Your Connection to the Old West September 7, 2016Vol. 27, No. 3

Territorial News

The ColossalCave Bandits

(See Legend on Page 6)

(See Scalps on Page 10) (See Bandits on Page 4)

www.territorialnews.com www.facebook.com/TerritorialNews

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Arizona Kid...................14Arizona Trivia................2Business Directory........18Classifieds.....................18Jim Harvey......................2150 Years Ago..............6

General GeorgeArmstrong CusterAnd the Last Stand of the 7th Cavalry

e use the term “leg-end” quite a bitwhen discussing

the historical figures of theOld West. However, one manwho certainly fits that moni-ker is General GeorgeArmstrong Custer. One ofthe most famous and contro-versial f igures in UnitedStates military history,Custer graduated last in hisWest Point class in June1861.

Custer was born in NewRumley, Ohio, on December5, 1839, the son of Emanueland Maria Custer. He grewup in New Rumley andMonroe, Michigan, andrealized his ambition in 1857when he was appointed tothe United States MilitaryAcademy at West Point.

He spent the first partof the Civil War as a courierand staff off icer, but waspromoted from Captain toBrigadier General ofVolunteers just prior to theBattle of Gettysburg, andwas given command of theMichigan “Wolverines”Cavalry brigade. He helped

defeat General Stuart’sattempt to make a cavalrystrike behind Union lines onthe third day of the battle(July 3, 1863), thus markedlycontributing to the Army ofthe Potomac’s victory (alarge monument to hisbrigade now stands in theEast Cavalr y Field inGettysburg).

Custer participated innearly every cavalry actionin Virginia from that pointuntil the end of the war,always performing boldly,often brilliantly, and alwaysseeking publicity for himselfand his actions. While onfurlough in 1864, he met andsoon married ElizabethBacon, who was to play asignificant role in shapinghis career and perpetuatinghis memory. Custer endedthe war as a Major Generalof Volunteers and a BrevetMajor General in theRegular Army. At twenty-three he was the youngestBrevet Brigadier General inthe Union Army.

PlayPlayPlayPlayPlayArizona TArizona TArizona TArizona TArizona Triviariviariviariviarivia

See Page 2 for Details

This WThis WThis WThis WThis Week’seek’seek’seek’seek’sQuestion:Question:Question:Question:Question:

What Arizona citywas known as

Hayden’s Ferry backin territorial days?

(5 Letters)

W

he chambers ofColossal Cave nearTucson reach far back

into the Rincon Mountains.Formed thousands of yearsago by water seeping downfrom ground level anderoding the limestone below.The cavern today is bone dryand maintains a constanttemperature of 72º. Of themiles of twistingpassageways, only a littleover a mile is made easy forvisitors by steps andwalkways. A guided tourtakes about an hour. It’s also

the site of an Arizonalegend.

The story says thattrain robbers hid $72,000 inloot in the cave, locatednear Vail on Interstate 10between Tucson andBenson, in 1884. The moneywas probably hidden there,possibly for nearly twentyyears, but apparently it waseventually reclaimed by oneof the bandits, a shrewd andpatient fellow who put oneover on the authorities, even

T

Bounty Huntersin Mexico

Jim Kirker and His Men Hunted Apache Scalps

James Kirker

By Richard W. Kimball

n 1837, a group ofM i m b r e n oApaches led by

chief Juan JoseCompa was wiped outby James Johnson, aprofessional bountyhunter. Johnson andhis men had ambushedthe Indians in a drylake bed in south-central New Mexico, whichwas Mexican territory at thattime.

The Apaches blamed

American miners working atthe Santa Rita del Cobremines for the killing andwithin a short time their

raids completelyclosed down miningoperations. JohnMcKnight andStephen Coucier, themanagers at SantaRita, asked JamesKirker, a trapper whowas wintering in Taos,to help control theApaches so miningcould continue.

Kirker was amountain man who hadcome into the West with the

I

September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 2

Jim HarveyThe Arizona Trail

Arizona - Web of Time

The TTTTTerererererritorial Newsritorial Newsritorial Newsritorial Newsritorial News is published by Territorial News Inc. The Territorialfeatures Old West stories, photos and art that are part of our area’s rich and interestingpast. The publisher assumes no liability for the opinions contained within this publication;all statements are the sole opinions of the contributors and/or advertisers.

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ARIZONA TRIVIAARIZONA TRIVIAARIZONA TRIVIAARIZONA TRIVIAARIZONA TRIVIAThis WThis WThis WThis WThis Week’s Question: eek’s Question: eek’s Question: eek’s Question: eek’s Question: What Arizona city was known as

Hayden’s Ferry back in territorial days?(5 Letters)

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The western half of theGrand Canyon began toform 17 million years ago orlonger, geologists now say.The eastern half dates backabout 6 million years.

At northeast Arizona’sFort Defiance in 1869, thef irst school for NavajoIndian children opened. Thefirst Navajo hospital was

built there in 1897.

The U.S. Army’s FortHuachuca was established insouthern Arizona in 1877.There still are buildingsthere dating back to theApache wars. They includea hospital and four barracksbuildings. The old paradeground still exists and thereis a museum open to the

public.

Beef cost 8 ½ cents apound at 1884 Flagstaffbutcher shops. Mutton was8 cents, venison and antelope7, and pork 14. That was thesame year Mark Twain’sHuckleberry Finn waspublished and America’sfirst skyscraper, 10 storieshigh, opened in Chicago.

The 1900 Williamsjustice of the peacesentenced a man to jail for30 days on a charge of“being idle and frequentingbars and houses of ill fame.”A prostitute got two monthsin jail for “f ighting,quarreling, and the use ofviolent and obscenelanguage.” There were ninebrothels in Williams at thattime. Respectable peoplewho preferred to look theother way called them femaleboarding houses. The town’spopulation was 1200.

A 12-year-old boy with avoice that squeaked becauseof an injured larynx carriedthe American flag during a1912 Kingman paradecelebrating statehood forArizona. His name was AndyDevine and he grew up to alife in the movies with JohnWayne, Roy Rogers, JimmyStewart, Gabby Hayes andHenry Fonda. Some of hismore than 200 films still areseen on television: The ManWho Shot Liberty Vance, TheRed Badge of Courage, Howthe West Was Won, and JohnFord’s Stagecoach filmed atMonument Valley. Devine diedin 1977 and his memory iskept alive at Kingman’sMohave Museum of Historyand Arts. Kingman is innorthwest Arizona onInterstate 40 and old Route66.

