn is made from a group of

filament or staple fibers twisted together Ply yarns are made by twisting two or more

single yarns Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply yarns

Almost eight billion pounds (36 billion kg) of spun yarn was produced in the United

States during 1995 with 40 being produced in North Carolina alone Over 50 of spun

yarn is made from cotton Textured crimped or bulked yarn comprised one half of the

total spun Textured yarn has higher volume due to physical chemical or heat

treatments Crimped yarn is made of thermoplastic fibers of deformed shape Bulked

yarn is formed from fibers that are inherently bulky and cannot be closely packed

Yarn is used to make textiles using a variety of processes including weaving knitting

and felting Nearly four billion pounds (18 billion kg) of weaving yarn three billion

pounds (14 kg) of machine knitting yarn and one billion pounds (450 million kg) of

carpet and rug yarn was produced in the United States during in 1995 The US textile

industry employs over 600000 workers and consumes around 16 billion pounds (7 billion

kg) of mill fiber per year with industry profits estimated at $21 billion in 1996 Exports

represent more than 11 of industry sales approaching $7 billion The apparel industry

employs another one million workers

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 22

History

Natural fibersmdashcotton flax silk and woolmdashrepresent the major fibers available to

ancient civilizations The earliest known samples of yarn and fabric of any kind were

found near Robenhausen Switzerland where bundles of flax fibers and yarns and

fragments of plain-weave linen fabric were estimated to be about 7000 years old

Cotton has also been cultivated and used to make fabrics for at least 7000 years It

may have existed in Egypt as early as 12000 BC Fragments of cotton fabrics have

been found by archeologists in Mexico (from 3500 BC ) in India (3000 BC ) in Peru

(2500 BC ) and in the southwestern United States (500 BC ) Cotton did not achieve

commercial importance in Europe until after the colonization of the New World Silk

culture remained a specialty of the Chinese from its beginnings (2600 BC) until the sixth

century when silkworms were first raised in the Byzantine Empire

Synthetic fibers did not appear until much later The first synthetic rayon made from

cotton or wood fibers was developed in 1891 but not commercially produced until

1911 Almost a half a century later nylon was invented followed by the various forms of

polyester Synthetic fibers reduced the world demand for natural fibers and expanded

applications

Until about 1300 yarn was spun on the spindle and whorl A spindle is a rounded stick

with tapered ends to which the fibers are attached and twisted a whorl is a weight

attached to the spindle that acts as a flywheel to keep the spindle rotating The fibers

were pulled by hand from a bundle of carded fibers tied to a stick called a distaff In

hand carding fibers are placed between two boards covered with leather through

which protrude fine wire hooks that catch the fibers as one board is pulled gently across

the other

The spindle which hangs from the fibers twists the fibers as it rotates downward and

spins a length of yarn as it pulls away from the fiber bundle When the spindle reaches

the floor the spinner winds the yarn around the spindle to secure it and then starts the

process again This is continued until all of the fiber is spun or until the spindle is full

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 23

A major improvement was the spinning wheel invented in India between 500 and

1000 AD and first used in Europe during the Middle Ages A horizontally mounted

spindle is connected to a large hand-driven wheel by a circular band The distaff is

mounted at one end of the spinning wheel and the fiber is fed by hand to the spindle

which turns as the wheel turns A component called the flyer twists the thread just

before it is wound on a bobbin The spindle and bobbin are attached to the wheel by

separate parts so that the bobbin turns more slowly than does the spindle Thus thread

can be twisted and wound at the same time About 150 years later the Saxon wheel

was introduced Operated by a foot pedal the Saxon wheel allowed both hands the

freedom to work the fibers

A number of developments during the eighteenth century further mechanized the

spinning process In 1733 the flying shuttle was invented by John Kay followed by

Hargreaves spinning jenny in 1766 The jenny featured a series of spindles set in a row

enabling one operator to produce large quantities of yarn Several years later Richard

Arkwright patented the spinning frame a machine that used a series of rotating rollers

to draw out the fibers A decade later Samule Cromptons mule machine was invented

which could spin any type of yarn in one continuous operation

The ring frame was invented in 1828 by the American John Thorp and is still widely used

today This system involves hundreds of spindles mounted vertically inside a metal ring

Many natural fibers are now spun by the open-end system where the fibers are drawn

by air into a rapidly rotating cup and pulled out on the other side as a finished yarn

Raw Material

About 15 different types of fibers are used to make yarn These fibers fall into two

categories natural and synthetic Natural fibers are those that are obtained from a

plant or an animal and are mainly used in weaving textiles The most abundant and

commonly used plant fiber is cotton gathered from the cotton boil or seed pod when it

is mature In fact cotton is the best-selling fiber in America outselling all synthetic fibers

combined

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 24

Fibers taken from the plant leaf or stern are generally used for rope Other plant fibers

include acetate (made from wood pulp or cotton linters) and linen made from flax a

vegetable fiber Animal fibers include wool made from sheep hair and mohair made

from angora goats and rabbits Silk is a protein extruded in long continuous strands by

the silkworm as it weaves its cocoon

Synthetic fibers are made by forcing a thick solution of polymerized chemicals through

spinneret nozzles and hardening the resulting filament in a chemical bath These

include acrylic nylon polyester polyolefin rayon spandex and triacetate Some of

these fibers have similar characteristics to the natural fibers without the shrinkage

problems Other fibers have special properties for specific applications For instance

spandex can be stretched over 500 without breaking

Fibers are shipped in bales which are opened by hand or machine The picker loosens

and separates the lumps of fiber and also cleans the fiber if necessary The carding

machine separates the fibers and pulls them into somewhat parallel form The thin web

of fibers formed then passes through a funnel-shaped device that produces a ropelike

strand of parallel fibers Rollers elongate the strand called a sliver into a single more

