Supplement to Cereal Foods World, Vol. 60, No. 6

ABSTRACTSAACC International

Centennial MeetingOctober 18–21, 2015

Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A.

Setting the Stagefor the Next 100 Years of

Cereal Science Innovation

Setting the Stagefor the Next 100 Years of

Cereal Science Innovation

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2015 Annual Meeting Abstracts Abstracts submitted for presentation at the 2015 AACCI Annual Meeting in Minneapolis, Minnesota, October 18–21. The abstracts are grouped by presentation category (Special Session, Oral, Poster, Deep Dive, and Hot Topic) and listed within each group in chronological order by presentation number. Abstracts are published as submitted. They were formatted but not edited at the AACC International headquarters office. The recommended format for citing annual meeting abstracts, using the first abstract below as an example, is as follows: Hamaker, B. A few words about Koushik Seetharaman as a person and researcher. (Abstr.) Cereal Foods World 60(Suppl.):A1, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CFW-60-6-A 2015 Abstracts of Special Session Presentations

1-S A few words about Koushik Seetharaman as a person and researcher B. R. HAMAKER (1) (1) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

No abstract provided. 2-S Starch molecular structure E. BERTOFT (1) (1) Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland

The principal macromolecular component of starch granules is amylopectin, an extensively branched polyglucan of high molecular weight. The molecular structure of amylopectin therefore plays a key role in the architectural layout of the granules. In the traditional view, the numerous short chains in amylopectin form clusters building up a semi-crystalline structure with alternating amorphous and crystalline lamellae. Long chains interconnect the clusters and cross the layers of lamellae. However, during the last decade, the cluster structure hypothesis has been challenged by a new model known as the building block backbone structure. In this new model, the basic structural motif is the building block rather than the cluster. Building blocks are smaller and more tightly branched than clusters and they are found outspread along a backbone largely consisting of the long chains in amylopectin. The backbone forms the amorphous lamellae, whereas short chains extending more or less perpendicular from the backbone form the crystalline lamellae. With this structural model, layers of amylopectin molecules form the stacks of lamellae in the granules, rather than amylopectin molecules crossing transversely through the stacks. The new hypothesis for the amylopectin structure is primarily based on the difficulty of isolating clusters with a predictable molecular structure based on the cluster hypothesis, i.e., containing only short chains and consisting of, on average, a number of chains that corresponds to the ratio of short to long chains in amylopectin. The new model, however, explains why the apparent clusters (or α-dextrins) generally are smaller than expected and contain some long chains. The new model is also compatible with all arguments raised in favor for the old cluster model, and it explains better certain properties of starch, such as annealing and granule swelling. 3-S Starch in breadmaking: From wheat to wheat flour over dough to fresh and stored bread J. A. DELCOUR (1) (1) Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

Starch is the main component of a wheat kernel. When wheat is milled into flour, a fraction of it is damaged in the process. In dough making, much like the other components, starch takes up water. During this unit operation and the subsequent fermentation maltose is released from starch by the action of enzymes. During baking the starch swells and gelatinizes, and the amylolytic enzymes which still are active, further impact its structure. Starch amylopectin

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crystals melt, and the order in the granules is destroyed. Starch gelatinization contributes to the transformation of the fermented dough, a complex foam, to bread, a cellular solid. After being removed from the oven, the bread cools, and in the process, amylose crystallizes. In addition, part of the amylose forms amylose–lipid complexes. During further storage amylopectin also crystallizes, and this impacts the evolution of bread crumb texture over time. Important quality attributes of bread are its volume and the texture of its crumb. Both are related to the way starch behaves in the breadmaking process. Thus, impacting the starch structure directly impacts the quality of bread. Enzymes such as normal α-amylases and maltogenic and maltotetraogenic amylases impact starch structure, and views on how they, as well as starch complexing surfactants, impact bread quality are presented. 4-S Koushik’s group works on starch structure and properties relationships V. VAMADEVAN (1), E. Bertoft (1), Z. Fan (1), F. Chauhan (1), R. Waduge (1), K. Nantanga (1), D. Kalinga (1), G. Annor (1), G. Peymanpour (1), J. Gayin (1), A. Goldstein (1) (1) University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

The architecture of the starch granule and its influence on the functional and nutritional properties has been one of the main focuses of Koushik’s research team. Although numerous studies have been conducted on starch structure, the detail structure of starch, including structural connections between different levels of order, nature of branching pattern, organization of chains in amylopectin, formation of growth rings, structure of amorphous growth ring and hilum region are not yet well understood. Moreover, there is a gap in our ability to predict the functional and nutritional properties of starches from the knowledge of the starch structure. In order to deepen the knowledge base with respect to the granular architecture, starches from different botanical sources, Arabidopsis leaf, maize and barley mutants, immature grain or developing endosperm of wheat, and barley subjected to diurnal variation, were investigated. Different structural levels of starch granule were examined by advance imaging techniques, including atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Different strategies, including hydrothermal treatment (gelatinization, annealing, and heat–moisture treatment), enzymatic modification, and iodine treatment, and different analytical techniques, such as gel permeation chromatography, high performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), were used to explore the molecular structure and glucan chain organization. The evolution of molecular structures of cooked starch through the digestion process, the influence of processing conditions on hydrolysis rate, and glycemic index and hypoglycemic properties of millet and rice starches were also investigated. The findings of these studies will be discussed. 5-S Starch and its nutritional quality A. H. M. LIN (1), B. R. Hamaker (2) (1) Bi-State School of Food Science, University of Idaho and Washington State University, Moscow, ID, U.S.A.; (2) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

Dietary carbohydrates are important in providing energy to humans, but carbohydrates are increasingly thought of as “bad” foods associated with obesity, diabetes, and associated chronic symptoms. The objective of this report is in regard to how moderating glucose delivery profiles might be done to affect physiologic endpoints that may address these public health problems. To generate absorbable glucose, digestion of starch requires two types of digestive enzymes: α-amylase and mucosal α-glucosidase. α-Amylase hydrolysis affects the rate of oligomer generation, and mucosal α-glucosidase digestion directly influences the rate of glucose generation. Our research has shown that mucosal α-glucosidase carries an unexpectedly high digestive capacity, and it digests α-amylase hydrolysates obtained from different botanical sourced starches in different manners, and thus, in a significant way controls dietary glucose generation. Susceptibility to mucosal α-glucosidase depends in part on the architecture of internal amylopectin molecules with long chains correlating to slower starch digestion. These findings lead us to propose that dietary glucose can be continuously and slowly (sustainably) released by mucosal α-glucosidase digestion. Several projects were conducted to examine how the slowly released dietary glucose may contribute to humans. Alginate-based microspheres embedded with starch were developed to deposit glucose at different rates in the small intestine, and glucosidase activity, synthesis, feeding behavior, hypothalamic neuropeptides, and gastric emptying were examined in rat and mouse models. Our results showed that a relatively small amount of dietary glucose delivered distally appears to create certain same and second meal physiological effects, including modulation of gastric emptying rate of nutrients for digestion and absorption into the body, and reduced food intake accompanied by a lowering of the orexigenic neuropeptides of the hypothalamus. Our findings lead us to propose a new concept that dietary glucose is a bioactive molecule as it triggers physiological response, in addition to its major energy providing role, and mucosal α-glucosidase serves as a gatekeeper that controls the release of the glucose. Overall, a goal in future research is to develop food technologies, as well as to identify practical approaches, using whole grain or whole foods, or mixtures of food ingredients and whole foods, for such carbohydrate quality health-related effects.

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6-S Introduction to modern breeding technologies R. SHILLITO (1) (1) Bayer CropScience, Durham, NC, U.S.A.

Modern breeding techniques build on the knowledge of traditional mutation and selective breeding. The modern toolbox starts with identifying and following genetic markers in large numbers to choose the best parents and identify progeny plants that contain them. Breeders are also employing transfer of genes to add specific traits, and mimicking innate plant processes by changing expression of genes. Gene editing techniques are making it possible to make directed changes in existing genes in plants. These technologies allow the modern breeder to make much faster progress in improving quality and reducing crop losses in order to sustain and increase global food production. 7-S Application of modern plant breeding methods to crop improvement A. VAN DEYNZE (1) (1) University of California, Davis, CA, U.S.A.

Plant breeding is a product-oriented discipline of sciences rooted in breeding, quantitative genetics, and statistics for crop improvement that employs an increasing number of technologies to sustain society. New breeding technologies (NBTs) employ targeted changes to the genome. This presentation will describe the use of these NBTs and how plants produced using them may or may not be regulated in the USA and other areas of the world. 8-S Genomic technology meets the field—Prospects for wheat improvement C. POZNIAK (1) (1) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

In recent years there has been an explosion of genomic information available to the wheat community, including the availability of millions of new single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers, and the compilation of assembled wheat genome sequence information. However, a significant challenge still remains in the application and deployment of these resources to practical plant breeding and cultivar development. This presentation will provide a wheat breeder’s perspective on the utilization of this technology to improve wheat cultivars, with case studies from his own wheat breeding program. 9-S Quality management from the bin to the box S. HOOD (1) (1) General Mills, Minneapolis, MN, U.S.A.

No Abstract provided. 10-S Supply chain adjustments, identity preservation, and purity challenges J. STITZLEIN (1) (1) Consolidated Grain and Barge, Chesterfield, MO, U.S.A.

Consumer concerns about some of these breeding techniques have pushed some participants in the supply chain to check for GM materials and, as a consequence, increasingly deal with the complexities of testing to low level presence. This presentation will discuss some crossroads between the global regulatory environment, new trait commercialization, increasing consumer interest in avoiding products containing GMOs, and the ability of production and trade systems to supply ingredients that comply with both regulatory and consumer objectives. Challenges for the grain industry include finding producers who are willing to help keep different product streams separated, using screening tests for verifying compliance, and dealing with cross-pollination risks and the impacts of stacked-trait products. 11-S Advances in US dry bean production: Sustainable nutrition, GMO-free M. A. GRUSAK (1) (1) USDA-ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX, U.S.A.

Dry beans are the most abundantly produced grain legume in the US, which reflects their broad utility and importance in the diet. All beans currently grown in the US are non-GMO, and although breeders are interested in improving a broad range of traits, there is no movement toward adopting GMO technology for dry beans in the US. Nonetheless, the tools of biotechnology are being employed to develop improved cultivars through the use of

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molecular markers and conventional breeding approaches. While traits of interest continue to focus on yield and sustainable production practices, efforts are also underway to improve cooking quality and nutritional and health-beneficial attributes. And as dry beans have become increasingly used as milled ingredients in food applications, interest in manipulating and enhancing the functional characteristics of beans has also moved forward. To achieve these goals, bean breeders are partnering with nutritionists, food scientists, and processing engineers to identify traits of interest that can be measured in existing cultivars and then improved upon in new, high-yielding lines. At the same time, the dry bean community has profited from recent efforts to genetically analyze a diverse range of existing bean germplasm. These trait analyses and genetic profiles are being combined to identify molecular markers that breeders can employ to accelerate their breeding efforts and make improvements that do not require GMO approaches. In this talk, we will discuss how a unified, trans-disciplinary effort is leading to innovative cultivars and applications for beans that will meet consumer preferences for GMO-free and environmentally sustainable foods, as well as their demand for nutrition and great taste. 12-S Agriculture as an instrument of public health: The potential of dry beans H. J. THOMPSON (1) (1) Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, U.S.A.

Obesity, diabetes (type II), cardiovascular disease, and cancer are major health concerns in developed and developing regions around the world. These chronic diseases are in many circumstances considered to be preventable through lifestyle choices that include the types and amounts of foods eaten, particularly those foods of plant origin, although this remains controversial. The mechanisms targeted for food-mediated disease risk reduction include altered glucose metabolism, chronic inflammation, and excessive cellular oxidation. Given the profound consequences of chronic diseases on society and the potential of food crops to meaningfully reduce the risk for these diseases, the opportunity exists for scientists in a broad array of disciplines to collaborate in order to harness existing and emerging innovations in agriculture and the biomedical sciences to reduce chronic disease prevalence. We have coined the term “crops for health” to describe this research effort that is defining the new field of biomedical agriculture. During this presentation, the audience will be taken behind the scenes to emerging work in the laboratory. Case studies from preclinical research will be drawn upon to suggest that common bean, a pulse crop, may be a key food in the prevention and control of chronic disease. Another theme we will explore is the question, are all varieties of a food crop created equal? The audience will learn about centers of domestication and how botanical classification may help us use scientific principles to redefine the proverbial concepts of variety and moderation in the foods we eat. From the clinic, examples will be provided of how breast cancer survivors are applying the ancient tradition of pairing cereal grains and root crops with grain legumes (pulses) with the goal of improving prognosis for long-term survival. 13-S Whole bean ingredients: Where do they fit on MyPlate? J. RUEDA (1) (1) ADM Edible Bean Specialties, Inc., Decatur, IL, U.S.A.

Beans are unique in that they are the only food represented in two different categories on the USDA’s MyPlate—the vegetables category and the protein category. Besides being a good source of vegetable protein, beans are major sources of “shortfall” nutrients, including fiber and potassium. As a whole food ingredient, beans are recognized as an economical, clean-label way to boost the nutritional profile of traditionally grain-based food products, and dry beans as inclusions in these foods are becoming more and more mainstream. It will be shown that whole bean ingredients are nutritionally equivalent to whole dry beans and can deliver a minimum serving of beans in almost any milled food product. But where do these bean-included, grain-based foods fit within MyPlate? An overview of existing policy and regulatory standards will be presented, and potential solutions will be discussed. 14-S Little beans, big opportunities: The Beanitos story D. COSTELLO (1) (1) Beanitos, Austin, TX, U.S.A.

Beanitos is probably one of the most recognized brands in “better-for-you” snacks, and in only four short years, the brand has reached national distribution. What does it take to successfully launch and grow a non-traditional snack brand? Why beans? We invite you to hear Dan Costello, CEO of Beanitos, answer these questions and more as he shares the Beanitos story and his experiences developing this successful bean-based brand.

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15-S Improvements to the Codex-definition dietary fiber methods D. W. PLANK (1), A. Hammers (1), D. Schmieg (1) (1) Medallion Labs, Minneapolis, MN, U.S.A.

Determination of the dietary fiber content of foods and ingredients is dependent on proper enzymatic digestion and dissolution of non-dietary fiber components. By design, the enzymatic digestions do not necessarily proceed to completion, yielding significantly different amounts of undigested material depending on the dietary fiber method used. Following digestion, the common dietary fiber isolation technique of the current dietary fiber methods (filtration using a crucible with the aid of celite) is not always complete, thus resulting in loss of dietary fiber. Because the filtering aid, celite, which is an inhalation hazard, is used in the process, duplicate samples must always be run for the purposes of measuring residual protein and ash in the isolated fiber residue. Duplicates are required in as much as the combined celite-fiber filter cake is not homogenous enough to allow splitting of a singlet residue. We have developed a modification to the Codex-definition dietary fiber methods, wherein high-speed centrifugation (>15,000 × g) is used in place of celite/crucible filtration. In order for the Codex-definition fiber methods to be compatible with centrifugation technology, some modifications were necessary to improve the robustness of the methodology. Using optimized centrifugation protocols, recovery of dietary fiber from food samples increases 0.3 to 4% (absolute) depending on the matrix. The yield of dietary fiber can be confirmed by the measured glucose liberated during the enzymatic digestion of a sample. We demonstrate that measurement of the free glucose post-digestion in combination with proximate and free sugar analysis of a sample can be used as an alternative, rapid method for determination of dietary fiber. However, the advantages of the centrifugation methodology are that it not only allows for the direct isolation of dietary fiber in the absence of celite, thereby eliminating the need for duplicate digestions and allowing direct measurement of protein and ash, but it also makes possible further structural, compositional, and physiological efficacy analysis of the dietary fiber. 16-S Considerations for simulating human digestion in vitro B. R. HAMAKER (1) (1) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

An overview will first be given on in vitro methods to estimate carbohydrate digestion in humans. Techniques differ in their degree of sophistication, although all are based on the presentation of foods, ingredients, or isolates containing glycemic carbohydrates to the carbohydrate-degrading enzymes encountered in the gastrointestinal tract and under similar conditions of temperature, pH, and agitation. Certain limitations are inherent in in vitro assessments and include gut motility and its regulation by food components in meals, variations in pancreatic α-amylase secretion that are triggered by cephalic and internal gastrointestinal tract stimuli, use of similar or same enzymes as in humans and as they function in situ, natural small molecule inhibitors in foods that might affect glucose transport or partial enzyme inhibition. That said, in vitro systems have often been shown to provide good estimates of digestion, and for starches to give a quantitative degree of rapidly digestible, slowly digestible, and resistant starch nutritionally related categories. 17-S Food labeling of dietary fiber P. TRUMBO (1) (1) US Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, U.S.A.

Claims that can be used on conventional food and dietary supplement labels fall into three general regulatory categories: nutrient content claims, structure/function claims, and health claims. Nutrient content claims (e.g., “good” and “excellent” source) are available for dietary fiber. Structure/function claims are statements that describe the role of a nutrient (e.g., dietary fiber) or dietary ingredient intended to affect the structure or function (or related mechanism) in humans. There are several health claims related to dietary fiber that have been authorized by the FDA. In addition to claims, the FDA regulates other aspects of food labeling, including Nutrition and Supplement Facts labels. The Nutrition Facts label has been required on conventional foods since 1994, and any changes to the label require amendments to the current regulation by the FDA. The declaration of dietary fiber is mandatory because of its beneficial role in human health, including improved laxation and reduced risk of coronary heart disease. The Nutrition Facts label must provide the weight amount and percent daily value. the current daily value for dietary fiber is 25 g. Individual labeling of soluble and insoluble fiber is voluntary because each type of dietary fiber has unique physiological benefits. The labeling of soluble and insoluble fiber is mandatory when a claim is made on the label or in labeling about either type of dietary fiber. Currently, the declaration of dietary fiber is based exclusively on analytical methods. The FDA is in the process of updating the Nutrition Facts label. Several changes have been proposed, including a definition for dietary fiber, changing the daily value, and changing the caloric contribution of soluble fiber.