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Page 3Territorial NewsSeptember 7, 2016

Attending a Fandango inNew Mexico in 1853

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In Their Own Words

aldwin Mollhausenwas born in Germanyin 1825. He sailed to

America in 1849 and afterholding a few odd jobs, heheard about a scientif icexpedition to the AmericanSouthwest to beheaded by afellow German.He gained aplace in theexpedition andtraveled for morethan a year. Helater joined agroup headedwest to seek outthe best route forthe inter-continental railroad.Mollhausen’s travels inAmerica ended in 1854 andhe returned to Germany. Therehe became a noted author ofmore than 39 novels and otherliterary works. He died in1905. The following narrativeis an excerpt from his bookDiary of a Journey from theMississippi to the Coasts ofthe Pacif ic , published in1858.

The Alcalde presentedhimself as early as possible,in company with the mostdistinguished citizens ofAnton Chico, to give ourwhole party a solemninvitation to a fandango, to

be held in the evening; andit is needless to say theinvitation was joyfullyaccepted.

We all set to workdirectly to rummage up themost elegant ball costumesthat circumstancespermitted; needles andthread were seen in briskmotion in all quarters, andchasms and openings in ourwell -worn garments,

originating either in accidentor in severe service on ourlong journey, disappeared asif by magic. An artif icialblack was, for the first timefor many days, superinducedupon our chaussures (shoes);

and the mostgorgeous shirtcollars andfronts weremanufac tu redout of stiffdrawing paper.

We were acomical-lookingt r o o p ,n e v e r t h e l e s s ,when we set offin the evening to

the festive scene, beingsummoned thereto by thechurch bells, which areobliged to accommodatethemselves to the doubleduty of calling people toDivine Service and to thefandangos. Some of us, whowore a somewhat creased,but extremely fashionable,hunting coat on the upper

See Dance on Page 12)

B

September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 4

Colossal Cave Bandits

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panish colonistsintroduced toAmerica not only

cattle and horses, but alsothe art of herding cattle onhorseback, performed bycowboys called“vaqueros.” Many of thevaqueros who rode herdalong the Spanish frontierthat stretched fromCalifornia to Texas wereIndians or mestizos. InCalifornia, Franciscanpadres trained Indians whoconverted to tend largeherds of cattle thatsupported the missions.Some of those vaqueroslater went to work forprivate ranchers whosefree-roaming animals wererounded up periodically tobe branded or slaughtered.

Even vaqueros whowere not of Spanishheritage spoke Spanish.From them and their

language, Americans derivedsuch terms as lasso, lariat,rodeo, chaps, mustang,vamoose, calaboose,stampede, and many otherwords in the cowboy lexicon.Vaqueros also introducedcowboy attire, such asbandanas and ponchos, andcowboy cuisine, includingchili, beans, and other chowconsumed by buckaroos (aword derived from“vaqueros”). Some vaquerosbecame banditos, as did anumber of Americancowboys. Indeed, the Englishterm “cow-boy” was longapplied to men who stolecattle as well as to those whoherded them. Americanswho settled in Texas in theearly 1800s referred to ranchhands as vaqueros. Not untilafter the Civil War did“cowboy” become a commonand complimentary termthere.

S

America’s FirstCowboys

(See Bandits on Page 8)

Bandits

(From Page 1)

though they were sure hewould someday return forthe treasure.

The loot camefrom a robbery onthe Southern PacificRailroad nearPantano Siding,about ten milesfrom the cave. Thebandits had plannedwell in advance touse the cave as ahideout: plenty offood and water had beenstored away at the 120-footlevel, enough to withstandweeks of siege. Also,

unknown to the posse thattrailed the outlaws to thecavern, the gang had a secretexit, a tight “chimney” thatwent forty yards straight upand out on the far side of a

cactus-covered ridge, nearlya mile from the entrance. Itwas too dangerous to go inafter the outlaws so the

posse set up outside the caveentrance to wait the robbersout. After a couple of weeks,when it appeared that theposse was as stubborn as thebandits, the gang used their

exit to escape.Delighted with theirvictory, the outlawsdescended on nearbyWillcox to celebrate.When word reachedthe hot and dustypossemen waiting atthe cave entrancethat the four menwere whooping it upat the Corner Saloon

in Willcox, they rode to townand shot three of the fourrobbers dead on the spot.The fourth, a young fellownamed Phil Carver, survivedto face the law.

Carver was only twenty-two years old. Althoughquestioned thoroughly, hemaintained that he had noidea where the cache washidden. He claimed that hisjob with the gang was toguard the cave entrance, andthat’s where he was when therest of the gang was buryingthe loot. He stuck to hisstory and was sentenced totwenty-eight years in theTerritorial Prison at Yuma.

While in prisonCarver’s health failed, andhe was released aftereighteen years. Theauthorities had not forgottenthe robbery, however, andthey put a tail on himimmediately. But at the endof a week, Carverdisappeared. A rumorcirculated that he had beenseen in Mexico; anotherplaced him in England. Butapparently both were false,because shortly thereafterhe was spotted north ofTucson, and later, near the

E

Page 5Territorial NewsSeptember 7, 2016

YellowstoneAmerica’s First National Park

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(See Park on Page 15)

ong beforeYellowstone NationalPark was established

“for the benef it andenjoyment of the people” in1872, Indianshunted there andmountain menseeking beaver peltsmarveled at itgeysers. Abundantgame and mountainstreams teamingwith fish attractedthe Indians to theregion, though thea w e - i n s p i r i n ggeysers, canyons,and gurgling mudpots also fascinatedthem.

John Colter,the famousmountain man, wasthe f irst Anglo totravel through thearea. Afterjourneying withLewis and Clark to thePacific, Colter joined a partyof fur trappers to explore thewilderness. In 1807, heexplored part of theYellowstone plateau and

returned with fantasticstories of steaming geysersand bubbling cauldrons.Some doubters accused themountain man of telling tall

tales and jokingly dubbed thearea “Colter’s Hell.

Trapper Daniel Pottsprovided the first eyewitnessaccount to appear in print,published by a newspaper in

Philadelphia in 1827. He toldof “hot and boiling springs,some of water and others ofmost beautiful f ine clay,resembling a mush pot,”

which gushed up to30 feet in the air. Asone man in his partywas standing by asulfur spring, Pottsrelated, the earthbegan to tremble,“and he withdifficulty made hisescape when anexplosion took placeresembling that ofthunder.”

Before theCivil War, only ahandful of trappersand huntersventured into thearea, and itremained largely amystery. In 1869,the Folsom-Cookexpedition made the

f irst formal exploration,followed a year later by amuch more thoroughreconnaissance by the

L

September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 6

General Custer

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(See Legend on Page 8)

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September 1, 1866James J. “Gentleman Jim”Corbett, the heavyweightboxing champion from1892 to 1897, is born inSan Francisco.

