teacher talking time (TTT

in the classroom, pair and group activities and student involvement in the learning process.

A consequence of this was the belief that the teacher’s presence in the classroom should be reduced.

Why reduce TTT?

Strategies for reducing TTT

Positive uses of TTT

Conclusion

Why reduce TTT?

Many training courses based on CLT insisted that teacher talking time (TTT) was counterproductive and that teachers should reduce TTT for a number of reasons:

Excessive TTT limits the amount of STT (student talking time). If the teacher talks for half the time in a 60 minute lesson with 15 students, each student gets only 2 minutes to speak.

A large amount of TTT results in long stretches of time in teacher-to-class (T/class) mode and a monotonous pace. Student under-involvement inevitably leads to loss of concentration, boredom and reduced learning.

TTT often means that the teacher is giving the students information that they could be finding out for themselves, such as grammar rules, the meanings of vocabulary items and corrections. Teacher explanations alone are often tedious, full of terminology and difficult to follow. There may be no indication of whether the students have understood.

If the teacher takes the dominant role in classroom discourse in terms of initiating the topic, allocating turns and evaluating comments, the student’s role is only that of respondent. Opportunities for developing the speaking skill are therefore severely limited.

If the teacher is constantly dominant and controlling, the learners take no responsibility for their own learning but learn what the teacher decides and when. Student autonomy is thus limited.

Strategies for reducing TTT

The over-use of TTT is often the product of the under-use of communicative techniques in the classroom. Many activities do not need to be teacher led – pair work (PW) or group work (GW) can be used instead. An activity might be set up in T/class mode, demonstrated in open pairs (students doing the activity across the class), and done in closed pairs (all the students working at the same time). Some mechanical activities need to be done individually (IW) but can be checked in pairs. What is most important is that activities and interaction patterns (T/class, PW, GW, IW) need to be varied. The amount of time spent in T/class mode will depend on factors such as the students and how much they know, the stage of the lesson, the time of day and what is being taught, but a useful guideline is a limit of 30% of a lesson, and no more than 10 minutes at one time.

Other common strategies for reducing TTT include:

Using elicitation rather than explanation. If students are presented with clear examples and guiding questions, they often do not need to be “told”. This kind of guided discovery leads to better understanding and more successful learning. Organising activities as pair work also means that all the students have the chance to work on the new language.

The use of body language, mime, gestures and facial expressions rather than words. The position of the teacher in the classroom can also indicate to the students what is expected of them at a particular stage of the lesson.

Getting students to give feedback on tasks to each other rather than to the teacher. This is often done in pairs, but answers can also be checked against a key. Student nomination, whereby one student nominates another to answer a question, is also a useful technique. Feedback involving the teacher is therefore limited to problematic questions rather than every question in an exercise.

Eliminating unnecessary TTT. Grading language is important, but over-simplification can lead to unnatural models from the teacher. Instructions should be kept simple, while explanations need to be carefully worded and repeated if necessary rather than paraphrased. Simple concept questions should be asked to check understanding. If explanations are clear and concept checking is effective, there should be no need for re-explanation or interrupting an activity to reteach or re-instruct.

Tolerating silence. Inexperienced teachers in particular tend to fill silences by unnecessary talking. Silence is important not only when students are working individually, but also provides ‘processing time’ between instructions, during explanations, while waiting for a student to respond, and during monitoring of activities. Prompting, providing clues and rephrasing the question are often counterproductive when the student merely needs time to answer.

Positive uses of TTT

In recent years, approaches other than CLT have suggested that TTT may not always be counterproductive and can be used to good effect. The teacher provides good listening practice which is not inhibited by the sound quality of a tape or CD player and which is accompanied by visual clues to aid comprehension. In a monolingual teaching context overseas, the teacher may provide a valuable source of authentic listening, exposing learners to a limited amount of new language, and ‘roughly tuning’ input to assist comprehension. In some circumstances, the teacher may be the only source of models of good, natural language. Some forms of TTT are clearly beneficial:

Personalised presentations. Language should be presented in context, and this can be provided by the teacher rather than through a reading or listening. Listening to the teacher talking about real issues is more motivating than listening to or reading about complete strangers talking about people, places or events which, for the students, have no personal interest. Students are also more likely to pick up knowledge which is content rather than language based by listening to the teacher introducing a topic.

Questioning. Every teacher question asked during a lesson demands a student response. Questions need not be language related, and are often the basis of ‘brainstorming’ a topic with the class. Frequent questioning holds students’ attention and increases learner involvement in the class.

Natural conversation. Conversations taking place during pair and group work are often loaded towards certain language items or based on an imposed theme. Natural conversation initiated by the teacher encourages questioning, asking for clarification, commenting and changing the subject as well as introducing functional and everyday language which is often overlooked in course materials. Chats outside the classroom are also valuable and often more memorable to students than lessons. In these circumstances, teachers should remember to continue to use graded but natural language rather than to use simplified language to ensure understanding.

Anecdotes. These can be the basis of a presentation, but can also be used at the start of a lesson, rather than using a ‘warmer’ activity, as a natural way of engaging the students. Anecdotes and jokes may also be used to stimulate interest during a lesson. Anecdotes do not need to be monologues, and students can be encouraged to interrupt and ask questions.

Storytelling. This can be the basis of a lesson or an ongoing theme throughout a course and is as appropriate to adult classes as it is to young learners. There is a whole methodology surrounding storytelling, which is often a stimulating alternative to the use of a graded reader in the classroom.

 

Conclusion

There are advantages and disadvantages to TTT. It is not easy to reduce TTT when talking to the students is a natural thing to do and when there is inevitably a theatrical side to language teaching. In certain cultures, there is also a tradition of ‘chalk and talk’ which influences the expectations and behaviour of both teachers and students. However, bearing in mind the nature of the communicative classroom, teachers should perhaps be aware of the quality of their TTT and how it is used rather than trying to reduce it to a bare minimum.

 

Education TheoryConstructivism and Social Constructivism in the Classroom

General Overview

In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning.

In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore that view - not as inert factoids to be memorized.

Key assumptions of this perspective include:

1. What the student currently believes, whether correct or incorrect, is important.2. Despite having the same learning experience, each individual will base their

learning on the understanding and meaning personal to them.3. Understanding or constructing a meaning is an active and continuous process..4. Learning may involve some conceptual changes.5. When students construct a new meaning, they may not believe it but may give it

provisional acceptance or even rejection.6. Learning is an active, not a passive, process and depends on the students taking

responsibility to learn.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions.

There is a great deal of overlap between a constructivist and social constructivist classroom, with the exception of the greater emphasis placed on learning through social interaction, and the value placed on cultural background. For Vygotsky, culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed for development. Adults in the learner’s environment are conduits for the tools of the culture, which include language, cultural history, social context, and more recently, electronic forms of information access.

In social constructivist classrooms collaborative learning is a process of peer interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted by the presentation of specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and is guided by means of effectively directed questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to previously learned material.

Role of the teacher

Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Instead, teachers act as a "guide on the side" providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of their current understandings

TheoryImplication for classroom

The educator should consider the knowledge and experiences students bring to class

Learners construct their knowledge through a process of active enquiry

‘Discovery’ is facilitated by providing the necessary resources

Knowledge is actively constructed & learning is presented as a process of active discovery

Provide assistance with assimilation of new and old knowledge

Learning programme should be sufficiently flexible to permit development along lines of student enquiry

Due to its interpretivist nature, each student will interpret information in different ways

Create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes

Present authentic tasks to contextualize learning through real-world, case-based learning environments

Support collaboration in constructing knowledge, not competition

Encourage development through Intersubjectivity

Providing Scaffolding at the right time and the right level

Provide opportunities for more expert and less expert participants to learn from each other

Role of the student

The expectation within a constructivist learning environment is that the students plays a more active role in, and accepts more responsibility for their own learning.

TheoryImplication for classroom

The role of the student to actively participate in their own education

Students have to accommodate & assimilate new information with their current understanding

One important aspect of controlling their own learning process is reflecting on their experiences

Students begin their study with pre-conceived notions

Students are very reluctant to give up their established schema/idea & may reject new information that challenges prior knowledge

Students may not be aware of the reasons they hold such strong ideas/schemata

Learners need to use and test ideas, skills, and information through relevant activities

Students need to know how to learn or change their thinking/learning style

Because knowledge is so communally-based, learners deserve access to knowledge of different communities

For students to learn they need to receive different 'lenses' to see things in new ways.

Learners need guidance through the ZDP

In social constructivism tutors and peers play a vital role in learning

Social Constructivism in the classroomReciprocal Teaching

Where a teacher and 2 to 4 students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on a topic. Within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies:

1. Questioning2. Summarizing3. Clarifying4. Predicting

This creates a ZPD in which students gradually assume more responsibility for the material, and through collaboratation, forge group expectations for high-level thinking, and acquire skills vital for learning and success in everyday life.

Cooperative Learning

More expert peers can also spur children’s development along as long as they adjust the help they provide to fit the less mature child’s ZPD.

Situated Learning

As early as 1929 concern was raised (Whitehead) that the way students learned in school resulted in a limited, ‘inert’ form of knowledge, useful only for passing examinations. More recently several theorists have argued that for knowledge to be active it should be learned:

In a meaningful context Through active learning

The general term for this type of learning activity is situated learning. Situated learning proponents argue that knowledge cannot be taught in an abstract manner, and that to be useful, it must be situated in a relevant or "authentic" context (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 1997).

Anchored Instruction

The anchored instruction approach is an attempt to help students become more actively engaged in learning by situating or anchoring instruction around an interesting topic. The learning environments are designed to provoke the kinds of thoughtful engagement that helps students develop effective thinking skills and attitudes that contribute to effective problem solving and critical thinking.

Anchored instruction emphasizes the need to provide students with opportunities to think about and work on problems and emphasizes group or collaborative problem solving.

