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Goddard, R. G., Hoy, W. K., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2004). Collective efficacy:Theoretical development, empirical evidence, and future directions.Educational Researchers, 33, 2-13.

The purpose of this inquiry is to advance awareness about collective efficacy

beliefs and develop a conceptual model to explain the formation and influence of perceived collective efficacy in schools.Researchers measured a schools sense of collective efficacy as an aggregate of

teachers group-referent efficacy perceptions and also as the degree of agreement aroundthe mean (variance measures were employed to estimate the amount of within-schoolvariability among faculty perceptions of collective efficacy). They tested the multilevelrelationship between teacher and collective efficacy beliefs by using data collected fromelementary teachers in a large Midwestern school district.

Research supported the hypothesis that when teachers have the opportunity toinfluence instructionally relevant school decisions, collective conditions encourageteachers to exercise organization agency. Findings also support that collective efficacy

beliefs foster commitment to school goals and gains in student achievement. Researchers believe that the study of collective efficacy beliefs can provide an opportunity tounderstand organization culture and its influence on participants and group outcomes innew ways that hold promise for deeper theoretical understanding and practical knowledgeconcerning the improved function of organized activity, particularly schooling.

DiPaola, M. & Hoy, W. K. (2004). Organizational citizenship of faculty andachievement of high school students. The High School Journal.

The purpose of this study is to review the concept of organizational citizenship behavior, then apply the concept to schools; and finally, to develop and test a set ofhypotheses linking organizational citizenship behavior with student achievement. Thethree major variables of this study are organizational citizenship behavior, studentachievement and socioeconomic status. The researchers hypothesize that facultyorganizational citizenship behavior is positively associated with student achievement in

both mathematics and reading.An organizational citizenship behavior scale (OCBSS) was administered to

teachers in each school. The scales consisted of 15 Likert items with a 4-point responsescale. The sample consisted of 97 high schools in Ohio.

The organizational citizenship-achievement hypothesis was supported by thisstudy. Faculty organizational citizenship of a school is an important factor in the level ofstudent achievement in schools. Faculty organizational citizenship has a significantindependent effect on school student achievement in addition to the effect of SES onachievement. Further research can use this study to investigate how organizationalcitizenship is related to the development of faculty trust in colleagues, in parents, instudents, and in the principal.


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Sinden, J. E., Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2004). An analysis of enabling schoolstructure: Theoretical, empirical, and research considerations. Journal ofEducational Administration, 42, 462-478.

The purpose of this study is threefold: first, to describe conceptually school

structure that enables schooling rather than hinder it; second, to identify high schoolswith such structures; and third, to study and describe the dynamics of enabling structuresin terms of their formalization, centralization and functioning. The researchers objectiveis to provide thick, rich descriptions of enabling school structures.

Six high schools that scored high on the enabling bureaucracy scale participatedin the qualitative study and were analyzed in depth using semi-structured interviewingtechniques. A total of twenty-seven interviews were conducted over a period of fourmonths. The interview approach was standardized and open-ended; there were bothstructured and unstructured components. The questions were designed to gather

perceptions of enabling and hindering administrative behaviors and structures. The datafrom the interviews were coded to identify behaviors, structures and themes.

The data were supported by observations made throughout the schools before,during and after the interview sessions. Four main themes emerged: rules and procedures,structure and size, principal behaviors and teacher behaviors. The interviews of teachersand principals from the six schools supported the contention that bureaucratic structurescan enhance the attitudes and efforts of the teaching staff. This study provides a richassortment of recommendations, tentative generalizations and possibilities for furtherresearch.

DiPaola M., Hoy, W.K., & Tarter C. J. (2004) Measuring OrganizationalCitizenship of Schools: The OCB Scale

The purposes of this study were to reexamine the factor structure of thecitizenship measure and its psychometric properties, to refine and develop a more

parsimonious measure, to extend the measure from high schools to middle andelementary schools; and to test the factor structure, reliability, a validity of the refinedscale in middle and elementary schools. The researchers developed five hypotheses thatshould be supported because each links organizational citizenship with a theoreticallyrelevant property.

H1. Collegial leadership of the principal is positively correlated withorganizational citizenship.

H2. Teacher professional is positively correlated with organizationalcitizenship.