September 2, 1866Hiram Warren Johnson,the 23rd governor ofCalifornia (1910-1917), isborn in Sacramento.

September 10-16, 1866Captain W. J. Fettermanreports two soldiers killedand two wounded in aSioux attack near FortPhil Kearny.

September 14, 1866One Indian is killed andanother is captured by

cavalrymen near CampWatson, Oregon.

September 16, 1866The Holladay OverlandMail and ExpressCompany borrows$100,000 from WellsFargo.

September 18, 1866The cornerstone for thenew Carson City mint isdedicated and laid by theGrand Masonic Lodge ofNevada.

September 20, 1866Captain N. C. Kinneyreports two soldiers killedin an attack near Fort C.F. Smith in Montana.

Legend

(From Page 1)

When the war ended,Custer was returned to thepermanent rank of Captain.After serving several monthsin Texas, he wascommissioned a LieutenantColonel and assigned to theSeventh Cavalry Regimentbased at Fort Riley, Kansas.Accompanied by Elizabeth,he reported for duty early in1867.

Under GeneralWinf ield Hancock’scommand, Custer led theSeventh Cavalry in variousactions against the WesternIndians, often with a singularbrutality (exemplified by hiswiping out of a Cheyennevillage on the Washita inNovember 1868). Hisexploits on the Plains were

romanticized by Easternnewspapermen, and he waselevated to legendary statusin his time.

Soon after thecampaign closed, his

fondness for his wife nearlyended his career. Instead ofremaining with his troops atFort Wallace as ordered, hemade a hasty journey to FortRiley to see Elizabeth. Forthis offense, and several

others, he was suspended forone year.

In 1868, General PhilipSheridan replaced Hancockand soon arranged forCuster’s reinstatement. ThatNovember, after raidingBlack Kettle’s Cheyennevillage, he was in troubleagain for leaving the fieldwithout searching for amissing reconnaissance unitthat had been ambushed andslain. Among other activitiesduring the next six years,Custer wrote My Life on thePlains in which he attemptedto justify his actions, and in1874 he violated the Treatyof 1868 by taking anexpedition into the Indians’sacred Black Hills wheregold was discovered. Thegold rush that followedcreated intense Indianhostility and precipitated thegovernment’s decision toconfine all Northern Plainstribes to reservations.

Three military columnstook the field in the springof 1876 from for ts inWyoming, Montana, andDakota-with the intention oftrapping the Sioux andforcing them onto thereservation. Custer, underthe command of GeneralAlfred Terry, accompaniedthe Dakota column with theSeventh Cavalry. He wasgiven independent commandon June 22 with orders tocut off the Indians’ escape tothe south of their expectedlocation on the LittleBighorn River. When hisscouts found the Indianvillage on the morning ofJune 25, Custer decided toattack at once, despiteGeneral Terry’s orders towait for infantry and othersupport.

Initially, Custer had208 officers and men underhis command, with anadditional 142 under MajorMarcus Reno, just over ahundred under CaptainFrederick Benteen, 50

Page 7Territorial NewsSeptember 7, 2016

September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 8

General Custer

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Bandits

(From Page 4)

Rincon Mountains. Aposse was quicklydispatched to search thecave. At the 120-foot levelthey found three emptycanvas mailbags—the kindused at the time of therobber y. The originalconsignment tickets werestill tied to them. But thegold was gone. And therewas no trace of Carver.There are some who saythat while outlaws used thecave at times, this story isa bunch of hogwash or maybe at best a sort of

amalgamation of severalbandit stories rolled intoone. Who knows?The cave today is much thesame as it was in 1884,except that the narrowchimney through whichthe outlaws supposedlyescaped has been partiallyblocked, the result of aseries of minorearthquakes in the 1920s.Although the gold may begone, a trip to the cave isworthwhile. A PimaCounty Park, whichsurrounds the cavern,offers excellent campingand picnic grounds and anexcellent view of Tucsonand the desert.

Colossal Cave Bandits

Legend

(From Page 6)

soldiers with CaptainThomas McDougall’srearguard, and 84soldiers under 1stLieutenant EdwardGustave Mathey withthe pack train. TheIndians, led bylegendary Sioux ChiefSitting Bull, may havef ielded over 1800warriors.

Custer divided hisforces into threebattalions: one led byReno, one by Benteen,and one by himself.McDougall and his menwere with the pack train.Benteen was sent southand west, to cut off anyattempted escape by theIndians, Reno was sent northto charge the southern endof the encampment, and

Custer rode north, hidden tothe east of the encampmentby bluffs, and planning tocircle around and attackfrom the north.

Reno began a charge onthe southern end of thevillage, but halted some 500-

600 yards short of the camp,and had his men dismountand form a skirmish line.They were soon overcome bymounted Lakota and

Cheyenne warriors whocounterattacked againstReno’s exposed leftflank, forcing Reno andhis men to take cover inthe trees along the river.Eventually, however, thisposition becameuntenable and thetroopers were forcedinto a bloody retreat uponto the bluffs above theriver, where they madetheir own stand. This,the opening action of thebattle, cost Reno aquarter of his command.

Custer may haveseen Reno stop and forma skirmish line as Custerled his command to the

northern end of the mainencampment, where heapparently planned tosandwich the Indiansbetween his attackingtroopers and Reno’scommand in a “hammer andanvil” maneuver. Accordingto accounts, based on thetestimony of Cheyennewarriors who survived thef ight, at least par t ofCuster’s commandattempted to ford the riverat the north end of the camp,but were driven off by stiffresistance from Indiansharpshooters firing fromthe brush along the westbank of the river. From thatpoint the soldiers werepursued by hundreds ofwarriors onto a ridge northof the encampment. Custerand his command wereprevented from digging in bySioux leader Crazy Horse,however, whose warriors had

(See Legend on Page 14)

Libbie and the General

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ioneered by merchantWilliam Becknell, whoin 1822 led a party of 21

men and three wagons fromMissouri to NewMexico, the Santa FeTrail introducedAmerican traders toMexican territory—and eventuallybrought Americaninvaders there aswell. Becknell seizedthe opportunity thatarose when Mexicowon independencefrom Spain andlowered trade barriers. He wasthe first American to bringgoods in wagons to Santa Fe,which lay at the southern endof the Rocky Mountains andcould be reached from

The Santa Fe TrailVital Trade Route to the Southwest

n 1880, Samuel Aughey, ascience professor at theUniversity of Nebraska,

attributed a recent increase inrainfall in that state to the factthat more land wasbeing cultivated bysettlers. Hetheorized thatplowing the groundallowed it to absorbmore rainfall andthat the moisturethen returned to thea t m o s p h e r e ,producing cloudsand additionalprecipitation.