uniform strand that is given a small amount of twist and fed into large cans

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 25

Companies

Indo Phil Acrylic Mfg Corporation

Founded since 1975 located atLambakin Marilao Philippines

Asia Palm Fibers Inc

Founded in 2008 located at355 MLQ St Bagumbayan Taguig City Metro Manila

Philippines

Monti Textile Philippines

Located at Km 22 Aguinaldo Hw Imus Cavite Philippines

The Manufacturing Process

Harvesting and Preparing the Cotton

Harvesting is done by machine with a single machine replacing 50 hand-pickers

Two mechanical systems are used to harvest cotton The picker system uses wind

and guides to pull the cotton from the plant often leaving behind the leaves

and rest of the plant The stripper system chops the plant and uses air to

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 26

separate the trash from the cotton Most cotton is harvested using pickers

Pickers must be used after the dew dries in the morning and must conclude

when dew begins to form again at the end of the day Moisture detectors are

used to ensure that the moisture content is no higher than 12 or the cotton

may not be harvested and stored successfully Not all cotton reaches maturity at

the same time and harvesting may occur in waves with a second and third

picking

Next most cotton is stored in modules which hold 13-15 bales in water-resistant

containers in the fields until they are ready to be ginned

The cotton module is cleaned compressed tagged and stored at the gin The

cotton is cleaned to separate dirt seeds and short lint from the cotton At the

gin the cotton enters module feeders that fluff up the cotton before cleaning

Some gins use vacuum pipes to send fibers to cleaning equipment where trash is

removed After cleaning cotton is sent to gin stands where revolving circular

saws pull the fiber through wire ribs thus separating seeds from the fiber High-

capacity gins can process 60 500-lb (227-kg) bales of cotton per hour

Cleaned and de-seeded cotton is then I 0 compressed into bales which permits

economical storage and transportation of cotton The compressed bales are

banded and wrapped The wrapping may be either cotton or polypropylene

which maintains the proper moisture content of the cotton and keeps bales

clean during storage and transportation

Every bale of cotton produced in the United States must be given a gin ticket

and a warehouse ticket The gin ticket identifies the bale until it is woven The

ticket is a bar-coded tag that is torn off during inspection A sample of each bale

is sent to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for evaluation

where it is assessed for color leaf content strength fineness reflectance fiber

length and trash content The results of the evaluation determine the bales

value Inspection results are available to potential buyers

After inspection bales are stored in a carefully controlled warehouse The bales

remain there until they are sold to a mill for further processing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 27

Preparing the fibers

Fibers are shipped in bales which are opened by hand or machine Natural

fibers may require cleaning The picker loosens and separates the lumps of fiber

and also cleans the fiber if necessary Blending of different staple fibers may be

required for certain applications Blending may be done during formation of the

lap during carding or during drawing out Quantities of each fiber are

measured carefully and their proportions are consistently maintained

Carding

The carding machine is set with hundreds of fine wires that

separate the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel

form A thin web of fiber is formed and as it moves along it

passes through a funnel-shaped device that produces a

ropelike strand of parallel fibers Blending can take place

by joining laps of different fibers

Drawing out

After carding the fiber mass is

referred to as the sliver Several

slivers are combined before this

process A series of rollers rotating at

different rates of speed elongate

the sliver into a single more uniform

strand that is given a small amount

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 28

of twist and fed into large cans Carded slivers are drawn twice after carding

Combed slivers are drawn oncebefore combing and twice more after combing

Twisting

The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame

where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given

additional twist These strands are called the roving

Spinning

The sliver is fed through

a machine called the

roving frame where the

strands of fiber are

further elongated and

given additional twist

The predominant

commercial systems of

yarn formation are ring

spinning and open-end

spinning Open-end

spinning omits the roving

step

The predominant commercial systems of yarn formation

are ring spinning and open-end spinning In ring spinning

the roving is fed from the spool through rollers These

rollers elongate the roving which passes through the

eyelet moving down and through the traveler The

traveler moves freely around the stationary ring at 4000

to 12000 revolutions per minute The spindle turns the

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 29

bobbin at a constant speed This turning of the bobbin and the movement of the

traveler twists and winds the yarn in one operation

Open-end spinning omits the roving step Instead a sliver of fibers is fed into the

spinner by a stream of air The sliver is delivered to a rotary beater that separates

the fibers into a thin stream that is carried into the rotor by a current of air

through a tube or duct and is deposited in a V-shaped groove along the sides of

the rotor As the rotor turns twist is produced A constant stream of new fibers

Equipment

Layering Machine ndash this machine passess over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of

cotton It removes some leaves and stem that are mixed in with the cotton fibers

Blending and Cleaning Machine - this machine processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The

cotton comes out evenly blended and cleaner

Second Cleaning Machine ndash the cotton fibers are still not clean enough so it goes into a

second cleaning machine which finishes the job

Carding Machine ndash this machine has huge rollers with wire teeth It combed out the

fibers and line them up in parallel rolls The machine also discards any fibers that are too

short to process

Coiler - this machine takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first

stage yarn called sliver

Drying Machine - this machine lines the slivers up six at a time and draws them out

stretching them to form a second stage yarn

Roving Frame ndash this machine stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by

thinning it out This third stage yarn is called roving

Winding Machine - it winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 30

Cotton yarn is made from large bales of raw cotton Cotton comes from a plant so

naturally some leaves and stem are mixed in with the cotton fibers To remove them

the first machine passes over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of cotton then sends

it through a duct system to the blending and cleaning machine That machine

processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The cotton comes out evenly blended and

cleaner but still not clean enough so it goes into a second cleaning machine which

finishes the job Now the cotton goes to a carding machine It has huge rollers with wire

teeth The machine combed out the fibers and lines them up in parallel rolls The

machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process Next stop is the coiler

This device takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first stage yarn

called sliver The slivers move on to the drying machine it lines them up six at a time

and draws them out stretching them to form a second stage yarn Then a machine

called a roving frame stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by thinning it out

until it looks like this This third stage yarn is called roving Depending on the type of yarn

theyrsquore making itrsquos anywhere from 3 frac12 to 16 times thinner than sliver They now stretch

the roving up to 30 times thinner which strengthens it even more The yarn is finally

finished Now they have to transfer the yarn from all these small spools on to huge

industrial size cones twenty spools to a cone One transfer uses the winding machine it

winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 31

Process Layout

Preparing the Fibers

- After preparing the cotton the cotton fibers are shipped in bales The fibers are further blended and cleaned through a blending and cleaning machine

Carding

- This process separates the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form through the carding machine

Drawing Out

- Through the coiler the rolls of fibers are formed into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver

Twisting

- The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist

Spinning

- The yarn is winded from the spool to the cone through the winding machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and

certain other animals Wool is the dense warm

coat of sheep also called a fleece

This material is highly flame resistant and frequently

used for mattresses and rugs for that reason It is

also highly durable able to stretch up to 50 when

wet and 30 when dry In addition wool has

excellent moisture wicking properties pulling

moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesnt

feel wet or soggy to the wearer It pulls moisture

away from the skin as well and is worn by people

in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling

of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration Wool is favoured for textile

production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well

People have been using sheep wool for many many centuries Historians believe the

practice began in 8000 BCE The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter

cold and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket Over the years people found

ways to process the material and also began coloring it and weaving it into different

patterns

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL

Worsted Yarn

This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces

The staples are combed into a parallel formation which

removes all the short fibers Worsted materials normally

have a smooth finish and are extremely durable Some

examples of worsted products include suits dresses and

gabardines

Woolen Yarn

Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces

The fleece wool is not combed but rather carded As a

result the materials are thicker and garments look bulky in

appearance Some examples of the wollen products

include sweaters and carpets

Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 27

Preparing the fibers

Fibers are shipped in bales which are opened by hand or machine Natural

fibers may require cleaning The picker loosens and separates the lumps of fiber

and also cleans the fiber if necessary Blending of different staple fibers may be