H3. The academic press of a school is positively correlated with organizationalcitizenship.

H4. School mindfulness is positively correlated with organizationalcitizenship.

H5. School effectiveness, as perceived by teachers, is positively correlated toorganizational citizenship.


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The researchers performed a factor analysis of the OCB, assessed it reliability andchecked the predictive validity; the same five hypotheses examined in the middle schoolswere tested again with elementary schools. The sample was drawn for 109 elementaryschools in a large southwestern state.

The findings of the validity hypotheses were replicated; the five theoretically

derived hypotheses were again supported, this time with elementary schools. Theresearchers assumed that the collegial leadership of the principal would cultivate aclimate that would encourage organizational citizenship behaviors. That assumption wassupported by the results of the correlational analysis. Organizational citizenship of aschool is a key in promoting professionalism, academic excellence, mindfulness,supportive leadership of the principal and effectiveness. Further investigations in areas ofinquiry would be the relationships between OCB and such system variables as supportiveleader behavior, commitment, organizational justice, school size and morale.

Tschannen-Moran, M. (2003). Fostering organizational citizenship:

Transformational leadership and trust. In W.K. Hoy & C.G. Miskel, Studiesin Leading and Organizing Schools (pp. 157-179). Information AgePublishing: Greenwich: CT.

The purpose of this study was to discover if a link exists between transformationalleadership and organizational citizenship in schools. The researchers hypothesize thattransformational leaderships leads to positive organizational behavioral outcomes.

Three Likert measurement surveys were used. The sample was 55 middle schoolsin a mid-Atlantic state.

The findings differed from what was expected based on the theory oftransformational leadership. Based on the theoretical foundations of transformational

leadership one would expect for transformational leadership behaviors to be stronglyrelated to organizational citizenship behaviors among the followers. However, this wasnot the case. The relationship between transformational leadership behaviors of the

principal and organizational citizenship among teachers was non-significant. Trust wasrelated to citizenship where transformational leadership was not. This study can be usedto develop further understanding of trust how it develops and is supported and/orrepaired.

Andrews, D. and M. Lewis. (2002). The experience of a professional community:teachers developing a new image of themselves and their workplace.Educational Research Vol. 44 No. 3 Winter 237-254.

This study builds on a previous study (Andrew and Lewis, 2000) and focuses onthe experiences of a professional learning community through the IDEAS (InnovativeDesign for Enhancing Achievement in Schools) process. The intention of the researchwas to illuminate the experiences of a group of teachers as they engaged in a process oflearning and development during a whole-school change process.


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The researchers gathered data through a process of retrospective interviews andfrom focus group discussion observations field notes and documentation. The studysample was conducted in a secondary school of 400 students and 37 teachers located in a

prosperous rural community in Southern Queensland, Australia.The outcome demonstrated that teachers in the group took on leadership roles in

developing and making explicit a shared view of school-wide pedagogy. The IDEASgroups internal facilitator also demonstrated strategic leadership. Findings from thisstudy support how an innovative process centered on classroom outcome developed intoa professional learning community. This study also adds to the literature on whole-school change, in particular, change that builds enhanced school outcomes by centeringon the work of teachers operating as a professional learning community. This knowledgecan serve as a model for developing new relationships and new understandings pertainingto teachers, students and their workplace setting.

Sweetland, S. R., & Hoy, W. K. (2001). Varnishing the truth: Principals and

teachers spinning reality. Journal of Educational Administration, 39, 282- 293.

The purpose of this research is twofold: first, to conceptualize the nature ofdeception through truth spinning and varnishing, and second, to operationalize theconcept and test the measure for its reliability and validity as well as the relationship withrole conflict, powerlessness, and trust. The researchers hypothesized that the greater therole conflict in a school, the more spinning of the truth in the school. The greater thespinning of truth in schools, the stronger the sense of powerlessness among teachers inschool. In addition, the more principals are perceived as spinning the truth, the moreteachers themselves engage in truth spinning, and finally, the more truth spinning in aschool, the lower the level of trust among teachers.