Journalists and publicistslatched onto his theory andpopularized the notion the“rain follows the plow.”Turning “Drouthy Kansas”into a bountiful source offruits and vegetables seemed

ludicrous to skeptics, butrailroads used similar imagesto entice settlers westward toareas where farming withoutirrigation was risky.

Unfortunately for suchpioneers, their climate wasdetermined not by cultivationbut by geography. That part ofthe West between theMississippi River and the 98thmeridian lies north of the Gulf

of Mexico, from whichmoisture flows on southerlywinds that precede cold fronts,producing downpours. Areasbeyond the 98th meridian lie

north of deserts alongthe Mexican borderand receive lessrainfall. In the early1890s, the ongoingOklahoma Land Rushdrew settlers outtoward the 100thmeridian and theTexas Panhandle,where wet years wereoften followed bysevere droughts and

winds that blew away topsoil.In the 1930s, that areabecame the core of thecalamitous Dust Bowl, andproud descendants ofboomers became displacedOkies.

Henry Worrall’s tongue-in-cheek“Drouthy Kansas

I

Missouri by traders withoutencountering slopes too steepfor their vehicles to ascend.

Although the terrain was

manageable, the journey wastaxing. Merchants whofollowed in Becknell’s pathhad to ford the ArkansasRiver and other waterwaysthat were treacherous when

swollen. Their route tookthem through prime buffalocountry, which provided themwith meat as well as fuel in the

form of buffalo chipsbut also exposed themto attack by warriorsof various tribes thatfrequented thosehunting grounds.Becknell told of twomen in his party whoran afoul of Indiansand were “stripped,barbarously whipped,and robbed of theirhorses, guns and

clothes.”Traders bound for Santa

Fe guarded against attack bygathering in May at a

(See Commerce on Page 16)

P

September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 10

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Scalps

(From Page 1)

Ashley-Henry Expedition of1822. A strikingly handsomeman, Kirker was noted forhis shoulder-length auburnhair. His marksmanship withhis specially made Hawkenrif le was legendary. Manystories were toldin winter campsabout his skill anddaring throughoutthe RockyMountains. As ani n d e p e n d e n ttrapper, Kirkerdrifted into NewMexico and in betweentrapping forays, hiredhimself out as a professionalhunter.

The chance to huntApaches instead of animalsintrigued Kirker. He quicklyassembled a group oftrapper friends in Taos andSanta Fe and headed southto Santa Rita. His menincluded a group of easternIndians (mostly Shawnees

and Delawares), twoHawaiians and severalmountain men of variousnationalities—each of whomwas experienced in Indianfighting.

It didn’t take long forKirker and his men todiscover the Apaches’ camp.It was hidden in a smallvalley in the Mimbres

Mountains. The camp was alarge one consisting of about250 warriors under theleadership of MangasColoradas. Kirker and hisband of daredevils made asurprise early dawn attackand were able to kill 55warriors. They also capturednine females and seized 400horses. The group thendestroyed the Indian campby burning all the lodges.

Kirker lost only one man inthe attack. After that raid,McKnight and Coucierbegan their miningoperations once more andsoon large burro trains weretransporting copper againfrom Santa Rita toChihuahua City.

Two years later,Governor Angel Trias of

Chihuahua, whowas becomingfrustrated by theMexican Army’sinability toprotect Mexicancitizens fromIndian raids,proposed bounties

for Apache scalps. Heauthorized payment of 100pesos for the scalp of anApache warrior, 50 pesos fora woman’s and 25 pesos fora child’s. In those days,Mexican and Americancurrency were worth aboutthe same in value.

Kirker re-assembled hisrag-tag army of mercenaries,which he called “The ApacheCompany.” Soon Kirker andhis men were pursuingApache raiders throughoutNew Mexico, Chihuahua andSonora. Notable Indianf ighters such as Peg-LegSmith, James Hobbs, JohnSpencer and a Shawnee chiefnamed Spiebuck roundedout his company ofroughnecks. The Mexicangovernment agreed to payKirker, whom they calledDon Santiago, a salary plushalf of the recovered booty.During its f irst year, theApache Company madenearly $10,000.

When a 100-burrosupply train belonging to aChihuahua Citybusinessman was attackedand pillaged by the Apaches,Kirker was ready. He sentSpiebuck, his second in

n 1911, ElmerMcCurdy mistakenlyrobbed a passenger

train he thought containedthousands of dollars. Thedisappointed outlaw madeoff with just $46 and wasshot by lawmen shortlythereafter. McCurdy’s un-claimed corpse was thenembalmed with an arsenicpreparation, sold by theundertaker to a travelingcarnival and exhibited as asideshow curiosity.

For about 60 years,McCurdy’s body wasbought and sold by varioushaunted houses and wax

museums for use as a propor attraction. His corpsefinally wound up in a LongBeach, California, amuse-ment park funhouse. Dur-ing filming there in 1976 forthe television show “The SixMillion Dollar Man,” theprop’s finger (or arm, de-pending on the account)broke off, revealing humantissue. Subsequent testingby the Los Angelescoroner’s office revealedthe prop was actuallyMcCurdy. He was buried atthe famous Boot Hill cem-etery in Dodge City, Kansas,66 years after his death.

Bandit’s Corpse Led MoreInteresting Life Than

the Man Did

(See Scalps on Page 17)

I

Page 11Territorial NewsSeptember 7, 2016

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The oldest settlement in the United States is AcomaPueblo.

It’s no revelation that Native American settlementspredate European ones, but it may surprise some peoplethat Acoma Pueblo, west of Albuquerque, New Mexico,has been continuously occupied since the 12th century. TheAcoma still inhabit their “Sky City,” a settlement of about4,800 people that sits atop a 365-foot high mesa.Traditionally hunters and traders, the Acoma people nowmake their income from a cultural center and casinocomplex. Coincidentally, the oldest state capital in theUnited States is Santa Fe, which recently celebrated its400th anniversary.

Acoma Pueblo IsOldest Settlement

Dance

(From Page 3)

part of our persons,terminated in leathernleggings and heavy boots.Others showed civilisationon their lower extremities,but a decided tendencytowards savage life at thetop. The majority boastedthe paper l inen I havementioned, and there waseven one pair of white kidgloves seen among us,though with considerableapertures at the seams,through which the sunburnthands became visible.