required for certain applications Blending may be done during formation of the

lap during carding or during drawing out Quantities of each fiber are

measured carefully and their proportions are consistently maintained

Carding

The carding machine is set with hundreds of fine wires that

separate the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel

form A thin web of fiber is formed and as it moves along it

passes through a funnel-shaped device that produces a

ropelike strand of parallel fibers Blending can take place

by joining laps of different fibers

Drawing out

After carding the fiber mass is

referred to as the sliver Several

slivers are combined before this

process A series of rollers rotating at

different rates of speed elongate

the sliver into a single more uniform

strand that is given a small amount

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 28

of twist and fed into large cans Carded slivers are drawn twice after carding

Combed slivers are drawn oncebefore combing and twice more after combing

Twisting

The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame

where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given

additional twist These strands are called the roving

Spinning

The sliver is fed through

a machine called the

roving frame where the

strands of fiber are

further elongated and

given additional twist

The predominant

commercial systems of

yarn formation are ring

spinning and open-end

spinning Open-end

spinning omits the roving

step

The predominant commercial systems of yarn formation

are ring spinning and open-end spinning In ring spinning

the roving is fed from the spool through rollers These

rollers elongate the roving which passes through the

eyelet moving down and through the traveler The

traveler moves freely around the stationary ring at 4000

to 12000 revolutions per minute The spindle turns the

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 29

bobbin at a constant speed This turning of the bobbin and the movement of the

traveler twists and winds the yarn in one operation

Open-end spinning omits the roving step Instead a sliver of fibers is fed into the

spinner by a stream of air The sliver is delivered to a rotary beater that separates

the fibers into a thin stream that is carried into the rotor by a current of air

through a tube or duct and is deposited in a V-shaped groove along the sides of

the rotor As the rotor turns twist is produced A constant stream of new fibers

Equipment

Layering Machine ndash this machine passess over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of

cotton It removes some leaves and stem that are mixed in with the cotton fibers

Blending and Cleaning Machine - this machine processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The

cotton comes out evenly blended and cleaner

Second Cleaning Machine ndash the cotton fibers are still not clean enough so it goes into a

second cleaning machine which finishes the job

Carding Machine ndash this machine has huge rollers with wire teeth It combed out the

fibers and line them up in parallel rolls The machine also discards any fibers that are too

short to process

Coiler - this machine takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first

stage yarn called sliver

Drying Machine - this machine lines the slivers up six at a time and draws them out

stretching them to form a second stage yarn

Roving Frame ndash this machine stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by

thinning it out This third stage yarn is called roving

Winding Machine - it winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 30

Cotton yarn is made from large bales of raw cotton Cotton comes from a plant so

naturally some leaves and stem are mixed in with the cotton fibers To remove them

the first machine passes over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of cotton then sends

it through a duct system to the blending and cleaning machine That machine

processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The cotton comes out evenly blended and

cleaner but still not clean enough so it goes into a second cleaning machine which

finishes the job Now the cotton goes to a carding machine It has huge rollers with wire

teeth The machine combed out the fibers and lines them up in parallel rolls The

machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process Next stop is the coiler

This device takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first stage yarn

called sliver The slivers move on to the drying machine it lines them up six at a time

and draws them out stretching them to form a second stage yarn Then a machine

called a roving frame stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by thinning it out

until it looks like this This third stage yarn is called roving Depending on the type of yarn

theyrsquore making itrsquos anywhere from 3 frac12 to 16 times thinner than sliver They now stretch

the roving up to 30 times thinner which strengthens it even more The yarn is finally

finished Now they have to transfer the yarn from all these small spools on to huge

industrial size cones twenty spools to a cone One transfer uses the winding machine it

winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 31

Process Layout

Preparing the Fibers

- After preparing the cotton the cotton fibers are shipped in bales The fibers are further blended and cleaned through a blending and cleaning machine

Carding

- This process separates the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form through the carding machine

Drawing Out

- Through the coiler the rolls of fibers are formed into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver

Twisting

- The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist

Spinning

- The yarn is winded from the spool to the cone through the winding machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and

certain other animals Wool is the dense warm

coat of sheep also called a fleece

This material is highly flame resistant and frequently

used for mattresses and rugs for that reason It is

also highly durable able to stretch up to 50 when

wet and 30 when dry In addition wool has

excellent moisture wicking properties pulling

moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesnt

feel wet or soggy to the wearer It pulls moisture

away from the skin as well and is worn by people

in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling

of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration Wool is favoured for textile

production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well

People have been using sheep wool for many many centuries Historians believe the

practice began in 8000 BCE The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter

cold and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket Over the years people found

ways to process the material and also began coloring it and weaving it into different

patterns

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL

Worsted Yarn

This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces

The staples are combed into a parallel formation which

removes all the short fibers Worsted materials normally

have a smooth finish and are extremely durable Some

examples of worsted products include suits dresses and

gabardines

Woolen Yarn

Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces

The fleece wool is not combed but rather carded As a

result the materials are thicker and garments look bulky in

appearance Some examples of the wollen products

include sweaters and carpets

Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 28

of twist and fed into large cans Carded slivers are drawn twice after carding

Combed slivers are drawn oncebefore combing and twice more after combing

Twisting

The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame

where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given

additional twist These strands are called the roving

Spinning

The sliver is fed through

a machine called the

roving frame where the

strands of fiber are

further elongated and

given additional twist

The predominant

commercial systems of

yarn formation are ring

spinning and open-end

spinning Open-end

spinning omits the roving

step

The predominant commercial systems of yarn formation

are ring spinning and open-end spinning In ring spinning

the roving is fed from the spool through rollers These

rollers elongate the roving which passes through the

eyelet moving down and through the traveler The

traveler moves freely around the stationary ring at 4000

to 12000 revolutions per minute The spindle turns the

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 29

bobbin at a constant speed This turning of the bobbin and the movement of the

traveler twists and winds the yarn in one operation

Open-end spinning omits the roving step Instead a sliver of fibers is fed into the

spinner by a stream of air The sliver is delivered to a rotary beater that separates

the fibers into a thin stream that is carried into the rotor by a current of air

through a tube or duct and is deposited in a V-shaped groove along the sides of

the rotor As the rotor turns twist is produced A constant stream of new fibers

Equipment

Layering Machine ndash this machine passess over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of

cotton It removes some leaves and stem that are mixed in with the cotton fibers

Blending and Cleaning Machine - this machine processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The

