teaching strategy handbook - alexander smitheducator portfolio
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Alexander Smith 1607269 2014
TEACHING STRATEGY HANDBOOK
(1.1) Introduction
The core of a classroom is not content but how that content is
carried across. For a class to fully realise their potential in the
classroom, there needs to be a positive environment. Positive
environments in the class room creates a constructive tone
where education can be fully realised. Roy Killen writes that “you
should not expect students to be engaged in meaningful learning
if the environment is not supportive, encouraging and focused
on learning” (Killen 2006, pp. 23). Therefore, we must strive to
create these positive learning environments.
(1.2) To create a positive learning environment, we need to:
- Create a safe and comfortable environment, both physically and
psychologically
- Structure learning towards meaningful long-term goals
- Create interesting, challenging and realistic learning
experiences
- Value student efforts and encourage them to put in effort
- Expect students to work hard to achieve high standards
(Killen 2006, pp 23-24)
Positive learning environments neatly fit under the umbrella of
preventative strategies as put forward by Dr C.M. Charles, who
divides teacher intervention into three groups. These groups are:
- Preventative: “those that prevent misbehaviour”
- Supportive: “those that support students who are wavering”
- Corrective: “those that correct misbehaviour and rechannel it in
positive directions”
(C.M. Charles 2002, p.236)
This handbook will focus on these three sub-sections, using
examples, to practically guide the teacher to both create a
positive learning environment and respond to issues as they
arise. Using preventative, supportive and corrective strategies
SUMMARY
1.1:
- Classroom needs a
positive environment
- Students can’t be
engaged unless the
environment is
“supportive,
encouraging and
focused on learning”
1.2:
- To create a positive
learning environment,
we need it to be safe,
well structured,
interesting and goal-
orientated amongst
other things
- C.M.Charles divides
teacher intervention
into Preventative,
Supportive and
Corrective.
1.3:
- When considering
which strategy to use,
refer to Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
- What needs need be
met?
- What strategies
should we use to fulfil
these needs?
INTRODUCTION
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held within this handbook, teachers can hope to not only build
but foster a positive, constructive learning environment.
(1.3) What strategies should I use?
When referring to what a student needs in a classroom, it might
be useful to consult Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
which sets out the physiological and psychological needs of a
human being. Put forward in 1943, it gives teachers and parents
an understanding of what a student may need in the class room.
When we consider what the student needs at any given time, we
can consider where the needs are and aren’t met within the
hierarchy. Consider the bottom two sections in Fig. 1. If a student
isn’t receiving what they need physiologically and they aren’t
feeling safe, are they fully able to perform to a high standard in
the class room? How can we meet these needs?
Fig.1 Source: http://tinyurl.com/l7oxfgf
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TEACHING STRATEGY HANDBOOK
(2.1) Preventative Strategies
“ When children are motivated because what they are learning is
interesting, exciting and relevant; when they feel respected and
cared for by their teacher even if they are not always able to get
all the answers right; when they feel they have a legitimate place
in our classroom; then inattentive, problem behaviour is most
unlikely to occur”
(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p.251)
Preventative strategies are those that circumvent corrective
strategies by creating a situation where the times that the latter
need be used is reduced significantly. The central idea of a
preventative strategy is to create an environment that keeps
students focused and engaged while being positive and
organised. Ideally, a well organised classroom that utilises
preventative strategies will create a situation where students do
not feel the need to act up or misbehave.
(2.2) what should we consider when using preventative
strategies?
According to Dr C.M. Charles, a classroom built on
preventative strategy should focus on:
Making the curriculum, lessons and topics engaging,
enjoyable and meaningful
Being aware of student’s needs, such as empowerment,
dignity and competence, and that these needs are met
in the classroom
Being positive in our classroom manner, taking effort to
be pleasant, helpful and respectful, creating a classroom
culture that promotes these attributes in the students
Teaching students to express their needs in ways that
do not disrupt the momentum of the class
(C.M. Charles 2002, p. 236)
Consider these aspects of preventative strategy in the
classroom to build a positive, constructive classroom that will
not only keep misbehaviour to a minimum, but also create real
opportunities for student academic growth.