The wearing of arms atthe ball was expresslyforbidden, but one did,nevertheless, occasionallysee the brown end of arevolver, or the bright bladeof a bowie-knife gleamingout. In this picturesque

attire we betook ourselves tothe building erected forpublic purposes next to thechurch, and having obtainedat the doors some very badrefreshments for very goodpayment, we entered a longnarrow hall, where we werewelcomed by the Alcalde anda crowd of Mexicans in lacedcalcineros (pantaloons), andof Mexican fair ones in thickveils or light shawls; and thevarious nations were soonmingled together, and doingtheir utmost to understandand be understood. Theirefforts were not particularlysuccessful, but the tongueswent merrily, and the black-eyed senoritas made delicatecigaritos, which they lightedand offered to their visitors,and the whiskey-punch wentbriskly round and theorchestra, consisting of twoguitars and a violin, soonsummoned us to the waltz.

The dancing began, thepairs moving at f irst in aserious and deliberatemanner; but the statelymagistrate, in his shirtsleeves, gave the musiciansa sign that accelerated themovements of their fingers,and of the feet of the dancerson the dusty clay floor. Thebright-eyed senoritas wereindefatigable, the degeneratedescendants of the Spaniardslooked with evidentcomplacency at their ownnimble limbs, and the wildestexcitement gleamed from thebearded visages of theAmericans. There was not asingle dance in which theydid not take part, and indefiance of all rules of artand fashion; but setting towork with a will , theymaintained their places inthe most complicatedoperations.

The Mexicans regardedwith a kind of compassionthe awkward movements ofour fellows, and theconfusion they created in thefigures; but the laughing fairones did not seem at alldistressed by them, butduring every pause rolled uptheir little cigaritos, began tosmoke them, and thenpresented them, with anamiable smile, to theirpartners, who could onlyaccept them with a “ThankYou,” and “Ah, if I did butknow a little Spanish!”

The impossibility ofcommunication between thevarious nationalities did notseem at all to check ourmerriment. We danced, andsang, and laughed, anddrank, and did not go homeuntil morning, but then,happily, without the mirthhaving been interrupted byany quarrels, or brokenheads, which was the morepraiseworthy, as wagonerand soldiers (among thelatter specimens from all the

(See Dance on Page 14)

Attending a Fandango

P

Page 13Territorial NewsSeptember 7, 2016

‘The Lone Ranger’Debuted is 1933

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i th the stirringnotes of theWilliam Tell

Overture and a shout of “Hi-yo, Silver! Away!” The LoneRanger made its debut onJanuary 30, 1933 onDetroit’s WXYZ radiostation.

T h ecreation ofstation-ownerG e o r g eTrendle andwriter FranStriker, the“masked riderof the plains”became one ofthe mostpopular ande n d u r i n gwestern heroes of the 20thcentury. Joined by his trustysteed, Silver, and loyal Indianscout, Tonto, the LoneRanger rode forth to dobattle with evil westernoutlaws and Indians,generally arriving on thescene just in time to save aninnocent golden-haired childor sun-bonneted farm wife.

Neither Trendle norStriker had any connectionsto or experience with thecowboys, Indians, andpioneers of the real West,but that mattered little tothem. The men simplywanted to create anAmerican version of themasked swashbuckler madepopular by the silent movieactor Douglas Fairbanks inThe Mark of Zorro, armingtheir hero with a revolverrather than a sword.Historical authenticity wasfar less important to the menthan f idelity to the strictcode of conduct theyestablished for their

character. The Lone Rangernever smoked, swore, ordrank alcohol; he usedgrammatically correctspeech free of slang; and,most important, he nevershot to kill. More offensiveto modern historical and

ethnic sensibilities was theIndian scout Tonto, whospoke in a comical Indianpatois totally unrelated toany authentic Indian dialect,uttering ludicrous phraseslike “You betchum!”

Historical accuracynotwithstanding, the radioprogram was an instant hit.Children liked the steadystream of action and parentsapproved of the good moralexample offered by theupstanding masked man.Soon picked up fornationwide broadcast overthe Mutual Radio Network,over 20 million Americans

were tuning into The LoneRanger three times a weekby 1939. In an early exampleof the power of marketingtie-ins, the producers alsolicensed the manufacture ofa vast array of relatedproducts, including Lone

Ranger guns,c o s t u m e s ,books, and apopular comicstrip.

The LoneRanger madea seeminglye f f o r t l e s st r a n s i t i o nfrom radio tom o t i o npictures andtelevision. The

televised version of The LoneRanger , staring ClaytonMoore as the masked man,became ABC’s first big hitin the early 1950s.Remaining on the air until1957, the program helpeddefine the golden age of theTV Western and inspireddozens of imitators like TheRange Rider, The Roy RogersShow, and The Adventures ofWild Bill Hickok. Althoughthe Lone Rangerdisappeared from Americantelevision and movie screensby the 1960s, he lived on ina popular series of comicbooks well into the 1970s.

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September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 14

General Custer

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Legend

(From Page 8)

outflanked him and were nowto his north, at the crest ofthe ridge.

For a time, Custer’smen were deployed bycompany, in standard cavalryf ighting formation—theskirmish line, with everyfourth man holding thehorses. This arrangement,however, robbed Custer of aquarter of his f irepower.Worse, as the f ightintensified, many soldierstook to holding their ownhorses or hobbling them,further reducing theSeventh’s effective f ire.When Crazy Horse andWhite Bull mounted thecharge that broke throughthe center of Custer’s lines,pandemonium broke outamong some of the men.Many of the panicking

soldiers threw down theirweapons and either rode orran towards the knoll whereCuster, the other officers,and about 40 men weremaking a stand. The Indiansmade short work of thefleeing troopers.

As the soldiers were cutdown, the Indians strippedthe dead of their firearmsand ammunition, with theresult that the return firefrom the cavalry steadily

decreased, while the f irefrom the Indians constantlyincreased. With Custer andthe survivors shooting theremaining horses to use themas breastworks and makinga final stand on the knoll atthe north end of the ridge,the Indians closed in for thefinal attack and killed everyman in Custer’s command.As a result, the Battle of theLittle Bighorn has come tobe popularly known as“Custer’s Last Stand”.

There are numerousaccounts of Custer’s finalmoments. Many individualsclaimed to have slain thegeneral, and there is even aNorthern Cheyenne accountstating that Buffalo CalfRoad Woman, a NorthernCheyenne heroine of theBattle of the Rosebud,struck the final blow againstCuster, which knocked himoff his horse before he died.