Two studies were conducted: the first one looked at responses given by sixty-oneteachers currently teaching in the Ohio pubic school system. A set of twenty-six Likertitems was generated. This first exploratory analysis led to the tentative conclusion thatthere were two reliable measures of truth spinning- one describing teacher behavior andthe other principal actions. In the second study one hundred sixteen schools wererepresented in a sample of one teacher from each school. They were from five differentstates: Ohio, Michigan, New Jersey, Virginia, and New York. The two factors identifiedwere the same as those found in the first study, principal spin and teacher spin.

The researchers concluded that what seems clear is that truth spinning is a potential negative force in any attempt at authentic behavior. Thus, to the extent that suchoutcomes as authenticity, trust, openness, and innovation are desired, understanding theroots and consequences of truth spinning are essential.


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Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2001). Designing better schools: The meaning andnature of enabling school structure. Educational Administration Quarterly,37, 296-321.

A study was conducted based on developing and testing the construct termed

enabling structure as a means of reconciling the opposing perspectives of formalstructures creating alienation or creating satisfaction. The researchers generated threehypotheses to relate enabling school structures with significant school outcomes: (1) themore enabling the bureaucratic structure of the school, the greater the extent of facultytrust in the principal; (2) the more enabling the bureaucratic structure of the school, theless the degree of truth spinning in school; and (3) the more enabling the bureaucraticstructure of the school, the less the extent of role conflict in the school.

Data was collected from teachers in 97 high schools with staff of 15 or morefaculty members representing the entire range of socioeconomic status and all diversegeographic areas of Ohio.

All three hypotheses were supported from the study using correlational analysis of

the relationships. The researchers concluded that using an enabling school concept could be the basis for further research to enhance and enrich the enabling school structureconcept, which is essential to developing effective learning organizations and to creatingenabling knowledge.

Tschannen-Moran, M. (2001). Collaboration and the need for trust. Journal ofEducational Administration, 39 (4), 308-331.

The purpose of this study is to use the empirical evidence connectingcollaboration to trust and apply it to the context of schools. The authors proposed thehypotheses that trust influences the level of collaboration of relationship in schools.

The research was conducted using 2 six-point Likert response instruments. Trustand collaboration were measured in three constituent groups and two levels of decision-making: 1. collaboration between the principal and teachers on school-level decisions;2. collaboration with parents on school-level decisions ;and 3. collaboration with teachercolleagues on classroom-level decisions. Faculty trust was measured by threecorresponding groups trust in the principal, in colleagues and in clients (students and

parents). Data were collected from 45 elementary schools in a large urban district in theMidwest.

Researchers found a canonical correlation supported the importance of trust in predicting the overall level of collaboration within a school. The researchers concludedthat trust is important in building and nurturing collaborative relationships. This studycan be used to develop greater understanding of trust in establishing collaborativerelationships.


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Tschannen-Moran, M & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing anelusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.

The purpose of this study was to explore issues related to the measurement ofteacher efficacy and to propose a new measure. A new measure, named the Ohio State

teacher efficacy scale (OSTES), was examined in three separate studies.The measurement was tested on a sample of 224 participants, including 146 preservice teachers, and 78 in-service teachers. All were taking classes at the Ohio StateUniversity.

The results of these analyses indicated that the OSTES could be consideredreasonably valid and reliable. With either 24 or 12 items, it is of reasonable length and

proves to be a useful tool for researchers interested in exploring construct of teacherefficacy.

Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2000). Bureaucracies that work: Enabling not

coercive. Journal of School Leadership, 10, 525-541.The purpose of this research was twofold: first, to reconcile the two theoretically

opposing positions: bureaucracy alienates and fosters dissatisfaction and bureaucracy provides needed guidance and helps individuals feel and be more effective; and second,to develop and test empirically a new construct termed enabling bureaucracy. Theresearchers proposed four hypotheses: two to validate that enabling bureaucracy makesteachers less dependent on superiors and rules and two to further validate themeasurement of enabling bureaucracy by predicting greater extent of collegial trust andless sense of powerlessness among teachers.

Two studies were done using Likert items with the first study focusing oncurrently working public school teachers in Ohio and the second study focusing on 116teachers who were graduate students representing five states.