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18-S Strategies to enhance health benefits of oat and barley β-glucan N. AMES (1), S. Thandapilly (1), Y. Wang (2), J. Storsley (1) (1) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Oat and barley contain significant amounts of β-glucan, a viscous soluble fiber shown in numerous studies to have health benefits, such as lowering of LDL cholesterol and postprandial glycemia. The highly viscous nature of β-glucan, a function of its concentration, solubility, and molecular weight, has been shown to be a key factor in lowering cholesterol and improving glycemic response. Therefore, changes in β-glucan concentration, solubility, and molecular weight are likely to affect these physiological outcomes. With respect to cholesterol, our work has shown the importance of molecular weight, since the high molecular weight treatment decreased the absorption of bile acids (increased bile acid synthesis), increased short-chain fatty acids (a marker of increased fermentability), and produced marked changes in gut microflora compared to the control. Our work on oats has demonstrated that processing methods, cultivar characteristics, and environmental conditions can be utilized to produce oat products with high β-glucan content, solubility, and molecular weight, which translates to greater viscosity and potential health benefits. Finally, processing methods such as milling, aimed at increasing β-glucan and dietary fiber content, can be used to optimize barley foods to reduce postprandial blood glucose response and factors that may influence satiety. 19-S Monitoring β-glucan viscosity throughout food processes: Quality control approach T. GAMEL (1) (1) Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada

Because of health claim regulations linking the consumption of food products rich in β-glucan with reduced risk of coronary heart disease, interest in such products as healthy food choices has increased for food companies and consumers. Oat and barley in particular, have caught more attention due to their high content of β-glucan. Processing these grains into cereal products may affect the physicochemical characteristics (molecular weight, viscosity, and solubility) of β-glucan and subsequently the physiological effects, making production of healthy oat and/ or barley products a challenge. High viscosity, which corresponds to both molecular weight and solubility, was confirmed as a key factor to obtain significant health benefits from consuming β-glucan–containing cereal products. Thus, monitoring changes in β-glucan physicochemical characteristics, particularly viscosity, through processing is crucial to preserve its positive physiological effects. However, measurement of β-glucan viscosity during process is not a common practice and therefore, developing a simple and reliable method to monitor its changes in cereal products would help in maintaining both the quality and health factors of these products. This quality control approach is extremely beneficial for industry and academia to ensure the health benefits of β-glucan–containing cereal products are achieved. 20-S Effect of heat treatments on safety and nutritional properties of whole grain barley L. BOYD (1), R. Holley (2), N. Ames (3) (1) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada/University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (3) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

β-Glucan (BG) is a key nutritional component in barley and is often the focus of research to determine the health benefits of barley. Health claims in Canada and the U.S. for cholesterol reduction due to barley BG have made consumers more aware of the benefits from consuming barley. However, in the past, it has been shown that whole grains, including barley, have high microbial and mycotoxin contamination. This may become a food safety issue if barley is developed into novel products not requiring a sufficient cook step. The aim of this research was to determine the effects of different heat treatments on the safety and physicochemical properties of BG of whole grain barley. Three heat treatments (micronization, roasting, and kilning) were used on 3 different cultivars of barley (Rattan, McGwire, and Fibar). The microbial quality was measured with standard plate count (SPC), yeast and mold (MYC), and coliforms/E. coli using spread plate and most probable number (MPN) techniques. All 3 untreated barley cultivars were negative for E. coli and less than 10 MPN/g for coliforms, which is typically acceptable for industry. However, the SPC and MYC exceeded the limits of 50,000 CFU/g and 1,000 CFU/g, respectively, established for this study. All heat treatments reduced SPC and MYC to an acceptable level. The BG viscosity and molecular weight (MW) were measured using a rheometer and HPLC, respectively. The viscosity and MW were higher when heat treatments were applied compared to the untreated barley, which is desired for increased health benefits. Kilning had the highest viscosity and MW for all cultivars and appeared to inactivate β-glucanases completely. These findings show that heat treating whole grain barley is beneficial to improve the safety and preserve its nutritional value, which will help industry further the development of new barley foods.

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21-S Effects of light pearling on the physical grain characteristics and composition of selected Canadian barley varieties L. M. Casper (1), L. MALCOLMSON (2), M. Izydorczyk (3) (1) Food Development Centre, Portage la Prairie, MB, Canada; (2) LM FoodTech Solutions, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (3) Grain Research Laboratory, Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Heavy levels of pearling are typically used to achieve white colored barley. However, with consumers’ greater acceptance of whole grain foods there is less demand to produce products that are white in color. The effects of light pearling on the physical grain characteristics and composition of selected varieties of Western Canadian barley, especially hulless barley (HB) genotypes with modified starch characteristics, were examined. Nine barley genotypes with different hull and starch characteristics (normal, waxy, and high amylose (HA)) were pearled to three levels. Scanning electron micrographs showed that the pericarp, testa, aleurone, and subaleurone layers were completely removed in heavily pearled barley, whereas only a few outer layers were removed in minimally pearled barley. In minimally pearled barley, the endosperm and germ were still fully intact and the bran layer was only partially removed, thus the major anatomical components of the kernel remained. HB genotypes show more promise for food use than hulled barley genotypes due to their higher β-glucan content. Genotypes showing the highest potential for food use are modified starch HB genotypes, as they are superior in nutritional content compared to normal starch HB genotypes. Waxy starch genotype Fibar and HA starch genotypes, SH99250 and SB94893 contained high levels of soluble β-glucan (9–11%). The development of HB with modified starch characteristics and high levels of soluble β-glucan paired with the application of minimal processing techniques may play a critical role in the expansion of barley for food use. 22-S QSorter: A fast and repeatable method based on NIR and vision to remove gluten impurities from cereals F. DELL’ENDICE (1) (1) QualySense, Glattbrugg, Switzerland

Health claims relate a food substance to the reduced risk of a disease or to a health-related condition and depend on the quality of the raw materials. Here we focus on ready-to-eat “gluten-free” breakfast cereals. Some cereals are gluten-free by nature. However, they can be contaminated with gluten that is carried by grains such as wheat, barley, and rye: this can happen at any time. Therefore, food processors must ensure high purity levels of the end products by running accurate, lengthy, and frequent inspections on selected samples to identify gluten contamination: the presence of gluten requires additional processing costs and may lead to serious legal claims. Today, trained personnel inspect samples to identify impurities that are generally below 2%; this procedure is lengthy and affected by subjective biases and low repeatability. The manual visual inspection is based on shape and color features but the variation of these parameters is often small enough to challenge even the most trained inspectors, as well as detection technologies based on machine vision. In fact, several researchers have made attempts to solve this problem using color images, which resulted in non-reliable methods. QualySense has developed a proprietary high-speed single-kernel analyzer, the QSorter Explorer, and investigated the possibility of combining machine vision with near infrared spectroscopy (NIR). Color images and infrared spectra between 900 nm and 1,700 nm were acquired, preprocessed, and classified with various algorithms. As a result, a method based on the detection of gluten with NIR combined with shape and color assessment enable the QSorter Explorer to reach classification accuracies higher than 95% and very low repeatability errors. The method has been successfully tested and adopted by leaders in the gluten-free industry. 23-S Chemical leavening history and development by forward thinking chemists in the 1800s D. JORDAN (1) (1) Kudos Blends, Kidderminster, U.K.

The chemical leavening agents most commonly used today are food phosphates and bicarbonates, and the origin of these ingredients stem from their development in the early 19th century when the focus was on the reaction of an acid with a base to produce a salt plus water and carbon dioxide. The early ingredients used were potassium based, and potash (potassium carbonate) was an important forerunner to sodium bicarbonate, with evidence of its use in American recipe books published in 1796. Developments in both the acidic and alkaline components were driven by both British (Bird and Jones) and US (Horsford) inventors in their desire to develop a commercial baking powder and self-rising flour for both military and naval outlets. Achieving neutrality of reaction to eliminate taste issues together with a chemically stable dry powder, moved leavening agent technology onward to the use of sodium bicarbonate. The traditional leavening acid was cream of tartar and, with cornstarch as a “filler,” achieved the first stable “fermenting powder,” subsequently known as baking powder. The development of acid calcium phosphate soon followed, probably by Horsford in America, through collaboration with Liebig in Germany who first experimented with phosphoric acid and phosphate salts offering a slow release of carbon

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dioxide in the cold with the main evolution at oven temperatures. It is in this requirement where acid sodium pyrophosphate proved most favorable and led to its industrial commercialization in early 20th century. Today sodium bicarbonate and food phosphates developed by those early chemists more than a century ago are still extensively used in modern bakeries and for domestic use. With little progression in developing groundbreaking chemical leavening systems, the fundamental technology behind these ingredients remains the continued drivers for their highly successful application. 24-S Trans-fat functionality and replacement with functional, economic alternatives L. MOREHART (1) (1) Cargill, Plymouth, MN, U.S.A.

This presentation will provide an up-to-date review of the FDA ruling on the GRAS status of partially hydrogenated oils (PHO). Many food manufactures are looking for acceptable PHO alternatives for their products. The removal of PHO is a very challenging and complex process that involves knowing the impact PHOs have on the entire process of producing the food. In order to facilitate in the removal of PHO, a review of the hydrogenation process and history of changes in PHO use in the past decade will be discussed. The function of fats and oils in foods and the possible options for replacing PHO will also be discussed. To successfully formulate away from PHO, it is important to decide on your goals and limitations from the beginning, since any PHO alternative will have an impact on nutrition labeling, ingredients, costs, function, and potential investments regarding production. 25-S Wheat breeding for functionality and grading: Differences among requirements and the effect in the marketplace K. GARLAND-CAMPBELL (1) (1) USDA ARS Wheat Genetics, Quality, Physiology and Disease Research Unit, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.

Functional quality characteristics have been selection targets for wheat breeders for at least 70 years. Early selection efforts stratified US wheat into classes based on soft vs. hard texture and kernel color. Selection for functional characteristics has frequently been challenging. Hard wheat breeders must overcome the negative correlation between flour protein and grain yield, and until recently, quality assessments required large amounts of grain and were performed late in the selection cycle. Therefore, most breeders strove to maintain existing quality rather than improve it. New knowledge about the chemistry of functional grain quality and the genetic control of that chemistry is enabling breeders to use the tools of molecular marker-assisted breeding and mutation breeding to develop cultivars that are targeted to specific wheat food products. Wheat breeders will continue to select for improvements in milling and protein quality. New selection targets for improved health-related functionality include better flour performance in whole-wheat products, manipulation of starch components, and reduced allergenicity. The product development cycle for wheat cultivars is approximately 10 years so these efforts require close collaboration between breeders and cereal chemists to identify targets and assessment methods that satisfy future market demands. The current grain grading and handling system also must be modified to accurately identify and transport wheat grain for these new uses. 26-S How labels went from simple to complex and are now returning to clean, minimal ingredient lists T. COGSWELL (1) (1) BakerCogs, Inc., Overland Park, KS, U.S.A.

Social media, food bloggers, and buying local are just a few of the trends driving distrust in large corporate food companies. An ingredient legend that sounds more like a chemical than an item in your panty is driving some consumers away. Millennials are driving the clean label movement, as the largest segment of the population, moving past boomers. Do you develop a new product line with few ingredients or work to reduce ingredients in your existing product line? What are food companies doing to work within the “clean label” movement? How is clean label defined by the consumer? 27-S The art and science behind the creation of Modernist Cuisine S. SWANE (1) (1) Modernist Cuisine, Bellevue, WA, U.S.A.

How does an idea become a 2,438-page, 40-pound book? A lot has changed since the invention of the modern printing press. We offer a behind-the-scenes look at the publication process that combines food science, culinary recipe development, microscopy, and editorial content within an environment focused on innovation. You will learn about the role of a publisher and how a small team in Bellevue continues to set industry standards. Highlights to be discussed include our next project, Modernist Bread.

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28-S Analytical and spectroscopic challenges in the production of gluten-free foods S. ZBYLUT (1), P. Wehling (1) (1) Medallion Laboratories/General Mills, Minneapolis, MN, U.S.A.

An overview of the challenges related to manufacturing and producing gluten-free foods will be addressed. The ability to consistently produce products that are labeled as gluten-free involved utilizing new analytical testing methodologies, as well as, developing a broad understanding of how sampling size can effect final results. Throughout this process, key learnings were developed with respect to milling, grinding, sorting, and measurement capabilities. Furthermore, efforts to produce gluten-free products included developing and utilizing rapid spectroscopic techniques at sample receiving to segregate incoming seeds appropriately; however, additional testing of final goods was still needed to ensure that gluten free-claims could be made. To this end, several enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits were tested to better understand their capabilities with respect to accuracy and reproducibility. These kits have been utilized extensively throughout the process and each of their key mechanisms of interaction will be reviewed to aid in understanding their unique and subtle differences with respect to gluten detection. Finally, in order to further advance this technology to practice, a full understanding of lab error had to be developed in order to better understand the effects of sample inhomogeneity and test portion size on the final ELISA testing results. 29-S Understanding powder flowability of corn flours J. YIN (1) (1) Freeman Technology, Bayside, NY, U.S.A.

An overview of some powder processing challenges will be provided, including why we need to measure powder characteristics and flow properties in particular; a review of traditional measurement techniques—their strengths and weaknesses; advances in modern instrumentation and the benefits of the latest powder characterization techniques; the need to identify critical quality attributes in relation to material and process optimization; how we propose that you quantify and utilize your extensive powder processing experience; utilizing powder characterization techniques to improve and streamline the scale-up process; examples of how powder characterization techniques can be used as process analytical technology (PAT); employing the FT4 universal powder rheometer in real powder processing applications, including quality by design, hopper flow, mixing and blending, filling, compression, and many other processes. 30-S IR and Raman imaging of grain-based products: What is the future potential of these technologies S. R. DELWICHE (1) (1) USDA-ARS, Beltsville, MD, U.S.A.

Hyperspectral imaging combines digital imaging and vibrational (visible-, infrared-, and Raman spectroscopy). Traditionally reserved for use in remote sensing, this technology has gained popularity in the past 10 years in food and agricultural research. Because of the large size of the spectral data files and the associated complexities of computer processing, hyperspectral imaging has been reserved as an analytical tool for scientific exploration. Recent research applications on wheat include use in classification, purity, or cleanliness assessment, milling quality assessment, and detection of various forms of kernel damage, including Fusarium, insect, sprout, black tip, and other molds. Improvements in both imaging hardware and computer processors are now making this technology more accessible for use beyond the research laboratory. By careful selection of wavelengths sensitive to a particular defect (e.g., bruises or cracks in produce), hyperspectral imaging can be reduced from the collection and processing of hundreds of wavelengths to a handful and, because of the speedier analysis, the possibilities arise for using imaging technology for online inspection of higher value commodities. With further improvement, this technology on a commercial basis may reach the cereals. Aspects of image collection, data processing, including correction for non-uniform lighting, defining regions of interest, and chemometrics for data reduction, classification, and quantization, will be discussed. 31-S Physical testing capabilities and implications—A brief review T. PETERS (1), S. Zbylut (1) (1) Medallion Laboratories/General Mills Inc., Golden Valley, MN, U.S.A.

Medallion Laboratories offers a wide array of testing capabilities for measuring physical attributes of ingredients and finished products. This laboratory utilizes state-of-the-art technology to develop a better understanding of material properties in order to provide a practical understanding of ingredient interactions with respect to physical product attributes. Several of the techniques that are utilized regularly to understand physical differences between samples include texture analysis (TA HD plus), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), rheology (AR G2),

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particle size analysis (Microtrac laser diffraction, dry particle image analysis, and sieve), and emulsion stability analysis (LUMiSizer). These techniques, individually and in concert, have proven useful for the characterization of ingredients and ingredient interactions, as well as developing an understanding of how changes to ingredients, processing conditions, and storage impact final product attributes. However, producing valid analytical results does not automatically resolve all technical hurdles. This is where context and a deeper understanding of various food systems become most important. Several examples will be presented here that emphasize how context and understanding from Medallion Laboratories can help lead you to the right solution for your company and its products. 32-S Analysis of cereal grains by mass spectrometry J. STEVENS (1) (1) General Mills, Golden Valley, MN, U.S.A.

The chemical composition of volatile and semi-volatile components in the cereal grains wheat, oats, rice, corn, barley, sorghum, rye, and millet were studied by static headspace-gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (SH-GC/MS). Several aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, furans, and other chemical compounds were found to be present that differentiated the various grain substrates. Additional characterization studies were performed with the cereal grains by direct analysis in real time (DART™) on an Exactive™ high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometer, finding several marker compounds of interest that differentiated the commodities due to either adulteration or contamination with other cereal grains. 33-S Sprouted seeds as natural fortification/enrichment ingredients: Nutrient bioavailability, antioxidant activity, and phytochemical/anti-nutrient profiles M. OMARY (1) (1) California State University, Los Angeles, CA, U.S.A.

Sprouted seeds have been reported to be nutritionally superior to their respective seeds, with higher levels of nutrients and polyphenols; lower concentrations of anti-nutrients such as phytic acid, tannins, trypsin inhibitors, lectins, saponins, and flatulence-causing sugars; increased protein and starch digestibility; increased antioxidant activity; and bioavailability of some minerals. Their inclusion along with that of the original seeds in the formulation of whole-grain rich, fiber-rich, and gluten-free (when applicable) baked goods may provide a natural fortification/enrichment tool. This presentation will review the state of the research on germinated edible seeds such as cereals, pseudocereals and legumes. 35-S Germinated grains processing considerations and product development J. Ding (1), H. FENG (2), S. Xiong (3), S. Zhao (3) (1) Huazhong Agricultural University and University of Illinois, Wuhan, China; (2) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.; (3) Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China

In this study, the focus was to develop technologies to improve the value chain of germinated/sprouted grains. A screening of germinated grain varieties was performed, and their quality and functional properties were evaluated. Specifically, black rice and red rice with high γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were selected by hybrid breeding. Low-temperature, low-oxygen technology was used for storage of the grains and polished grains, which resulted in a significantly improved germination rate and grain quality. Strategies for controlling microbial growth during germination were developed with antimicrobial agents and regulation of pH values. Soaking time and temperature were optimized for each variety of grain. During germination, the growth properties, accumulation of bioactive compounds, and changes in endogenous enzyme activity were studied. Flavor-related and nutritional quality-related secondary metabolites of the sprouting grains under hypoxic conditions were analyzed. The GABA content increased significantly under normoxic conditions, with moisture supplied by an ultrasonic humidifier. Based on the technology developed for the germinated grains, the following health-beneficial food products were produced: germinated brown rice powder, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals for older people and children, germinated grain tea (high GABA rice tea), and sprouts fortified with beneficial minerals (Si), among others. The effects of environmental factors, including gas, temperature, and light, on the metabolism of the functional ingredients were studied. The use of ultrasonication to enhance the production of bioactive compounds and microbial safety during germination was also investigated.

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36-S Sprouting and malting for specialty food ingredients R. HANSEN (1) (1) Briess Malt & Ingredients Co., Chilton, WI, U.S.A.