Other things you can do: Encourage team working and collaboration Promote discussion or debates Set up study groups for peer learning Allocate a small proportion of grades for peer assessment and train students in the

process and criteria

Show students models of good practice in essay writing and project work Be aware of your own role as a model of ‘the way things are done...’be explicit

about your professional values and the ethical dimensions of your subject

Assessment

Constructivists believe that assessment should be used as a tool to enhance both the student's learning and the teacher's understanding of student's progress. It should not be used as an accountability tool that serves to stress or demoralise students. Types of assessment aligned to this epistemological position include reflective journals/portfolios, case studies, group-based projects, presentations (verbal or poster), debates, role playing etc.

Within social constructivism particularly there is greater scope for involving students in the entire process:

1. Criteria2. Method3. Marking4. Feedback

Brooks and Brooks (1993) state that rather than saying "No" when a student does not give the exact answer being sought, the constructivist teacher attempts to understand the student's current thinking about the topic. Through nonjudgmental questioning, the teacher leads the student to construct new understanding and acquire new skills

Activating Prior Knowledge

What Is It?

Call it schema, relevant background knowledge, prior knowledge, or just plain experience, when students make connections to the text they are reading, their comprehension increases. Good readers constantly try to make sense out of what they read by seeing how it fits with what they already know. When we help students make those connections before, during, and after they read, we are teaching them a critical comprehension strategy that the best readers use almost unconsciously.

Ellin Oliver Keene and Susan Zimmerman in Mosaic of Thought (1997), have identified three main types of connections students make as they read:

Text to self Text to world Text to text

Why Is It Important?

Explicitly teaching strategies that proficient readers use when trying to make sense out of text helps to deepen understanding and create independent readers. Activating prior knowledge, or schema, is the first of seven strategies that Keene and Zimmerman identify as key for reading comprehension success.

"Teaching children which thinking strategies are used by proficient readers and helping them use those strategies independently creates the core of teaching reading." (Keene and Zimmerman, 1997)

These strategies, identified through research based on what good readers do when they are reading, help students become metacognitive. They learn to think about their thinking as they are reading.

When students learn to make connections from their experience to the text they are currently reading, they have a foundation, or scaffolding, upon which they can place new facts, ideas, and concepts. As good readers read, they think about what they are reading and consider how it fits with what they already know. In this way, they build upon the schema that they already have developed.

When Should It Be Taught?

This comprehension strategy should be taught on an ongoing basis so that students learn independently to use it as they are reading. It should be taught explicitly and systematically over an extended period of time, moving from modeling the thinking process out loud by the teacher, to students using the strategy as a natural part of their comprehension process.

Prior knowledge should be discussed before reading the text to help set the stage for what is coming. During reading, students should be encouraged to make connections to the text from their experience and the teacher should model this process using his or her own connections. After reading, the discussion should center on how the connections helped students to better understand the text and how the text helped them to build their foundation of prior knowledge.

What Does It Look Like?

At the early stages of teaching students the strategy of making connections to their prior knowledge, the teacher models "thinking aloud." The teacher reads a text to the class and talks through his or her thinking process in order to show students how to think about their thinking as they are reading. Slowly, after students have seen and heard the teacher using the strategy, they are given the opportunity to share their experiences and thinking. Finally, students make connections to texts independently. Teachers can check in periodically to have students articulate their thinking, in order to track progress, spot difficulties, and intervene individually or conduct a mini-lesson to re teach or move students forward.

As students are activating their prior knowledge and making connections, they use graphic organizers, such as a concept map, a flow chart, or a KWL chart, to help map their thinking. Often students keep reflection or response journals where they record thoughts, feelings, insights, and questions about what they read. Students, in large and small groups, discuss and write about the connections they are making to texts. (For examples of these and other graphic organizers, click the link.)

Cognitive Dissonance 

What Is Cognitive Dissonance?

In 1957, Leon Festinger published a theory of cognitive dissonance, which has changed the way psychologists look at decision-making and behavior.[1] At its heart, cognitive dissonance theory is rather simple. It begins with the idea of cognitions. Cognitions are simply bits of knowledge. They can pertain to any variety of thoughts, values, facts, or emotions. For instance, the fact that I like ice cream is a cognition. So is the fact that I am a man. People have countless cognitions in their heads.

Most cognitions have nothing to do with each other. For instance, the two cognitions mentioned before (that I am a man and that I like ice cream) are unrelated. Some cognitions, however, are related. For instance, perhaps I have a sweet tooth and I like ice cream. These cognitions are "consonant," meaning that they are related and that one follows from the other. They go together, so to speak.

However, sometimes we have cognitions that are related, but do not follow from one another. In fact, they may be opposites. For instance, perhaps I like ice cream, but I am also trying to lose weight. These two thoughts are problematic -- if I eat ice cream, then I may gain weight, and if I really want to lose weight then I cannot eat ice cream. These types of cognitions are referred to as "dissonant."

The basic idea behind cognitive dissonance theory is that people do not like to have dissonant cognitions. In fact, many people argue that the desire to have consonant cognitions is as strong as our basic desires for food and shelter. As a result, when someone does experience two or more dissonant cognitions (or conflicting thoughts), they will attempt to do away with the dissonance.

Eliminating Cognitive Dissonance

There are several key ways in which people attempt to overcome, or do away with, cognitive dissonance. One is by ignoring or eliminating the dissonant cognitions. By pretending that ice cream is not bad for me, I can have my cake and eat it too, so to speak. Ignoring the dissonant cognition allows us to do things we might otherwise view as wrong or inappropriate.

Another way to overcome cognitive dissonance is to alter the importance (or lack thereof) of certain cognitions. By either deciding that ice cream is extremely good (I can't do without it) or that losing weight isn't that important (I look good anyway), the

Dennis Sandole explains that transitions between paradigms is very difficult and is often fraught with an upsurge in violence.

problem of dissonance can be lessened. If one of the dissonant cognitions outweighs the other in importance, the mind has less difficulty dealing with the dissonance -- and the result means that I can eat my ice cream and not feel bad about it.

Yet another way that people react to cognitive dissonance is by adding or creating new cognitions. By creating or emphasizing new cognitions, I can overwhelm the fact that I know ice cream is bad for my weight loss. For instance, I can emphasize new cognitions such as "I exercise three times a week" or "I need calcium and dairy products" or "I had a small dinner," etc. These new cognitions allow for the lessening of dissonance, as I now have multiple cognitions that say ice cream is okay, and only one, which says I shouldn't eat it.

Finally, perhaps the most important way people deal with cognitive dissonance is to prevent it in the first place. If someone is presented with information that is dissonant from what they already know, the easiest way to deal with this new information is to ignore it, refuse to accept it, or simply avoid that type of information in general. Thus, a new study that says ice cream is more fattening than originally thought would be easily dealt with by ignoring it. Further, future problems can be prevented by simply avoiding that type of information -- simply refusing to read studies on ice cream, health magazines, etc.

Applying Cognitive Dissonance to Conflict

The Role of Cognitive Dissonance in Perpetuating Conflict

Cognitive dissonance can play a tremendous role in conflict -- both in its perpetuation and in its elimination. Both large-scale and small-scale conflicts can be aggravated and/or lessened because of cognitive dissonance. An example from ethnic conflict may help to demonstrate.

A large-scale conflict, particularly one based on identity such as an ethnic conflict, can be perpetuated by cognitive dissonance. In Northern Ireland, for instance, the image of Protestants or Catholics as inhuman allows for actions that otherwise might not be perpetuated. It can also lead people involved in the conflict to ignore information that might contradict these viewpoints. For instance, a Catholic may intentionally avoid or simply be unreceptive to ideas that paint Protestants in a positive light, or vice versa. Once negative cognitions are in place, they are often reinforced by other similar cognitions while contradictory thoughts (which would shed light on a situation) are ignored or avoided.

This all means that a Protestant or Catholic who otherwise may strongly believe in the notion that "Thou shall not murder" may participate in terrorist activities. Although these two cognitions are dissonant, this dissonance can be overcome by creating new cognitions ("they aren't human" or "they're barbarians," etc.) or by emphasizing one cognition at the expense of the other. Perhaps more importantly, the conflict can be perpetuated by the fact that these people aren't open to new information that might dispel these false ideas about the other side. Thus an Israeli may not be willing to hear about the thoughts, feelings and family of a Palestinian, because these contradict the Israeli's view of Palestinians as inhuman.

Similar examples can be found on all levels of conflict. Individuals on both sides of the abortion debate can be unwilling to look at new information about the other side's stance in an attempt to avoid cognitive dissonance. This concept helps explain why

people are so opposed to counterarguments, especially when it regards a value or belief that is very important to them. Cognitive dissonance is so unpleasant that individuals would often rather be close-minded than be informed and deal with the repercussions of cognitive dissonance.

The Role of Cognitive Dissonance in Reducing Conflict

In spite of people's desire to avoid it, the proper use of cognitive dissonance can be a useful tool in overcoming conflict. Cognitive dissonance is a basic tool for education in general. Creating dissonance can induce behavior or attitude change. By creating cognitive dissonance, you force people to react. In other words, a child can be encouraged to learn by creating dissonance between what they think they know and what they actually do -- drawing attention to the fact that they know stealing is wrong even though they took a cookie, etc. The same idea can be used in adults. By introducing cognitive dissonance (pointing out the conflict between what people know and do), we can encourage a change in thought or action.

Turning again to the conflict in Northern Ireland, by pointing out the contradiction between religious beliefs and terrorism, people can be forced to rethink their actions. A Protestant or Catholic terrorist can participate in violent activities because they have dehumanized the other side in their mind. This eliminates any dissonance between their actions and their beliefs against murder or violence. By introducing new information -- perhaps emphasizing the humanity of the other side (their families, their lives, letting the two sides meet in a casual environment, etc.) -- a new dissonance is created between what they are doing and what they now know to be true. This forces a reaction. The individual must now either change their actions or readjust their thoughts to account for this new information.

Similarly, in the abortion debate, the introduction of new information to both sides can lead to reconciliation through understanding and changes in both action and thought. Although individuals may never agree on the politics and policy of abortion, the conflict -- particularly violent conflict -- can be reduced and eliminated.