The results supported the predictions of the four hypotheses that enablingstructures are negatively related to teacher dependence on superiors and rules and thatcollegial trust and teacher sense of powerlessness were related to enabling bureaucracyand the more enabling the bureaucracy, the less the sense of powerlessness amongteachers. The researchers concluded that this study can be used as a beginning inquiryinto identifying enabling and hindering structures in schools, thus leading to suggestionsof strategies which school staff can implement to create enabling schools. This researchcan form a base to support the significant effects of teachers beliefs in their capabilities

being taken seriously. It could provoke significant changes in the way teachers are prepared and supported in their early years in the profession.


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DiPaola, M. F. & Tschannen-Moran, M. (2001). Organizational citizenship behaviorin schools and its relationship to school climate. Journal of SchoolLeadership, 11 424-447.

The purpose of this study was to develop a new measure of organization citizenship

behavior (OCB) specific to K-12 school settings and begin the exploration of how thisconstruct functions in schools by examining the relationship between school climate andorganizational citizenship behavior. The researchers hypothesize a positive relationship

between OCB and school climate; that is, the more positive the school climate, thegreater the incidents of organizational citizenship behaviors.Two separate studies were conducted to test the stability and validity of the organizationcitizenship measure as well as the relationship of OBC and school climate. TheOrganizational Citizenship Behavior in Schools Scale (OCBSS) was finalized and thenfield-tested in 18 public schools. The School Climate Index (SCI) was used to assessschool climate in this study. Half of the faculty randomly received one survey form andthe other half received a different survey. The sample in Study I was 664 teachers in 42

public elementary, middle and high schools in Ohio and Virginia. The sample in Study IIwas 1,210 teachers and 97 public high schools across Ohio.The findings demonstrated that the pervasive climate of a school is strongly related toorganizational citizenship behaviors. In both studies the researchers found that where the

principal has a more collegial leadership style, OCB was more evident. The findingssupport the contention that the type of organizational setting determines what constitutesOCB. In addition, the evidence supports a strong link between OCB and school climate.The researchers successfully developed a new measure of organizational citizenship

behavior specific to K-12 school settings. This study introduced a new construct,organizational citizenship behavior to K-12 schools that helps explain the social

processes of effective schools. This construct should be examined in relationship to other

identified variables common to effective schools.Hoy, W. K., & Tarter, J. C. (1996) Toward a contingency theory of decision making.

Journal of Educational Administration, 36, 3

The researchers grapple with the question of matching decision strategies tosituations. They define decision making as the process of formulating a strategy

beginning with a problem, developing a plan to solve the problem, and moving throughthe implementation and appraisal of results.

First, they describe six contemporary decision-making models and compare themto find the strengths and weaknesses. Then the researchers match the appropriate decisiontechniques with different situations and conclude with a series of ten propositions that

provide tentative answers. According to the researchers, collaboration and participationare important elements in making quality decisions.

The researchers concluded that decision-making theories, like most explanations inthe social sciences, are probabilistic not deterministic, and that one should never discard thereflective thinking. The researchers surmise that we can improve the odds of successthrough thoughtful decision-making, but we are never assured of the outcomes.


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Blas, Joseph and J. Blas. (2000) Effective instructional leadership: Teachers perspectives on how principals promote teaching and learning in schools.

Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 38 No. 2 130-141.

The purpose of this study was to develop the first comprehensive empirical report

of the experiences of teachers as reported by teachers in effective instructionallyoriented interactions. The study produced categories and subcategories for principalcharacteristics (e.g. strategies, behaviors) teachers identified with effective instructionalleadership and ineffective instructional leadership, as well as impacts on teaching (i.e.teachers thoughts, behaviors, and feelings related to teaching and effectiveness of eachleadership characteristic.An open-ended questionnaire, the Inventory of Strategies Used by Principals to InfluenceClassroom Teaching (ISUPICT) was developed to investigate the question. Data werecollected from 809 teachers. Each participant contributed about 500 words, which werecoded according to guidelines from inductive-exploratory research and comparativeanalysis.

The findings suggest that effective instructional leadership is embedded in schoolculture; it is expected and routinely delivered. The findings also emphasize that effectiveinstructional leadership integrates collaboration, peer coaching, inquiry, collegial studygroups, and reflective discussion. This study can further exam effective instructionalleadership by incorporating other factors such gender experiences, political factors, goalsresources and motivations, strategies and settings.