Shelf-stable, dry, sprouted, and malted ingredients have been produced and safely used in certain applications for thousands of years. This talk will provide a broad overview of the current products available in the US marketplace. Existing definitions and standards for these products will be discussed. We will walk through the production process and provide an overview of the structural and nutritional changes that occur at different stages of the sprouting process. The microflora and changes in the overall microbial numbers and population during the process will be discussed. Features and benefits of sprouted ingredients conferred by the sprouting process for a few select applications will be discussed. All this information will be summarized to demonstrate when and how these novel ingredients can be safely used. 37-S Sprouted grains: Is the milling industry taking a chance? A. BIANCHINI (1) (1) University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

The microbial flora of wheat grains is the primary microbial contamination source for milled products; likewise when sprouted grains are milled they are the primary source of microorganisms in the final milled product. In this presentation a comprehensive approach to safety applied to the production of milled products from sprouts grains will be discussed. In general, control measures start with preventing microbial contamination from coming into the production environment through the sourcing of high-quality ingredients and a controlled spouting step. Once the grains are under processing there are potential pre- and post-milling interventions that could be applied to improve the microbiological quality of the end products. These interventions and information regarding their effectiveness in regular wheat flour, as not much research has yet been done with sprouted flour, will also be discussed in this presentation. 38-S Dietary reference intakes in the United States T. C. WALLACE (1) (1) George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, U.S.A.

In the United States, dietary reference intakes (DRIs) describe the relationships between nutrient intakes and indicators of adequacy, prevention of disease, and avoidance of excessive intakes among healthy populations for essential nutrients but not dietary bioactive compounds, whose absence from the diet is presumably not deleterious to health (i.e., does not result in a deficiency syndrome). The framework for developing DRIs is recognized as akin to a risk analysis, which analyzes and controls the “risks” that may be experienced by a population of interest. In DRI development the risk is that nutrient intakes are too low or high. The Institute of Medicine of the National Academies has set nutrient standards for the United States since 1943. DRIs support many program, policy, and regulatory initiatives. For example, federal guidance based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans available to consumers through the 12 energy patterns accessed through www.choosemyplate.gov are based on food modeling to achieve intakes of essential nutrient values of the DRIs. Government programs that support food assistance such as school lunch and breakfast and nutrition for the elderly require that the daily portion for that assistance meets the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, and therefore, the DRIs. The food label reports amounts of essential nutrients provided by a serving of a food relative to nutrient recommendations from the IOM. This presentation will give a general overview of the current framework for establishing DRIs for essential nutrients and use/explore the current DRIs for dietary fiber (a non-essential nutrient) as a case study for potential expansion of these reference values for dietary bioactive components. 39-S The evolving path towards dietary guidance for bioactives J. W. ERDMAN (1) (1) Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.

It has been two decades since the Food and Nutrition Board of the US National Academy of Sciences launched its efforts to develop dietary reference intakes (DRIs). From the beginning there was an intention of addressing dietary recommendations for non-essential food components within the DRI framework. This is still an unfulfilled goal. Despite considerable research progress on determining flavonoid and carotenoid content and bioavailability from foods, metabolism of these compounds and clinical trials to evaluate their bioactivity, a variety of factors have prevented development of DRIs for these bioactive classes. The current framework for DRIs is appropriate for essential nutrients but less so for food bioactive components. The adequate intake (AI) and upper levels (UL) designations might be appropriate for bioactives, or a new evaluation framework may need to

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be developed. There are inherent limitations in running randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trials (RCT) with high flavonoid- or carotenoid-containing foods. RCTs are considered the gold standards for evidence. This presentation will review the challenges and gaps in knowledge that must be addressed before public health messages can be developed for flavonoids and non-provitamin A carotenoids. In addition, there will be a discussion of the standards and types of evidence that might be required. Lastly, the implications of not moving forward will be discussed. Many scientists feel that some accreditation of certain flavonoids and carotenoids would be most appropriate for enhancing public health. 40-S Oat bioactives: Types, mechanisms, and functions J. B. BLUMBERG (1) (1) Tufts University, Boston, MA, U.S.A.

In addition to their content of fiber, minerals, and vitamins, the phytochemical profile of oats (Avena sativa L.) contribute importantly to the health benefits associated with consumption of this whole grain, including support of digestive and cardiovascular health. The principal bioactives in oats include avenanthramides (AVA), carotenoids, flavonoids, lignans, phytosterols, and tocotrienols. Unique to oats, AVA are a group of 20 soluble alkaloids as hydroxycinnamic acids conjugated to anthranilic acid. The potent antioxidant capacity of AVA was likely the basis for the early use of oat flour as an anti-rancidity ingredient in other foods. The AVA content of oat varies from 74 to 142 mg/kg depending on cultivar and processing. In vitro experiments have shown that AVA inhibits IL-1β-stimulated vascular endothelial cell adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin) and pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines (IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1). These actions appear to be mediated via attenuation of IkB kinase phosphorylation to suppress redox-sensitive signal transduction by NFkB. The anti-inflammatory and anti-itch properties of oats have been known for many years with oatmeal utilized as a remedy for poison ivy, sunburn, eczema, and psoriasis. In a randomized clinical trial of 16 older women, 9.2 mg of AVA daily for 8 weeks was found to reduce inflammation (CRP, IL-1β, NFkB) and increase antioxidant defenses (SOD) induced by a downhill walking exercise. Another clinical trial found 3.12 mg of AVA daily for 4 weeks in 120 healthy adults increased serum SOD and glutathione, reduced lipid peroxidation, and improved lipid profiles. The unique presence and characterized bioavailability of AVA in oats suggests its status may serve as a biomarker of oat consumption. Further research on the bioavailability and metabolism of AVA and their role in health promotion and disease prevention is ongoing. 41-S In vivo and in vitro estimates of the quality of protein in pulse-cereal blends J. D. HOUSE (1) (1) Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Pulses are a rich source of complex carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, and minerals. With respect to protein, raw pulses typically provide between 20 and 25% crude protein. While crude protein is an important reflection of the nutritional value of pulse flours, the quality of dietary protein for humans is better defined as the product of the amino acid composition of the pulse protein and some measure of the digestibility or utilization of the amino acids for maintenance and/or growth of body tissues. Several existing methods are used by national regulatory bodies for the evaluation of protein quality, including the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) and the protein efficiency ratio (PER). Recently, a new method, the digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) method has been proposed as a refinement of the PDCAAS. To date, the DIAAS method has not been officially endorsed, due to limitations in existing data sets for ileal amino acid digestibility (a key component of DIAAS), and a lack of consensus regarding approaches for standardization. As such, PDCAAS remains an approved method for estimating quality. All of the aforementioned methods require the use of animal-based studies. As such, they represent a barrier to innovation for industry seeking to position new products with approved protein content claims. Pulse flours typically present with a PDCAAS of 0.4 to 0.6. Blending of pulse flours with cereal flours yields complementarity, with PDCAAS values increasing due to balancing of the amino acid profile. A movement to robust and validated in vitro assessment methods for estimating protein quality would enhance innovation and allow novel pulse/cereal blends to be positioned as high-quality sources of dietary protein. 42-S Future in food formulations: Why and how to balance cereal and pulse proteins in food applications H. MASKUS (1), L. Bourre (1) (1) Canadian International Grains Institute, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

As world demand for food proteins increases, interest is growing in the use of plant proteins to fill this gap. Plant proteins exhibit unique properties with respect to functionality and nutrition. It is important to understand these properties when reformulating foods to meet protein labeling requirements. This presentation will introduce

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pulse ingredients to potentially fill protein gaps when used in combination with cereals to create complementary proteins within a food product. Applications in gluten-free bread, breakfast cereals, Asian noodles, and pasta will be discussed. As pulse protein ingredients (i.e., flour, concentrates, and isolates) are included in product formulations, the protein content and protein quality of products will be effected. These nutritional changes will be presented in reference to product benchmarks of conventional starchy, low-fiber products and cooked pulses. Many factors must be accounted for when assessing the nutritional benefits of the utilization of pulse ingredients, including the protein content of the ingredients, protein quality and digestibility of ingredient blends, amino acid profile of ingredients, labeling requirements, and serving size/reference amount. These factors and others will be discussed in this presentation. Further to this, product quality effects must be considered to ensure that a nutritious product is produced that meets the quality standards of the consumer. 43-S Moving beans off the picnic plate and into the mainstream: Lessons from school food J. RUEDA (1) (1) ADM Edible Bean Specialties, Inc., Decatur, IL, U.S.A.

Dry beans are nutrient-dense foods that are unique because they are recognized in both the vegetable and protein categories within the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. In addition to providing non-animal protein, beans are excellent sources of fiber and good sources of potassium, both identified by the USDA as “nutrients of public health concern.” Yet despite their low cost and healthful attributes, beans have not been widely served in school meal programs. Beginning with the 2012–2013 school year, the USDA instituted new meal pattern requirements for districts participating in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP), including the service of at least one 0.5 cup serving of “beans and peas” per week. While it was expected that the new serving requirement would increase the service of beans to at least the recommended levels in NSLP-participating districts, this has not necessarily been the case. Data will be presented that describe the use of beans in school meals, the effects of the new meal regulations on service style and frequency, and potential solutions to increase mainstream consumption of beans as a source of protein and other critical nutrients in school meals. 44-S Health benefits of pulse proteins and pulse-cereal blends J. M. CURRAN (1) (1) Pulse Canada, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

The nutritional value and health benefits of whole pulses are well established. Pulses can be eaten whole, but there has been significant growth in the processing of pulses into flours and fractions. Science is also emerging on the nutritional value and health effects of pulse ingredients, including protein fractions. In recent years, research has focused on the impact of pulse protein ingredients and pulse/cereal blends on cholesterol lowering, post-prandial glycemia, satiety/food intake, and muscle synthesis. Results of several research studies will be highlighted to show the impact of using pulse proteins and pulse/cereal blends to increase the nutritional value of food products, as well as the health effects of these ingredients and potential for claims. 45-S Lactic fermentation as a tool for improving the nutritional quality of cereal and legume proteins M. GOBBETTI (1) (1) University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy

Lactic fermentation is one of the oldest examples of biotechnology for improving the sensory, shelf life and, especially, nutritional features of raw food matrices. Selected lactic acid bacteria, depending on the physical-chemical composition of the substrate, are considered as useful starters, and sourdough fermentation is defined as a suitable process. Regarding cereal matrices, some of the most recent results showed that sourdough fermentation could be successfully used either to moderately decrease the concentration of gluten to address non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) or to fully eliminate gluten from cereals to manage with celiac disease (CD). Sourdough fermentation also is favored for the fortification of cereal-based foods with functional peptides having antihypertensive, antioxidant, and antimicrobial features. Under almost the same conditions, cereal products could be enriched with γ-amino butyric acid (GABA). Recently, sourdough fermentation with selected lactic acid bacteria also was proven to increase the in vitro protein digestibility of a number of legume species, together with other relevant functional features (e.g., decrease the content of anti-nutritional factors). When subjected to lactic fermentation, legume substrates showed an increase in their inherent suitability to release anti-tumoral lunasin-like peptides.

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46-S Interaction of proanthocyanidins with partially gelatinized normal and waxy maize starch and impact on in vitro starch digestibility D. B. AMOAKO (1), J. M. Awika (1) (1) Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, U.S.A.

Proanthocyanidins (PA) from sorghum interact with amylose to increase resistant starch (RS) in fully gelatinized corn starch. However, starch typically undergoes partial gelatinization in most starchy foods. This study investigated the effect of reacting sorghum PA with partially gelatinized maize starch on in vitro digestibility. PA extract from high-tannin sorghum was incubated with normal and waxy maize starch in 30% and 50% ethanol solutions at 70°C for 20 min. Samples then were centrifuged and sediments oven-dried at 40°C overnight. Non-tannin extract from white sorghum was used for comparison, and cellulose was used as a control. In vitro digestibility (rapidly digestible starch [RDS], slowly digestible starch [SDS], RS), starch pasting properties, and X-ray (WAX) diffraction pattern were determined. The amount of PA that interacted with starch (mg PA/g starch) was higher in 30% ethanol treatments (5.94–6.47) than in 50% ethanol treatments (3.44–3.47), largely due to the greater degree of starch granule swelling in the 30% ethanol treatments. Normal starch treated with PA (in 30% ethanol) had higher SDS (27.4%) and RS (29.9%) compared to non-tannin treatment (SDS = 10.2%, RS = 13.9%) and cellulose control (SDS = 9.09%, RS = 15.75%). This trend also was observed in waxy starch treatments. Normal starch treated in 30% ethanol also had higher SDS (27.4%) than waxy starch treatment (9.82%), a direct result of a less hindered interaction between linear amylose in normal starch with PA. Peak viscosities of PA starches were all significantly higher than controls, suggesting the formation of tougher gels due to PA–starch interaction. PA treatments incubated in 30% ethanol had higher pasting temperature and crystallinity (%) than controls, indicating the possible formation of new crystalline regions due to PA action. PA interacts with maize starch to reduce in vitro digestibility. 47-S Starch and protein digestibility of novel extruded binary blended foods M. JOSEPH (1), L. Zhu (1), Q. Guo (1), B. Lindshield (2), S. Alavi (1) (1) Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.; (2) Department of Human Nutrition, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Starch and protein digestibility of novel protein-rich fortified blended foods (FBFs) designed for nutritional interventions, based on binary blends of sorghum–cowpea (SCB), sorghum–soy (SSB), and corn–soy (CSB), before and after extrusion, were studied as digestibility contributes to nutritional and calorific significance of ingested food. Starch and protein digestibility was estimated by modified in vitro Englyst method (1992) and Mertz et al. (1984), respectively. Results showed that extrusion led to enhanced in vitro total starch digestibility (TDS) in the binary blends. TDS increased by 26.29%, 12.32%, and 66.26% for SCB, SSB, and CSB, respectively. It also had significantly higher in vitro rapidly digestible starch (RDS) than non-extruded binary blends, which increased from 12.04% to 42.12%, 15.14% to 46.96%, and 8.11% to 48.94% for SCB, SSB, and CSB, respectively. In addition, extrusion lowered slow digestible starch (SDS) in all the blends, indicating that some SDS was converted to RDS during extrusion processing. TDS values greater than 100% in extruded and cooked samples may have been due to conversion of some polysaccharides to glucose during extrusion process. However, extrusion showed no substantial effect on protein digestibility of binary blends (86–89% in raw vs 85–88% in extruded). Cooking reduced protein digestibility from 85.55% to 80.72%, 85.87% to 82.32%, and 88.07% to 85.28%, in extruded SCB, SSB, and CSB, respectively. A possible interaction of proteins with retrograded starch generated during cooling of cooked binary blends could have reduced the accessibility of the pepsin to protein molecules. Also, the protein agglomeration during cooking in excess water in sorghum-based binary blends (SCB and SSB) could lead to a decrease in protein digestibility. These protein digestibility values were still higher than that of the cooked control sample, CSB13 (60.91%). 48-S Influence of vacuum mixing on textural properties and protein structure of noodle dough R. LIU (1), Y. Q. Zhang (1), L. Wu (1), B. Zhang (1), Y. M. Wei (1) (1) Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China

The effects of vacuum mixing on textural properties and protein structure of noodle dough were investigated using three wheat cultivars. Doughs produced from three flours with vacuum mixing, when sheeted all gave higher levels of adhesiveness, elasticity, and chewiness than from non-vacuum mixing. The optimum vacuum applied during mixing was judged to be 0.06 MPa for the samples of Ningchun4 and Jimai22 and 0.08 MPa for the sample of Zhengmai366, which had a higher protein content and stronger dough properties. Compared to non-vacuum mixed samples, the sheeted dough mixed at 0.06 MPa showed a more continuous and compact internal structure with fewer hollows, as well as a more even protein distribution in the surface, as shown in SEM and

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FTIR micro-imaging. However, the extremely high degree of vacuum was detrimental to the developed dough network for Jimai22 and Ningchun4. The degree of polymerization of protein was higher in vacuum-mixed dough, as evident by SE-HPLC, GMP, and free-SH contents. More larger protein aggregates were observed at 0.06 MPa in Jimai22 dough and at 0.08 MPa for Zhengmai366. Better dough texture might correspond to the increased protein aggregates. SDS-PAGE showed that vacuum mixing did not affect the protein subunits. Vacuum mixing at 0.06 MPa imparted an increase in the β-turn of Jimai22 dough at the cost of a reduction in β-sheets, while it induced an increase in the α-helix at the cost of a decrease in the β-turn for Ningchun4 and Zhengmai366. Wheat flours with different protein characteristics behaved differently. High degree of vacuum (0.08 MPa) may result in the rupture of some large glutenin polymers in dough containing weak-gluten flour, while increasing the degree of polymerization of protein and inducing a more ordered secondary structure in dough containing high- and strong-gluten flour. The development of the gluten network for weak-gluten flour was more sensitive to the degree of vacuum. 49-S Spring wheat gliadins: Have they changed in 100 years? M. MALALGODA (1), J. B. Ohm (2), S. Meinhardt (3), S. Simsek (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Department of Plant Sciences, Cereal Science Graduate Program, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (2) USDA-ARS Hard Red Spring and Durum Wheat Quality Laboratory, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (3) North Dakota State University, Department of Plant Pathology, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

There have been many hard red spring (HRS) wheat cultivars released in North Dakota during the last 100 years. These cultivars have been improved for various characteristics, such as adaptation to weather conditions, high yield, and good milling and baking quality. The objectives of this study were to identify how quality characteristics change in relation to the year of release and to determine the association between these characteristics and protein composition in historical and modern HRS wheat cultivars. For this purpose, the relationship between year and dough characteristics, such as stability and peak time, were analyzed for 30 HRS wheat cultivars released between 1910 and 2013. Thereafter, the association between quality characteristics and protein composition, specifically ω-gliadins were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods. A significant positive correlation (P ≤ 0.01) between dough properties and release year was identified, although the correlation between year and protein content was not significant (P ≥ 0.05). The size-exclusion-HPLC results, which were used to determine protein molecular weight distribution, and the correlation with quality traits show a positive correlation between the ω-gliadin fraction and year of release. Interestingly, the same trend was seen for ω-gliadin and dough characteristics. However, negative correlations were found between this gliadin fraction and minor baking characteristics, such as texture and crumb color. Reverse-phase-HPLC was used to confirm the above findings. Certain peaks corresponding to ω-gliadin were identified, which showed positive correlations with dough properties and somewhat negative correlations with minor baking characteristics. In conclusion, the increase in ω-gliadin could have led to the favorable dough properties that are seen in modern spring wheat cultivars. 50-S Formation and amylase resistance of a novel nano-particulate fraction obtained by acid hydrolysis of normal, hylon V and VII maize starches M. PEREZ HERRERA (1), T. Vasanthan (1), R. Hoover (2), M. Izdorczyk (3) (1) University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; (2) Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NF, Canada; (3) Canadian Grain Commission, Grain Research Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

A novel nano-particulate fraction obtained by acid hydrolysis (3.16 M H2SO4, 40°C, 6 days) of maize starches of varying amylose content was characterized. This is the first study that has shown the presence, type, and mechanism of formation of nano-particulates during hydrolysis of normal- and high-amylose maize starches. The objective was to study the molecular composition and morphology of nano-particulates (F2) in order to better understand whether amylose content per se and/or their extent of co-crystallization with amylopectin clusters influence their yield and morphology. The starch hydrolysate was separated into 3 fractions: a) acid solubilized starch (F1), b) acid resistant nano-particles (F2), and c) acid resistant residue (F3). F2 was detected only in normal- and high-amylose starches, with their yield proportional to amylose content. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of discrete square/oval/asymmetrical shaped particulates of diameters in the range of 50 to 250 nm in F2. The X-ray diffraction patterns of F2 were identical to their native counterparts. The absence of F2 in waxy maize when considered along with the F2 data on normal- and high-amylose starches provided evidence of the presence of disordered amylopectin starch blocklets and retrograded crystalline amylose in F2. The resistance of nano-particulates in F2 toward amylolysis as determined by the Megazyme method followed the order: hylon VII > hylon V > normal. The residue (RS3) left after hydrolysis ranged in size from 50 to 200 nm in the normal- and high-amylose maize starches. Studies are underway to determine the molecular size distribution of F2 and the RS3 residues.