When the main columnunder General Terry arrivedtwo days later, the armyfound most of the soldiers’corpses stripped, scalped,and mutilated. Custer’s bodyhad two bullet holes, one inthe left temple and one justabove the heart.

Following the recoveryof Custer’s body, hisremains, along with those ofhis brother, Tom, wereburied on the battlefield side

Dance

(From Page 12)

nations of Europe) hadthought proper to join inthe revels, and thatmoreover with unsteadyfeet and cloudy brains.

When the sun shed itsfirst beams on our camp onthe following morning hefound everything perfectlysti l l , and only a loudsnoring, from the interiorof the tents, announcedthat the members of theExpedition were enjoying arefreshing slumber afterthe bodily fatigues of the

night and the spirituousindulgences that had fallento their share.

Laziness seem to holdundisputed sway over thewhole valley of AntonChico. The cocks crowedin the little town, and themules neighed in thedistant ravines, but theirtones struck no other earthan those of the sentinels,who, leaning on theirmuskets, were doubtlessmaking sorrowfulreflections on the hard fatethat had debarred themfrom sharing in thedelights of the last night’sfestivity.

Attendinga Fandango

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on the same night for the draft.

Page 15Territorial NewsSeptember 7, 2016

Yellowstone

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Park

(From Page 5)

Washburn-Langford-Doaneexpedition.

In 1871, Congresscommissioned geologistFerdinand Hayden to surveythe region. Accompanied byphotographer WilliamHenry Jackson andlandscape painterThomas Moran, Haydenconcluded that theYellowstone Basin hadonce been “one vastcrater,” forged byvolcanic forces aspowerful as that foundin “any portion of theglobe.” The result ofthat intense geothermalactivity, whichcontinued to fuelgeysers and hot springs,was a landscape sospectacular that herecommended it bepreserved for itsscientif ic and scenicvalue.

In 1872, spurred byJackson’s photographs andMoran’s paintings, Congressmoved to set aside 1,221,773acres of public landstraddling the future statesof Wyoming, Montana, andIdaho as America’s f irstnational park. TheYellowstone Act of 1872designated the region as a

public “pleasuring-ground,”which would be preserved“from injury or spoilation,of all t imber, mineraldeposits, natural curiosities,or wonders within.”

There was considerablelocal opposition to theYellowstone National Parkduring its early years. Some

locals feared that theregional economy would beunable to thrive if thereremained strict federalprohibitions againstresource development orsettlement within parkboundaries; localentrepreneurs advocatedreducing the size of the parkso that mining, hunting, and

logging activities could bedeveloped and numerousbills were introduced intoCongress by Montanarepresentatives who soughtto remove the federal land-use restrictions.

Nathaniel Langford wasappointed as the park’s firstsuperintendent in 1872. He

served for five years butwas denied a salary,funding, and staff.Langford lacked themeans to improve theland or properly protectthe park, and withoutformal policy orregulations, he had fewlegal methods to enforcesuch protection. Thisleft Yellowstonevulnerable to poachers,vandals, and othersseeking to raid itsresources. He addressedthe practical problemspark administratorsfaced in the 1872 Reportto the Secretary of theInterior and correctlypredicted that

Yellowstone will become amajor internationalattraction deserving thecontinuing stewardship ofthe government. In 1875,Colonel William Ludlow,who had previously exploredareas of Montana under thecommand of George

I wish the girls who rejected me in high schoolcould see how many Pokemon I’ve caught.

September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 16

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Commerce

(From Page 9)

designated rendezvous—usually Council Grove,located near the edge of thePlains in what is now Kansas.There they formedcompanies and electedcaptains, who posted guardsevery night of the journeynear the wagons, and parkedin a circle with livestock inthe center.Nervous guardsnew to that dutysometimes shotat anything thatmoved. RichensLacy “UncleDick” Wootton,who went out onthe trail to trapin Mexicanterritory at theage of 20, blazed away onenight at an object that hetook for an Indian butproved to be “Old Jack,” astray mule belonging to thecompany. “I felt sorry aboutit,” Wootton remarked, “butthe mule had disobeyedorders, you know, and Iwasn’t to blame for killinghim.”

The risk of attackincreased after companiescrossed the Arkansas andapproached the CimarronRiver in Comanche country.Comanches welcomedMexican traders known asComancheros but resentedand harassed Americanswho withheld theirmerchandise. Josiah Gregg,an astute participant and

observer of commerce on theSanta Fe Trail, faulted hisfellow merchants foravoiding trade “with the wildIndians.” Tribes were “muchless hostile to those withwhom they trade,” he noted.To avoid clashes withComanche warriors alongthe Cimarron Route, somemerchants followed thealternate Mountain Route toSanta Fe, which was longerand steeper, requiring a hard

pull up Raton Pass at thepresent Colorado-NewMexico border.

Santa Fe traders dealtmainly in fabric and clothingas well as householdimplements—items that werescarce and expensive in NewMexico. Under Spanish rule,Mexico’s economy had beenbased on extracting mineralwealth and other rawmaterials rather than onproducing goods of the sortoffered by Americanmerchants. Those who couldnot sell all their wares in andaround Santa Fe oftenventured down the CaminoReal (Royal Road) toChihuahua, a larger andwealthier town. There in themarketplace called the

Alameda, wrote Gregg,women shopped bycandlelight after partaking“of their chocolate and theircigarritos,” and browsed instores that were “literallyfilled from dusk till nine orten o’clock.”

By fall, merchants werehomeward bound withsatchels full of silver coinsthat helped fuel business onthe Missouri frontier, wherecash was scarce. “The

c i r c u l a t i n gmedium ofMissouri nowconsists mainlyof Mexicandollars,” wroteone observer adecade after theSanta Fe tradeb e g a n .Merchants alsoreturned with

mules purchased in Mexico.Mexicans were expert athandling mules that pulledwagons on the trail, andsome also entered the tradeas merchants.

In 1825, Congresscommissioned a party tosurvey the trail. They piledup mounds of sod asmarkers, but the chiefsurveyor noted that the roadwas “already well enoughmarked by the wagons.”Over the years to come,those heavy wagons wouldcarve deep ruts, some ofwhich remain visible to thisday.

More significant thanthe survey were militaryescorts for Santa Fe tradersthat began in 1829. Designedto protect the merchantsfrom Indian raids until theyforded the Arkansas Riverand entered Mexicanterritory, those escortsforeshadowed a much largercommitment of U.S. forces,who would follow the trail allthe way to Santa Fe whenpeaceful exchanges betweenAmericans and Mexicansgave way to conflict.