cotton comes out evenly blended and cleaner

Second Cleaning Machine ndash the cotton fibers are still not clean enough so it goes into a

second cleaning machine which finishes the job

Carding Machine ndash this machine has huge rollers with wire teeth It combed out the

fibers and line them up in parallel rolls The machine also discards any fibers that are too

short to process

Coiler - this machine takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first

stage yarn called sliver

Drying Machine - this machine lines the slivers up six at a time and draws them out

stretching them to form a second stage yarn

Roving Frame ndash this machine stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by

thinning it out This third stage yarn is called roving

Winding Machine - it winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 30

Cotton yarn is made from large bales of raw cotton Cotton comes from a plant so

naturally some leaves and stem are mixed in with the cotton fibers To remove them

the first machine passes over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of cotton then sends

it through a duct system to the blending and cleaning machine That machine

processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The cotton comes out evenly blended and

cleaner but still not clean enough so it goes into a second cleaning machine which

finishes the job Now the cotton goes to a carding machine It has huge rollers with wire

teeth The machine combed out the fibers and lines them up in parallel rolls The

machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process Next stop is the coiler

This device takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first stage yarn

called sliver The slivers move on to the drying machine it lines them up six at a time

and draws them out stretching them to form a second stage yarn Then a machine

called a roving frame stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by thinning it out

until it looks like this This third stage yarn is called roving Depending on the type of yarn

theyrsquore making itrsquos anywhere from 3 frac12 to 16 times thinner than sliver They now stretch

the roving up to 30 times thinner which strengthens it even more The yarn is finally

finished Now they have to transfer the yarn from all these small spools on to huge

industrial size cones twenty spools to a cone One transfer uses the winding machine it

winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 31

Process Layout

Preparing the Fibers

- After preparing the cotton the cotton fibers are shipped in bales The fibers are further blended and cleaned through a blending and cleaning machine

Carding

- This process separates the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form through the carding machine

Drawing Out

- Through the coiler the rolls of fibers are formed into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver

Twisting

- The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist

Spinning

- The yarn is winded from the spool to the cone through the winding machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and

certain other animals Wool is the dense warm

coat of sheep also called a fleece

This material is highly flame resistant and frequently

used for mattresses and rugs for that reason It is

also highly durable able to stretch up to 50 when

wet and 30 when dry In addition wool has

excellent moisture wicking properties pulling

moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesnt

feel wet or soggy to the wearer It pulls moisture

away from the skin as well and is worn by people

in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling

of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration Wool is favoured for textile

production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well

People have been using sheep wool for many many centuries Historians believe the

practice began in 8000 BCE The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter

cold and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket Over the years people found

ways to process the material and also began coloring it and weaving it into different

patterns

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL

Worsted Yarn

This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces

The staples are combed into a parallel formation which

removes all the short fibers Worsted materials normally

have a smooth finish and are extremely durable Some

examples of worsted products include suits dresses and

gabardines

Woolen Yarn

Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces

The fleece wool is not combed but rather carded As a

result the materials are thicker and garments look bulky in

appearance Some examples of the wollen products

include sweaters and carpets

Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 29

bobbin at a constant speed This turning of the bobbin and the movement of the

traveler twists and winds the yarn in one operation

Open-end spinning omits the roving step Instead a sliver of fibers is fed into the

spinner by a stream of air The sliver is delivered to a rotary beater that separates

the fibers into a thin stream that is carried into the rotor by a current of air

through a tube or duct and is deposited in a V-shaped groove along the sides of

the rotor As the rotor turns twist is produced A constant stream of new fibers

Equipment

Layering Machine ndash this machine passess over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of

cotton It removes some leaves and stem that are mixed in with the cotton fibers

Blending and Cleaning Machine - this machine processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The

cotton comes out evenly blended and cleaner

Second Cleaning Machine ndash the cotton fibers are still not clean enough so it goes into a

second cleaning machine which finishes the job

Carding Machine ndash this machine has huge rollers with wire teeth It combed out the

fibers and line them up in parallel rolls The machine also discards any fibers that are too

short to process

Coiler - this machine takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first

stage yarn called sliver

Drying Machine - this machine lines the slivers up six at a time and draws them out

stretching them to form a second stage yarn

Roving Frame ndash this machine stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by

thinning it out This third stage yarn is called roving

Winding Machine - it winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 30

Cotton yarn is made from large bales of raw cotton Cotton comes from a plant so

naturally some leaves and stem are mixed in with the cotton fibers To remove them

the first machine passes over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of cotton then sends

it through a duct system to the blending and cleaning machine That machine

processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The cotton comes out evenly blended and

cleaner but still not clean enough so it goes into a second cleaning machine which

finishes the job Now the cotton goes to a carding machine It has huge rollers with wire

teeth The machine combed out the fibers and lines them up in parallel rolls The

machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process Next stop is the coiler

This device takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first stage yarn

called sliver The slivers move on to the drying machine it lines them up six at a time

and draws them out stretching them to form a second stage yarn Then a machine

called a roving frame stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by thinning it out

until it looks like this This third stage yarn is called roving Depending on the type of yarn

theyrsquore making itrsquos anywhere from 3 frac12 to 16 times thinner than sliver They now stretch

the roving up to 30 times thinner which strengthens it even more The yarn is finally

finished Now they have to transfer the yarn from all these small spools on to huge

industrial size cones twenty spools to a cone One transfer uses the winding machine it

winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 31

Process Layout

Preparing the Fibers

- After preparing the cotton the cotton fibers are shipped in bales The fibers are further blended and cleaned through a blending and cleaning machine

Carding

- This process separates the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form through the carding machine

Drawing Out

- Through the coiler the rolls of fibers are formed into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver

Twisting

- The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist

Spinning

- The yarn is winded from the spool to the cone through the winding machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and

certain other animals Wool is the dense warm

coat of sheep also called a fleece

This material is highly flame resistant and frequently

used for mattresses and rugs for that reason It is

also highly durable able to stretch up to 50 when

wet and 30 when dry In addition wool has

excellent moisture wicking properties pulling

moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesnt

feel wet or soggy to the wearer It pulls moisture

away from the skin as well and is worn by people

in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling

of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration Wool is favoured for textile

production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well

People have been using sheep wool for many many centuries Historians believe the

practice began in 8000 BCE The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter

cold and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket Over the years people found

ways to process the material and also began coloring it and weaving it into different

patterns

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL

Worsted Yarn

This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces

The staples are combed into a parallel formation which

removes all the short fibers Worsted materials normally

have a smooth finish and are extremely durable Some

examples of worsted products include suits dresses and

gabardines

Woolen Yarn

Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces

The fleece wool is not combed but rather carded As a

result the materials are thicker and garments look bulky in

appearance Some examples of the wollen products

include sweaters and carpets

Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 30

Cotton yarn is made from large bales of raw cotton Cotton comes from a plant so

naturally some leaves and stem are mixed in with the cotton fibers To remove them

the first machine passes over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of cotton then sends

it through a duct system to the blending and cleaning machine That machine

processes 500 kg of cotton per hour The cotton comes out evenly blended and

cleaner but still not clean enough so it goes into a second cleaning machine which

finishes the job Now the cotton goes to a carding machine It has huge rollers with wire

teeth The machine combed out the fibers and lines them up in parallel rolls The

machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process Next stop is the coiler