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51-S Time–temperature distribution studies during preconditioning of extruded pet food T. ZHOU (1), S. Alavi (2), C. Stark (1) (1) Food Science Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.; (2) Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Preconditioning is an important step during extrusion of pet foods, as it improves process efficiency, product quality, and very importantly microbial safety. The high-intensity preconditioner (HIP) presents a significant development in which two independently driven shafts offer control of both speed and rotational direction as steam is introduced. The primary focus of this study was residence time distribution (RTD) of a dog food formulation during HIP operation. Plastic beads were introduced as tracer and RTD calculated based on the relationship between tracer concentration and time. In the first experiment, both shafts had clockwise rotation; speed of the small shaft was varied between 200 and 400 rpm while keeping large shaft speed constant at 200 rpm, and that of the large shaft varied between 200 and 300 rpm while keeping small shaft speed constant at 200 rpm. With an increase in small shaft speed, average residence time decreased from 185 sec to 106 sec, and RTD had narrower spread. The latter validated the primary mixing function of the small shaft of HIP. Residence decreased from 185 sec to 100 sec with an increase in large shaft speed, but the difference was much higher relative to change in speed of the small shaft. This validated the conveying function of the large shaft of HIP. Residence time calculated from “dead stop” method (ratio of weight of material retained in HIP to throughput) was higher, although the same trends were observed. In the second experiment, the rotational directions of the two shafts were varied independently with their speeds constant at 200 rpm. RTD and residence time varied significantly with direction; longest retention time (220 sec) was observed when both shafts had clockwise rotation, and shortest retention time (159 sec) when both had counter-clockwise rotation. As a next step, a time-temperature distribution (TTD) study was designed for HIP using a specially fabricated time-temperature indicator (TTI). Intensity of time-temperature history had a good correspondence with residence time and preconditioning temperature. 52-S Chemical leavening agents: How to address functionality issues when mineral reduction is required for heath and food safety B. B. HEIDOLPH (1) (1) Innophos, Inc., Cranbury, NJ, U.S.A.

Leavening agents are critical ingredients in baked goods. In chemically leavened baked goods, they can be health enablers or a source of unwanted nutritional components. There are options that allow the formulator to deliver “healthy,” for example, sodium reduction or mineral fortification. The focus of this presentation will be formulating for health while not compromising quality and safety. Strategies will include gas sources, the carbonates, leavening acids and salts, as well as other contributing factors, such as the selection of salt or salt replacers. 53-S Milling whole grain flours: Challenges surrounding production of a functional ingredient G. L. WEAVER (1) (1) Ardent Mills, Omaha, NE, U.S.A.

This session will focus on the dynamics and considerations in producing milled ingredients for the current market of whole grain-based products. Considerations for nutritional density, texture, flavor, and shelf life will be covered. Processing aspects and consideration of the milling process as it impacts the end-use functionality of whole grain flour in terms of moisture, particle size, enzyme denaturation, flavor impact, subsequent hydration in mixing, and the impact of heat on the product need to be taken into account to produce optimally functional flour. Milling whole grain flour from different classes of wheat also requires consideration of the processing. In addition, we will touch on future skill sets needed as the market and science evolves to meet consumer expectations in the next decade. 54-S Whole grain flours: Coping with bran-associated compounds and their impact on storage and utilization M. BUNZEL (1) (1) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany

Whole grain (WG) consumption has been linked to a reduced risk for coronary heart disease, type II diabetes, certain cancers, etc. As the germ, aleurone, testa, and pericarp of WGs contain a plethora of phytochemicals and fiber compounds that are qualitatively and/or quantitatively different from those of the endosperm, it is still not possible to link health benefits to individual compounds; synergistic effects are likely, too. Whole grain flours (WGF) contain, among others and dependent on the considered grain, higher amounts and a different

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composition of non-starch polysaccharides (e.g., arabinoxylans (AX)), polymer bound (oligomeric) ferulates, lignans, phytosterols, tocopherols, unsaturated lipids, phytic acid, vitamins, and minerals than refined flours. However, many of these potentially beneficial compounds raise issues regarding reduced storage stability and detrimental functionalities of WGF in different products. WG associated lipases and lipoxygenases in combination with higher lipid contents reduce the shelf life of flours due to hydrolytic and oxidative rancidity. Different approaches such as dry heat, steam, and other thermal treatments or conditioning in salt solutions were suggested by various researchers to decrease enzyme activity without significantly destroying antioxidants. Breadmaking functionalities of WGF are limited due to negative effects, e.g., insoluble AX and AX cross-linking via ferulates on bread texture. Also, incorporation of WGF raises taste issues such as bitter notes. The bitter taste of WG products may be due to intrinsic bran/germ components such as divalent cations and specific phenolics; however, lipid degradation products and alteration of fermentation and/or Maillard reaction pathways during breadmaking by bran/germ components were also suggested by various groups to be involved in the formation of WG product off-flavors. 55-S How to replace chlorination of flour: New, and not-so-new, approaches to modifying functionality C. J. LIN (1) (1) The Mennel Milling Co., Fostoria, OH, U.S.A.

Use of chlorine as a flour improver dates back to the late 1800s, and it continues to be widely used in soft wheat flour milling in North America. It’s well documented that chlorination of wheat flour imparts cakes with volume, fine crumb grain, good symmetry, uniform texture, and superior organoleptic characteristics. In spite of research efforts, the functionalities of flour chlorination in cake baking are yet to be fully elucidated. Recent safety concerns about chlorination of flour has led to the ban of chlorine use in flour milling in some countries around the world. Research efforts that have been made over the last 40 years have met challenges to find a true replacement of flour chlorination for high-ratio cakes. The presentation will review the flour chlorination chemistry, cake baking requirements, alternatives to flour chlorination for high-ratio cake, and challenges of these alternative approaches for complete replacement of flour chlorination for cake baking. 56-S Modifying flour performance by exploiting the potential of enzymes and non-starch carbohydrates C. M. COURTIN (1) (1) KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Depending on variety, harvest time, storage conditions, maturity, and various other factors, cereals, and hence their derived flour, can have widely differing properties. Because this variation is often difficult to control, additives are used to fine-tune flour properties. Against a background of clean labeling and prohibition of formerly allowed chemicals or treatments, enzymes are being used more and more. They constitute versatile and adaptable tools that are used in the production of cereal-based baked products for a large number of reasons. They can improve the production process and ensure that flour of lower intrinsic quality can still be used in some processes. They can improve the final product, both the organoleptic characteristics of the product, as well as its shelf life. They can also improve the end product from a nutritional point of view by changing the availability of nutrients or increasing digestibility or fermentability of others. Several of these enzymes modify flour endogenous non-starch carbohydrates. Together with added (exogenous) gums, their potential is used to modifying flour performance. 57-S Use of pulse ingredients in food applications D. UZUNALIOGLU (1), C. Gunnett (1), J. Du (1), C. Sistrunk (1), J. Maliska (1), M. Tulbek (2), E. Yildiz (1) (1) Ingredion Inc., Bridgewater, NJ, U.S.A.; (2) AGT Foods and Ingredients, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Chickpeas, dry beans, lentils, dry peas, fava beans, cowpeas, and pigeon peas, known as pulses, are gaining attention in food product development as nutritionally superior, gluten- and allergen-free, and non-GMO food ingredients. There have been a number of product launches recently in snacks, pasta, gluten-free and dip applications where pulse ingredients are used. Formulating with pulse ingredients offers food manufacturers several advantages, including labeling, functional, and nutritional benefits. Pulses and pulse ingredients are rich in protein, protein quality, soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. Due to their composition and structure they can be used to provide emulsification, texture, gelling, water-holding, adhesion, and film-forming properties. In addition, pulses are highly sustainable crops since they use half the non-renewable energy inputs compared to other crops, fix the nitrogen in the soil, and are used as rotational crops to restore the quality of farmland. In this presentation, the guidelines will be provided for formulating with pulse flours in different applications through the case studies conducted. Specifically, the following case studies will be shared: protein enhancement in bakery, snacks, and cereals; wheat-flour replacement in gluten-free bakery and snack development; egg-reduction in bakery and pasta; and wheat flour replacement in batter and breading applications.

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58-S Pulse protein structure-functional properties and food applications L. CHEN (1) (1) University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

Pulses are high in protein (20%–25%), and pulse proteins are attracting attention because of potential from both nutrition and health standpoints. This presentation will introduce our recent effort to understand how pulse protein structural properties (molecular weight, hydrodynamic size, surface charge and hydrophobicity, and conformation) impact their functionalities, with a special emphasis on surface behavior and foaming/emulsifying properties. Their food applications as animal protein replacement are also demonstrated with sensory evaluations. The generated knowledge may help develop strategies for value-added processing and applications of pulse proteins. 59-S Pulse carbohydrates: Properties and applications N. NAGULESWARAN (1) (1) Ingredion Inc., Bridgewater, NJ, U.S.A.

The carbohydrates in pulse seeds (60–65%) consist of starch, cellulose, hemi-cellulose, oligosaccharides, and sugars. Pulse carbohydrates exhibit unique physicochemical, nutritional, and functional properties that can be exploited in a range of food and industrial applications. Pulse starches, which are different in structure and composition compared to other conventional commercial starches, could provide various nutritional and health benefits: reduced caloric content, low glycemic, and contribute to improved cardiovascular health. Although most of the pulse starches possess good thermal and shear stability, the properties such as restricted swelling power, high retrogradation rate, and poor freeze-thaw stability, make pulse starches applicable for few selected commercial applications. A comprehensive understanding on the structure–function relationships is required to expand the commercial utilization of pulse starches. The starch industry could benefit greatly from pulse starches that could be fractionated from a variety of pulses available around the world. Pulse seeds contain a considerable amount of dietary fiber (12–37% total: 2–9% soluble and 10–28% insoluble) in both the hulls and cotyledons. Pulse fibers could be used as alternatives to cereal fibers to provide unique functionalities, such as improved water- and oil-holding capacities in processed foods. In addition, pulses are rich in α-galactooligosaccharides, which are believed to provide prebiotic health benefits. Developing processes to improve the soluble dietary fiber content would be critical in expanding the commercial applications of pulse fibers. Focused applied research on pulse starch and fiber could help the food industry to better utilize pulse ingredients in improving the quality of various food products. 60-S Flavor and anti-nutrients in pulses: Challenges in recent advances in food applications M. C. TULBEK (1) (1) AGT Food and Ingredients Inc., Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Pulse crops are rich sources of protein, dietary fiber, and micronutrients. Pulses can be utilized as whole crops or can be transformed into ingredients to be utilized in food systems. Pulses contain a number of minor components that have been viewed as antinutritional factors due to their antagonistic effects on monogastrics, companion animals, and humans. Major antinutritional factors identified in pulses are phytates, enzyme inhibitors (trypsin, chymotrypsin, α-amylases), lectins, polyphenols, saponins, and oxalates. Researchers reported several processing technologies that modify and inactivate antinutritional factors, such as dehulling, soaking, conventional boiling, roasting, germination, fermentation, micronization, microwave cooking, pressure cooking, extrusion, and enzymatic treatment. In this presentation the impact of processing technologies on antinutritional factors, as well as taste and flavor components, will be elaborated. 61-S Extrusion processing of pulse ingredients C. Li (1), G. GANJYAL (1) (1) Washington State University, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.

There have been significant efforts in recent years to utilize pulse ingredients in food products. Both whole and refined pulses flours have been used more commonly. In recent years, fractionated components of these pulses (starch, protein, and fiber) have been used in the development of various food products. Despite numerous product development efforts, there is still a lack of fundamental data on the functionality of the various fractioned components of these pulses. Among the various food products launched with pulse ingredients, a significant number of them are in the snacks category. Extrusion processing technology is very commonly used in the manufacture of snacks. There is a need to understand the behavior of the different pulse ingredients and their fractionates within extrusion processing. A brief review of the value-added processing of ingredients from pulses

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is presented here. The functional properties, including the thermal and rheological properties, of the ingredients from peas and lentils and their extrusion processing characteristics will be discussed. Impacts of the most common varieties of peas and lentils will also be reported. This data will be valuable for the industry in their efforts to utilize these ingredients to develop high-quality food products. 62-S Gluten in cereal-based foods—Benefits and risks P. KOEHLER (1) (1) Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Lebensmittelchemie, Freising, Germany

The techno-functional properties of gluten in breadmaking are caused by its structure. It is generally accepted that the quantity of gluten, as well as its quality, are the key determinants of gluten functionality. Gluten quality is reflected by its composition, with gliadins and glutenins as functional constituents. One important factor that determines gluten quality is a suitable ratio of gliadins to glutenins, which should be in the range of 1.5 to 2.3. The second factor is the content of glutenin macropolymer (gel protein) showing concentrations of 20 to 40 mg/g of flour. These concentration-based parameters, as well as the amounts and ratios of individual protein types and subunits, are accessible by extraction/HPLC- or capillary electrophoretic methods and provide a good prediction of the breadmaking performance of wheat flour. However, beside its techno-functionality gluten is also an unwanted food ingredient for a considerable part of the population because different types of gluten intolerances exist, such as wheat allergy, celiac disease, and non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Symptoms range from intestinal damage to skin and respiratory problems. Although these disorders have different causes the common therapy for patients is a gluten-free diet. This means a severe restriction of the quality of life since cereal products causing celiac disease are staple foods for most people. Common raw materials used for gluten-free products are maize, sorghum, rice, buckwheat, or chestnut. As these base materials lack the techno-functionality of wheat gluten, thickening agents such as locust bean gum, guar gum, or hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose are used as gluten replacers, although the mechanism of action of these ingredients is different from gluten. To ensure the safety of gluten-free foods, methods for reliable gluten quantitation are urgently needed. 63-S Gluten-related disorders K. SCHERF (1) (1) Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Lebensmittelchemie, Freising, Germany

Wheat consumption has been linked to obesity, diabetes, mental illness, and a variety of other health risks by pseudoscientific books like Wheat Belly and Grain Brain. The resulting media coverage has raised public awareness of gluten-related disorders and caused controversial discussions. As a consequence, adopting a gluten-free diet is popular as part of a healthy lifestyle, even without clear medical necessity. With an annual production of over 700 million tons worldwide, wheat is one of the most important global commodities. The unique baking quality of wheat flour is caused by the viscoelastic properties of gluten (gliadins + glutenins). However, in predisposed persons, wheat consumption may lead to IgE-mediated allergies, such as baker’s asthma, wheat allergy, wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (WDEIA), and urticaria; IgG-/IgA-mediated immune reactions, such as celiac disease, gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis; or an innate immune reaction like non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS). The prevalences in Western populations are estimated to be 0.5–4% for wheat allergies, 1% for celiac disease, and 1–6% for NCGS. Wheat contains a complex mixture of hundreds of proteins, many of which have been implicated in triggering immune reactions. The major wheat allergens are α-amylase inhibitors (CM proteins), other water-soluble proteins, gliadins, and glutenins. Gluten proteins from wheat, rye, and barley are the precipitating factor of celiac disease, gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis. NCGS is presumably caused by gluten proteins and/or α-amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) as activators of the innate immune response. Depending on the pathomechanism, different therapies are necessary, which include avoidance of exposure to wheat and its products and a gluten-free diet with a maximum intake of 20 mg of gluten/day. 64-S Improved reference materials for gluten-free analysis R. POMS (1), S. Tömöskösi (2), T. Koerner (3), P. Koehler (4) (1) MoniQA–International Association for Monitoring and Quality Assurance in the Total Food Supply Chain, Vienna, Austria; (2) Budapest University of Economics, Budapest, Hungary; (3) Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada; (4) Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie, Leibniz Institut, Freising, Germany

In Codex Alimentarius “gluten-free” food is defined as food containing less than 20 mg of gluten/kg. The newly adopted Codex standard for gluten-free foods also includes a definition of reduced-gluten foods, with a maximum limit of 100 mg of gluten/kg in products rendered gluten-free. Several countries have implemented these thresholds in their legislation. MoniQA – Monitoring and Quality Assurance in the Total food Supply Chain

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(www.moniqa.org)—the global food safety network registered as MoniQA Association—provides guidelines for method validation, reference materials, and assesses the reliability of methods and obtained results through validation studies and proficiency testing schemes. In 2013 MoniQA initiated a task force on the development of food allergen and gluten-free reference materials. The task force is an international group comprised of several SDOs (standardization organizations), industry representatives, policy makers, test kit providers and method developers, analytical companies, as well as representatives from various universities. This international group liaised with the Prolamin Working Group and works toward consensus on the specific requirements and the design of a global gluten-free reference material and food allergen reference/testing materials. The aim of MoniQA’s initiative is the publication of a guidance document on the special requirements and production of gluten-free reference materials. Accompanying research and the optimization of the production scheme to provide basic and incurred reference materials, spiked samples, and extracts have been initiated. This paper will give insight in the challenges, controversial views, and the design of the reference materials and the current state of affairs. 65-S Gluten method measurement variation P. WEHLING (1) (1) General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, MN, U.S.A.