How to Produce Cognitive Dissonance

Dialogue is one method to produce cognitive dissonance and thus attitude change that has been used in both these and many other cases. The Public Conversations Project, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, (U.S.) for instance, has been running dialogues between pro-life and pro-choice abortion activists for many years. While people do not leave these dialogues having changed sides, they do come out of them with a new respect for people "on the other side" and an understanding that logical, rational, "good" people can feel the opposite way they do about this issue. This tends to tone down their approach to advocacy, generally making it more constructive than it might otherwise have been.[2]

Disarming behaviors are another way to create cognitive dissonance. This is done by simply learning what the other side thinks of or expects of you, and then doing something very different. For example, if you are considered by the other side to be uncaring and cruel, make a small gesture that demonstrates that you care about the other sides' feelings or situation. This causes cognitive dissonance. As is discussed in the essay on disarming behaviors, just doing this once may not be enough to change anyone's attitudes or behavior, as they are likely to ignore the dissonant information. If it is done several times, however, or if the behavior is visible enough that it cannot be

ignored, the results are sometimes striking. Two of the best examples of this process were Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's unexpected trip to Israel in 1977 and Soviet Premier Gorbachev's trip to the United States in 1990. Both of these leaders had never visited the "enemy" country before, and when they did, they were so personable that it changed the minds of the Israelis and the Americans about the "goodness" and intents of "the enemy." (More information about these trips can be found in the essay about disarming behaviors.)

Any way to increase interpersonal communication and contact is another way to produce dissonance, break down stereotypes, and start building trust where none existed before. Joint projects, problem solving workshops, prejudice reduction workshops, and tolerance education all are ways to create cognitive dissonance and change hostile attitudes between disputants into attitudes that are likely to be more conciliatory and amenable to conflict transformation.

Alignment of cognitive demand: Peruvian national assessment, mandated curriculum, teaching and textbook in second grade math

Abstract:

In this study I investigate the degree of alignment in cognitive demand among the Peruvian national assessment, the mandated curriculum, teaching, and the official textbook. I used Doyle’s framework for academic tasks, to analyze the levels of cognitive demand of the tasks posed to students at each of these levels of curriculum implementation (Doyle, 1983). I found a significant problem of alignment between the tasks posed to students in the Peruvian national assessment and the tasks posed at the other curriculum levels (mandated curriculum, text, and teaching). The test tasks correspond to the categories of Problem Solving and Comprehension, the mandated curriculum learning outcomes and the textbook exercises to Comprehension and Application of Algorithms, and the tasks teachers present to students in classroom are basically at the level of Application of Algorithms according to the study framework (Doyle, 1983). Findings in this study coincide with those in previous studies in Peru, reporting that there are mostly exercises in the workbook for the content area of Numbers (Cueto, 2003). However, I found that there is a relative alignment between the percentage of learning outcomes in the mandated curriculum and the amount of pages and exercises assigned in the workbook for each content area in the mathematics mandated curriculum (i.e., numbers, geometry and measurement, probability and statistics).

I found a problem of alignment in terms of cognitive demand between the tasks the workbook offers to students and those that teachers present to students in classroom. One of the teachers participating in this study went beyond the workbook and offered students multiplication problems of higher cognitive demand. In the second observed classroom, I found that the textbook offered students tasks at a relatively higher cognitive level as compared to those presented by the teacher in class.

In light of these findings, I recommend a more effective dialogue between the test developers and the curriculum designers, a revision of the mandated curriculum, the inclusion of the (revised) mandated curriculum and curriculum materials in teacher training programs, and further research on teachers’ mathematics content knowledge.

Competency development

By governing a student organisation or sitting on a committee you will often develop competencies without being aware of it. To help you become more aware of your competencies and be able to identify these, the Student Union has recently developed an information service on competency development.

Competencies

Competency is a term that been used a lot recently in education and the business sector. The exact meaning of the term is often unclear. Are competencies just skills? Or is it more about knowledge and performance? To prevent any confusion about the meaning of the term ‘competency’ the Student Union uses the following definition:

A competency is: 'a person’s latent ability to effectively perform in a certain task or problem situation, in a way that is objectively perceptible and assessable.

It's very valuable to be able to state your competencies at job interviews and on your CV. Awareness of your competencies can lead you to understand your weaknesses, such as working with other people, but also your strengths. You will learn to use these more directly, now and in your future career. 

At the end of a term, board and committee members often know that they have learned a lot, but are unable to state their specific competencies. The competency guide can help students with this and offers a guideline for identifying their competencies. The guide offers a practical development trajectory and an excellent starting point for competency development

Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning is opposed to rote learning and refers to a learning way where the new knowledge to acquire is related with previous knowledges (Ausubel 2000).

Within the cognitive theory of learning, based on the theory of human information processing, the 3 core processes of learning are: how knowledge is developed; how new knowledge is integrated into an existing cognitive system; and how knowledge becomes automatic.

Ausubel (1967:10) focused on meaningful learning, as "a clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, concepts, or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individual's cognitive structure" (Takač 2008, p. 26)

Meaningful learning refers to the concept that the learned knowledge (lets say a fact) is fully understood by the individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored facts (stored in your brain that is). For understanding this

concept, it is good to contrast meaningful learning with the much less desirable, rote learning.

Rote learning is where you memorize something without full understanding and you don't know how the new information relates to your other stored knowledge. For our example, lets say we learn 5 facts in a math course during a full semester by rote learning. This can be illustrated by the figure below. The 5 facts (labeled 1-5) are stored in memory as separate items although in real life they are related to each other. When the student rote learned these facts, the brain stored them as distinct, unrelated knowledge that can only be recalled individually (one fact at a time). When this student recalls one fact the other 4 facts are not recalled (or activated) at that moment. In other words, thinking about fact #5 does not lead the student to think about facts #1-4. Contrast that to the below discussion on recall after meaningful learning.

 When meaningful learning occurs (using our example of 5 math facts) the facts are stored in a relational manner (see figure below). That is, the brain stores them together because they are related to each other. Now, when one fact is recalled, the other facts are also recalled at that moment (or shortly thereafter). In other words, recalling fact #5 activates the memory for facts #2 and #4, and this in turn leads to recalling facts #1 and #3. This phenomenon is called the spread of activation. This is the gist of meaningful learning. Problem-solving for this student would be easier than for the student who rote learned the same 5 facts.  Which one of these students would you like to hire for your company? Some suggestions on how to ensure meaningful learning appear below the figure.

.  

Suggestions:

1. Make sure what you learn is in your proximal zone.

2. If in doubt, ask the instructor how some new knowledge is related to other course material.

3. Have a study partner ask you questions that require recall of related material.

4. Make a figure that illustrates what you should know about a specific topic and its related material.

Self-Directed LearningWhat is Self-Directed Lerning?Self-directed learning, which has its roots in adult education, is an approach that has also been tried with learners in elementary and secondary schools. There may be slight variations in how different educators define SDL, but a survey of the literature on the subject identifies several tenets that are central to the concept.

As the term suggests, SDL views learners as responsible owners and managers of their own learning process. SDL integrates self-management (management of the context, including the social setting, resources, and actions) with self-monitoring (the process whereby the learners monitor, evaluate and regulate their cognitive learning strategies) (Bolhuis, 1996; Garrison, 1997).

SDL recognizes the significant role of motivation and volition in initiating and maintaining learners' efforts. Motivation drives the decision to participate, and volition sustains the will to see a task through to the end so that goals are achieved (Corno, 1992; Garrison, 1997).

In SDL, control gradually shifts from teachers to learners. Learners exercise a great deal of independence in setting learning goals and deciding what is worthwhile learning as well as how to approach the learning task within a given framework (Lyman, 1997; Morrow, Sharkey, & Firestone, 1993).

Teachers scaffold learning by making learning 'visible.' They model learning strategies and work with students so that they develop the ability to use them on their own (Bolhuis, 1996; Corno, 1992; Leal, 1993).

SDL is, ironically, highly collaborative. Learners collaborate with teachers and peers in (Guthrie, Alao & Rinehart; 1997; Temple & Rodero, 1995).

SDL develops domain-specific knowledge as well as the ability to transfer conceptual knowledge to new situations. It seeks to bridge the gap between school knowledge and real-world problems by considering how people learn in real life (Bolhuis, 1996; Temple & Rodero, 1995).

What are the Benefits of Self-Directed Learning?The benefits of SDL are best described in terms of the type of learners it develops. The literature on SDL asserts that self-directed learners demonstrate a greater awareness of their responsibility in making learning meaningful and monitoring themselves

(Garrison, 1997). They are curious and willing to try new things (Lyman, 1997), view problems as challenges, desire change, and enjoy learning (Taylor, 1995). Taylor also found them to be motivated and persistent, independent, self-disciplined, self-confident and goal-oriented.

Self-directed learning allows learners to be more effective learners and social beings. Guthrie, et al. (1996) noted that the self-directed learners in a Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) program demon-strated the ability to search for information in multiple texts, employ different strategies to achieve goals, and to represent ideas in different forms (drawing and writing). Morrow, et al. (1993) observe that with proper planning and implementation, self-directed learning can encourage students to develop their own rules and leadership patterns

Decision-making

In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several alternative possibilities. Every decision-making process produces a final choice that may or may not prompt action. Decision-making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision maker

Metacognition: An Overview

"Metacognition" is one of the latest buzz words in educational psychology, but what exactly is metacognition? The length and abstract nature of the word makes it sound intimidating, yet its not as daunting a concept as it might seem. We engage in metacognitive activities everyday. Metacognition enables us to be successful learners, and has been associated with intelligence (e.g., Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Activities such as planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature. Because metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is important to study metacognitive activity and development to determine how students can be taught to better apply their cognitive resources through metacognitive control.

"Metacognition" is often simply defined as "thinking about thinking." In actuality, defining metacognition is not that simple. Although the term has been part of the vocabulary of educational psychologists for the last couple of decades, and the concept for as long as humans have been able to reflect on their cognitive experiences, there is much debate over exactly what metacognition is. One reason for this confusion is the fact that there are several terms currently used to describe the same basic phenomenon (e.g., self-regulation, executive control), or an aspect of that phenomenon (e.g., meta-memory), and these terms are often used interchangeably in the literature. While there are some distinctions between definitions (see Van Zile-Tamsen, 1994, 1996 for a full discussion), all emphasize the role of executive processes in the overseeing and regulation of cognitive processes.