(2.3) the Kounin Model
Developed in the 1970’s, Jacob Kounin’s model for classroom
behaviour management serves as both a recent and practical
SUMMARY
2.1
- Preventative
Strategies are those
that circumvent
corrective strategies by
creating positive
learning environment.
- Well organised
classrooms lead to less
misbehaviour
2.2
- C.M.Charles says we
should focus on:
1) Making curriculum
engaging and
meaningful
2) Being aware of
students needs
3) Being positive in our
classroom manner
4) Teaching students to
express their needs
2.3
Kounin’s model is based
on:
-“ With-it-ness”
- Overlapping Response
- Momentum
- Smoothness
- Group Focus/Alerting
PREVENTATIVE
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approach to preventative strategy. The theory was first put
forward in 1977’s Discipline and Group Management in
Classrooms, and its main focuses are “with-it-ness”,
overlapping, momentum, smoothness and group focus/group
alerting
(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p.259-261).
“With-it-ness”
Having “eyes in the back of your head”, being constantly
aware of what is going on in the classroom.
Identifying and acting promptly to prevent any disruptive
behaviour before it develops and upsets the learning
flow.
Overlapping Responses
The skill of dealing with two problems or incidents at the
same time without disrupting the class.
This might mean being prepared for scenarios where
these situations may arise.
Remember: “An important proviso for
‘withitness’ is that the action taken does not
interrupt the flow of the learning activity”
(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p. 259)
EXAMPLE: CASE
STUDY ONE
In “Praise and
Preparation”, Amy
Alexander uses a well-
laid out white board to
with all of the classes
tasks written on it fig 2.
When a student has
completed the current
task, they already have
another task to do,
circumnavigating any
disruption
Fig 2
The neatly organised, colour-
coordinated white board that gives the
students their tasks reduces the need for
confusion and therefore disruption in
the classroom.
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Momentum
Student behaviour is linked to the flow of a lesson –
when a lesson flows poorly, misbehaviour can occur
Keeping a steady momentum is important in preventing
misbehaviour in the classroom
A lack of momentum can lead to Slowdowns that create
opportunities for students to lose interest.
Smoothness
To avoid Slowdowns, move smoothly from one activity
to the other
A class with strong momentum will use strong
Movement Management (McInerney & McInerney
2002, p.261) to move the class between activities
without interrupting the flow of learning
Group Focus and Group Alerting
Group Focus and Group Alerting are key to strong
movement management.
Group Focus is the ability to keep a group of students
focused and attentive
Group Alerting is the ability to communicate quickly
and efficiently what task the group need to complete
EXAMPLE: CASE
STUDY TWO
In “The Need for
Structure”, an example of
a LACK of momentum
can be seen early on.
Michelle Rock stops in
the middle of her
introduction to the task
to correct the behaviour
of one student. This
disrupts the momentum
from the beginning and
sets up the class to be
unfocused
Michelle is already interrupting her
own lesson to correct behaviour,
disrupting the momentum of the class
early on
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(2.4) Pros and Cons of the Kounin Model
PROS:
Minimises disruption in the classroom
Keeps students on task
Creates easy transitions from one activity to the other
Properly utilises positive and negative reinforcement
CONS:
Very intensive
Requires constant alertness and focus to keep the class
on task
Can be difficult for beginning teachers due to the need
for focused attention on multiple spaces within the
classroom.
EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY THREE
In “Praise and Preparation”, Amy
Alexander quickly uses Group Focus
and Alerting in the first few
moments of the class to get the
students on task.
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(3.1) Supportive Strategies
“The masterful use of proactive skills diffuses many surface
behaviours and causes minimal disruptions to the teaching
act”
- Levin & Nolan 2003, p.26
Supportive discipline is a means by which to make quick and
reactive action against minor misbehaviour and disruptions.