Measurement of gluten in foods is an important part of assuring that foods marketed as gluten-free (GF) are conforming to regulatory conformance requirements. As a part of normal QA procedures, the uncertainty of measurements must be well understood in order to interpret results and to properly understand the risks inherent in conformance testing. As a part of several product development projects, we have studied the variation of our gluten measurements in various product matrices. In addition, we have performed experiments to investigate sources of method variation. This presentation will show some of our work in this area and highlight our efforts to mitigate the effects of measurement variation in our overall quality assurance scheme for gluten-free sampling and testing. 66-S The challenges and possible solutions in determining the gluten concentration in complex food matrices T. GRACE (1) (1) Bia Diagnostics and Elution Technologies, Colchester, VT, U.S.A.

Nearly three million people in the US alone suffer from celiac disease, and millions more cannot tolerate gluten (non-celiac gluten sensitivity [NCGS]) in their diet. The FDA has recently determined that foods containing less than 20 ppm gluten in that product may be labeled gluten-free. In an effort to assure gluten-sensitive consumers that a product does not contain the toxic protein above the FDA regulated level of 20 ppm most companies require a certificate of analysis stating as such from their ingredient supplier. Food manufacturers who have shared equipment check their equipment between production runs, as well as analyzing their finished product for trace amounts of gluten through the use of their own internal laboratory or a third-party lab. Most gluten methods have not been validated for the millions of variable food matrices produced every year and labeled as gluten-free, and the most challenging part in producing accurate results is the matrix itself. We have found that there is no one perfect method for extracting or detecting these proteins from all the varied foods. It is imperative, therefore, that each matrix undergo some form of validation to prove that there is nothing in the matrix that might interfere with the method used for gluten content verification. Here we discuss the various pitfalls and possible solutions to help ensure the most accurate testing results. 67-S Ancient grains: Do they really have better nutritional quality and health-promoting properties than the “Big 4” cereals? J. M. AWIKA (1) (1) Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, U.S.A.

“Ancient grains” is an ill-defined, essentially marketing, terminology used to describe cereals and non-cereal grains that are not commonly found in mainstream Western diets. Many of these grains have historically been, or remain, important staples in different parts of the world. The demand for such grains in the West has risen significantly, largely driven by their perceived healthy image, mainstream curiosity about gluten-free foods, and to a no lesser extent, their exotic appeal. Because ancient grains encompass such a diverse set of plant species, it is difficult to generalize concerning the nutritional or health advantages of these grains. Within species, any such advantages appear to be lacking or modest at best, as is the case when common wheats are compared to their ancient relatives (emmer, einkorn, spelt, and Khorasan wheat). That said, many of the ancient grains have important nutritional benefits: for example, non-cereal grains like quinoa, amaranth, and chia generally have superior nutritional quality proteins, as well as higher micronutrients contents than mainstream cereals. Some of

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the ancient grains (e.g., sorghum and millets) contain high levels of polyphenols and other secondary metabolites that have been directly and indirectly linked to various health benefits. Perhaps more important is the fact that many of the ancient grains are largely consumed in a less refined form or as whole grains, which by itself has important health implications. However, the cost of these grains as ingredients is currently quite high, partly due to their low productivity and supply. This talk will take a critical look at the hard evidence on the nutritional and health benefits of ancient grains and explore the real potential of these grains as sustained mainstream dietary components. 68-S Can ancient grains really feed the world: Developed and developing world perspectives J. TAYLOR (1) (1) University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The so-called ancient grains, sorghum, millets, pseudocereals, and indigenous legumes, are well-adapted through evolution to cultivation in harsh environmental conditions. Thus, in the next 100 years ancient grains will assume great importance as our supply is increasingly threatened by climate change, loss of arable land as a result of the growth of cities, and ever-expanding demand due to world population growth and urbanization. In the developed world, ancient grains can provide attractive variety in multigrain and wholegrain food products and can satisfy consumer demands for nutritious and more natural gluten-free foods and beverages. Most importantly they are probably the richest source of bioactive phenolic phytochemicals, which are essential for long-term good health. In the developing world, the ancient grains fill a fundamental role as major ingredients in modern staple food products. Developing countries lie mostly in the tropics and semi-arid sub-tropics, where the major temperate cereal grains barley and wheat cannot generally be economically cultivated. The development of sorghum lager beer and non-alcoholic malt beverages in Sub-Saharan Africa has been a huge success—both meeting the demand of newly urbanized consumers for Western-style beverages and at the same time providing a commercial market for small-holder farmers. In India and Africa, ancient grains are also now the basis for many convenience, ready-to-eat, type foods, such as flatbreads, soured porridges, and snacks, which are based on traditional food products. The two biggest technological challenges with ancient grains across the world are their relatively low agricultural productivity compared to the major cereal grains and the challenge of replacing wheat gluten functionality so they can they can be used to produce highly functional, quality baked goods. 69-S Prospects for genetic improvement of ancient grains D. B. HAYS (1), J. Awika (1), W. Rooney (1), J. Taylor (2) (1) Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, U.S.A.; (2) University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The ancient grains, comprising sorghum, millets, pseudocereals, and indigenous legumes, are inherently no different than the big four cereal grains, wheat, maize, rice, and barley. They have a highly nutritious embryo and either a transient or nonliving endosperm storage reserve. Like the big four cereals, ancient grain crops are genetically diverse in adaptability, productivity, and especially in allelic diversity in seed storage fractions comprised of diverse storage proteins, starches, oils, and phytin. As such, given proper long-term commitment and investment, ancient grains are capable of incredible genetic improvement in terms of yield improvement, and end-use functionality breeding in terms of modifying their major and minor storage fractions for food, feed, beverage, nutrition, and bio-pharmaceuticals and –industrials through conventional breeding, high-throughput molecular breeding (MB), or targeted genetic engineering. Brilliant examples of optimizing end-use traits by breeding for specific starch, protein, oil, and antioxidant fractions in the big four, and all other major crops, are too numerous to list, yet they demonstrate the flexibility of “the seed” and that “the sky is the limit” in terms of end-use functionality-focused ancient grain breeding. In this presentation, high-value markets for sorghum our program has targeted will be discussed. In these applications we have altered specific grain protein and starch fractions for the purpose of optimizing its rheology, food, feed, beverage, and fuel end-use functionality through targeted traditional plant breeding. 70-S Pseudocereals—Can they become mainstream staple foods? R. SCHOENLECHNER (1), S. Tömösközi (2) (1) BOKU – University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria; (2) Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

The main pseudocereals used today are amaranth (Amaranthus sp.), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tartaricum). Botanically they are assigned to the Dicotyledonae (unlike cereals, which are Monoctyledonae), but they all produce starch-rich seeds that can be used like cereals. In ancient times pseudocereals were staple foods for people in Latin America (amaranth and quinoa) and Asia (buckwheat). After a long period of neglect, these plants were “rediscovered” in the mid to late 20th century by countries in the

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Northern Hemisphere, and since the year 2000, an increase in food products on the market made with pseudocereals can be observed. The main reasons for this renewed interest can be found in two important factors: 1. Pseudocereals have an excellent nutritional composition. In particular amaranth and quinoa have a very good composition of protein and fat, high amounts of minerals, and some vitamins. As the starch granules of both plants are among the smallest known and the amylose content is very low, they show unique physicochemical properties. 2. All three pseudocereals are gluten-free and, therefore, can be consumed by persons who suffer from gluten intolerances or allergies. The increasing demand for gluten-free products in general and for high nutritious gluten-free products in particular, has been (and still is) one of the most important driving forces for the increased use of pseudocereals in developed countries. Considering the number of persons, who need to adhere to a gluten-free diet, the market can be estimated to be around 8–10% of the total population. Although because this is a fact, due to the rising price of these raw materials (e.g., the price of quinoa has risen about 5–7 times in the past 10 years), it is not very likely that pseudocereals will become mainstream staple foods for the broad population within the near future. 71-S Underutilized climate-friendly African legumes: Food, nutritional, and health-promoting aspects G. DUODU (1), A. Minnaar (1) (1) Department of Food Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Climate change is a topical issue, and there is a growing awareness of its potential effects on food security. A major portion of the most food-insecure populations reside in the Sub-Saharan African region, which is also vulnerable to some of the extreme symptoms of climate change, such as severe flooding on one hand and drought on the other. A wide variety of legumes are important food sources in Africa. Examples of such legumes include cowpeas, Bambara groundnuts, and marama beans. A major feature of such legumes is the fact that they are drought-tolerant and, therefore, may be regarded as climate-friendly legume crops. Another significant feature of these legumes is the fact that they are greatly underutilized in comparison with other well-known legumes such as the common bean. Taking the looming crisis of the adverse effects of climate change on food security into consideration, these underutilized climate-friendly legume crops could be expected to play a pivotal role in combating food insecurity in Africa. This paper will discuss the potential of underutilized legumes such as cowpeas, Bambara groundnuts, and marama beans as strategic climate-friendly crops in Africa by highlighting their food uses, nutritional value, and health-promoting properties. 72-S “Cabling technology” for advanced grain management—Perspectives on rice quality and mycotoxins G. G. ATUNGULU (1) (1) University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.

Recently introduced equilibrium moisture content (EMC) controlled-drying technology, also known as “cabling technology,” for use in on-farm drying systems offers a means to utilize the advantages of low-temperature, in-bin drying of rice. With the new cabling technology, drying fan operation is controlled depending on the EMC conditions of the drying air and the moisture content (MC) of the grain. Drying fans are operated only under set conditions for drying air temperature and relative humidity to avoid over-drying or re-wetting of the grain. The new in-bin technology is composed of sensors to measure ambient air conditions and monitor the MC and temperature of the grain throughout the bin; the MC history of the grain during drying can be accessed anytime via the Internet, which makes monitoring of the grain MC very effective. From an electronic monitor and fan control standpoint, the new cabling technology appears very promising for managing rice after harvest. However, the ultimate success hinges on accurate EMC data to establish optimal airflow rates and fan run time; understanding the extent of rice quality reduction, particularly those in the upper layers where the rice stay at high MC for prolonged durations; and provision of efficient supplemental heating systems to speed up rice drying in the event that the prevailing weather conditions do not allow complete and timely drying. This presentation discusses perspectives on rice quality and safety when using these new systems for drying and storage of rice. Case studies using data on drying and storage of rice across multiple bins situated in the US mid-Southern states and advances to optimize the new cabling technology for rapid and successful implementation are discussed. 73-S Crosstalks between biopolymers in rice: Are we listening to all the voices? F. BONOMI (1), A. Barbiroli (1), S. Iametti (1), M. Marengo (1), A. Marti (1), M. A. Pagani (1) (1) University of Milan, Milan, Italy

Some bias is apparent when considering interactions within and between families of biopolymers in grains. “Wheat people” love to talk about gluten proteins and how they impart special features to pasta and bread. Conversely, “rice people” love to discuss the relevance of individual starch components as determinants of the features of rice-based products. Of course, we are all aware that either biopolymer plays a role in both wheat- and

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rice-based foods and that a better understanding of the interaction between the two components is crucial to development in the field—be that the addition of unusual or unorthodox components (including non-grain proteins) to established cereal foods or the development of novel cereal-based food products and processes. This presentation will focus on recent methodological developments that are aimed at allowing a more thorough and comprehensive understanding of how rice starch (and its own process-induced modifications) can modulate the modifications that rice proteins (and non-rice proteins in enriched products) undergo under a variety of processing conditions. Conversely, the presentation also will cover the use of selective enzymatic degradation to address how processing (and process-induced structural changes in proteins) can modulate structural rearrangements in both amylose and amylopectin. Information derived from these novel approaches will be discussed within the frame provided by the many conventional approaches that are customarily used to characterize either starches or proteins and also in terms of the possible significance of these findings to practical applications in rice and rice-product processing. 74-S Understanding red rices—Difference and similarities J. MANFUL (1), C. C. Grimm (2), J. Gayin (3) (1) Africa Rice Center, Cotonou, Benin; (2) USDA-SRRC, New Orleans, LA, U.S.A.; (3) University of Guelph, Department of Food Science, Guelph, ON, Canada

Oryza glaberrima, most commonly known as “red rice” in reference to the red pericarp, and Oryza sativa are the two forms of rice that are cultivated. In terms of growing area, O. sativa outstrips O. glaberrima. Cooking time for red rice is usually longer than for white rice, as their pasting temperatures are higher than white rice, and they have a nutty flavor and sweeter taste. Red rice is usually consumed as whole grain and, thus, is a good source of three kinds of antioxidants: water soluble and insoluble and fat soluble. Due to their brittle grains, red rice varieties give lower head rice yields. While compounds such as 4-ethylphenol (musty) and 2,4-heptadienal (fruity) have been found to be comparable to O. glaberrima, others such as 2-ethyl-1-hexanol and α-copaene have been found in relatively larger concentrations in red rice than white rice. In terms of amylose content, red rices are mostly intermediate- and high-amylose rice types. Comparative studies of the thermal and molecular characteristics of starches of red and white rices showed both differences and similarities. While their melting transition temperatures were similar, red rices had higher gelatinization transition temperatures than the white rices. The starches of both types showed an A-type X-ray diffraction pattern. Although starches from both species were similar in terms of the major group of short B-chains in their amylopectins, red rices had a greater amount of “fingerprint” Bfp-chains and higher degree of polymerization than white rices. 75-S Identification of phenolic acids and anthocyanins in whole grain rice and their relations to antioxidant capacity J. S. BAO (1), Y. F. Shao (1), H. C. Zhang (2), T. Beta (2) (1) Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; (2) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada

Polyphenols have both nutritional and functional significance for human health. Identification of polyphenol compounds and investigation of their distribution and accumulation patterns in the grain may provide new information for the use of whole grain rice. The free/conjugated phenolic acids in white, red, and black rice bran accounted for 41%, 65%, and 85% of total acids, respectively. Bound phenolic acids were predominantly found in rice bran, accounting for about 90% of total acids in whole grain. Cis-p-coumaric, detected in the bound form of bran, and cis-sinapic acid, detected in the free/conjugated form of embryo and bran, were rarely reported before. p-Coumaric acid (<3.5 mg/100 g) did not differ significantly at most grain-filling stages, with somewhat high levels at 1 week after flowering for red and black rice. Protocatechuic acid was detected in red and black rice, with relatively high levels at 1 week of development (1.41 mg/100 g) and at maturity (4.48 mg/100 g), respectively. Vanillic acid (2.4–5.4 mg/100 g) was detected only in black rice, where it peaked at maturity. Ferulic acid (4.0–17.9 mg/100 g), the most abundant bound phenolic acid, had an inconsistent trend, with higher levels observed in black rice, where it peaked at maturity. Isoferulic acid levels (0.8–1.6 mg/100 g) were generally low, with slightly elevated values observed at maturity. Phenolic dehydrodimers were observed only in the insoluble bound fractions, which mainly consisted of 8-5′-coupled diferulic acids and 5-5′-coupled diferulic acids. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside were identified mainly in black rice bran, accounting for 98% and 93%, respectively, of the total anthocyanins. Cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside also was detected in the black rice bran. The relationships between phenolic acids and the total antioxidant capacities of different rice accessions also were established.

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76-S Rice microstructure D. F. WOOD (1), T. G. Williams (1), W. J. Orts (1) (1) USDA ARS WRRC, Albany, CA, U.S.A.

An understanding of plant structure is desirable to obtain a clear idea of the overall impact of a crop. A mature rice plant consists of leafy components (left in the field post-harvest) and paddy rice (collected). The rice plant is supported by a hollow stem (culm) with leaf sheaths attached to nodes. Rice panicles are located on the uppermost node of a culm. Each panicle has numerous branches and supports the growth of a single spikelet at each terminus. Each spikelet (paddy rice) consists of a caryopsis (brown rice grain) and the surrounding hull. The hull consists of a palea and lemma, which are subtended by glumes and a rachilla. The lemma and palea have an outer epidermis, highly lignified sclerenchyma, spongy parenchyma, and inner epidermis. The caryopsis consists of a seed and tightly adherent pericarp (fruit coat). The pericarp is comprised of a thin cuticle covering the epidermis, several layers of partially crushed, “spongy” parenchyma, and cross and tube cells. The seed includes the testa, nucellus, embryo, and endosperm. The testa and nucellus consist of a single crushed layer of cells, the testa and nucellar cuticles, and the remains of the nucellar cells. The embryo consists of the scutellum, embryonic axis, and various sheathing structures containing storage proteins, lipids, and meristematic tissues. The endosperm consists of an outer aleurone layer and inner starchy endosperm. The aleurone layer contains spherical storage proteins. Many of the storage proteins in the aleurone cells contain inclusions of phytic acid. The starchy endosperm contains thin-walled parenchyma cells filled with compound starch granules. The youngest starchy endosperm cells are located at the periphery of the starchy endosperm and also contain protein and lipid bodies. The protein and lipid bodies diminish in number toward the interior of the starchy endosperm. 77-S Quality research into Asian cereal-based foods—A historical perspective L. CATO (1), G. B. Crosbie (2) (1) Australian Export Grains Innovation Centre, South Perth, WA, Australia; (2) Crosbie Grain Quality Consulting, East Fremantle, WA, Australia

Prior to the 1960s, cereal chemists gave little attention to the quality requirements of Asian markets. The major focus for many decades for cereal scientists in relation to cereal–based food products was on Western style products, particularly bread, baking processes, and soft wheat products, including cookies and cakes. In more recent history, scientists have turned their attention away from understanding wheat and flour quality solely as it relates to bread because of the growing understanding that wheat is used for numerous other end products, such as Asian noodles, Asian steamed breads, chapattis, etc. Cereal chemists from within Asia and the major grain exporting countries have become increasingly involved in a wide range of research activities. Areas of research include market visits to gain first-hand knowledge of the range of products and manufacturing processes employed; product assessment; consumer quality preferences; studies on the relationship between grain composition and product quality; and the objective measurement of product texture and appearance. Much of the research has involved collaboration between chemists from cereal exporting and importing countries. The research has led to the recognition of additional quality traits of importance that need to be addressed in cereal breeding. 78-S Importance of health and nutrition in the Asian context: How to cope with the new challenges? G. G. HOU (1) (1) Wheat Marketing Center, Portland, OR, U.S.A.