Hoy, W. K., & Sweetland, S. R. (2000). Bureaucracies that work: Enabling notcoercive. Journal of School Leadership, 10, 525-541.

The purpose of this research was twofold: first, to reconcile the two theoretically

opposing positions: bureaucracy alienates and fosters dissatisfaction and bureaucracy provides needed guidance and helps individuals feel and be more effective; and second,to develop and test empirically a new construct termed enabling bureaucracy. Theresearchers proposed four hypotheses: two to validate that enabling bureaucracy makesteachers less dependent on superiors and rules and two to further validate themeasurement of enabling bureaucracy by predicting greater extent of collegial trust andless sense of powerlessness among teachers.

Two studies were done using Likert items with the first study focusing oncurrently working public school teachers in Ohio and the second study focusing on 116teachers who were graduate students representing five states.

The results supported the predictions of the four hypotheses that enablingstructures are negatively related to teacher dependence on superiors and rules and thatcollegial trust and teacher sense of powerlessness were related to enabling bureaucracyand the more enabling the bureaucracy, the less the sense of powerlessness amongteachers. The researchers concluded that this study could be used as a beginning inquiryinto identifying enabling and hindering structures in schools, thus leading to suggestionsof strategies, which school staff can implement to create enabling schools.


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Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W. K. (2000). A multidisciplinary analysis of thenature, meaning, and measurement of trust. Review of Educational Research, 70,547-593.

This multidisciplinary review draws on both theoretical and empirical literature on

trust as it relates to relationships within schools. The researchers explored the nature andmeaning of trust, and examined the dynamics of trust to synthesize the research on trustas it relates to organizational processes such as communication, climate and efficacy.The analysis of the definitions led the researchers to a multidimensional definition oftrust: Trust is one partys willingness to be vulnerable to another party based on theconfidence that the latter party is (a) benevolent, (b) reliable, (c) competent, (d) honest,and (e) open. These researchers concluded that trust is a critical factor to be consideredin school improvement and effectiveness. At all levels of the organization, trustfacilitates productivity, and its absence impedes progress. Trust is required for many ofthe reforms taking shape in American schools and to develop teacher empowerment. Theresearchers summarized that the four decades upon which this review is based forms a

solid conceptual and empirical foundation for continuing the quest to understand trust inschools.

Sweetland, S. R., & Hoy, W. K. (2000). School characteristics: Toward anorganizational model of student achievement. Educational AdministrationQuarterly, 5, 703-729.

The primary purpose of this research is to explore the relationship between schoolclimate and teacher empowerment and to examine the relationships between teacherempowerment, student achievement and school effectiveness. Four basic dimensions ofschool climate are proposed: collegial leadership, teacher professionalism, academic

press, and environmental press. The researchers postulate that healthy and openinterpersonal relations should generally facilitate the authentic empowerment of teachers.The stronger the degree of collegial leadership demonstrated by the principal, the greaterthe extent of teacher empowerment.

Eight hypotheses provided the guides for the empirical phase of the study.H1. The stronger the degree of collegial leadership demonstrated by the

principal, the greater the extent of teacher empowerment.H2. The stronger the teacher professionalism of a school, the greater the

degree of teacher empowerment.H3. The greater the academic press of the school climate, the higher the level

of teacher empowerment.H4. There will be no relationship between the level of environment press and

the degree of empowerment.H5. Four dimensions of organizational climate (collegial leadership, teacher

professionalism, academic press, and environmental press) combine to produce a linear combination that predicts teacher empowerment.

H6. The greater the teacher empowerment in schools, the higher the degree of perceived school effectiveness.


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H7. The greater the teacher empowerment in schools, the higher the level ofstudent mathematics achievement in schools.

H8. The greater the teacher empowerment in schools, the higher the level ofstudent reading achievement in schools.

Climate data were collected from all teachers at regularly scheduled faculty

meetings. Teachers at the meeting were divided into random groups, with one groupresponding to the OHI-RM and another to the OCDQ-RM. The effectiveness and teacherempowerment indices were administered to another independent, random group ofteachers at each school. A sample of 86 New Jersey middle schools, which includedresponses from 2,741 teachers, was used to test the hypotheses of this study.