This usually means dealing with minor misdemeanours such
as talking out of turn, lack of attention and attention-seeking
behaviour. Generally, supportive strategies are used when
preventative fails but the action is not serious enough for a
strong corrective. Rather than correct students, supportive
strategies are used to reinforce positive actions and
discourage negative behaviour.
(3.2) What should we consider when using supportive
strategies?
There are a number of different aspects that we should
consider when utilising supportive strategies in the classroom.
These include:
Making an effort to show interest in student work, and
rewarding both creativity, correct answers and the
willingness to attempt to answer questions
Learning to make eye contact with students
Learning to send private signals for negative behaviour
Using physical proximity to discourage negative
behaviour in students
Gently guiding students when they get stuck
Light challenges “Can you get five more problems
done before we stop?”
- C.M. Charles 2002, p.237
Consider these strategies when using a supportive approach,
to not only fix short-term problems but garner long-term trust
and teamwork between the students and yourself.
(3.3) Non-Verbal Strategies
As mentioned above, a large part of supportive strategies is
non-verbal communication. This might mean anything from a
subtle nod of the head towards a student working well or
SUMMARY
3.1
Supportive strategy is a
middle ground between
preventative and
corrective.
3.2
We should consider a
number of different
aspects including eye
contact, physical
proximity and
encouraging creativity
and the willingness to
try
3.3
Three non-verbal
strategies are:
Planned Ignoring
Proximity
Signalling
3.4
ABC Model
Antecedents
(influence)
Behaviour (which is
reinforced by)
Consequence
3.5
Pros and Cons
SUPPORTIVE
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gently moving closer to a student on the verge of misbehaving.
These strategies are quick and effective means of reigning in
behaviour without disrupting the class, and in some ways act
as an extension of Kounin’s idea of “with-it-ness”.
Planned Ignoring
“Planned ignoring is based on the reinforcement theory
that if you ignore a behaviour, it will lessen and
eventually disappear” (Levin and Nolan 2003,p.29)
The idea behind planned ignoring is not engaging with
negative student behaviour and attention seeking to the
end of reinforcing positive behaviour through attention
and ignoring negative behaviour.
Generally this is done to manage minor misdemeanours
such as not being prepared, speaking out of turn etc.
Proximity
“Proximity interference is any movement toward the
disruptive student” (Levin and Nolan 2003, p.30)
Proximity management works on the idea that there are
different proximities from student to teacher in the
classroom.
Far proximity indicates teaching, information giving
mode
A middle proximity means a closer focus, and may
mean working with a group of students rather than the
whole class.
Close proximity indicates private supportive language
and communication between the teacher and student.
EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY FOUR
In “Attention Seekers”, John
Bayley demonstrates planned
ignoring as a means of social
learning. By ignoring the
students that are constantly
acting up and praising students
that work well, he proposes a way
to build a positive learning
environment with minimal
disruption
Bayley demonstrates non-verbal
communication to reinforce
planned ignoring. Strong body
language dissaudes bad behaviour
and eye contact reinforces good
behaviour.
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This may mean going close to a student to remind them
to be on task or it may mean moving to a student to
quietly reinforce good behaviour.
If a student continues to be off task, conducting the
lesson closely to that student while utilising planned
ignoring can be quite effective.
Signalling
Signal interference refers to non-verbal communication
that indicates to a student that their behaviour is
inappropriate without disrupting the class.
Signal interference must be clear and direct so that there
is “no doubt in the students mind that the teacher is
aware of what’s going on [and that they are] responsible
for the behaviour” (Levin and Nolan 2003, p.29)
This might include: making eye-contact, head-shaking,
holding out an open palm while lecturing and so-forth.
(3.4) Supportive Behaviourist Model
This model breaks down the situational factors that influence
behaviour (positive and negative) into three categories. These
are Antecedents, Behaviour and Consequence. This ABC
model can be used to reinforce positive behaviour and
discourage negative behaviour.
Antecedents in this context mean pre-existing conditions
that effect outcomes. These include the physical
environment of a classroom, the learning program,
teacher behaviour, classroom routines and rules.
EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY
FIVE
In “Attention Seekers”, Jane
Wright moves to the back of
the class to have a one-on-
one chat with a student who
isn’t paying attention. This
close proximity doesn’t
disrupt the class and keeps
the student on task.
Jane Moves to a close proximity to
keep the student on task. Rather
than use supportive language from
across the classroom, this closeness
allows for directed support without
disruption.
When considering
Antecedents, it might be
helpful to refer to Piaget’s
Model of Moral and
Cognitive Development
found in Appendix Two. By
meeting the developmental
need of students when
setting classroom rules, you
give them agency and build
relational trust
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Behaviour is influenced by the Antecedents and
Consequence. Students will act in a way to gain a
positive consequence and shy away from negative
consequences. “The more pleasant the consequence,
the more reinforcing it becomes” ( DECS 1996)
Consequence means that every action and behaviour a
student does in the classroom has a consequence. This
means positive reinforcement for good behaviour and
negative reinforcement for bad behaviour.
Consequences can take a range of forms and usually
coincide with Skinner’s Model of positive reinforcement.
(3.5) Pros and Cons of Supportive Strategies:
Pros:
Strong use of proximity can mean building strong
classroom culture and a lack of repeat misbehaviour
Planned ignoring, when used correctly, can eliminate
minor problems in the class such as lack of
preparedness and disinterest
Signalling can mean communicating supportive
strategies without disrupting the class
The ABC model rewards good behaviour and gives
consequences for negative behaviour.
Cons:
ABC and Skinner’s Model can be interpreted as a
“carrot-and-stick” approach where operant conditioning
creates uniform behaviour, which can be very negative
Planned ignoring could be used by very wilful students
as an excuse for continued bad behaviour
REMEMBER: Positive reinforcement can
take a variety of forms under Skinner’s
Model. These are social reinforcement,
activity reinforcement, token reinforcement
and tangible reinforcement.
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4.1 Corrective Strategies
“If you approach misbehaving students in a sensitive manner,
you can help them return to proper behaviour with no ill feelings”
- C.M. Charles 2002, p. 237
When the preventative and supportive strategies fail in the
classroom, our focus must fall on the corrective behavioural
strategies. If we refer to the Hierarchy of Management of
Intervention (Appendix One), we can see that as we move from
non-verbal intervention (covered in the supportive section) into
the verbal intervention to be discussed in this section.
(4.2) Things to Consider when using Corrective Strategies
We should consider the following aspects when we are using
corrective strategies:
When we approach offending students to intervene, we
should do so in a positive manner while maintaining a
calm and respectful manner
Applying a discipline plan that you and the students have
agreed to consistently
When applying the discipline plan we should be
considerate of never lecturing or threatening students,
and without escalating the situation to a non-professional
level.
- C.M. Charles 2002, p.237
(4.3) Thomas Gordon’s Discipline Model
Gordon’s Model
Thomas Gordon’s model puts forward the idea that for a
teacher to really control the class they must use
“minimal control” and that they “must give up their
efforts to control student behaviour and instead help
students develop their own sense of control”
(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p.263)
Gordon stresses a focus on Critical Listening which the
practice of listening fully and critically to a students
needs.
This is followed by Active Listening, or a repetition of
the student’s needs are understood.
SUMMARY
4.1
Corrective strategies are
used when preventative
and supportive
strategies have failed
4.2
We should consider a
number of different
aspects including a
positive manner, being
respectful, having a
consistent discipline
plan and never
lecturing or
threatening students.
4.3
Thomas Gordon’s
model promotes a
sharing of control
between student and
teacher
He advocates Critical
and Active listening
followed by Directive
I-Messages to deal
with classroom
disputes
4.4
Pros and Cons
CORRECTIVE
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Through Active and Critical listening, the teacher can
determine who “owns” the problem, and if it something
they can help with.
If the teacher owns the problem and is therefore in a
position to help, this can lead to a directive I-message.
This is a description of the student’s misbehaviour that
doesn’t judge or demean the student and uses teacher-
focused language.
The use of Directive I-Messages not only act as a quick
corrective in the class-room but also serve as a way of
modelling behaviour. By putting the focus on the
teacher, the student can see that it is effecting the class
and will therefore be less likely to misbehave in the
future.