The term "metacognition" is most often associated with John Flavell, (1979). According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy variables.

Metacognitive Knowledge

Stated very briefly, knowledge of person variables refers to general knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning processes. For example, you may be aware that your study session will be more productive if you work in the quiet library rather than at home where there are many distractions. Knowledge of task variables include knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. For example, you may be aware that it will take more time for you to read and comprehend a science text than it would for you to read and comprehend a novel.

Finally, knowledge about strategy variables include knowledge about both cognitive and metacognitive strategies, as well as conditional knowledge about when and where it is apprpiate to use such strategies.

Metacognitive Regulation

Metacognitive experiences involve the use of metacognitive strategies or metacognitive regulation (Brown, 1987). Metacognitive strategies are sequential processes that one uses to control cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive goal (e.g., understanding a text) has been met. These processes help to regulate and oversee learning, and consist of planning and monitoring cognitive activities, as well as checking the outcomes of those activities.

For example, after reading a paragraph in a text a learner may question herself about the concepts discussed in the paragraph. Her cognitive goal is to understand the text. Self-questioning is a common metacognitive comprehension monitoring strategy. If she finds that she cannot answer her own questions, or that she does not understand the material discussed, she must then determine what needs to be done to ensure that she meets the cognitive goal of understanding the text. She may decide to go back and re-read the paragraph with the goal of being able to answer the questions she had generated. If, after re-reading through the text she can now answer the questions, she may determine that she understands the material. Thus, the metacognitive strategy of self-questioning is used to ensure that the cognitive goal of comprehension is met.

Cognitive vs. Metacognitive Strategies

Most definitions of metacognition include both knowledge and strategy components; however, there are a number of problems associated with using such definitions. One major issue involves separating what is cognitive from what is metacognitive. What is

the difference between a cognitive and a metacognitive strategy?

Can declarative knowledge be metacognitive in nature? For example, is the knowledge that you have difficulty understanding principles from bio-chemistry cognitive or metacognitive knowledge? Flavell himself acknowledges that metacognitive knowledge may not be different from cognitive knowledge (Flavell, 1979). The distinction lies in how the information is used

Recall that metacognition is referred to as "thinking about thinking" and involves overseeing whether a cognitive goal has been met. This should be the defining criterion for determining what is metacognitive. Cognitive strategies are used to help an individual achieve a particular goal (e.g., understanding a text) while metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached (e.g., quizzing oneself to evaluate one's understanding of that text). Metacognitive experiences usually precede or follow a cognitive activity. They often occur when cognitions fail, such as the recognition that one did not understand what one just read. Such an impasse is believed to activate metacognitive processes as the learner attempts to rectify the situation (Roberts & Erdos, 1993).

Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap in that the same strategy, such as questioning, could be regarded as either a cognitive or a metacognitive strategy depending on what the purpose for using that strategy may be. For example, you may use a self-questioning strategy while reading as a means of obtaining knowledge (cognitive), or as a way of monitoring what you have read (metacognitive). Because cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely intertwined and dependent upon each other, any attempt to examine one without acknowledging the other would not provide an adequate picture.

Knowledge is considered to be metacognitive if it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a student may use knowledge in planning how to approach a math exam: "I know that I (person variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable)." Simply possessing knowledge about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task without actively utilizing this information to oversee learning is not metacognitive.

Metacognition and Intelligence

Metacognition, or the ability to control one's cognitive processes (self-regulation) has been linked to intelligence (Borkowski et al., 1987; Brown, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Sternberg refers to these executive processes as "metacomponents" in his triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Metacomponents are executive processes that control other cognitive components as well as receive feedback from these components. According to Sternberg, metacomponents are responsible for "figuring out how to do a particular task or set of tasks, and then making sure that the task or set of tasks are done correctly" (Sternberg, 1986b, p. 24). These executive processes involve planning, evaluating and monitoring problem-solving activities. Sternberg maintains that the ability to appropriately allocate cognitive resources, such as deciding how and when a given task should be accomplished, is central to intelligence.

Metacognition and Cognitive Strategy Instruction

Although most individuals of normal intelligence engage in metacognitive regulation when confronted with an effortful cognitive task, some are more metacognitive than others. Those with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful in their cognitive endeavors. The good news is that individuals can learn how to better regulate their cognitive activities. Most often, metacognitive instruction occurs within Cognitive Strategy Instruction programs.

Cognitive Strategy Instruction (CSI) is an instructional approach which emphasizes the development of thinking skills and processes as a means to enhance learning. The objective of CSI is to enable all students to become more strategic, self-reliant, flexible, and productive in their learning endeavors (Scheid, 1993). CSI is based on the assumption that there are identifiable cognitive strategies, previously believed to be utilized by only the best and the brightest students, which can be taught to most students (Halpern, 1996). Use of these strategies have been associated with successful learning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Garner, 1990).

Metacognition enables students to benefit from instruction (Carr, Kurtz, Schneider, Turner & Borkowski, 1989; Van Zile-Tamsen, 1996) and influences the use and maintenance of cognitive strategies. While there are several approaches to metacognitive instruction, the most effective involve providing the learner with both knowledge of cognitive processes and strategies (to be used as metacognitive knowledge), and experience or practice in using both cognitive and metacognitive strategies and evaluating the outcomes of their efforts (develops metacognitive regulation). Simply providing knowledge without experience or vice versa does not seem to be sufficient for the development of metacognitive control (Livingston, 1996).

The study of metacognition has provided educational psychologists with insight about the cognitive processes involved in learning and what differentiates successful students from their less successful peers. It also holds several implications for instructional interventions, such as teaching students how to be more aware of their learning processes and products as well as how to regulate those processes for more effective learning

Assessment and Feedback

Assessment and feedback are not simply methods of grading, judging and reporting on student performance. When designed effectively, they can engage students and facilitate learning, provide the opportunity to develop skills and help students to reflect on, improve or build confidence in their academic ability.

Rowntree (1987, pp.15-31) identified six primary purposes of assessment and feedback:

selection maintaining standards

motivation of students feedback to students feedback to the teacher preparation for life

The Quality Assurance Agency, in their  Understanding Assessment  guide (2012) note:

'Assessment serves a number of purposes. The main purpose of summative assessment is to measure student learning in a way that recognises it through the award of credits or equivalent (the combination of which can then lead to a named qualification).'

'However, of equal importance is the recognition that assessment should also be an integral part of learning, or that summative as well as formative assessment can, and does, facilitate student learning

Planning an Assessment

There are a number of considerations from a theoretical and practical view in preparing

an assessment, which can be addressed by considering the questions Derek Rowntree

(1987) poses in his definition of the five dimensions of Assessment:Why do we assess?Assessment should be part of an overall strategy for learning: each individual

assessment should be aligned to one or more of the Intended Learning Outcomes

(ILO). Avoid assessment for assessment’s sake.What to assess?What are the assessment criteria that you will need to mark against to check that the

ILOs have been met? Are you assessing the process or the product? Timing and type

of assessment are important choices which can make the difference between an

assessment which is part of the learning trajectory, and one which is apparently bolted

on.How to assess?Are all markers agreed on a set of marking criteria? Are staff involved in the

assignment handling process able to manage the process effectively? 

Are you over assessing and creating a large administrative overhead? What impacts

on your marks? How will you address the challenges of marking? Check that the

assessment is valid and reliable.

Mark schemes and rubrics are useful here: they set out in clear terms, both for the

student and the marker, what is required for each mark or grade. 

Giving Feedback

The quality of feedback provided to students about their academic performance is a

fundamental element of the University of Leicester's approach to learning and teaching

as articulated in the Student Feedback Code of Practice.

Good feedback can be as valuable a learning method as any teaching; in the case of

distance learning programmes, feedback is often one of the main teaching and learning

activities. To be useful to the student, feedback needs to be:

Timely. It is of no use to the student if they don’t receive feedback on their first

submission before they have to submit their second. Overarching that, the University

requires campus-based programmes to return feedback within 21 calendar days, and

distance learning programmes within 28 days.

Clear. Feedback should be easy to read, and written in a compact but direct-and-to-

the-point style.

Relevant. Feedback should relate specifically to the student and skills assessed. For

each piece of feedback, a student should be able to see exactly what they need to do

to improve or develop before the next submission. Phrases such as ‘be more critical’

are common, but next to useless if the student doesn’t know how to be critical already

(or what that means).

Positive. Feedback shouldn’t be provided with rose-tinted glasses, but it should

always focus on improving, rather than confirming poor performance. Focus on a

solid base, and provide feedback to help the student take steps in the right direction.

As with Assessment Criteria, it’s important to provide students with opportunities to

engage in reflective dialogue (with peers, tutors and , indeed, themselves) in order to

unpack and make sense of feedback. Such dialogue and reflection can enable

students to engage more fully and consider ways in which they can develop their

approaches to future assessed tasks. Student Learning Development provide

resources and advice on how to integrate opportunities for reflection and dialogue into

mainstream learning and teaching practice.

A Democratic Classroom Environment

A democratic classroom environment: Using the class meeting to engage students

in shared decision making and in taking responsibility for making the classroom the

best it can be.

Key Ideas

1. Creating a democratic classroom environment means involving students, on a

regular basis and in developmentally appropriate ways, in shared decision

making that increases their responsibility for helping to make the classroom a

good place to be and learn.

2. A democratic classroom contributes to character because it:

o Provides an ongoing forum where students' thoughts are valued and

where any need of the group can be addressed

o Creates a support structure that calls forth students' best moral selves

by strengthening community and holding them accountable to practice

respect and responsibility

o Mobilizes the peer culture on the side of virtue, because students are

working with the teacher in a continuing partnership to create the moral

culture of the classroom.

o The chief means of creating a democratic classroom environment is the

class meeting, a face-to-face circle meeting emphasizing interactive

discussion and problem solving.