The data suggests that teacher empowerment in classroom and instructionaldecisions can be an important factor enhancing organizational effectiveness and student

performance. The results support the theoretical assumptions that undergrid it. Teacherempowerment is a multidimensional concept and calls for the study and measure of otherempowerment domains.

Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Trust in schools: a conceptual andempirical analysis. Journal of Educational Administration, 36, 4, 334-352.

This study consisted of three parts: exploring the meaning and conceptualunderstanding of trust; measuring two dimensions of trust and the consequences ofclimate in principal and teacher behavior in developing trust; and outlining a research

program for studying trust in schools. In particular, two aspects of faculty trust aredefined as follows: trust in the principal and trust in colleagues.

The research was based on analyzing a sample of 86 middle schools, which

included responses from 2,741 teachers. Trust scales, a six point scale with Likert itemsfrom strongly agree to strongly disagree were used. The data was used to examine therelationships in this study.

The results of this exploratory study in middle schools are consistent with severalearlier studies that examined trust in the principal and trust in colleagues. Trust in the

principal is determined primarily by the behavior of the principal. Faculty trust incolleagues is basically determined by the behavior of teachers in relation to one another.The researchers concluded that future research in the concepts of parental trust inteachers and administrators as well as student trust in teachers and in administrators could

be the basis for further studies.

Blas, Joseph and J. Blas. ( 1997) The micropolitical orientation of facilitativeschool principals and its effects on teachers sense of empowerment. Journalof Educational Administration, Vol. 35 No. 2, 138-164.

This article presents empirically grounded descriptive and conceptual knowledgeabout the micropolitical orientation of facilitative school-based leadership and its effectson teacher empowerment. The researchers hypothesize that facilitative leadership by


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school principals and shared decision making at the school level enhance teacherempowerment.

The Inventory of Principals Characteristics that Contribute to TeacherEmpowerment (IPCCTE), an open-ended questionnaire, was constructed to collect

personal meanings on the study topic. The IPCCTE was administered to a total of 285

teachers in a select group of 11 schools with exemplary facilitative principals.The study supports that facilitative school leadership contributes significantly toteachers overall sense of empowerment in shared governance schools. Facilitativeleadership, teacher empowerment and shared governance are complex phenomena forwhich there is little available empirical research and practical experience. This articlecan provide university educators with a basis for understanding and discussing somedimensions of principal leadership and empowerment in schools.

Hoy, W. K., & Tarter, J. C. (1996) Toward a contingency theory of decision making.Journal of Educational Administration, 36, 3

The researchers grapple with the question of matching decision strategies tosituations to define decision making as the process of formulating a strategy beginningwith a problem, developing a plan to solve the problem, and moving through theimplementation and appraisal of results.

The researchers describe six contemporary decision-making models and comparethem to find the strengths and weaknesses. Then they match the appropriate decisiontechniques with different situations and conclude with a series of ten propositions that

provide tentative answers. According to the researchers, collaboration and participationare important elements in making quality decisions.

The researchers concluded that decision-making theories, like most explanationsin the social sciences, are probabilistic not deterministic, and that one should neverdiscard the reflective thinking. The researchers surmise that we can improve the odds ofsuccess through thoughtful decision-making, but we are never assured of the outcomes.

Cheong Cheng, Yin. (1994) Teacher Leadership Style: A classroom-level study.Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 32 No. 3 54-71.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship of the teacherleadership style to use of power, student affective performance, and social climate, and

perception of physical environment. The researchers investigated how the classroomteacher leadership style is related to students educational attitudes and classroomclimate.

The Data was measured with a Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire(LBDQ) [10] developed by researcher named Ho. The sample was taken from anongoing large scale research project entitle Education Quality in Hong Kong PrimarySchools: Indicators and Organizational Determinants. There were 678 classes of mainlygrade 6 students in 190 sampled primary schools involved in this study. The total numberof sample students was about 21,650. This study found that class masters leadership anduse of power are interrelated in a process of leading a class of students.


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The findings suggest that in developing teacher leadership in classrooms,emphasis should be put on developing their expert power and personal power andavoiding use of coercive power. The findings reinforce the possibility of generalizationof ideas and theories developed from adult organizations to a content of classrooms in

primary schools. Further theoretical and empirical explorations in classroom

organizational behavior and generalization of organizational theory to classroom settingsare strongly recommended.

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