This device takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first stage yarn

called sliver The slivers move on to the drying machine it lines them up six at a time

and draws them out stretching them to form a second stage yarn Then a machine

called a roving frame stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by thinning it out

until it looks like this This third stage yarn is called roving Depending on the type of yarn

theyrsquore making itrsquos anywhere from 3 frac12 to 16 times thinner than sliver They now stretch

the roving up to 30 times thinner which strengthens it even more The yarn is finally

finished Now they have to transfer the yarn from all these small spools on to huge

industrial size cones twenty spools to a cone One transfer uses the winding machine it

winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 31

Process Layout

Preparing the Fibers

- After preparing the cotton the cotton fibers are shipped in bales The fibers are further blended and cleaned through a blending and cleaning machine

Carding

- This process separates the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form through the carding machine

Drawing Out

- Through the coiler the rolls of fibers are formed into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver

Twisting

- The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist

Spinning

- The yarn is winded from the spool to the cone through the winding machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and

certain other animals Wool is the dense warm

coat of sheep also called a fleece

This material is highly flame resistant and frequently

used for mattresses and rugs for that reason It is

also highly durable able to stretch up to 50 when

wet and 30 when dry In addition wool has

excellent moisture wicking properties pulling

moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesnt

feel wet or soggy to the wearer It pulls moisture

away from the skin as well and is worn by people

in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling

of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration Wool is favoured for textile

production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well

People have been using sheep wool for many many centuries Historians believe the

practice began in 8000 BCE The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter

cold and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket Over the years people found

ways to process the material and also began coloring it and weaving it into different

patterns

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL

Worsted Yarn

This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces

The staples are combed into a parallel formation which

removes all the short fibers Worsted materials normally

have a smooth finish and are extremely durable Some

examples of worsted products include suits dresses and

gabardines

Woolen Yarn

Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces

The fleece wool is not combed but rather carded As a

result the materials are thicker and garments look bulky in

appearance Some examples of the wollen products

include sweaters and carpets

Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 31

Process Layout

Preparing the Fibers

- After preparing the cotton the cotton fibers are shipped in bales The fibers are further blended and cleaned through a blending and cleaning machine

Carding

- This process separates the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form through the carding machine

Drawing Out

- Through the coiler the rolls of fibers are formed into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver

Twisting

- The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist

Spinning

- The yarn is winded from the spool to the cone through the winding machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and

certain other animals Wool is the dense warm

coat of sheep also called a fleece

This material is highly flame resistant and frequently

used for mattresses and rugs for that reason It is

also highly durable able to stretch up to 50 when

wet and 30 when dry In addition wool has

excellent moisture wicking properties pulling

moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesnt

feel wet or soggy to the wearer It pulls moisture

away from the skin as well and is worn by people

in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling

of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration Wool is favoured for textile

production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well

People have been using sheep wool for many many centuries Historians believe the

practice began in 8000 BCE The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter

cold and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket Over the years people found

ways to process the material and also began coloring it and weaving it into different

patterns

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL

Worsted Yarn

This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces

The staples are combed into a parallel formation which

removes all the short fibers Worsted materials normally

have a smooth finish and are extremely durable Some

examples of worsted products include suits dresses and

gabardines

Woolen Yarn

Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces

The fleece wool is not combed but rather carded As a

result the materials are thicker and garments look bulky in

appearance Some examples of the wollen products

include sweaters and carpets

Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and

certain other animals Wool is the dense warm

coat of sheep also called a fleece

This material is highly flame resistant and frequently

used for mattresses and rugs for that reason It is

also highly durable able to stretch up to 50 when

wet and 30 when dry In addition wool has

excellent moisture wicking properties pulling

moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesnt

feel wet or soggy to the wearer It pulls moisture

away from the skin as well and is worn by people

in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling

of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration Wool is favoured for textile

production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well

People have been using sheep wool for many many centuries Historians believe the

practice began in 8000 BCE The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter

cold and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket Over the years people found

ways to process the material and also began coloring it and weaving it into different

patterns

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL

Worsted Yarn

This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces

The staples are combed into a parallel formation which

removes all the short fibers Worsted materials normally

have a smooth finish and are extremely durable Some

examples of worsted products include suits dresses and

gabardines

Woolen Yarn

Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces

The fleece wool is not combed but rather carded As a

result the materials are thicker and garments look bulky in

appearance Some examples of the wollen products

include sweaters and carpets

Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 33

Woolens Worsted

Spun from short wool fibers

(1-3 inches long)

Spun from long wool fibers

(more than 3)

Fibers are washed scoured and

carded

Fibers are washed scoured carded

combed and drawn

lower tensile strength than

worsteds higher tensile strength than woolens

low to medium twist tighter twist

Bulky uneven yarn Fine smooth yarn

Soft fuzzy appearance crisp smooth appearance

heavier weight lighter weight

not as durable as worsteds More durable than woolens

PROPERTIES OF THE WOOL

1 It has excellent absorbency

2 It is lightweight and versatile

3 Wool does not wrinkle easily

4 It is resistant to dirt and wear and tear

5 It has good elasticity and resiliency

PRODUCTS MADE FROM WOOL

Boots

Carpet

Blankets

Sweaters

Coats

Dresses

jackets

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 34

COMPANIES

ROYAL TEXTILE MILLS INC

234 Encarnacion St San Rafael Village Navotas 1485 Metro Manila

Navotas NCR

Boys-mens knit-shirt pants infantsnewborn-knit rompers toddlers knitswimsuit

ladieschildren-knit t-shirts sweatshirts ladies knit blouse

LUZON SPINNING MILLS INCORPORATED

Address 72 Judge Juan Luna Street Quezon City Metro Manila

A recognized pioneer in the fiber and textile industry Luzon

Spinning Mills is engaged in the development of fibers and

spinning solutions as well as local fabric supplier for knitted and weaving materials

RH LINDSAY WOOL COMPANY Since

1936 our expertise has helped supply

wool to hundreds of customers

throughout North America from

kindergarten classes to large textile

manufacturers

Today RH Lindsay Company is one of a handful of Boston-based firms still trading wool