Teaching Strategies

1. Meetings go better when there are clear rules for talking and listening and

consequences of breaking them, and when students help to set the agenda.

2. Meetings can deal with problems (cutting in lunch line, put- downs, homework

problems) or help to plan upcoming events (the day, a field trip, a cooperative

activity, the next unit).

3. Problem-solving class meetings have the best chance of helping students go

beyond "saying the right words" to actually improving their moral behavior

when:

o The teacher poses the problem in the collective voice: "How can we,

working together, solve this problem?"

o After a solution is reached, asks: "What should we do if someone

doesn't keep our class agreement?"

o Writes up the agreement and consequence(s) as a Class Agreement or

Contract

o Has everyone sign it to show personal commitment.

o Posts it in a visible spot for easy reference.

o Plans with the class when to have a follow-up meeting to assess how

the new plan is working; then follows through.

Creating a Classroom Atmosphere for Better Student Engagement

What is the best way to boost student engagement in the classroom? While some studies have shown that a classroom with more student engagement  can be more productive, it doesn’t eliminate the need for teachers to spend time with individual students who need extra help. In short, teachers need to find ways to engage all their students.

Most teachers already know that they must direct and guide the classroom with a positive learning environment. But the methods that they should use are not always clearly defined.

Classroom management vs. learning communities

Learning often falls into two broad categories: instruction and classroom management. The term “classroom management” refers to the structure and control of the classroom. It is rooted in an industrial model of education consisting of rigid schedules with classroom bells and large class sizes. Some school leaders and advocates now wonder if this is the best approach. In recent years the “classroom management” term has been dropped in some educational circles in favor of a term that’s thought to suggest a more positive relationship with students–a learning community.

What are some of the differences between a learning community and classroom management?

Classroom management: Are rules mandated or negotiated? Power: Should power be unquestioned or given with respect? Effectiveness: Is an effective classroom passive and quiet or lively and with

student engagement? Classroom control: Should the teacher provide feedback when it is punitive in

nature or positive reinforcement? Teacher’s role: Should the teacher demand absolute attention or be a source of

encouragement?

A brief look at the differences between classroom management and learning communities can make things more clear. Could it be a matter of nurturing relationships over institutionalization and indoctrination of our students? Teachers must create a learning climate that exhibits respect to the student with high-quality personal relationships with both adults and peers.

Creating a learning environment

While it’s important to study and continue education in regards to student engagement, students should lead the way in the strategies teachers use. Students often share what they like about learning, but teachers, administration, and college professors don’t always hear it.

The growth of our students requires their ability to interact with others in the classroom. Talking should be encouraged. But for some students, one-on-one personal interactions are not easy because they have been heavily influenced by personal technology.  Teachers should acknowledge those students’ interests in technology and encourage them to share it by interacting with other students.

Also, students often wonder how school lessons are relevant to real life. If a teacher can apply the lesson to a function outside of the classroom such as a career, student engagement increases.

The classroom environment should also be comfortable on a physical level. Adjust the room temperature so students can concentrate. Lighting should not be intrusive. Make the classroom inviting. As student comfort increases, so does learning.

As the need to increase student engagement is addressed, teachers are challenged to define what student engagement means to their students. Today, no clear set standards or rules are provided on this subject, but teachers and students intuitively know what it feels like to be in a classroom that connects. Listen to your students and follow your instincts and you will create an engaging learning environment where students can thrive

Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

References

Jean Piaget’s prominent work is his theory on the four stages of cognitive development. He was one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology in the 20th century whose primary interest was in biological influences on how we come to know, and the developmental stages we move through as we acquire this ability (Singer & Revenson, 1997, p. 13).

Piaget (1973) believed that the child plays an active role in the growth of intelligence and learns by doing. He regarded the child as a philosopher who perceives the world only as he has experienced it. Therefore, most of Piaget’s inspiration in cognitive and intellectual development came from observations of children. In fact, Piaget observed and studied his own three children through each stage of their cognitive development.

The theory of cognitive development focuses on mental processes such as perceiving, remembering, believing, and reasoning. Reasoning is the essence of intelligence, and reasoning is what Piaget studied in order to discover “how we come to know” (Singer & Revenson, 1997, p. 13). Piaget believed that cognitive development is cumulative; that is, understanding a new experience grows out of a previous learning experience.

Description of Piaget’s Theory on the Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget (1973) developed a systematic study of cognitive development in children. His work included a theory on cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of tests to reveal differing cognitive abilities.

Through his work, Piaget (1973) showed that children think in considerably different ways than adults do. This did not mean that children thought at a less intelligent degree, or at a slower pace, they just thought differently when compared to adults. Piaget’s work showed that children are born with a very basic genetically inherited mental structure that evolves and is the foundation for all subsequent learning and knowledge. He saw cognitive development as a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from maturation and experience.

Piaget (1973) believed children will construct an understanding of the world around them, and will then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

To explain his theory, Piaget used the concept of stages to describe development as a sequence of the four following stages:

Sensory-Motor Stage

Preoperational stage

Stage of Concrete Operations

Stage of Formal Operations

Singer and Revenson (1997) explain that these stages unfold over time, and all children will pass through them all in order to achieve an adult level of intellectual functioning. The later stages evolve from and are built on earlier ones. They point out that the sequence of stages is fixed and unchangeable and children cannot skip a stage. They all proceed through the stages in the same order, even though they may progress through them at different rates (p. 18).

At each stage, the child will acquire more complex motor skills and cognitive abilities. Although different behaviours characterize different stages, the transition between stages is gradual, and a child moves between stages so subtly that he may not be aware of new perspectives gained. However, at each stage there are definite accompanying developmental changes in the areas of play, language, morality, space, time, and number (Singer & Revenson, 1997).

Main Elements of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

There are three elements to Piaget’s theory:

Schema

The four processes that enable the transition from one stage to another

The four stages of cognitive development

Schema

A schema is the basic building block of intelligent behaviour, a form of organizing information that a person uses to interpret the things he or she sees, hears, smell, and touches (Singer & Revenson, 1997). A schema can be thought of as a unit of knowledge, relating to one aspect of the world including objects, actions, and abstract

(theoretical) concepts. We use schemas to understand and to respond to situations. We store them and apply them when needed.

A child is considered to be in a state of equilibrium or in a state of cognitive balance when she or he is capable of explaining what he or she is perceiving (schema) at the time.

The dual processes of assimilation and accommodation (described below) are the building blocks to forming a schema.

The Four Processes:

The four processes that enable the transition from one cognitive stage to another are assimilation,accommodation, disequilibrium, and equilibration.Educators generally view these processes as an explanation of cognitive learning processes, not just those that lead to major shifts in cognitive ability (Piaget, 1973, p. 36).

Together, assimilation and accommodation are processes of adjustment to changes in the environment and are defined as adaptation, the continuous process of using the environment to learn. And, according to Piaget, adaptation is the most important principle of human functioning.

The Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

Piaget identified the following four stages in development of cognition:

Sensory-Motor (Ages Birth Through Two)

Preoperational (Ages Two Through Seven)

Concrete Operations (Ages Seven Through Eleven)

Formal Operations (Ages Eleven Through Sixteen)

Moral Development

Kohlberg's Theory

Traditionally, psychology has avoided studying anything that is loaded with value judgements.  There is a degree of difficulty involved in trying to be unbiased about things that involve terms like "good" and "bad!"  So, one of the most significant aspects of human life - morality - has had to wait quite a while before anyone in psychology dared to touch it!  But Lawrence Kohlberg wanted to study morality, and did so using a most interesting (if controversial) technique.  Basically, he would ask children and adults to try to solve moral dilemmas contained in little stories, and to do so outloud so he could follow their reasoning.  It wasn't the specific answers to the dilemmas that interested him, but rather how the person got to his or her answer.

One of the most famous of these stories concerned a man named Heinz.  His wife was dying of a disease that could be cured if he could get a certain medicine.  When he asked the pharmacist, he was told that he could get the medicine, but only at a very high price - one that Heinz could not possibly afford.  So the next evening, Heinz broke

into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife's life.  Was Heinz right or wrong to steal the drug?

There are simple reasons why Heinz should or should not have stolen the drug, and there are very sophisticated reasons, and reasons in between.  After looking at hundreds of interviews using this and several other stories, Kohlberg outlined three broad levels and six more specific stages of moral development.

Level I:  Pre-conventional morality.  While infants are essentially amoral, very young children are moral in a rather primitive way, as described by the two preconventional stages.

Stage 1.  We can call this the reward and punishment stage.  Good or bad depends on the physical consequences:  Does the action lead to punishment or reward?  This stage is based simply on one's own pain and pleasure, and doesn't take others into account.

Stage 2.  This we can call the exchange stage.  In this stage, there is increased recognition that others have their own interests and should be taken into account.  Those interests are still understood in a very concrete fashion, and the child deals with others in terms of simple exchange or reciprocity:  "I'll scratch your back if you scratch mine."  Children in this stage are very concerned with what's "fair" (one of their favorite words), but are not concerned with real justice.

Level II:  Conventional morality.  By the time children enter elementary school, they are usually capable of conventional morality, although they may often slip back into preconventional morality on occasion.  But this level is called conventional for a very good reason:  It is also the level that most adults find themselves in most of the time!

Stage 3.  This stage is often called the good boy/good girl stage.  The child tries to live up to the expectations of others, and to seek their approval.  Now they become interested motives or intentions, and concepts such as loyalty, trust, and gratitude are understood.  Children in this stage often adhere to a concrete version of the Golden Rule, although it is limited to the people they actually deal with on a day-to-day basis.

Stage 4.  This is called the law-and-order stage.  Children now take the point of view that includes the social system as a whole.  The rules of the society are the bases for right and wrong, and doing one's duty and showing respect for authority are important.

Level III:  Post-conventional morality.  Some adolescents and adults go a step further and rise above moralities based on authority to ones based on reason.

Stage 5.  The social contract stage means being aware of the degree to which much of so-called morality is relative to the individual and to the social group they belong to, and that only a very few fundamental values are universal.  The person at this level sees morality as a matter of entering into a rational contract with one's fellow human beings to be kind to each other, respect authority, and follow laws to the extent that they respect and promote those universal values.  Social contract morality often involves a utilitarian approach, where the relative value of an act is determined by "the greatest good for the greatest number."