According to the United Nations (2001), the number of people age 65 and older in Asia will increase from 207 million in 2000 to 857 million in 2050—a 314% increase. The increasing aging population raises the demand for nutritional and healthy foods. Staple foods in Asia include rice and wheat. Asian noodles make up 20–50% of total flour consumption and have been an important part of the diet of many Asians. Wheat flour is the main ingredient for making Asian noodles, but it is not considered nutritionally well-balanced, especially for noodles made with refined wheat flour. Some consumers are concerned about the lack of nutrition and health benefits of regular noodle products. This presentation will provide some specific options to improve nutritional and health benefits of Asian noodles through fortification with proteins, minerals, and dietary fibers. Another important strategy is to produce noodles with whole grain flour; however, whole grain noodles lack desirable eating quality (texture, taste, and color) due to the presence of coarse brans. New technologies that are effective in improving whole wheat noodle quality include the reduction of whole wheat flour (WWF) particle size by fine-grinding millfeeds and use of functional ingredients. Results showed that with the reduction of WWF particle size, raw noodle brightness improved and cooked noodle hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and resilience values significantly increased. Transglutaminase, sodium stearoyl lactate, and phosphate salts were found to enhance the gluten strength of whole wheat dough and improve the qualities of whole wheat noodles. These new technologies will provide new tools for food manufacturers to produce whole grain noodle products with more nutrition and health benefits and acceptable eating quality.

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79-S Gluten-free noodle technology of making, evaluation techniques—New technology and developments M. Y. SU (1) (1) China Grain Products R&D Institute, Taipei, Taiwan

It is known that gluten-free foods like rice, in general, tend to fit a natural lifestyle for the consumer. Recently, our research team has studied the effects of rice grains on the physical properties of rice flour and the manufacturing factors for development of novel rice products. Assessment of the manufacturing technology used for rice noodles is one of the important areas. Generally, for rice cultivars with an amylose content than 17%, the milled rice flour specifications had an average particle diameter from 40 to 100 μm and damaged starch between 18 and 35% and were suited for whole rice pasta making. In addition, the pasta process is more suitable than the oriental noodle process to make gluten-free rice noodles. Because of the cooking and textural quality the former had higher tensile strength and gel hardness, lower cooking loss, and higher water absorption than the oriental noodle process. Sensory evaluation showed that the satisfactory acceptance of the whole rice or durum wheat pasta was not significantly difference. Mixing of the rice flour with 10–20% pregelatinized rice flour and 32–36% water to form appropriate dough gave good retention of shape and firmness. Freshly made rice pasta was dried further for 8 hr at different temperatures from 60 to 35°C to reach a final moisture content of 10–13%. In addition, both the fresh and dried whole rice pasta had obviously increased lightness (L*) and redness (a*) and decreased yellowness (b*) compared with the control durum wheat pasta.

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2015 Abstracts of Oral Presentations

1-O A comparative aroma analysis of intermediate wheatgrass and whole wheat bread crusts K. A. SNEDDON (1), A. A. Amann (1), D. G. Peterson (1) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.

Sustainability is a current focus of agronomy research and of growing importance to consumers. One promising sustainable alternative crop for wheat is intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium). However, for sustainable crops such as intermediate wheatgrass to be utilized, flavor acceptability is essential. The main objective of this work was to compare the aroma profile of intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) bread crust to that of whole wheat (WW) bread crust, as the aroma properties of foods play an important role in consumer acceptability. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry and aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) were utilized to identify the main differences in the aroma compounds in WW and IWG bread crusts. In summary, 3-methylbutanal, 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine, and (E)-2-nonenal were reported higher in concentration in the WW bread crust, while 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline was higher in the IWG sample. The cocoa-like aroma compound, 2-methylpropanal, was additionally reported to be a unique odorant in WW breast crust. The noted differences in the bread crust aroma profiles between the IWG and WW samples provide a basis to develop processing strategies for IWG bread to more closely mimic the flavor of WW bread or to optimize the unique flavor of IWG bread for improved consumer acceptability. 2-O Flavor and texture improvement in whole grain biscuits L. HAYNES (1), B. Zhao (1), O. Herrera-Gomez (1), S. Gabriel (1) (1) Mondelez International, East Hanover, NJ, U.S.A.

The flavor and texture of whole grain baked products, often described as a strong wheat taste and slightly bitter, is improved by heat and moisture treatment of the ground bran and germ component of the flour. The heating conditions of temperature, moisture, and time are studied to determine physical requirements for volatilizing strong wheat, bitter flavor components and developing a buttery, nutty, caramelized flavor in the bran ingredient. Temperatures of 285°F to about 410°F and removal of 30% to 75% of the moisture in bran and processing to moisture contents from about 1.5% by weight to about 4.5% by weight produce an ingredient with improved flavor. Ingredient vitamin content and enzyme activity are characterized. The treated bran, reconstituted into whole grain wheat flour, is used to make 100% whole grain biscuit products. Improvements to biscuit texture, flavor, and baking performance are measured and superior sensory attributes, such as reduced wheat flavor, reduced hay taste, reduced grit or particulate texture, and increased sweet, buttery, nutty, caramelized, browned flavor. Volatile aroma compounds are identified and measured as a response to heat and moisture treatment. Compounds believed to be responsible for the strong flavor that are removed during the ground bran and germ component treatment include hexanal, heptadienal, nonanal, decanal, nonenal, heptenal, 1-octen-3-one, 3,5-octadien-2-one, decadienal, nonadienal, octenal, and combinations or mixtures thereof. 3-O Examining wheat (Triticum aestivum) genetics using mouse (Mus musculus) flavor preference and discrimination A. M. KISZONAS (1), P. E. Fuerst (2), C. F. Morris (3) (1) USDA-ARS WWQL, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.; (2) Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.; (3) USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) provides vital nutrients for health in the human diet. Flavor differences among wheat varieties are not well understood. Lab animal model systems are widely used to study taste and food selection. Using the house mouse (Mus musculus L.) as a model system, flavor preference and discrimination were examined in three studies using a two-choice feeding system and 24 hr trials. To eliminate the confounding effects of processing, whole wheat grain was used. One study examined consistency of the mouse model across three crop years. A single elimination tournament was used to analyze separately hard red and hard white spring varieties. In all three years, the same varieties were preferred as the “winner” of both the hard red and hard white spring varieties. The second study focused on color and hardness preference of mice using near-isogenic lines that varied for number of red genes and kernel hardness. The discrimination of wheat kernels based on color was a more complex system than has been described; one variety exhibited preferable taste with white bran, whereas the other variety was decidedly unfavorable only when three red genes were present. The mice were able to detect even small hardness differences. The third study focused on creating an independent metric by which to evaluate wheat varieties for potential future uses in genetic mapping. Two-choice feeding trials are common in consumption studies, but do not provide an independent, quantitative phenotype. Using two check varieties previously identified as “yummy” and “yucky,” Student’s t values provided independent rankings of the varieties.

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The ability to use common checks to generate independent, objective t values to be used as phenotypes will allow for further genetic studies using genetic mapping. Results from the mouse model can be tested in human sensory analysis and chemometrics. 4-O Modeling oral destructuration of bread and cereal foods during chewing L. Chaunier (1), G. DELLA VALLE (2), S. Guessasma (1), L. Hedjazi (1), F. Le Bleis (3) (1) INRA, Nantes, France; (2) INRA, Nantes Cedex 3, France; (3) Food Development, Nantes, France

Current nutritional issues have drawn attention on mastication, the first step of the digestion process. It implies complex phenomena to prepare the food bolus for swallowing. Two main mechanisms control bolus destructuration: fragmentation and lubrication by saliva. Two types of food have been considered here: a fragile one, breakfast cereals (BC), and a ductile one, bread. The apparent viscosity of a bread bolus was determined by capillary rheometry for three breads differing in density and salt content and a panel of 20 individuals. In all cases, it followed a power law, which index of consistency decreased with chewing time; its final value depended on bread structure. This decrease was linked to the increase of moisture content, due to saliva uptake; as for starchy extruded melts, it was reflected by a plasticization coefficient (α = 10–30). Assuming that the absorption of saliva was favored by the decrease of the bolus particle size, we have set-up imaging methods to assess the fragmentation mechanisms for both product types, bread and BC. In both cases, the mean particle size was found to decrease rapidly during the first chewing cycles. In the case of bread, a phenomenological model was derived to relate bolus moisture content with mean fragment size and theoretical saliva flow. In the case of BC, the main deformation mechanisms were addressed by mechanical modeling using the finite element method, in order to determine a crack propagation criterion. Then, the fragmentation process of a real breakfast cereal was simulated using the discrete element method applied to the 3D structure of the material investigated by X-ray tomography. The agreement with experimental results opens prospects to extend the model to ductile products (bread) and provide a quantitative approach to food destructuration during chewing. 5-O Starch behavior in organic solvents: Could this elucidate key structure features of the granule? A. F. BROEGGER (1), N. Koganti (1), S. Hill (1) (1) University of Nottingham, Loughborough, U.K.

It is understood that hierarchical structures within native starch granules relate to their functionality, but the critical relationships between starch structure and performance are hard to determine. This may be because many starches are processed at low moisture, while their characteristics are routinely analyzed in excess aqueous media. The organic solvent N-methyl morpholine N-oxide (4-methylmorpholine 4-oxide), abbreviated to NMMO, is used to disrupt hydrogen bonding in cellulose and causes it to dissolve. NMMO (with water (22%)) also causes dissolution of starches demonstrated by exothermic DSC thermograms of approximately –15 J/g of starch and a peak temperature of approximately 100°C. RVA pasting curves using NMMO show high final viscosities when compared to those in water; for example, wheat at 5% in water had an end viscosity of approximately 200 cP, while it was 10 times greater in NMMO. Results for the behavior of nine native starches (wheat, maize, waxy maize, high amylose maize, rice, cassava, potato, pea, sago) in NMMO were not predictable from knowledge of their particle size, amylose/amylopectin ratio, pasting behavior in water, swelling volumes, solubility, X-ray, or DSC, and no correlation was found between their behaviors in water and in 78% NMMO-22% water. Recent work showed that NMMO can differentiate between starches (cassava) from the same botanical source when their performance in water was the same. The balance between starch solubilization and the molecular ordering of the starch macromolecules can be probed through the use of organic solvents and it suggests that structural elements within the starch granule, not normally measured, are relevant to the rheology and functionality of the starches. 7-O The effects of corn fractions on cardiovascular risk factors in low density lipoprotein receptor knockout mice K. MASISI (1), T. Beta (1), K. Le (2), M. H. Moghadasian (2) (1) Department of Food Science and Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Department of Human Nutritional Sciences and Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Accumulating evidence has suggested that intake of whole grains is a protective factor against pathogenesis of coronary artery disease. The exact mechanisms, however, are still not clearly understood. We hypothesized that adequate intakes of corn fractions (aleurone, endosperm, and germ) reduce cardiovascular risks through beneficial alterations in endogenous antioxidant status, lipid profile, and inflammatory pathways in low density lipoprotein receptor knockout (LDL-r-KO) mice. Four groups of male LDL-r-KO mice were fed with the experimental diets supplemented with (3 treated groups) or without (1 control group) 5% (wt/wt) of each hand-separated corn fraction for 10 weeks. All diets were supplemented with 0.06% (wt/wt) dietary cholesterol. LDL-r-KO mice are

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well known models for studying LDL oxidation and atherosclerosis. This study, approved by the Animal Care Committee at the University of Manitoba, is currently in progress. Supplementation of corn fractions did not change weight gain rate or food intake in LDL-r-KO mice during the first 6 weeks of the study. However, mice fed with aleurone fraction had significantly lower plasma total cholesterol (TC; P < 0.04) as compared with those in other groups at week 6 of the study. Susceptibility of LDL particles to copper-induced oxidation as well as the extent and degree of atherogenesis will be examined at the end of the study. The findings of this study will encourage further investigations of potential cardiovascular benefits of cereal grain fractions. 8-O Effect of roasting on phenolics content and antioxidant activity of proso millet F. HAN (1), L. Zheng (2), W. Di (1), Y. Liang (1), X. Chen (1), A. Li (1) (1) Academy of State Administration of Grain, P.R. China, Beijing, China; (2) School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China

The influence of roasting on the antioxidant activity and phenolics content of two varieties of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) was studied. Changes in phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant properties during the roasting of soaked proso millet seeds at 180°C were measured by the DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC assays. These contents and properties increased markedly after roasting for 10 min. After 30 min, the total content of phenolics and flavonoids was increased 1.6-fold and 1.2-fold, respectively, for the Nei Mei 8 variety and 1.6-fold and 1.3-fold, respectively, for the Xi Nong 10-4 variety of P. miliaceum. The antioxidant capacity was increased significantly (P < 0.05). The positive correlation coefficients between the total content of phenolics, total content of flavonoids, and antioxidant activity were high; the highest was between total content of phenolics and FRAP (r = 0.995). Nine individual phenolic compounds were identified in roasted proso millet. The predominant phenolic acids were p-coumaric acid and trans-ferulic acid in the free fraction and vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, and trans-ferulic acid in the bound fraction. The most abundant phenolic acid in proso millet was trans-ferulic acid. This study showed that roasting increased the content of phenolic compounds and the antioxidant activity of proso millet. 9-O Distribution of minerals in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grains and in their milling fractions as affected by pearling N. DE BRIER (1), S. V. Gomand (1), E. Donner (2), D. Paterson (3), E. Lombi (2), E. Smolders (1), J. A. Delcour (1) (1) KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; (2) University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia; (3) Australian Synchrotron, Melbourne, Australia

Common wheat is an important source of minerals in the human diet. We studied the mineral distribution in intact and pearled wheat grains and the impact of pearling (0, 3, 6, 9, and 12% by weight) prior to roller milling on the mineral composition of flour, shorts, and (residual) bran. Synchrotron μ-XRF (X-ray fluorescence) was used to map minerals in thin sections of kernels with a 4 μm lateral resolution, while inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was performed to study the mineral concentration in milling products and the effect of pearling thereupon. The xylem mobile elements Mn, Si, Ca, and Sr are dominant in the most outer bran layers, while phloem mobile elements such as K, Mg, P, Fe, Zn, and Cu are rather concentrated in the aleurone. X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) mapping shows that Fe is phytate-bound in the aleurone. In the wheat embryo, the shoot primordium is rich in Zn, while its root contains high concentrations of Mn. The nucellar projection in the crease region has very high concentrations of Fe but almost no P, which is in agreement with the XANES mapping, showing that Fe is not phytate-bound in the nucellar projection. Abrading the most outer bran layers lowers the concentrations of the xylem mobile elements in the residual bran fractions after pearling and increases the levels of most of the phloem mobile elements. Mo, Cd, and especially Se are more evenly distributed, and their concentrations in milling fractions are less affected by pearling. Pearling (3%) increases the concentration of P, Zn, and Cu in flour because the bran fractions of pearled kernels reaching the flour are enriched in aleurone. The gathered knowledge is of high importance for enhancing the bio-accessibility of minerals by plant breeding, biofortification, and/or processing. 10-O Interaction between cereal β-glucan and gastric mucin L. Ringier (1), P. Fischer (1), L. NYSTROEM (1) (1) ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Dynamic interaction of cereal β-glucan and gastric mucin was studied as a potential new dynamic mechanism of action responsible for the regulation of absorption of nutrients such as cholesterol and glucose. The well-established health benefits of β-glucan are generally related to its capability to increase viscosity of the gut contents. However, our study demonstrates that the mixture of mucin and β-glucan can form stronger gels than

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mucin alone. Gastric mucin was extracted from fresh porcine stomachs, homogenized in buffer solution, fractionated using ultracentrifugation, and dialyzed. β-Glucan samples from oat and barley (concentrated extracts, purified commercial samples, and oxidized β-glucans) were mixed with the freshly prepared mucin gel, and after incubation the viscoelastic properties of the gels were measured. Addition of 2% of low molecular weight barley β-glucan to mucin gel increased the storage modulus (G′) by an order of magnitude from 1 Pa to 10 Pa. Similarly, an increase in the gel strength was observed with β-glucans that were oxidized through hydroxyl radical treatment (addition of 20 mM of hydrogen peroxide and 100 μM ferrous ions, incubation up to 24 hr at 55°C). These results demonstrate that low molecular weight β-glucan, which also has a low viscosity, may have an active interaction with the mucosal layer in the gastrointestinal tract and that these interactions may be further enhanced by oxidation that introduces new functional groups to the polymer chain. This study may lead to a paradigm shift that highlights the importance of active intermolecular interactions between soluble dietary fibers and the gastrointestinal mucin, and it provides explanations and a new mechanism of action for the low viscosity fibers that have been previously considered as less active in health-promoting properties. 11-O The bubble size distribution and its evolution in wheat flour doughs investigated by synchrotron X-ray microtomography F. KOKSEL (1), S. Aritan (2), A. Strybulevych (1), J. H. Page (1), M. G. Scanlon (3) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Biomechanics Research Group, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey; (3) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Understanding how the bubble size distributions are formed during mixing and controlling bubble nucleation are the basis for predicting and improving final product quality before bread is fully manufactured. X-rays from a synchrotron source (BioMedical Imaging and Therapy beamline, Canadian Light Source) were used to rapidly characterize the initial bubble size distribution and its evolution in dough subsamples over the course of 3 hr following mixing. A complete X-ray microtomography scan over 180° was completed within 120 sec. The number density of bubbles ranged from 600 to 2,350 mm–3, which was higher than results previously reported. The higher number density of bubbles was attributed to the better contrast, higher resolution, and, thus, smaller pixel size (8.75 μm) of the reconstructed X-ray images generated from synchrotron X-rays. The bubble size distribution was very well characterized with a lognormal distribution function. This distribution had a median bubble radius of 22.1 ± 0.7 μm at 36 min after the end of mixing, which increased to 29.2 ± 0.2 μm over 190 min, a trend indicative of transport of gas in the dough due to disproportionation. This is the first time disproportionation in nonyeasted wheat flour doughs has been monitored using X-rays from a synchrotron source. These results imply that very small bubbles, which could not be observed in previous studies due to resolution limitations, are actually present in bread dough and their diffusion-driven dynamics can be followed by synchrotron source X-rays after feature extraction using custom written image analysis software. 12-O Rapid measurement of grain and flour quality using a new falling number analyzer M. BASON (1) (1) Perten Instruments AB, Hägersten, Sweden

For more than half a century the Hagberg-Perten falling number (FN) test (AACCI Approved Method 56-81.03) has been the worldwide standard used by grain traders and flour millers to screen out sprout-damaged grain and to control malt addition. Whilst the standard FN test will continue to be used in trade for the foreseeable future, evolving market requirements will also likely drive adoption of faster, simpler, safer, more automated, and more accurate tests. To meet this need Perten Instruments has developed a new model of the FN instrument capable of running both the standard test and also an abbreviated version where more rapid screening is required. Comparison of standard FN test results using the new and prior models showed no significant difference on a diverse set of 80 grain and flour samples. As the key processes of starch gelatinization, enzymatic hydrolysis, shear, and thermal denaturation all occur within the first two minutes of the FN test, there is an opportunity to develop a more rapid test without significant loss of information. By adding force detection in the FN stirrer arms, a more rapid test has been developed that can be used to screen out high FN samples, as well as provide a rapid pasting quality index. The new instrument also includes automated barometric pressure (bath temperature/altitude) correction, bath water level control, test termination at a pre-set time limit, results averaging, improved bath and lid insulation, a modern touchscreen interface, and improved LIMs integration for traceability and data management. The new instrument provides continuity for existing FN users whilst addressing the emerging requirements of 21st century grain testing.