We have developed a specialty line of wool for handcrafters artists and unique uses in

a wide range of quantities Spinning felting and dollmaking are some of the most

popular uses We also supply wool to the commercial wool industry

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 35

Zeilinger Wool Co is a processor of sheep wool

angora goat hair (mohair) rabbit hair (angora)

llama alpaca dog hair and other exotic

animal fibers We can turn your own fibers such

as wool into comforters mattress pads bed

pillows quilts batting for felting and crafting All

additional fibers can be processed for spinning weaving and custom yarns

RAW MATERIALS

Sheep

Approximately 90 percent of the worlds sheep

produce wool One sheep produces anywhere from 2

to 30 pounds of wool annually The wool from one

sheep is called a fleece from many sheep a clip The

amount of wool that a sheep produces depends

upon its breed genetics nutrition and shearing

interval

The Manufacturing Process

The major steps necessary to process wool from the sheep to the fabric are shearing

cleaning and scouring grading and sorting carding spinning weaving and finishing

Shearing

Sheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually

in the springtime A veteran shearer can

shear up to two hundred sheep per day

The fleece recovered from a sheep can

weigh between 6 and 18 pounds (27 and

81 kilograms) as much as possible the

fleece is kept in one piece

Machine Shear

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 36

Grading and sorting

Grading is the breaking up of the fleece

based on overall quality In sorting the

wool is broken up into sections of different

quality fibers from different parts of the

body The best quality of wool comes from

the shoulders and sides of the sheep and is

used for clothing the lesser quality comes

from the lower legs and is used to make

rugs

Scouring

Wool taken directly from the sheep is called raw or grease wool It contains

sand dirt grease and dried sweat (called

suint) the weight of contaminants

accounts for about 30 to 70 percent of the

fleeces total weight To remove these

contaminants the wool is scoured in a

series of alkaline baths containing water

soap and soda ash or a similar alkali The

byproducts from this process (such as

lanolin) are saved and used in a variety of

household products Rollers in the scouring

machines squeeze excess water from the

fleece but the fleece is not allowed to dry completely

Carding

Next the fibers are passed through a

series of metal teeth that straighten and

blend them into slivers Carding also

removes residual dirt and other matter

left in the fibers Carded wool intended

for worsted yarn is put through gilling

and combing two procedures that

remove short fibers and place the

longer fibers parallel to each other

From there the sleeker slivers are

compacted and thinned through a process called drawing Carded wool to be

used for woolen yarn is sent directly for spinning

After being carded the wool fibers are spun into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine while worsted yarns can be spun

Scouring Machine

Carding Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 37

on any number of spinning machines After the yarn is spun it is wrapped around

bobbins cones or commercial drums

Spinning

5 Thread is formed by spinning the fibers

together to form one strand of yarn the

strand is spun with two three or four other

strands Since the fibers cling and stick to one

another it is fairly easy to join extend and

spin wool into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine

while worsted yarns can be spun on any

number of spinning machines After the yarn

is spun it is wrapped around bobbins cones

or commercial drums

Weaving

6 Next the wool yarn is woven into fabric Wool manufacturers use two basic

weaves the plain weave and the twill Woolen

yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave

(rarely a twill) which produces a fabric of a

somewhat looser weave and a soft surface (due

to napping) with little or no luster The napping

often conceals flaws in construction

Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with

exquisite patterns using a twill weave The result

is a more tightly woven smooth fabric Better

constructed worsteds are more durable than woolens and therefore more

costly

Plain Weave Twill Weave

Spinning Machine

Weaving Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 38

Finishing

7 After weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing

procedures including fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the fibers

interlock) crabbing (permanently setting the interlock) decating (shrink-

proofing) and occasionally dyeing Although wool fibers can be dyed before

the carding process dyeing can also be done after the wool has been woven

into fabric

PROCESS LAYOUT

Shearing bullSheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually in the springtime

Grading and

sorting

bullGrading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality In sorting the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers from different parts of the body

Scouring

bullThe wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water soap and soda ash or a similar alkali to remove contaminants

Carding

bullThe fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and blend them into slivers

Spinning

bullThread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of yarn the strand is spun with two three or four other strands

Weaving

bullWoolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave

Finishing

bullAfter weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures including dyeing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 39

WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 34

COMPANIES

ROYAL TEXTILE MILLS INC

234 Encarnacion St San Rafael Village Navotas 1485 Metro Manila

Navotas NCR

Boys-mens knit-shirt pants infantsnewborn-knit rompers toddlers knitswimsuit

ladieschildren-knit t-shirts sweatshirts ladies knit blouse

LUZON SPINNING MILLS INCORPORATED

Address 72 Judge Juan Luna Street Quezon City Metro Manila

A recognized pioneer in the fiber and textile industry Luzon

Spinning Mills is engaged in the development of fibers and

spinning solutions as well as local fabric supplier for knitted and weaving materials

RH LINDSAY WOOL COMPANY Since

1936 our expertise has helped supply

wool to hundreds of customers

throughout North America from

kindergarten classes to large textile

manufacturers

Today RH Lindsay Company is one of a handful of Boston-based firms still trading wool

We have developed a specialty line of wool for handcrafters artists and unique uses in

a wide range of quantities Spinning felting and dollmaking are some of the most

popular uses We also supply wool to the commercial wool industry

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 35

Zeilinger Wool Co is a processor of sheep wool

angora goat hair (mohair) rabbit hair (angora)

llama alpaca dog hair and other exotic

animal fibers We can turn your own fibers such

as wool into comforters mattress pads bed

pillows quilts batting for felting and crafting All

additional fibers can be processed for spinning weaving and custom yarns

RAW MATERIALS

Sheep

Approximately 90 percent of the worlds sheep

produce wool One sheep produces anywhere from 2

to 30 pounds of wool annually The wool from one

sheep is called a fleece from many sheep a clip The

amount of wool that a sheep produces depends

upon its breed genetics nutrition and shearing

interval

The Manufacturing Process

The major steps necessary to process wool from the sheep to the fabric are shearing

cleaning and scouring grading and sorting carding spinning weaving and finishing

Shearing

Sheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually

in the springtime A veteran shearer can

shear up to two hundred sheep per day

The fleece recovered from a sheep can

weigh between 6 and 18 pounds (27 and

81 kilograms) as much as possible the

fleece is kept in one piece

Machine Shear

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 36

Grading and sorting

Grading is the breaking up of the fleece

based on overall quality In sorting the

wool is broken up into sections of different

quality fibers from different parts of the

body The best quality of wool comes from

the shoulders and sides of the sheep and is

used for clothing the lesser quality comes

from the lower legs and is used to make

rugs

Scouring

Wool taken directly from the sheep is called raw or grease wool It contains

sand dirt grease and dried sweat (called

suint) the weight of contaminants

accounts for about 30 to 70 percent of the

fleeces total weight To remove these

contaminants the wool is scoured in a

series of alkaline baths containing water

soap and soda ash or a similar alkali The

byproducts from this process (such as

lanolin) are saved and used in a variety of

household products Rollers in the scouring

machines squeeze excess water from the

fleece but the fleece is not allowed to dry completely

Carding

Next the fibers are passed through a

series of metal teeth that straighten and

blend them into slivers Carding also

removes residual dirt and other matter

left in the fibers Carded wool intended

for worsted yarn is put through gilling

and combing two procedures that

remove short fibers and place the

longer fibers parallel to each other

From there the sleeker slivers are

compacted and thinned through a process called drawing Carded wool to be

used for woolen yarn is sent directly for spinning

After being carded the wool fibers are spun into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine while worsted yarns can be spun