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Bounty HuntersSierra Madre foothills tosurround the Apache camp,a large party of Indiansthundered into the villagebringing more Mexicancontraband. Noticing thatthe newcomers had boughtanother supply of capturedwhiskey, Kirker instructedhis men to prepare for actionafter daybreak believing theIndians would be too drunkfrom drinking and dancingall night to put up much of afight.

At dawn, themercenaries made theirmove. They shot and killeda majority of the drunkenApaches who were just tooinebriated to f ight back.Only a few Indians escapedincluding one whom Kirkerbelieved to be Cochise.When the attack was over,the bounty hunters spentmost of the morningcollecting scalps and bootyfrom the devastated village.

The scalp huntersreturned to Chihuahua Citywith more than 500 horseand burros, all of themerchandise from Porras’supply train (except thewhiskey), 18 women captivesand more than 100 scalps.Some of the female captivesbrought back by Kirker’s menwere actually Mexicansenslaved by the Apaches. Therescued women had told Triasthat the Norteamericanos

and their Indian allies hadattacked isolated Mexicancommunities as they traveledto Chihuahua City and theyhad killed Mexicans to taketheir scalps too. The scalpsof dark-haired Mexicanfarmers looked about thesame as Apache scalps oncethey had been torn off.Governor Trias was horrifiedby the stories told by thewoman and decided torefuse to pay themercenaries their promisedscalp money. In addition,some of the Mexicans droveoff many of the rescuedhorses and mules, claimingthat they were theirproperty.

Spiebuck, who had asmany as 20 scalps danglingon his belt, was infuriatedwhen he was told that theMexican governor would notpay the scalp premium. Infact, he became so angry thathestripped off his buckskinsdown to his breechcloth. Hethen braided an eagle’sfeather in his hair andapplied war paint to his faceand body. Then afterdrinking an entire bottle ofbrandy, the big Shawneechief took his bundle ofApache scalps and a knifeand headed off for thegovernor’s mansion. Kirkerfollowed his friend

Scalps

(From Page 10)

command, to the site of theattack to find the Indians’trail. Senor Porras, whosecargo the burros werecarrying, told Kirker thatseveral gallons of whiskeyhad been part of the freight.He said he would giveKirker’s men the whiskeyand part of the cargo if thebounty hunters could findand punish the Apacheraiders.

Kirker rode to the siteof the attack and toldSpiebuck that a largequantity of liquor was partof the cargo. Spiebuck saidif the raiders found it, theywould probably stop in themountains to drink once theywere sure they were notbeing followed. For the firsttwo days, the scalp huntersfollowed the Indians’ trailand took care not to be seen.On the third day, Kirker andhis men made a forcedmarch and soon surprised apar ty of 20 drunkenApaches. The battle wasshort and quick. It wasn’tlong before the bountyhunters had 20 scalpshanging from their belts.

A couple of hours later,some of Kirker’s Delawarescouts reported that theyfound a large Apache villagein the Sierra Madre, amountain range only a fewmiles distant. After a briefdiscussion, Kirker’s mendecided to continue on andtry to get another bundle ofthe 100-peso scalps. Theycached the merchandise theyhad already retrieved andhurried off to the west.

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(See Scalps on Page 20)

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(From Page 15)

Armstrong Custer, wasassigned to organize and leadan expedition to Montanaand the newly establishedYellowstone Park. Ludlow’sobservations about thelawlessness and exploitationof park resourcesdocumented the poaching ofbuffalo, deer, elk andantelope for hides. “It isestimated that during thewinter of 1874–1875, not

less than 3,000 buffalo andmule deer suffer even moreseverely than the elk, and theantelope nearly as much.”

Ongoing poaching anddestruction of naturalresources continuedunabated until the U.S. Armyarrived at Mammoth HotSprings in 1886 and builtCamp Sheridan. Over thenext 22 years the armyconstructed permanentstructures, and CampSheridan was renamed FortYellowstone. With thefunding and manpowernecessary to keep a diligentwatch, the army developedtheir own policies andregulations that permittedpublic access whileprotecting park wildlife andnatural resources.

The Northern PacificRailroad built a train stationin Livingston, Montana,connecting to the northernentrance in the early 1880s,which helped to increasevisitation from 300 in 1872

to 5,000 in 1883. By 1908visitation increased enoughto attract a Union PacificRailroad connection to WestYellowstone.

When the NationalPark Service was created in1916, many of themanagement principlesdeveloped by the army wereadopted by the new agency.The army turned control overto the National Park Serviceon October 31, 1918.

For a nation bent onsettling and exploiting theWest, the creation ofYellowstone was surprising.Yet the Yellowstone Act of1872 set a precedent andpopularized the idea ofpreserving sections of thepublic domain for use aspublic parks. Congress wenton to designate dozens ofother national parks as theNew York Times asked itsreaders, “Why should we goto Switzerland to see themountains, or to Iceland tosee the geysers?”

One afternoon a puncher at Charles Goodnight’s ranchin the Texas panhandle saw smoke boiling up to the south

and raced towards it. When he arrived at the scene hefound a gang of men beating at flames with wet gunny

sacks, slickers, and brooms. When the fire refused to goout he and the other men attacked the blaze by a grislybut effective method: they shot a big steer, skinned himon one side and tied ropes to two legs. Then a pair ofriders on either side of the fire line dragged the bloody

carcass over it to quench the flames, like moving aneraser across a blackboard. The horses had to change

sides frequently, or the one trotting on the burned patchmight have been crippled by the charring of his hoofs.

-William H. Forbis, Bozeman, Montana, 1973

Page 19Territorial NewsSeptember 7, 2016

The Grattan Massacre

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Legend

(From Page 14)

by side in a shallow grave,after being covered bypieces of tent canvas andblankets. One year later,Custer’s remains and thoseof many of his off icerswere recovered and sentback east for reintermentin more formal burials.Custer was reinterred withfull military honors at WestPoint Cemetery on October10, 1877. The battle site wasdesignated a NationalCemetery in 1876.

There is controversyabout where the blame forthe massacre l ies—onCuster or on his battalioncommanders MajorMarcus Reno and CaptainFrederick Benteen. Therewas also contemporarycontroversy, which beganas soon as the news of thedisaster reached the East.

The Centennial year, 1876,was a year of vigorousdiscussion and appraisalof America. It was also apresidential election year.Custer was championed inthe Democratic press as amartyr to Republicanmismanagement, andDemocratic Texans choseto remember him as afriend, “the Stuart of theNorth...once our foe, buta generous and manlyone.”

Since then, “Custer’sLast Stand” has becomean American legend. Thebattle site attractsthousands of visitorsyearly.