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13-O Monitoring changes in crust and crumb of cakes after baking: Relation to their microstructures N. HESSO (1), P. Le-Bail (2), C. Loisel (1), S. Chevallier (1), A. Marti (3), K. Seetharaman (3), A. Le-Bail (1) (1) ONIRIS, Nantes, LA, France; (2) INRA, Nantes, LA, France; (3) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.

During baking, cake crumb and crust reach different temperatures and moisture contents, which determined the textural properties of the product and could induce differences at molecular levels, as in protein and starch arrangements. This work aimed to investigate the physicochemical changes in crumb and crust after baking using Micro-Visco-Amylograph (MVAG), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and fluorescence (FS) spectroscopy and light microscopy (LM). MVAG profiles showed that setback value, which is related to the ability of the amylose chains to reassociate and form a gel, was higher in crust than in crumb (600 and 500 mPa*sec, respectively) giving a firmer gel in crust than in crumb. FTIR spectra showed that the starch crystallinity ratio, the intensity ratio of crystalline (1,047 cm–1) and amorphous (1,022 cm–1) bands, was higher in crust than in crumb (1.07 ± 0.01 and 1.05 ± 0.01, respectively), suggesting different retrogradation extents of starch polymers during cooling. Regarding proteins, FTIR spectra showed that β-sheet structures were higher in crumb than in crust (10% and 4%, respectively), which could be explained by the higher water content in crumb than in crust. FS showed that crumb has higher tryptophan emission than crust (250 and 75 AU, respectively) probably related to differences in water redistribution between crust and crumb. LM showed that the different physical and structural properties between crust and crumb are related to the degree of starch gelatinization under different baking rates. To conclude, the changes taking place in baked cakes are the reflection of the structural differences at the molecular level between crumb and crust (starch gelatinization and retrogradation and water distribution). Consequently, these differences in crust and crumb properties could have an impact on the quality of product. 14-O Study on the water state and distribution of noodle dough using NMR and DSC Y. M. WEI (1), R. Liu (1), L. Wu (1), Y. Zhang (1), B. Zhang (1) (1) Institute of Agro-Products Processing Science and Technology, CAAS, Beijing, China

Three wheat flours milled from three cultivars with different quality were used as materials; the noodle doughs were made by vacuum mixing at different vacuum degrees and mixing times with the moisture content at 35%. The state and distribution of water in sheeted dough were determined by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The correlation between results of water state detected by the two techniques also was analyzed. The results showed that three spin-spin relaxation time constants, namely T21, T22, and T23, were identified by the NMR experiments using the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill pulse sequences. The second categories of water (T22, 0.49–21.54 ms), representing the less tightly bound water, make up for almost 80% of the total moisture. Vacuum mixing at 0.06 MPa may promote the interaction of water and gluten protein, resulting in a decrease in the molecular mobility of water in noodle dough, retarding water migration and texture deterioration during storage, as evidenced by NMR, MRI, and DSC. And non-vacuum or excessive vacuum (0.09 MPa) could either increase the molecular mobility of water in dough. For cultivars Jimai20 and Jimai22, the mobility of water was low in noodle dough mixed for 8 min, and deficiency (4 min) or excess (12 min) of mixing time could lead to significantly higher water mobility. While for cultivar Ningchun4, flour with low protein and gluten content, the water mobility was low in dough mixed for 4 min; with mixing time prolonged, the less mobile fraction of water decreased, and the more mobile fraction increased. The results of water state in noodle dough measured by NMR and DSC were consistent. The change tendency for less tightly bound water detected by NMR was the same as that for freezable water detected by DSC, and the change tendency for tightly bound water was the same as that for non-freezable water. 15-O Influence of flour particle size distribution on the farinograph absorption of Canadian hard red winter wheats H. SAPIRSTEIN (1), Y. Wu (1), R. Graf (2) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) AAFC Lethbridge Research Centre, Lethbridge, AB, Canada

Canadian hard red winter (HRW) wheats typically have excellent milling quality but are generally lower in water absorption compared to hard red spring (HRS) wheats. This study extends our ongoing work on the nature of the variation in farinograph absorption (FA) of HRW wheats, with a focus on flour particle size distribution (PSD). Wheat samples were grown in the same western Canadian location and comprised ~60 genotypes. Straight-grade flour was obtained using a tandem Buhler lab mill, and flour analysis included protein content (PC, 11–14.5%), damaged starch (DS, 3.9–5.5%), water-extractable pentosan (WEP) content, and PSD determined by laser diffraction. FA varied from ~54 to 65%. Flour PSD, depending on the size fraction, produced the highest simple correlations to FA; for PC, DS, WEP, and, for example, volume fraction of 140 μm particles, correlations were r = 0.39, 0.37, 0.43, and 0.65, respectively. To explore the nature of this result, we milled a set of 16 commercial

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HRS and HRW wheat samples and fractionated flours by sieving into eight particle size fractions whose composition was analyzed. As expected, the harder HRS wheats produced more granular flour with larger average particle size. Most interesting were the differences in yield of analytical parameters of relatively large and small particle fractions. Large flour particles (>105 μm) of HRS flours compared to HRW counterparts, contained significantly higher content of DS, PC and WEP, all factors positively associated with FA. The opposite finding was the case for relatively small flour particles. Results provide an explanation underlying the widely recognized difference in FA between HRW and HRS wheats or, in general, for wheats that differ in kernel hardness. The latter appears to be the key factor underlying differences found in the yield and composition of relatively large and small flour particles. 16-O Implications of one-pass drying of rice with industrial microwave on milling quality G. ATUNGULU (1), D. L. Smith (1), S. Rogers (2) (1) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.; (2) AMTek Microwaves, Cedar Rapids, IA, U.S.A.

The volumetric heating phenomenon associated with microwaves has the potential to achieve rapid, one-pass drying of rice with reduced inter-kernel moisture content (MC) gradients and may improve rice milling quality. The objective of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of microwave heating to achieve one-pass rice drying and determine the implications of the treatment on rice milling quality. Freshly harvested, medium-grain rice samples (cv. Jupiter) at initial MC of 23.5% (wet basis) were heated with an industrial microwave set at a frequency of 915 MHz, power levels of 20, 15, 10, 5, and 2 kW, for durations of 1, 2, 3, and 4 min. The effects of natural and forced air-cooling and tempering of rice after microwave treatment on moisture removal and head rice yield were determined. Results showed that microwave treatments at power levels of 10 kW and 15 kW for 3 and 2 min, respectively, bore much promise in decreasing rice MC from 23.5% to 13.0% (wet basis). However, the microwave treatments need to be optimized to maintain head rice yield comparable to that of control samples dried with ambient air at 26°C and 55% RH. When optimized and successfully implemented, the new approach of using microwave heating to achieve rapid drying of high-MC rice would significantly benefit the rice industry to reduce head rice yield reduction; the technology may find immediate application especially to dry parboiled rice. 17-O Impact of soft kernel texture on milling properties and flour quality of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum) J. C. MURRAY (1), A. M. Kiszonas (1), J. D. Wilson (2), C. F. Morris (1) (1) Western Wheat Quality Laboratory, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.; (2) USDA Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Worldwide nearly 20 times more common wheat (Triticum aestivum) is produced than durum wheat (Triticum turgidum). Durum wheat is predominately milled into coarse semolina due to the extreme hardness of the kernels. Semolina, lacking the versatility of traditional flour, is used primarily in the production of pasta. The puroindoline genes, responsible for kernel softness in wheat, were introduced into durum via homologous recombination (non-GMO). The resulting varieties, Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada, were milled into flour on three separate mills, at different temper levels. Samples of Svevo, a durum wheat; Xerpha, a soft white winter wheat; and Expresso, a hard red spring wheat, were included in the study as comparisons. Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada exhibited dramatically lower SKCS hardness than that of the durum variety, Svevo, as well as the common wheat, Xerpha. The objective was to determine what impact the introgression of the puroindoline genes had on the milling properties and flour characteristics of the soft durum varieties. Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada had high break flour yields, similar to the common wheat samples and notably greater than the durum sample. The quantity of damaged starch was related to the water absorption of the flour, as well as enzymatic activity. Lower starch damage values are desired in pastry products, whereas greater starch damage is acceptable in bread flours. The percentage of damaged starch was lower for Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada than in the common wheat varieties, for every treatment. Overall, Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada exhibited milling properties and flour quality comparable, if not superior, to that of common wheat. 18-O Engineering high α-amylase levels in wheat grain lowers falling number but improves baking properties J. P. F. RAL (1), A. Whan (1), O. Larroque (1), J. Pritchard (1), E. Leyne (1), C. Howitt (1), M. Newberry (1) (1) CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Canberra, Australia

Some wheat genotypes are prone to late maturity α-amylase (LMA) and pre-harvest sprouting (PHS). When finishing environments have triggered these conditions, the grain is characterized by elevated levels of α-amylase isoforms. The enhanced expression of α-amylases results in a reduction in falling number, a test of gel viscosity, and a reduction in price for growers. The falling number test is unable to distinguish between LMA and PHS, thus both defects are treated similarly when grain is traded. Consequently, any grain sample that has a low falling

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number is automatically considered poor for baking quality. While there is clear evidence linking PHS with poor baking quality, no such relationship has been demonstrated with LMA. Our work has demonstrated that wheat in which one isoform of α-amylase (TaAmy3) was overexpressed in the endosperm of developing grain to levels up to 100-fold higher than the wild type resulted in low falling number similar to those seen in LMA- or PHS-affected grains. This increase had no detrimental effect on starch structure, flour composition, and enhanced baking quality in small-scale 10 g baking tests. In these tests loaf volume was increased, and Maillard-related browning was enhanced, even without added baking improver, to levels higher than those seen in control flours when baking improver was added. These findings highlight the need for a better understanding of the impact of α-amylase expression alone on end-product quality. 19-O Effects of chemical leavening systems on the opacity of whole wheat flour tortillas T. LIU (1), G. G. Hou (2), S. L. Book (3), L. Marquart (1) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.; (2) Wheat Marketing Center, Portland, OR, U.S.A.; (3) ICL Food Specialties, St. Louis, MO, U.S.A.

Translucency, a lack of opacity, is generally a defect in tortillas. Chemical leavening is a neutralization reaction, which can affect not only the opacity, but also other physical and chemical properties of tortillas. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the effects of types and amounts of leavenings (acids and base), hot-press temperature, and dough temperature on the opacity and other quality properties of whole wheat tortillas. Whole wheat flour tortillas were produced with three different leavening acids, three levels of sodium bicarbonate (1%, 1.5%, and 2%), three levels of hot-press temperature (320°F, 350°F, and 380°F), and two levels of dough temperatures (25°C and 35°C). Encapsulated fumaric acid was used to lower tortilla pH. Whole wheat tortillas were analyzed for weight, diameter, thickness, moisture, color, pH, opacity, and texture at 1 day and 45 days after baking. Sodium aluminum phosphate (SALP) produced more opaque tortillas than sodium acid pyrophosphate-28 (SAPP-28), followed by sodium aluminum sulfate (SAS). Increased amount of leavenings improved opacity, while dough temperature and hot-press temperature did not significantly affect opacity. In addition, higher hot-press temperature produced lighter, thinner but bigger diameter tortillas. Higher amounts of leavenings produced smaller, thicker, and brighter color tortillas. SALP produced the largest diameter and lightest weight tortillas. Tortillas made with SAS had the largest breaking force, while tortillas with SALP had the smallest breaking force, as determined by TA-XTPlus texture analyzer. After 45 days of storage at room temperature, all tortillas showed decreased breaking force. The results indicated that the type and amount of leavenings were the major influencing factors for the opacity of whole wheat tortillas. 20-O Milling operational efficiency compared via endosperm quantitative spectroscopic chemical imaging of 81,920 pixels D. L. WETZEL (1), M. D. Boatwright (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Quantitation of endosperm in mixtures of solid materials (e.g., flour millstreams) of known flow rates enables calculation of both the purity and yield resulting from individual unit processes. As the operational parameters of key unit processes are adjusted individually or in concert, the summation expression Σ (% Endo1)(Wt1) + (% Endo2)(Wt2) + … (% Endon)(Wtn) enables an objective measure of the impact of fine tuning by the attending operator in charge to maximize the yield of high-value product. The pixel by pixel quantitative chemical imaging procedure described enables an array of 81,920 individual spectra that reveals the endosperm distribution in the selected field of view. Each resulting near infrared spectrum enables identification and estimation of the prevalent chemical species for that x, y coordinate of the image by a partial least squares data treatment. Mass balance of endosperm is subsequently reported for intermediate products of individual or successive unit processes using the summation expression described. The practical purpose is to demonstrate optimization of the physical process by objective measurement of the chemical composition of intermediate product streams. We introduced this method to the scientific community in “Applied Spectroscopy,” Cereal Foods World, and International Miller in 2009, 2011, and 2013, respectively. Various applications have included the optimization of purifier operation, comparison of first-/second-break roll gap settings based on endosperm yield, and the development of a cumulative endosperm curve for flour streams. Presently, we report the utility of this technique that has recently been applied to more than 20 individual sampling sites in a modified wheat milling operation preceded by debranning. Optimization and relative efficiency of this operation is revealed in this paper.

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21-O Thomas Burr Osbourne Medal – 40 years of dietary fiber research P. B. AMAN (1) (1) Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Food Science, Uppsala, Sweden

Since ancient times, it has been known that consumption of unrefined cereal foods, rich in crude materials, is good for our health, but at that time, little was known about the structure and properties of these fibrous materials. More modern research began in the late 1960s when definitions and analytical methods of dietary fiber were discussed, but it was not until recently that the term dietary fiber was defined in Europe. The broad European definition, including resistant oligosaccharides, resistant starch, non-starch polysaccharides, as well as associated non-carbohydrate components, is similar to the international Codex definition, with the exception that inclusion of resistant oligosaccharides is optional in the latter. Investigations in the 1960s and 1970s showed that a high intake of dietary fiber was associated with lower incidence of Western diseases, and the fiber hypothesis was formulated. Modern studies including both epidemiological and intervention investigations have confirmed that intake of dietary fiber can be good for our health, and the official recommendations today encourage consumers to eat more dietary fiber. However, physiological effects of dietary fiber vary depending on the type of fiber consumed, and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) did not find “dietary fiber” sufficiently characterized in relation to claimed health effects. In Europe, the terms total or soluble dietary fiber, thus, are considered to be too broad and imprecise to form the basis for health claims. In the future, therefore, we can expect health studies on more precisely defined and characterized dietary fiber components. In this presentation I will review some early research on dietary fiber, describe the current status, and give some future perspectives. 23-O In vitro fermentation of xylooligosaccharides from Miscanthus × giganteus M. H. CHEN (1), M. J. Bowman (2), B. S. Dien (2), M. A. Cotta (2), K. S. Swanson (1), T. R. Whitehead (3), G. C. Fahey (1), A. N. Beloshapka (1), L. B. Iten (2), L. L. Bauer (1), K. D. Rausch (1), M. E. Tumbleson (1), V. Singh (1) (1) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.; (2) NCAUR, ARS, USDA, Peoria, IL, U.S.A.; (3) NCAUR, ARS, USDA, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.

Miscanthus × giganteus (M×G) is a perennial grass that has gained attention as a bioenergy crop; it is a leading candidate because it produces high biomass yields and has low input requirements. Previously, our group has demonstrated xylooligosaccharides (XOS) can be produced through autohydrolysis and recovered by carbon adsorption followed by ethanol elution. There is a lack of information on the functionality of XOS from M×G and as a value-added product for cellulosic ethanol. The object of this study was to perform in vitro fermentation of M×G XOS with Bifidobacterium spp. and human fecal culture to compare with commercial XOS products. Highly purified M×G XOS were cultured with beneficial bacteria Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Bifidobacterium catenulatum. Both Bifidobacteria were able to utilize M×G XOS as a carbon source for proliferation, while B. adolescentis grew faster than B. catenulatum, with specific growth rates of 0.69 to 0.33 (h–1). The substrate utilization was 84.1% by B. adolescentis and 76.9% by B. catenulatum. M×G XOS was further cultured with human fecal microbiota. Commercial XOS from Wako Ltd. and pectin were used as comparison. A pH drop was observed during fermentation from 7.1 to 5.0. Change in pH was similar for the M×G and Wako XOS cultures. M×G XOS produced 466.2 mg/g acetic acid, 74.6 mg/g propionic acid, and 84.2 mg/g butyric acid; total SCFA was highest among the substrates. The beneficial bacteria Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. population increased during the fermentation of M×G XOS. Compared with Wako XOS, M×G XOS had similar Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Escherichia coli, and Clostridium perfringens cell titers. The results substantiated M×G XOS as a prebiotic candidate could be utilized by Bifidobacterium spp. and fecal microbiota, be converted into beneficial metabolites, and stimulate probiotics growth. 24-O The influence of genotype and environment on arabinoxylans and phenolics of wheat grains L. COPELAND (1), M. Al-Fadly (1) (1) University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Foods prepared from whole grains are associated with health benefits, which have been attributed in part to the presence of arabinoxylans and phenolic antioxidants. These grain constituents are closely associated in cereal cell walls, but their abundance and speciation vary considerably. The present study assesses the relative contributions of genotype and environment to variability of arabinoxylans and phenolics in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grains. Total, water-extractable (WE) and water-unextractable (WU) arabinoxylan (AX) content and total, free, conjugated, and bound phenolics were determined in wholemeal flour from three commercial Australian wheat varieties that were grown in 2 years across 13 locations. The mean of total AX content in the flour ranged from 2.9% to 6.6%, of which WU-AX accounted for 2.8% to 6.5%. For the grain samples used in this study, genotype contributed about 75% of the variability in total AX and WU-AX content, indicating a substantial degree of heritability of these characteristics. Genotype, growing location and year, and their interactions all contributed

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significantly to differences in the amounts of total, bound, conjugated, and free phenolic acids, which may explain the considerable variability in these grain constituents. Conditions at the growing locations had differential effects on the content and speciation of phenolics, consistent with genotype × environment interactions. Phenolic acids derived from cinnamic acid (p-coumaric, caffeic, and ferulic acids) were mostly bound to cell wall components, whereas benzoate-derived phenolics (p-hydroxybenzoate, vanillic, and syringic acids) occurred mostly as soluble conjugates, although there were also significant amounts of bound forms present. The cinnamic acid-derived sinapic acid was an exception, being present mostly as a soluble conjugate. 25-O Logarithm of slope analysis for characterizing pasta structure reveals starch digestion rate is reduced by gluten network W. ZOU (1), M. Sissons (2), M. Gidley (3), R. Gilbert (1), F. Warren (1) (1) The University of Queensland, Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, Brisbane, Australia; (2) NSW Department of Primary Industries, Tamworth Agricultural Institute, Tamworth, Australia

The present study examines the effects of structural features on reducing the rate of starch digestion in pasta. Three durum semolina samples were used, from which purified starch, manufactured pasta, and ground pasta powder were prepared and cooked; a range of protein structures were made by pepsin hydrolysis; morphological changes were examined by confocal microscopy. Starch granules were swollen completely for cooked starch and pasta powder samples; in cooked pasta, they were completely swollen in the external region of the pasta, partially swollen in the intermediate region, and almost intact in the center of the pasta strand. The kinetics of starch digestion was obtained through logarithm-of-slope analysis, which allows for sequential, separate digestion steps. Purified starch and semolina digestion followed a single first-order kinetics rate behavior, while starch digestion in powdered and whole pasta followed two sequential first-order kinetic steps. Rate coefficients were altered by pepsin hydrolysis, in a manner dependent on pasta microstructure. The presence of sequential kinetic steps with multiple rate constants in starch digestion of pasta is identified for the first time, and structural features identified impact on digestion rate. The gluten network limits swelling of starch granules, and competes for water during cooking; the compact microstructure of pasta protects it from proteolysis and limits diffusion of α-amylase; evidence is also presented for binding of α-amylase to gluten. It is concluded both gluten network and compact microstructure are key structural features in reducing starch digestion rates in pasta. 26-O Enhanced starch digestion by disruption of the cellular wall material by xylanases S. LEE (1), H. Masey O’Neill (2), M. Bedford (2), J. Wiseman (1), S. Hill (1) (1) The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K.; (2) AB Vista Feed Ingredients, Marlborough, U.K.