Scouring Machine

Carding Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 37

on any number of spinning machines After the yarn is spun it is wrapped around

bobbins cones or commercial drums

Spinning

5 Thread is formed by spinning the fibers

together to form one strand of yarn the

strand is spun with two three or four other

strands Since the fibers cling and stick to one

another it is fairly easy to join extend and

spin wool into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine

while worsted yarns can be spun on any

number of spinning machines After the yarn

is spun it is wrapped around bobbins cones

or commercial drums

Weaving

6 Next the wool yarn is woven into fabric Wool manufacturers use two basic

weaves the plain weave and the twill Woolen

yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave

(rarely a twill) which produces a fabric of a

somewhat looser weave and a soft surface (due

to napping) with little or no luster The napping

often conceals flaws in construction

Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with

exquisite patterns using a twill weave The result

is a more tightly woven smooth fabric Better

constructed worsteds are more durable than woolens and therefore more

costly

Plain Weave Twill Weave

Spinning Machine

Weaving Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 38

Finishing

7 After weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing

procedures including fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the fibers

interlock) crabbing (permanently setting the interlock) decating (shrink-

proofing) and occasionally dyeing Although wool fibers can be dyed before

the carding process dyeing can also be done after the wool has been woven

into fabric

PROCESS LAYOUT

Shearing bullSheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually in the springtime

Grading and

sorting

bullGrading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality In sorting the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers from different parts of the body

Scouring

bullThe wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water soap and soda ash or a similar alkali to remove contaminants

Carding

bullThe fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and blend them into slivers

Spinning

bullThread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of yarn the strand is spun with two three or four other strands

Weaving

bullWoolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave

Finishing

bullAfter weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures including dyeing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 39

WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 35

Zeilinger Wool Co is a processor of sheep wool

angora goat hair (mohair) rabbit hair (angora)

llama alpaca dog hair and other exotic

animal fibers We can turn your own fibers such

as wool into comforters mattress pads bed

pillows quilts batting for felting and crafting All

additional fibers can be processed for spinning weaving and custom yarns

RAW MATERIALS

Sheep

Approximately 90 percent of the worlds sheep

produce wool One sheep produces anywhere from 2

to 30 pounds of wool annually The wool from one

sheep is called a fleece from many sheep a clip The

amount of wool that a sheep produces depends

upon its breed genetics nutrition and shearing

interval

The Manufacturing Process

The major steps necessary to process wool from the sheep to the fabric are shearing

cleaning and scouring grading and sorting carding spinning weaving and finishing

Shearing

Sheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually

in the springtime A veteran shearer can

shear up to two hundred sheep per day

The fleece recovered from a sheep can

weigh between 6 and 18 pounds (27 and

81 kilograms) as much as possible the

fleece is kept in one piece

Machine Shear

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 36

Grading and sorting

Grading is the breaking up of the fleece

based on overall quality In sorting the

wool is broken up into sections of different

quality fibers from different parts of the

body The best quality of wool comes from

the shoulders and sides of the sheep and is

used for clothing the lesser quality comes

from the lower legs and is used to make

rugs

Scouring

Wool taken directly from the sheep is called raw or grease wool It contains

sand dirt grease and dried sweat (called

suint) the weight of contaminants

accounts for about 30 to 70 percent of the

fleeces total weight To remove these

contaminants the wool is scoured in a

series of alkaline baths containing water

soap and soda ash or a similar alkali The

byproducts from this process (such as

lanolin) are saved and used in a variety of

household products Rollers in the scouring

machines squeeze excess water from the

fleece but the fleece is not allowed to dry completely

Carding

Next the fibers are passed through a

series of metal teeth that straighten and

blend them into slivers Carding also

removes residual dirt and other matter

left in the fibers Carded wool intended

for worsted yarn is put through gilling

and combing two procedures that

remove short fibers and place the

longer fibers parallel to each other

From there the sleeker slivers are

compacted and thinned through a process called drawing Carded wool to be

used for woolen yarn is sent directly for spinning

After being carded the wool fibers are spun into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine while worsted yarns can be spun

Scouring Machine

Carding Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 37

on any number of spinning machines After the yarn is spun it is wrapped around

bobbins cones or commercial drums

Spinning

5 Thread is formed by spinning the fibers

together to form one strand of yarn the

strand is spun with two three or four other

strands Since the fibers cling and stick to one

another it is fairly easy to join extend and

spin wool into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine

while worsted yarns can be spun on any

number of spinning machines After the yarn

is spun it is wrapped around bobbins cones

or commercial drums

Weaving

6 Next the wool yarn is woven into fabric Wool manufacturers use two basic

weaves the plain weave and the twill Woolen

yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave

(rarely a twill) which produces a fabric of a

somewhat looser weave and a soft surface (due

to napping) with little or no luster The napping

often conceals flaws in construction

Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with

exquisite patterns using a twill weave The result

is a more tightly woven smooth fabric Better

constructed worsteds are more durable than woolens and therefore more

costly

Plain Weave Twill Weave

Spinning Machine

Weaving Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 38

Finishing

7 After weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing

procedures including fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the fibers

interlock) crabbing (permanently setting the interlock) decating (shrink-

proofing) and occasionally dyeing Although wool fibers can be dyed before

the carding process dyeing can also be done after the wool has been woven

into fabric

PROCESS LAYOUT

Shearing bullSheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually in the springtime

Grading and

sorting

bullGrading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality In sorting the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers from different parts of the body

Scouring

bullThe wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water soap and soda ash or a similar alkali to remove contaminants

Carding

bullThe fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and blend them into slivers

Spinning

bullThread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of yarn the strand is spun with two three or four other strands

Weaving

bullWoolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave

Finishing

bullAfter weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures including dyeing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 39

WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 36

Grading and sorting

Grading is the breaking up of the fleece

based on overall quality In sorting the

wool is broken up into sections of different

quality fibers from different parts of the

body The best quality of wool comes from

the shoulders and sides of the sheep and is

used for clothing the lesser quality comes

from the lower legs and is used to make

rugs

Scouring

Wool taken directly from the sheep is called raw or grease wool It contains

sand dirt grease and dried sweat (called

suint) the weight of contaminants

accounts for about 30 to 70 percent of the

fleeces total weight To remove these

contaminants the wool is scoured in a

series of alkaline baths containing water

soap and soda ash or a similar alkali The

byproducts from this process (such as

lanolin) are saved and used in a variety of

household products Rollers in the scouring

machines squeeze excess water from the

fleece but the fleece is not allowed to dry completely

Carding

Next the fibers are passed through a

series of metal teeth that straighten and

blend them into slivers Carding also

removes residual dirt and other matter

left in the fibers Carded wool intended

for worsted yarn is put through gilling

and combing two procedures that

remove short fibers and place the

longer fibers parallel to each other

From there the sleeker slivers are

compacted and thinned through a process called drawing Carded wool to be

used for woolen yarn is sent directly for spinning

After being carded the wool fibers are spun into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine while worsted yarns can be spun

Scouring Machine

Carding Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 37

on any number of spinning machines After the yarn is spun it is wrapped around

bobbins cones or commercial drums

Spinning

5 Thread is formed by spinning the fibers

together to form one strand of yarn the

strand is spun with two three or four other

strands Since the fibers cling and stick to one

another it is fairly easy to join extend and

spin wool into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine

while worsted yarns can be spun on any

number of spinning machines After the yarn

is spun it is wrapped around bobbins cones

or commercial drums

Weaving

6 Next the wool yarn is woven into fabric Wool manufacturers use two basic

weaves the plain weave and the twill Woolen

yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave

(rarely a twill) which produces a fabric of a

somewhat looser weave and a soft surface (due

to napping) with little or no luster The napping

often conceals flaws in construction

Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with

exquisite patterns using a twill weave The result

is a more tightly woven smooth fabric Better

constructed worsteds are more durable than woolens and therefore more

costly

Plain Weave Twill Weave

Spinning Machine

Weaving Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 38

Finishing

7 After weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing

procedures including fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the fibers

interlock) crabbing (permanently setting the interlock) decating (shrink-

proofing) and occasionally dyeing Although wool fibers can be dyed before

the carding process dyeing can also be done after the wool has been woven

into fabric

PROCESS LAYOUT

Shearing bullSheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually in the springtime

Grading and

sorting

bullGrading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality In sorting the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers from different parts of the body

Scouring

bullThe wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water soap and soda ash or a similar alkali to remove contaminants

Carding

bullThe fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and blend them into slivers

Spinning

bullThread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of yarn the strand is spun with two three or four other strands

Weaving

bullWoolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave

Finishing

bullAfter weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures including dyeing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 39

WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 37

on any number of spinning machines After the yarn is spun it is wrapped around

bobbins cones or commercial drums

Spinning

5 Thread is formed by spinning the fibers

together to form one strand of yarn the

strand is spun with two three or four other

strands Since the fibers cling and stick to one

another it is fairly easy to join extend and

spin wool into yarn Spinning for woolen yarns

is typically done on a mule spinning machine

while worsted yarns can be spun on any

number of spinning machines After the yarn

is spun it is wrapped around bobbins cones

or commercial drums

Weaving

6 Next the wool yarn is woven into fabric Wool manufacturers use two basic

weaves the plain weave and the twill Woolen

yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave

(rarely a twill) which produces a fabric of a

somewhat looser weave and a soft surface (due

to napping) with little or no luster The napping

often conceals flaws in construction

Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with

exquisite patterns using a twill weave The result

is a more tightly woven smooth fabric Better

constructed worsteds are more durable than woolens and therefore more

costly

Plain Weave Twill Weave

Spinning Machine

Weaving Machine

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 38

Finishing

7 After weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing

procedures including fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the fibers

interlock) crabbing (permanently setting the interlock) decating (shrink-

proofing) and occasionally dyeing Although wool fibers can be dyed before

the carding process dyeing can also be done after the wool has been woven

into fabric

PROCESS LAYOUT

Shearing bullSheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually in the springtime

Grading and

sorting

bullGrading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality In sorting the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers from different parts of the body

Scouring

bullThe wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water soap and soda ash or a similar alkali to remove contaminants

Carding

bullThe fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and blend them into slivers

Spinning

bullThread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of yarn the strand is spun with two three or four other strands

Weaving

bullWoolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave

Finishing

bullAfter weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures including dyeing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 39

WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 38

Finishing

7 After weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing

procedures including fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the fibers

interlock) crabbing (permanently setting the interlock) decating (shrink-

proofing) and occasionally dyeing Although wool fibers can be dyed before

the carding process dyeing can also be done after the wool has been woven

into fabric

PROCESS LAYOUT

Shearing bullSheep are sheared once a yearmdashusually in the springtime

Grading and

sorting

bullGrading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality In sorting the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers from different parts of the body

Scouring

bullThe wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water soap and soda ash or a similar alkali to remove contaminants

Carding

bullThe fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and blend them into slivers

Spinning

bullThread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of yarn the strand is spun with two three or four other strands

Weaving

bullWoolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave

Finishing

bullAfter weaving both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures including dyeing

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 39

WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 39

WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html

TEXTILE INDUSTRY 40

X REFERENCES

[1]Shaikh Dr Tasnim et alViscose Rayon A Legendary Development in the Manmade

Textile Vol2Gujarat India2012

[2]Corbman Bernard P Textiles Fiber to Fabric 6th ed McGraw-Hill 1983

[3]Hollen Norma Jane Saddler Anna Langford and Sara Kadolph Textiles 6th ed

Macmillan 1988

[4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers IIT Delhi VolII

[5]Lunenschloss J and Albrecht W Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics 1985

[6]Needles Howard LTextiles Fibers Dyes and Finishes

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Woolhtmlixzz2LUWIBFD4

httpwwwflickrivercomphotosbaalandssets72157629201173668

httpwwwwisegeekorgwhat-is-woolhtm

httpwwwmadehowcomVolume-1Rayonhtmlbixzz2Ljt2Q6o6

httpwwwteonlinecomknowledge-centremanufacturing-process-rayonhtml

httpwwwehowcomabout_6462598_rayon-fabric-informationhtmlixzz2Ltc8DapM

httpwwwbambooindustrycomblogbamboo-fiberhtml

httpwwwlenzingcom

httpwebarchiveorgweb20100331124255httpohiolineosueduhyg-

fact50005538html