Custer’s wife,Elizabeth, lived to the ageof ninety-one. The couplehad no children. She wasdevoted to his memory,wrote three books abouthim, and when she died in1933 was buried besidehim at West Point.

GeneralCustern the movies, seldom

does a wagon train getvery far without being

attacked by Indians. But in1849, the first year of anendless procession of wagontrains along the OregonTrail, not one was attackedby Indians. This same yearthe Regiment of MountedRif lemen, which Congresshad authorized in 1846 forthe trail’s protection, beganits lawful business, afterhaving fought on foot inMexico. The rif lemengarrisoned Fort Kearny andtook over Fort Laramie andFort Hall from the furcompanies. Even when theSioux moved into Pawneehunting grounds south of thePlatte River and were nearthe Oregon Trail, they stayedout of trouble withimmigrants until 1854.

But in midsummer ofthat year High Forehead, aMiniconjou, took a wantonpot shot at a sore-footed cowbelonging to a Mormonimmigrant. The Mormonlodged a complaint at FortLaramie. At that time thearmy was spread so thinguarding the trail that thecommanding off icer atLaramie was SecondLieutenant Hugh BradyFleming of the 6th Infantry,two years out of West Point.

Fleming brushed asideattempts made to settle thedispute by Brave Bear, alsocalled Conquering Bear, aBrule who had beenrecognized as chief of all theSioux by the Horse CreekTreaty of 1851. Fleming’ssubordinate, Brevet SecondLieutenant James LawrenceGrattan, asked for theassignment to arrest HighForehead.

Grattan, on August 19,1854, marched twenty-ninesoldiers into the Sioux camp.Apparently he had no plan

of action in case ofresistance. It mattered little,as he was among the firstkilled when the shootingstarted. The troops fired onevolley and got off one shotapiece from a mountainhowitzer and a twelve-pounder without effect. Theleaderless soldiers panickedat f irst, then rallied andretreated in good order,holding the Indians at adistance with rifle fire untilthey reached open ground,where Sioux horsemen rodethem down. One woundedman got back to the fort, butdied of his injuries two dayslater. Brave Bear, “chief ofall the Sioux,” was among thedead.

Now the Sioux were onthe “warpath.” In Novembera raiding party led by abrother of Brave Bear killedthree men and plundered amail wagon of $20,000. Inthe spring there were anumber of horse-stealingexpeditions. Still, the Siouxwere taking their war againstthe United States no moreseriously than therecustomary aimless fightingwith the Pawnee.

The government,however, took the warseriously. Brevet BrigadierGeneral William SelbyHarney, colonel of the 2ndDragoons, was recalled fromleave in Paris to lead anexpedition to punish theperpetrators of the GrattanMassacre. Indian agentThomas T. Twiss was sent towarn all friendly bands tomove south of the Platte andreport to him at FortLaramie; eventually 400 ofthe 700 lodges of the Siouxwere assembled in thatvicinity. General Harneymarched out of Fort Kearnyup the Platte toward FortLaramie with 600 soldiers,including two companies of

the 2nd Dragoons, one ofthe 4th Artillery, five of the6th Infantry, and one of the10th Infantry.

Little Thunder, a chiefof the Brules, in camp atAsh Hollow above the forksof the Platte, was warned bya trader that troops wereapproaching, but did nothingabout it . His camp wassurprised by Harney’sinfantry on the morning ofSeptember 3, 1855. LittleThunder, Spotted Tail, andIron Shell rode out for aparley, but Harney’s ordersstated that all negotiatinghad been taken care of byagent Twiss, so he keptadvancing. The dragoons cutoff the retreating Sioux inthe rear; Indian losses wereeighty-six killed, seventywomen and childrencaptured.

When Harney arrivedat Fort Laramie, hedemanded that the Siouxthere surrender Spotted Tailand Red Leaf, the leaders ofthe attack on Grattan and the

(See Massacre on Page 20)

I

September 7, 2016Territorial NewsPage 20

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Scalps

(From Page 17)

at a safe distance to makesure that the Mexican sol-diers would not get in theway of Spiebuck’s wrath.

At the mansion,Spiebuck forced a protestingguard away from the doorand stormed into thegovernor’s off ice. Hegrabbed Trias and thrust himup against a wall. Spiebuckunsheathed his scalping knifeand placed the blade underthe trembling politician’schin. He told Trias that if hedid not come up with thebounty money for theApache scalps, he would killhim. The terrified governorwas only too glad to pay thebig Shawnee his share of thebounty money.

Afterward, Spiebuckgathered up his allotment ofhorses and mules. Then, withseveral of his Shawnee andDelaware companions,announced to Kirker thatthey would not stay to dobusiness with people who didnot keep their word. As thegroup started to ride out ofChihuahua City, Spiebuckshouted a warning to Kirker.He said if he were smart, hewould leave too. TheMexicans were not to betrusted. Then most of theeastern Indian trappers rode

away heading north to Bent’sFort in Colorado.

Jim Kirker was neverpaid for his services eventhough the Mexicangovernment owed him morethan $30,000. He stayed inMexico mainly because hehad a family—a wife, threesons and a daughter.

Aggravated by theMexican governor’sunexpected cancellation ofbounty money, the red-haired frontiersman wentwest and made an alliancewith the Apaches. TheIndians made him anhonorary chief. It wasrumored, but not proven,that the Apaches traded withhim for Mexican scalps. Theswitch in alliance, of course,infuriated the Mexicans.

Stil l , Don Santiago

Kirker and his gang wererespected by Mexican peons.They called him “the Saviorof the Frontier.” Kirker’sefforts against maraudingApache bands had brought ameasure of safety andprosperity to the citizens ofChihuahua City during theearly 1840s.

When the Mexican-American War began in1846, Kirker got his revenge.He joined ColonelAlexander Doniphan’sMissouri Volunteers.Because of his superbknowledge of the Mexicancountryside, Kirker, whowas proficient in the Spanishlanguage, played a pivotalrole in the war and helpedthe Americans shatter theMexican Army throughoutChihuahua.

Massacre

(From Page 19)

raid on the mail wagon.Both had been in thehostile camp at AshHollow. They were takento Fort Leavenworth to behanged but eventually werepardoned. Meanwhile,Spotted Tail had madefriends among the officers;

he had seen something ofthe might of the UnitedStates forces and wasconvinced that it was futileto f ight them. He laterbecame a powerful chief ofthe Brule Sioux and kepthis followers at peace withthe army. But, by masterlydiplomacy, during the restof his life he continued toupset Indian Bureau plansto civilize them.

Grattan Massacre

T