Example Directive I-messages:
Brief:
“I want you to get on with the work now, so that you can
leave on time”
“I want you to sit properly in your chair and focus on the
lesson, please” (Cowley 2006, p.44)
In-depth:
“When you forget to bring your homework in, I can’t
check all the work at the same time to see if everyone is
ready for me to teach the next topic. This makes me feel
very frustrated at the waste of time”
(McInerney & McInerney 2002, p. 264)
EXAMPLE: CASE STUDY SIX
In “Key Instructions:, Bayley
prompts Teddy Prout to use
Directive I-Messages to clearly
give instructions and reign in
his unruly music class.
“I need you to…” is a good example
of a brief directive I-message
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(4.4) Pros and Cons
Pros:
Gordon’s model creates long term solutions for
persistent negative behaviour
By shifting the focus from the student’s behaviour as a
single entity to how it effects the class as a whole,
Gordon’s model creates greater understanding of
empathy and correct behaviour
Active and Critical listening can build relational trust
between teacher and student
Cons:
More in-depth directive I-messages can be time
consuming
By not being as assertive, this model can allow for
manipulation of the relational trust to get away with
further misdemeanour
5.1: Conclusions
Ultimately the decisions made in the classroom have to be
made at the moment. While you can prepare and create
situations that put you in control, strategies to prevent
disruption and so on, the class can still be an unpredictable
place. I would say that while the strategies discussed in this
handbook are useful and that you should refer to them, over
time your natural instincts as a teacher will make this moot. But
until then, consider this as a guide.
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Appendices
Appendix One: Hierarchy of Management Intervention
We can see here a progression from non-verbal intervention to logical consequences
on a spectrum of student/teacher focus. All of the strategies discussed, bar
preventative, fall on this spectrum. This gives a clear progression from preventative,
to supportive, to corrective as we move down the spectrum.
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Appendix Two:
Piaget’s Theory of Moral and Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget’s work on the cognitive development of children can help us inform our
own preventative decision making in the classroom. Though Piaget’s work has been
disputed over the years, the foundational research he conducted would provide the
backbone for future developments in the field.
Piaget’s Stages
Piaget believed that rather than moving in a continuous, linear progression, a
child’s cognitive development was discontinuous and proceeded “sequentially
through a series of distinct ‘stages’ from birth to adulthood”, with each stage
being “ qualitatively different” from the next ( Krause et al 2003, p. 11)
Beyond cognitive development, Piaget also theorised and observed moral
development in the same discontinuous pattern.
Simply put, Piaget observed that the older children got, the more they began
to consider the nature of rules and regulation.
Children of 7 to 10 years of age regarded rules as “sacred pronouncements
handed down by older children or adults” (Snowman et al 2009, p. 85)
After the age of 11, however, children began to “lose interest in adult-imposed
regulations and take delight in formulating their own variations of rules to fit a
particular situation” (Snowman et al 2009, p. 85)
How can we apply this?
As high school students are in the 12-18 age bracket, we could regard
Piaget’s theory on their moral development as a preventative strategy for
classroom management
As part of building a positive learning environment, we can construct a series
of rules and regulations in consultation with the students in the class. By
moving away from the “sacred pronouncement” of early-childhood rule
making, we give both agency and trust to our older students to create
acceptable boundaries for behaviour and consequences for breaching these
boundaries.
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Cowley, S 2006, Getting the Buggers to Behave, Continuum,
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Killen, R 2006, Effective Teaching Strategies: Lessons for
Research and Practice, 4th Edition, Thomson Social Science
Press, Melbourne
Krause, Bochner & Duchese 2003, Educational Psychology:
For Learning and Teaching, Thomson, Melbourne
Levin J & Nolan J.F. 2003, What Every Teaching Should Know
About Classroom Management, Pearson, New Jersey
McInerney D & McInerney V 2002, Educational Psychology:
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Snowman, Dobozy, Scevak et al 2009, Psychology Applied to
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