Stage 6.  This stage is referred to as the stage of universal principles.  At this point, the person makes a personal commitment to universal principles of equal rights and

respect, and social contract takes a clear back-seat:  If there is a conflict between a social law or custom and universal principles, the universal principles take precedence.

Kohlberg's original work was done with boys.  When the research began to include girls, they found the girls to be less morally "developed" than the boys!  Psychologist Carol Gilligan, involved in that research, began to notice that it wasn't so easy to distinguish "good boy/good girl" from "universal principles", especially in the girls. Since then, psychologists have readjusted their work to take into account for the fact that girls often express their morality in terms that emphasize personal caring more than abstract principles.

What is Social-Emotional Development?

Social & Emotional Development

How do children start to understand who they are, what they are feeling, what they expect to receive from others? These concepts are at the heart of their social-emotional wellness. They contribute to a child’s self-confidence and empathy, her ability to develop meaningful and lasting friendships and partnerships, and her sense of importance and value to those around her. Children’s social-emotional development influences all other areas of development: Cognitive, motor, and language development are all greatly affected by how a child feels about herself and how she is able to express ideas and emotions. Professionals sometimes define healthy social-emotional development in young children as early childhood mental health. Healthy social-emotional development includes the ability to:

Form and sustain positive relationships

Experience, manage, and express emotions

Explore and engage with the environment

Children with well-developed social-emotional skills are also more able to:

Express their ideas and feelings

Display empathy towards others

Manage their feelings of frustration and disappointment more easily

Feel self-confident

More easily make and develop friendships

Succeed in school

Social-emotional development provides the foundation for how we feel about ourselves and how we experience others. This foundation begins the day we are born and continues to develop throughout our lifespan.

The greatest influence on a child’s social-emotional development is the quality of the

relationships that he develops with his primary caregivers. Positive and nurturing early experiences and relationships have a significant impact on a child’s social-emotional development. They also influence how the young child’s brain develops. An attachment relationship is an enduring one that develops during the first few years of the child’s life. It is built upon repeated interactions between the infant and the primary caregiver. These interactions mainly involve attempts by the infant to achieve physical and emotional closeness and the caregiver’s responses to these attempts. They have a lasting influence on how the child feels about himself, how he the thinks and interacts with his world, and what he comes to expect from others -

Structure of the Education System

The Peruvian Educational System is divided into:

- Basic or Initial Education

- Primary Education

- Secondary Education

- Higher Education

Initial education is offered in crèches (under 3 years of age), nursery schools (from 3 to 5 years) and through non-school programmes aimed at poor children in rural and marginal urban areas. According to the Constitution of 1993, one year of initial education is mandatory for the population of 5 years of age.

The next level is primary education, which has a duration of 6 years. It should be said that primary education used to last for only 5 years.To pass on from primary education, students need an average mark of 11 (20-point evaluation system) and to have passed at least language or mathematics.

Secondary education is organised in two cycles: the first applies to all pupils, lasts two years and is mandatory. This, together with primary education, constitute the obligatory block of education. The second cycle, lasting three years, is diversified, with arts, science and technical options. It is provided in two modes: for adolescents (12-16 year age group) and adults. According to the 1993 Constitution, secondary education is also mandatory.

Higher education is provided in higher schools and institutes, higher postgraduate centres and universities. The institutes offer training programmes for teachers and a variety of technical training options in courses lasting not less than four or more than ten academic semesters. Institutes and higher schools award professional, technical and expert diplomas and also those for second and subsequent professional specialities. The universities award bachelor’s and master’s degrees and doctorates, as well as professional certificates and degrees, including those for second and subsequent professional specialitie

METACOGNICION: UN CAMINO PARA APRENDER A APRENDER *

Metacognition: a way towards learning how to learn

Resumen

En este artículo se aborda el tema de la metacognición como una alternativa viable para formar alumnos autónomos, sobre la base de una educación que potencia la conciencia sobre los propios procesos cognitivos y la autorregulación de los mismos por parte de los estudiantes, de manera tal, que les conduzca a un "aprender a aprender", es decir, a autodirigir su aprendizaje y transferirlo a otros ámbitos de su vida.

INTRODUCCIÓN

En los últimos años se ha incrementado notablemente la preocupación de educadores y psicólogos por abordar el problema del aprendizaje y del conocimiento desde la perspectiva de una participación activa de los sujetos, cuyo eje básico lo constituyen: la reflexividad, la autoconciencia y el autocontrol.

En este contexto, se hace cada vez más necesario que niños, adolescentes y jóvenes mejoren sus potencialidades a través del sistema educativo formal "aprendiendo a aprender" y "aprendiendo a pensar", de manera tal que, junto con construir un aprendizaje de mejor calidad, éste trascienda más allá de las aulas y les permita resolver situaciones cotidianas; en otras palabras, se trata de lograr que los estudiantes sean capaces de autodirigir su aprendizaje y transferirlo a otros ámbitos de su vida.

Para lograr los objetivos de "aprender a aprender" y "aprender a pensar", en los últimos años se ha revelado como especialmente eficaz la formación de los educandos en la adquisición y utilización oportuna de estrategias de aprendizaje cognitivas, entre las cuales se destacan las orientadas al autoaprendizaje y al desarrollo de las habilidades metacognitivas.

En Chile, los esfuerzos investigativos por incorporar la dimensión metacognitiva en el proceso educativo son incipientes, particularmente en su aplicación al proceso educativo en el ámbito de las Ciencias Naturales.

En la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, la doctora Corina González recientemente realizó su Tesis de Doctorado en la Universidad de München sobre Metacognicion en Enseñanza de las Ciencias con alumnos de Primer Ciclo de Enseñanza Media, lo cual le ha permitido generar una línea de trabajo en este ámbito.

En la Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, dentro de la línea de investigación en Enseñanza de las Ciencias, de larga data, actualmente se está desarrollando el

Proyecto Fondecyt 1070256 que apunta a insertar la dimensión metacognitiva en el proceso educativo en Biología en alumnos de Segundo Ciclo de Enseñanza Media en Comunas de alta vulnerabilidad (Osses 2007). El marco teórico de este Proyecto constituye la base del presente artículo.

UNA DEFINICIÓN DE CONOCIMIENTO COHERENTE CON EL PROCESO METACOGNITIVO

Antes de abordar el tema de la metacognicion, y como un antecedente necesario para su mejor comprensión, comenzaremos por definir conocimiento como "el conjunto de representaciones de la realidad que tiene un sujeto, almacenadas en la memoria a través de diferentes sistemas, códigos o formatos de representación y es adquirido, manipulado y utilizado para diferentes fines por el entero sistema cognitivo que incluye, además del subsistema de la memoria, otros subsistemas que procesan, transforman, combinan y construyen esas representaciones del conocimiento" (Mayor et al. 1995: 13).

Estos autores distinguen tres tipos de conocimiento, a saber: conocimiento científico o disciplinar,compilación del conocimiento en un área de la realidad más o menos extensa; conocimientorepresentacional que, desde una perspectiva individual, es el conjunto de representaciones de la realidad almacenadas en la memoria y, conocimiento construido, es decir, compartido por diversos sujetos especialistas en un campo determinado o por la mayor parte de los sujetos de una comunidad siendo, en este caso, el conocimiento, producto de una construcción social. El conocimiento representacional se ha convertido en el eje de la psicología cognitiva, de la ciencia cognitiva y la psicología de la instrucción.

Según Palmer y Kimchi (1986); Rumelhart y Norman (1988) y Mayor y Moñivas (1992), existen cinco sistemas para representar el conocimiento:

- El sistema proposicional. Su unidad básica es la proposición, es decir, un enunciado que se puede evaluar como verdadero o como falso.

- El sistema analógico, constituido, fundamentalmente, por la imagen mental.

- El sistema procedimental. Consiste en el conocimiento de un conjunto de procesos cognitivos para llevar a cabo alguna acción. Se caracterizan porque: a) poseen una estructura jerárquica cuyo objetivo global se logra mediante el establecimiento de subobjetivos; b) se ejecutan en cascada, es decir, algunos de los pasos producen resultados intermedios necesarios para los pasos posteriores; c) la memoria activa controla al mismo tiempo, los datos exteriores y los procedentes de la memoria a largo plazo; d) el criterio de ejecución es la correcta finalización de la tarea y no el término de uno de sus pasos.

- El sistema distribuido y paralelo: se basa en las conexiones neuronales e implica un procesamiento masivo en paralelo, no localizado, sino distribuido por todo el sistema.

- Los modelos mentales: constituyen una modalidad de representación analógica, sin embargo, se tiende a concebirlos como un sistema de representación específico y diferenciado de los citados anteriormente .

Según Newell (1990) y Brachman, Levesque y Reiter (1992) el sistema procedimental representa mejor el conocimiento implicado en destrezas y habilidades y, en particular, el conocimiento metacognitivo.

LA CONCEPCIÓN DE APRENDIZAJE SIGNIFICATIVO

A continuación, teniendo en vista la relación entre conocimiento y aprendizaje, entre aprendizaje y estrategias cognitivas y metacognitivas y entre éstas y el enfoque del aprendizaje propuesto por Ausubel et al. (1973), haremos referencia a algunos aspectos de dicha perspectiva teórica, la cual, en los últimos años, ha ido adquiriendo creciente relevancia en el ámbito educativo.

Ausubel distingue entre aprendizaje receptivo y aprendizaje por descubrimiento y entre aprendizaje memorístico y aprendizaje significativo. A ellos se refieren Román y Diez (2000) en los siguientes términos.

En el aprendizaje receptivo, el alumno recibe el contenido que ha de internalizar, sobre todo, por la explicación del profesor, el material impreso, la información audiovisual u otros medios.

En el aprendizaje por descubrimiento, el estudiante debe descubrir el material por sí mismo, antes de incorporarlo a su estructura cognitiva. Este aprendizaje puede ser guiado por el profesor o ser autónomo por parte del estudiante.

El aprendizaje memorístico (mecánico o repetitivo) se produce cuando la tarea del aprendizaje consta de asociaciones arbitrarias o cuando el aprendiz lo hace arbitrariamente. Supone una memorización de los datos, hechos o conceptos con escasa o nula relación entre ellos.

El aprendizaje significativo se genera cuando las tareas están relacionadas de manera congruente y el sujeto decide aprender; cuando el alumno, como constructor de su propio conocimiento, relaciona los conceptos a aprender y les da un sentido a partir de la estructura conceptual que ya posee. Dicho de otro modo, cuando el estudiante construye nuevos conocimientos a partir de los ya adquiridos, pero, además, los construye porque está interesado en hacerlo.

De acuerdo a los planteamientos anteriores, se pueden distinguir las siguientes situaciones en el aprendizaje escolar:

- Aprendizaje receptivo repetitivo-memorístico. Los conceptos se aprenden por mera repetición mecánica a partir de la explicación del profesor, pero no se ubican en la estructura conceptual que ya posee. Se trata de aprendizajes mecánicos.

- Aprendizaje repetitivo-memorístico por descubrimiento guiado. En este caso, el profesor se limita a orientar y enseñar estrategias y técnicas, descuidando los conceptos y sus marcos de referencia. Se supone que el alumno aprende a aprender porque sabe utilizar de manera adecuada técnicas activas. La mediación del profesor es metodológica, pero no conceptual. Supone una mera aplicación de fórmulas (técnicas metodológicas) para resolver problemas de la vida o del conocimiento. Generalmente la actividad "investigadora" en el aula se convierte en un "activismo" que a los alumnos resulta interesante .

- Aprendizaje repetitivo-memorístico por descubrimiento autónomo. Esta situación es similar a la anterior. El alumno como investigador elabora trabajos monográficos "sistematizando" lo que observa o estudia, pero sin detenerse a conceptualizarlo ni enmarcarlo en lo que ya sabe. Carece de un marco

conceptual y reflexivo de su actividad.

- Aprendizaje significativo receptivo. Se suele producir a partir de la clase magistral y la metodología expositiva. Pero sólo es significativo cuando la información que se recibe se enmarca en la estructura conceptual que el alumno posee, por tanto, implica una progresiva reelaboración de los conceptos.

- Aprendizaje significativo por descubrimiento guiado. Subyace a este tipo de aprendizaje una metodología activa e investigadora. La actividad está guiada por el profesor desde las perspectivas procedimental y conceptual. El profesor guía al alumno para que construya procedimientos y conceptos.

- Aprendizaje significativo por descubrimiento autónomo. El estudiante construye sus propios conocimientos bajo las modalidades, por ejemplo, de informes o trabajos monográficos de un tema dado. Su investigación y actividad está orientada, pues tiene claro adonde va y los medios para conseguirlo.

En cuanto al profesor, es un facilitador de los aprendizajes del alumno y, para ello, selecciona materiales didácticos significativos.

Según Ausubel, las condiciones básicas del aprendizaje significativo son: la disposición del sujeto a aprender significativamente y que el material a aprender sea potencialmente significativo.

METACOGNICION: CONCEPTO E IMPORTANCIA

Según Glaser (1994), la metacognición es una de las áreas de investigación que más ha contribuido a la configuración de las nuevas concepciones del aprendizaje y de la instrucción. A medida que se han ido imponiendo las concepciones constructivistas del aprendizaje, se ha ido atribuyendo un papel creciente a la conciencia que tiene el sujeto y a la regulación que ejerce sobre su propio aprendizaje.

Flavell (1976: 232), uno de los pioneros en la utilización de este término, afirma que la metacognición, por un lado, se refiere "al conocimiento que uno tiene acerca de los propios procesos y productos cognitivos o cualquier otro asunto relacionado con ellos, por ejemplo, las propiedades de la información relevantes para el aprendizaje" y, por otro, "a la supervisión activa y consecuente regulación y organización de estos procesos, en relación con los objetos o datos cognitivos sobre los que actúan, normalmente en aras de alguna meta u objetivo concreto". Así, por ejemplo, se practica la metacognición cuando se tiene conciencia de la mayor dificultad para aprender un tema que otro; cuando se comprende que se debe verificar un fenómeno antes de aceptarlo como un hecho; cuando se piensa que es preciso examinar todas y cada una de las alternativas en una elección múltiple antes de decidir cuál es la mejor, cuando se advierte que se debería tomar nota de algo porque puede olvidarse.

Carretero (2001), por una parte, se refiere a la metacognición como el conocimiento que las personas construyen respecto del propio funcionamiento cognitivo. Un ejemplo de este tipo de conocimiento sería saber que la organización de la información en un esquema favorece su recuperación posterior. Por otra, asimila la metacognición a operaciones cognitivas relacionadas con los procesos de supervisión y de regulación que las personas ejercen sobre su propia actividad cognitiva cuando se enfrentan a una tarea. Por ejemplo, para favorecer el

aprendizaje del contenido de un texto, un alumno selecciona como estrategia la organización de su contenido en un esquema y evalúa el resultado obtenido.

Esta distinción entre el conocimiento metacognitivo y el control metacognitivo es consistente con la distinción entre el conocimiento declarativo relativo al "saber qué" y el conocimiento procedimental referido al "saber cómo".

En consecuencia, es posible diferenciar dos componentes metacognitivos: uno de naturaleza declarativa (conocimiento metacognitivo) y otro de carácter procedimental (control metacognitivo o aprendizaje autorregulado), ambos importantes para el aprendizaje y relacionados entre sí.

El conocimiento metacognitivo se refiere: a) al conocimiento de la persona. En este caso, se trata del conocimiento que tenemos de nosotros mismos como aprendices, de nuestras potencialidades y limitaciones cognitivas y de otras características personales que pueden afectar el rendimiento en una tarea; b) conocimiento de la tarea. Hace alusión al conocimiento que poseemos sobre los objetivos de la tarea y todas aquellas características de ésta, que influyen sobre su mayor o menor dificultad, conocimiento muy importante, pues ayuda al aprendiz a elegir la estrategia apropiada; c) conocimiento de las estrategias. El aprendiz debe saber cuál es el repertorio de estrategias alternativas que le permitirán llevar a cabo una tarea, cómo se aplicarán y las condiciones bajo las cuales las diferentes estrategias resultarán más efectivas.

En cuanto al control metacognitivo o aprendizaje autorregulado, la idea básica es que el aprendiz competente es un participante intencional y activo, capaz de iniciar y dirigir su propio aprendizaje y no un aprendiz reactivo. El aprendizaje autorregulado está, por tanto, dirigido siempre a una meta y controlado por el sujeto que aprende (Arguelles y Nagles 2007).

Hoy se tiende a defender una concepción de la instrucción y el aprendizaje, según la cual, los alumnos pueden mejorar su capacidad para aprender, usando selectivamente estrategias motivacionales y metacognitivas; pueden seleccionar proactivamente, e incluso, crear ambientes ventajosos para el aprendizaje y pueden jugar un papel significativo en la elección de la forma y cantidad de instrucción que necesitan (Zimmerman 1989).

A partir de estas afirmaciones es posible inferir que el aprendiz competente emplea sus conocimientos metacognitivos para autorregular eficazmente su aprendizaje y, a su vez, la regulación que ejerce sobre su propio aprendizaje, puede llevarle a adquirir nuevos conocimientos relacionados con la tarea y con sus propios recursos como aprendiz.

A propósito del concepto de metacognición, surge el interrogante ¿Para qué ocuparnos de la metacognición?

La importancia de la metacognición para la educación radica en que todo niño es un aprendiz que se halla constantemente ante nuevas tareas de aprendizaje. En estas condiciones, lograr que los alumnos "aprendan a aprender", que lleguen a ser capaces de aprender de forma autónoma y autorregulada se convierte en una necesidad. Uno de los objetivos de la escuela debe ser, por tanto, ayudar a los alumnos a convertirse en aprendices autónomos. El logro de este objetivo va acompañado de otra nueva necesidad, la de "enseñar a aprender".

En nuestras sociedades actuales no sólo los niños tienen que estar aprendiendo nuevas tareas de forma permanente, sino también los adultos, a quienes constantemente se les presentan situaciones problemáticas no previstas que deben resolver.

Pozo (1996) afirma que la adquisición de nuevas estrategias para aprender es una de las nuevas exigencias formativas que nuestras sociedades están generando. Esta nueva demanda está siendo reconocida y recogida en las Reformas Educativas que se están llevando a cabo en diferentes países de Europa y Latinoamérica. Así, por ejemplo, el Documento Curricular Base para la Enseñanza Obligatoria en España expresa que es necesario que el alumno tome conciencia de los procesos que utiliza en la elaboración de conocimiento, facilitándole la reflexión metacognitiva sobre las habilidades de conocimiento, los procesos cognitivos, el control y la planificación de la propia actuación y la de otros, la toma de decisiones y la comprobación de resultados (MEC 1989).

En la Reforma Educacional chilena, los temas y contenidos transversales se refieren a dimensiones valóricas y cognitivas. En cuanto a lo valórico, un aspecto se relaciona con el desarrollo de la personalidad integrada emocionalmente, equilibrada y capaz de conocer los códigos del mundo en que vive; otro está ligado a la capacidad y voluntad para regular la conducta y, el último, corresponde a aspectos vinculados a la capacidad de interacción social y de responsabilidad en la convivencia con los otros. Respecto de lo cognitivo, la transversalidad se relaciona con el desarrollo del pensamiento que apunta a fortalecer aquellas habilidades cognitivas vinculadas preferentemente al aprender a aprender, la resolución de problemas, la comunicación, la lectura crítica y reflexiva, la producción de ideas, el análisis y la reflexión en torno a las consecuencias de los propios actos. Todo esto, con el propósito de fortalecer en los estudiantes las capacidades que intervienen en el juicio y la acción moral, con el fin de que sean capaces de orientarse de forma autónoma en situaciones de conflicto de valores y tomar posturas y decisiones de las que se hagan responsables (Magendzo 2003).

Más directamente en relación con el ámbito científico, la Reforma Educacional chilena afirma que: el ejercicio de la indagación e investigación mejora la capacidad de tomar decisiones informadas y razonadas en asuntos personales y de orden público que, a menudo, requieren conocimientos elementales sobre ciencia y tecnología. Todos los estudiantes deben tener la oportunidad de experimentar positivamente lo que significa aprender y entender algo científicamente... Sentir que contribuyen a la formulación de problemas y definición de las etapas y medios posibles para dilucidarlos, les llevará a adquirir mayor confianza y certeza de que pueden realizar su propio camino... Aprender a aprender es crucial para continuar leyendo, aprendiendo y estudiando a medida que aparezcan las necesidades y las oportunidades (Ministerio de Educación 2000, 2001).

ESTRATEGIAS COGNITIVAS Y METACOGNITIVAS

Dado que la metacognición tiene una estrecha relación con las estrategias de aprendizaje, abordaremos brevemente esta temática.

La mayoría de los autores (Weinstein y Mayer 1986; Nisbet y Schucksmith 1986; Pozo 1990; Monereo et al.1994) se refieren a las estrategias cognitivas de aprendizaje como "procedimientos o secuencias integradas de acción que constituyen planes de acción que el sujeto selecciona entre diversas alternativas con el fin de conseguir una meta fijada de aprendizaje".

Definiremos las estrategias metacognitivas de aprendizaje como "el conjunto de acciones orientadas a conocer las propias operaciones y procesos mentales (qué), saber utilizarlas (cómo) y saber readaptarlas y/o cambiarlas cuando así lo requieran las metas propuestas" (Osses 2007).

Las estrategias cognitivas apuntan a aumentar y mejorar los productos de nuestra actividad cognitiva, favoreciendo la codificación y almacenamiento de información, su recuperación posterior y su utilización en la solución de problemas. Las

estrategias metacognitivas, en cambio, se emplean para planificar, supervisar y evaluar la aplicación de las estrategias cognitivas. Se infiere, por tanto, que las estrategias metacognitivas constituyen un apoyo para las estrategias cognitivas.

Respecto de estrategias cognitivas y metacognitivas, no podemos dejar de mencionar un tema recurrente en las modernas perspectivas sobre la metacognición: se trata de la motivación. En efecto, la investigación cognitiva de los últimos años enfatiza el progresivo reconocimiento del papel que desempeñan las variables motivacionales y afectivas en el desempeño de las tareas cognitivas. En esta línea, la mayoría de las propuestas recientes sobre el aprendizaje autorregulado considera que éste depende no sólo del conocimiento de las estrategias específicas de la tarea y del control que se lleva a cabo sobre ellas, sino también de la motivación que tenga el sujeto por el aprendizaje (Paris y Winograd 1990; Pintrich y de Groot 1990; Alonso 1991, 1997). En consecuencia, para que el conocimiento de las estrategias cognitivas y metacognitivas se transforme en acción, tiene que ir acompañado de las intenciones o metas apropiadas y de un patrón de creencias positivas sobre los propios recursos para llevarlas a cabo. De estas afirmaciones se desprende que el aprendizaje autorregulado resulta del concurso interactivo entre cognición, metacognición y motivación.

¿COMO INSERTAR LA DIMENSIÓN METACOGNITIVA EN EL PROCESO EDUCATIVO?

A continuación, plantearemos dos criterios que pueden orientar la enseñanza de las estrategias metacognitivas.

A) Según el grado de conciencia sobre las estrategias (Burón 1990).

- Entrenamiento ciego. Se llama así porque los estudiantes no perciben la importancia de lo que se les solicita o la razón para hacerlo. Se les pide que hagan una tarea de una forma determinada y no se les explica por qué razón deben hacerla de ese modo. Los alumnos lo hacen, pero no visualizan si esa forma de trabajar es mejor que otras. En consecuencia, no es fácil que la apliquen cuando tengan la opción de decidir cómo hacer el trabajo. De este modo, la enseñanza de las estrategias no conduce a su uso duradero. La instrucción mecánica puede ser útil para aprender pero no para "aprender a aprender". No parece, entonces, que el entrenamiento ciego sea suficiente para ayudar a los estudiantes que presentan más dificultades para ser autónomos en el aprendizaje.

- Entrenamiento informado o razonado. Tiene lugar cuando a los estudiantes se les pide que aprendan o trabajen de un modo determinado y, además, se les explica por qué deben hacerlo, resaltando su importancia y utilidad. La práctica de las estrategias específicas de la tarea se acompaña de una información explícita sobre la efectividad de las mismas, basándose en el argumento de que las personas abandonan las estrategias cuando no se les enseña cómo emplearlas, porque no saben lo suficiente sobre su funcionamiento cognitivo como para apreciar su utilidad para el rendimiento, ni se dan cuenta de que pueden ser útiles en diferentes situaciones. Si los estudiantes no poseen información acerca de las situaciones, materiales y propósitos, es decir, sobre las condiciones en las que es más apropiado aplicarlas, probablemente harán un uso indiscriminado de las mismas. Esto significa que una mayor conciencia sobre estos aspectos de las estrategias puede contribuir tanto a su permanencia como a su aplicación flexible y no rutinaria.

- Entrenamiento metacognitivo o en el control. En la instrucción metacognitiva se avanza respecto de la instrucción razonada, en el sentido de que el profesor, además de explicar a los alumnos la utilidad de usar una estrategia concreta, los induce a que ellos mismos lo comprueben, de modo que los lleva, indirectamente, a tomar conciencia de su efectividad.

Esta modalidad de inserción de la dimensión metacognitiva en el proceso de aprendizaje implica, en definitiva, enseñar a los estudiantes a planificar, supervisar y evaluar su ejecución, lo cual favorece el uso espontáneo y autónomo de las estrategias y facilita su generalización a nuevos problemas, vinculándose, en esta forma, la metacognición, a la noción de transferencia. Esto significa, en consecuencia, que si aspiramos a que los alumnos aprendan a aprender, el método didáctico ha de ser, el metacognitivo.

B) Según el nivel de ayuda que ofrece el profesor o grado de autonomía que otorga al alumno (Mateos 2001).

Una alternativa metodológica que puede emplearse para lograr los objetivos de la instrucción metacognitiva, inspirada básicamente en la filosofía de la transferencia gradual del control del aprendizaje, concibe al profesor en el papel de modelo y guía de la actividad cognitiva y metacognitiva del alumno, llevándole poco a poco a participar de un nivel creciente de competencia y, al mismo tiempo, retirando paulatinamente el apoyo que proporciona hasta dejar el control del proceso en manos del estudiante.

Esta metodología de trabajo supone cuatro etapas:

- Instrucción explícita. Mediante este tipo de instrucción, el profesor proporciona a los alumnos de modo explícito, información sobre las estrategias que después van a ser practicadas. Esta información puede ofrecerse a través de:

  a) Explicación directa, que debe dar cuenta explícitamente de las estrategias que se van a enseñar y de cada una de sus etapas. La explicación debe procurar conocimientos declarativos (saber qué), procedimentales (saber cómo) y condicionales (saber cuándo y por qué). Una mayor conciencia de estos aspectos de las estrategias puede redundar en una aplicación más flexible de las mismas.

  b) Modelado cognitivo. En forma complementaria a la instrucción que se ofrece a través de la explicación del profesor, éste puede modelar la actividad cognitiva y metacognitiva que lleva a cabo durante la tarea. En este modelado cognitivo se sustituyen las conductas observables a imitar, características del modelado conductual, por acciones cognitivas que son expresadas verbalmente por el modelo. Se trata de modelar, no sólo las acciones cognitivas implicadas en la tarea, sino también las actividades metacognitivas de planificación, supervisión y evaluación de las primeras.

- Práctica guiada. Esta práctica se realiza con la colaboración del profesor quien actúa como guía que conduce y ayuda al alumno en el camino hacia la autorregulación. La característica distintiva de esta práctica es el diálogo entre profesor y alumno, cuyo fin es proporcionar al estudiante ayuda y guía suficientes para alcanzar metas que quedan fuera de sus posibilidades sin esa ayuda.

- Práctica cooperativa. Proporciona una fuente adicional de andamiaje al aprendizaje individual. Se lleva a cabo en el contexto de la interacción con un grupo de iguales que colaboran para completar una tarea. El control de la actividad se traslada al grupo para distribuirse entre sus miembros.

- Práctica individual. Para aumentar la responsabilidad del alumno se puede proponer un trabajo individual que puede apoyarse mediante guías de autointerrogación, conteniendo las preguntas que uno mismo debe plantearse para regular su propia actuación durante la tarea.

 A MANERA DE SÍNTESIS

A partir de los conceptos vertidos en este artículo, es posible afirmar que la meta-cognición es un camino viable para lograr un desarrollo más pleno de la autonomía de los estudiantes, reflejándose éste, entre otros aspectos, en un aprendizaje que trasciende el ámbito escolar para proyectarse en la vida de los estudiantes, en un "aprender a aprender".

A fin de potenciar el desarrollo de la metacognición, es necesario formar alumnos más conscientes y autónomos en sus aprendizajes, sin olvidar el aspecto motivacional y el contexto apropiado, en el desarrollo de las estrategias de aprendizaje.

En esta dirección, es preciso destacar el papel decisivo que juegan los profesores en el proceso. En efecto, para formar alumnos metacognitivos es necesario contar con educadores metacognitivos. En pos del cumplimiento de esta meta, los docentes deben adecuar sus prácticas pedagógicas en el aula, siendo conscientes de sus potencialidades y limitaciones, planificando, controlando y evaluando, en primer lugar, sus propias actuaciones docentes. Esta reflexión sobre su propio quehacer educativo es, quizás, el camino más prometedor para que los profesores lleguen a regular de una manera eficaz sus estrategias de enseñanza, y puedan aproximarse al objetivo de "enseñar a aprender" a sus estudiantes, orientando el proceso educativo hacia una autonomía que les conduzca a "aprender a aprender" y favorezca la transferencia de sus aprendizajes a la cotidianeidad de su vida