Digestion of cereal starches is influenced by cell wall materials, as they limit endogenous enzyme access to the starch, even after processing. This can be beneficial if resistant starch is required, but is detrimental in maximizing nutrient utilization, which is essential for the animal feed industry. Maize samples have shown marked variation in their digestibility during in vitro and animal performance testing. Addition of exogenous enzymes, such as xylanase, to maize-based diets for chickens is reportedly beneficial, but the mechanisms for achieving these results are poorly defined. The objectives of this work, therefore, were to follow starch breakdown and digestion in a series of chicken trials. Maize-soya diets, with and without xylanase (Econase® XT 25; 16,000 BXU/kg), were fed to Ross 308 broilers. The duration of the xylanase treatments varied. Blood and digesta (gizzard, upper and lower small intestine) samples were collected. As expected starch breakdown increased as it passed through the digestive tract; however, interestingly there was significant reflux occurring. Although the xylanases liberate starches from the maize endosperm in vitro, diets fed on single occasions did not significantly affect starch digestion. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy did not show enhanced disruption of the cell walls with xylanase addition. This suggested that the amount of time that xylanase is present in the digestive tract is a limiting factor for enzyme efficiency and supports an indirect mechanism for its action. Enzyme supplementation over longer periods showed greater cell wall degradation, although samples showed wide variations and perhaps is an indicator of complex digesta flow patterns. Better understanding of the passage of digesta and enzymic action not only assists in formulation of efficient animal diets, but allows human diets to be better understood.

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27-O Modification of bran protein solubility and quality by enzyme-induced cell wall degradation and microbial fermentation E. Arte (1), R. Coda (1), C. Rizzello (2), E. Nordlund (3), K. KATINA (1) (1) University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; (2) University of Bari, Bari, Italy; (3) VTT Technical Research Centre Finland, Espoo, Finland

Wheat bran contains 15–19% good quality protein compared to protein in the endosperm part of the kernel. However, protein usability is restricted for human digestion by its location inside bran aleurone cell walls. Exploiting the protein fraction of wheat bran would enable the design of novel multifunctional ingredients containing both high amounts of dietary fiber and good quality protein. The aim of this work was to explore the influence of bioprocessing on the protein content and quality of wheat bran. Different bioprocessing methods, including impact of bran endogenous enzymes, L. brevis VTT E–95612 and C. humilis VTT C–96250 microbes, and cell wall hydrolyzing enzymes Depol 761P and Viscoferm, were incubated for 24 hr at 30°C for degradation of the bran cell wall and releasing bran proteins to metabolic conversion. The degradation of cell wall polysaccharides was determined by analyzing soluble pentosans and reducing sugar content. The results showed that by activation of endogenous enzymes, solubilization of bran proteins increased significantly from 14% (without bioprocessing) up to 75% (Kjeldahl method – AACC Approved Method 46–11A). Bioprocessing with endogenous and exogenous enzymes did not affect significantly the peptide content (OPA method), the amino acid content measured by amino acid analyzer, or the digestibility of the proteins, even though the added enzymes showed degradation of cell walls by increased contents of soluble pentosan and reducing sugars. When microbial strains were used for bioprocessing, the soluble protein content increased up to 60% (strains) and with enzymes up to 52%.The metabolic conversion of proteins by the microorganisms was shown by increased amino acid and decreased peptide contents, which led also to an increase in the digestibility of the bran proteins (22%). 28-O Toward the development of corn flour rich in densely packed matrices and isomaltooligosaccharides (IMOs) M. M. MARTINEZ (1), M. Gomez (1) (1) University of Valladolid, Palencia, Spain

A feasible process for the industry to manufacture corn flours rich in densely packed matrices and IMOs was developed. Native, boiled, and extruded corn flours were subjected to enzymatic treatment by transglucosidase (T), transglucosidase and maltogenic α-amylase (T+α) and transglucosidase and pullulanase (T+P). Hydrolysis kinetics was assessed by measuring iodine-binding capacity, carbohydrates content, and oligosaccharides profile of supernatants after washing samples with water or ethanol at different reaction times. The microstructure, crystalline polymorphism, amylose/amylopectin ratio, and thermal properties, as well as IMOs content of flours obtained at the end of the process were evaluated. Combination of extrusion and enzymatic treatment gave rise to different packing degree, affecting the subsequent milling and, therefore, the flour particle size. In addition, finer molecular changes were also appreciated, such as the apparition of semicrystalline rings and microfiber-based flour particles. X-ray diffraction results showed different crystalline patterns and especially how T+α and T+P treatments fostered a higher V-type crystallinity in all flours studied. T+α and T+P treatments increased enthalpy in native flours. Meanwhile, extruded flour without enzymatic treatment did not present any endothermic peak but subsequent enzymatic treatment led to the presence of a noticeable endothermic peak at around 67°C. The enzymatic treatment of all flours and, in particular, of boiled and extruded flours, increased the variety of IMOs, highlighting the presence of panose and isomaltotriose. Therefore, work is underway with a view to the discovery and the process development for designing novel glucans for controlling postprandial hyperglycemia and health-promoting bacteria in the intestinal tract of humans and animals. 29-O Inhibition of intestinal glucosidase by feruloylated arabinoxylan oligosaccharides from corn bran and wheat aleurone L. MALUNGA (1), P. Eck (1), T. Beta (1) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

The effect of feruloylated arabinoxylan oligosaccharides (FOS) on mammalian α-glucosidase was investigated using human Caco-2 cells and rat intestinal acetone powder. The isolated FOS from wheat aleurone and corn bran were identified as having a degree of polymerization (DP) of 4 and 1, respectively, by HPLC-MS. Both FOS extracts were effective inhibitors of sucrase and maltase functions of the α-glucosidase. The IC50 for FOS extracts on Caco-2 cells and rat intestinal α-glucosidase was 1.03–1.65 mg/mL and 2.6–6.5 mg/mL, respectively. The inhibitory effect of FOS was dependent on ferulic acid (FA) content (R2 = 0.95). The IC50 of free FA on Caco-2 cells and rat intestinal α-glucosidase was 0.09 and 0.22 mg/mL, respectively. At equal FA concentration (0.04 mg/mL), FOS from corn and wheat inhibited sucrase activity by 18.70 ± 5.25, 23.28 ± 4.51, and 19.45 ± 4.85%, respectively. Similarly, maltase activity was decreased by 38.85 ± 3.01, 24.45 ± 3.42 and 17.11 ± 4.07%, respectively. Our results

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based on limited samples suggest that DP does not affect the potency of FOS on α-glucosidase activity. Thus, feruloylated arabinoxylan oligosaccharides have potential for use in diabetes management. 30-O Alsberg-French-Schoch Award – Role of carbohydrate-active enzymes in glycogen and starch metabolism K. H. PARK (1) (1) Seoul National University, Center for Food and Bioconvergence and Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Seoul, Korea

Many bacteria, plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria synthesize glycogen or starch using a similar ADP glucose-based pathway. However, plant starch metabolism can be distinguished from bacterial glycogen metabolism by the multiple forms of enzymes involved in each step of the pathway. In the study described herein, the roles of debranching enzyme (GlgX) and amylomaltase (MalQ) were investigated in Escherichia coli. Our results suggest a common pathway of plant starch metabolism. First, maltodextrinyl-1,6 β-cyclodextrin, a glycogen mimic substrate, was synthesized to study structurally complicated macromolecules, such as glycogen or starch, and subsequently used to analyze the enzymatic reaction. Structural determination of GlgX revealed a molecular explanation of its unique substrate specificity toward short-branch chains, which likely shares substrate specificity for short-branch chains with isoamylase 3 in plants. Characterization of MalQ (analogous to disproportionating enzyme 2 (DPE2) in plants) suggests that MalQ is involved alongside GlgX in glycogen catabolism. Finally, we discuss bacterial glycogen enzymes and important implications for understanding the starch degradation pathway. 31-O Surface binding sites (SBS) in starch-metabolizing enzymes B. SVENSSON (1), C. Wilkens (1), D. Cockburn (1), A. Blennow (2) (1) Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark; (2) University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark

The molecular interactions between carbohydrate active enzymes and polysaccharides include participation of extra binding sites situated outside of the active site securing efficient contact with the macromolecular substrates. Commonly carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) carry such extra binding sites, but in an increasing number of cases so-called surface-binding sites (SBSs) are observed at a certain distance from the active site on the surface of catalytic domains. Candidate SBSs identified in crystal structures or by other biophysical tools were investigated by aid of site-directed mutagenesis. The enzyme variants were analyzed by affinity retardation electrophoresis in the presence of polysaccharides and also subjected to binding studies using surface plasmon resonance and isothermal titration calorimetry analysis, as well as confocal microscopy. SBSs are currently identified in 17 families of glycoside hydrolases, 2 families of glycosyl transferases, and in glucan phosphatases. Remarkably, in particular, α-glucan–synthesizing and –degrading enzymes depend on the function of SBSs. Key roles of SBSs in interaction with starch granules of a variety of botanical sources have been investigated. Mutational analysis of multiple SBSs revealed distinct roles in interactions with branch points of amylopectin and in binding onto the surface of starch granules. Examples will also be presented of SBSs involved in distinct interactions with starch granules from genetically manipulated plants. SBSs play an essential role in starch granule mobilization by various α-glucan hydrolases and modifying enzymes, and insight is provided into structural details of SBSs having distinctly different functions. Knowledge on SBSs can help distinguish biological roles among cereal seed isozymes and multiple forms. 32-O Heat treatments reduce in vitro protein digestibility of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) flour P. GULATI (1), D. J. Rose (1) (1) University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

The storage proteins in proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) are similar to sorghum. Because sorghum protein digestibility is greatly affected by heating, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of heating on protein digestibility of proso millet. De-hulled proso millet flour was subjected to various heat treatments, including heating at different temperatures (0–100°C) in excess water; dry heating in an oven or autoclave in closed containers at different moisture contents (10–30%); and extrusion (17% moisture content, 210 rpm, and 120°C); and then subjected to in vitro protein digestion using pepsin. Sorghum and wheat flours were treated under the same conditions for comparison. Wet heating resulted in a reduction in proso millet protein digestibility from 80% in the raw flour to 35% when flour was heated at 100°C for 20 min prior to digestion. Sorghum flour exhibited a similar reduction in protein digestibility under the same conditions (from 77 to 48%), while no change was observed for wheat flour. Reductions in protein digestibility also were observed for dry heating of millet flour using an oven or autoclave (34% digestibility) regardless of moisture content; extrusion also reduced protein digestibility. These results suggest that the protein digestibility of proso millet decreases upon subjecting the flour to dry or moist heat treatments above 60°C. Further investigations on the structure of proso millet protein may help explain the observed changes.

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33-O An innovative enzyme solution for making longer shelf-life bread with less or no added sugar G. FENG (1) (1) Corbion, Lenexa, KS, U.S.A.

Bread shelf life is very important to industrial bakeries and also to consumers. A longer shelf-life bread can not only improve the manufacture and distribution efficiencies and reduce food waste, but also can improve the quality, taste, and freshness of the bread throughout its shelf life. One of the biggest challenges in extending bread shelf life is how to efficiently slow bread staling, which is a deteriorating process where bread becomes firmer, drier, less resilient, and less flavorful. Significant efforts, both from academia and industries, have been made in developing better ingredient technologies that can slow or prevent the staling process. Technologies such as emulsifiers and enzymes were developed for this purpose and now are widely used in baking industries. In this presentation, we will introduce a new synergistic enzyme technology that not only significantly improves the shelf life of bread, but also the reduction or removal of added sugar in the bread formula. Our enzyme analysis and baking tests showed that while the shelf-life extension enzymes are modifying the gelatinized starch molecules to retard the retrogradation or staling, they can also make small sugar molecules that can enhance the flavor and taste of the bread. In addition, sugar was found to be a strong inhibitor of the shelf-life extension enzymes. Our studies showed that by reducing or removing added sugar in a bread formula, the functionality of the shelf-life extension enzymes can be significantly improved, leading to a bread that stayed soft and fresh for a longer time. Based on these findings, it became possible to design unique enzyme-based products that will allow bakers to formulate their bread with less or no sugar, while still maintaining the desirable taste and flavor, and most importantly, deliver the freshness quality over an extended shelf life. 34-O Evaluation of commercial gluten-free foods from the Brazilian market B. MATTIONI (1), I. R. dos Santos (1), N. Paulino (2), M. Tilley (3), J. Faubion (4), A. de Francisco (1) (1) Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil; (2) Universidade Bandeirante de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; (3) USDA ARS CGAHR, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.; (4) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

In addition to celiac disease, there are other gluten-related disorders classified according to immunological response, e.g., autoimmune, allergic, and sensitivity (non-autoimmune and non-allergic). In all cases, the only effective therapy is strict adherence to a gluten-free diet, which consists of a combination of naturally gluten-free foods and specially manufactured gluten-free versions of wheat-based foods. Proper labeling is essential for the consumer to make important dietary decisions. According to the Codex Alimentarius (2008), food that contains less than 20 mg/kg should be labeled as gluten-free (GF), above 20 and up to 100 mg/kg as reduced gluten content and above 100 mg/kg as gluten containing (GC). In Brazil all food products must be labeled as GF (<20 mg/kg) or GC (>20 mg/kg). In order to verify if the labeling of food products follows the correct guidelines in relation to gluten, 123 commercial food items in Brazil were analyzed over a two year period. Samples consisted of traditional wheat-based products, as well as samples containing a minor wheat ingredient or unknown ingredients submitted by food manufacturers. The gluten analyses were performed by ELISA (AOAC 991.19) using the R-5 antibody (Biocontrol Transia Plate Prolamins method). The samples were categorized according to alimentary group, label, gluten level, and year. A total of 11 samples (8.9%) were labeled as containing gluten, 60 samples (48.8%) were labeled as gluten-free, and 52 samples (42.3%) were labeled unknown or unlabeled. The main categories were composed of flours, starches, and “farofas” (22%); breads, including cheese bread (16.3%); and sweet goods (15.4%). Although most samples were found to be accurately labeled, 14 (11.4%) labeled as gluten-free were found to contain gluten levels >20 mg/kg. These findings illustrate the necessity of rigorous testing and monitoring to prevent a risk to consumers with celiac disease or other gluten-related disorders. 35-O The economic burden of gluten-free products and the potential of dietary inhibitors of transglutaminase-2 K. L. KRAMER (1), J. Losso (1) (1) Louisiana State University, School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Baton Rouge, LA, U.S.A.

Celiac disease (CD) is a chronic immune-mediated disease of the small intestine caused by the ingestion of gluten. Gluten is resistant to gastric degradation and presents to the intestine largely intact, where it is deamidated by transglutaminase-2 (TG2), increasing affinity for human leukocyte antigen DQ2 (HLA-DQ2) and forming a complex that elicits an inflammatory response, ultimately leading to destruction of the villi. Increased expression of TG2 is responsible for the activation of CD. The U.S. gluten-free market is growing and will reach $15.6 billion by 2016. With the wide range of applications of gluten in foods, plus high cost and low availability, a gluten-free diet is difficult to maintain, and accidental ingestion of gluten is not uncommon. The increase in this market is detrimental to the wheat-based products industry and consumers who cannot afford this diet. The only treatment for CD is strict adherence to a gluten-free diet, though several novel therapies including TG2 inhibition have been

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investigated. TG2 inhibition shows promising results in vitro and is an attractive target due its central role in pathogenesis of CD. Dietary bioactives such as procyanidins may be capable of inhibiting TG2-induced inflammation in the intestine and reduce symptoms in individuals suffering from CD, and previous studies indicate that procyanidin concentrations can reach 1 mM and is not toxic to cells. In this study, procyanidin dimers reduced levels of TG2 by 56% in vitro. Procyanidin trimers and tetramers have shown binding affinity for gliadin peptides and may also be an effective therapy in CD, though no other studies have investigated the inhibitory action of procyanidin on TG2. This presentation will discuss dietary inhibitors of TG2 that can be used with wheat-based products as therapy for CD. The gain to consumers and the wheat-based industry will be significant. 36-O Quinoa quality evaluation in the Pacific Northwest G. WU (1), C. F. Morris (2), K. M. Murphy (1) (1) Washington State University, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.; (2) USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.

Quinoa, Chenopodium quinoa Willd, is a pseudocereal from South America. Washington State University (WSU) has studied the adaptation and quality of quinoa in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) since 2010. Individual varieties have shown high seed yield and early maturity, resistance to downy mildew and pre-harvest sprouting, and moderate heat tolerance in greenhouse tests. Breeding work is ongoing. Seed quality tests and end-use evaluations were conducted on 11 different cultivars. Cultivar means were 1.9–2.2 mm in diameter, with 1–9% of seed coat. As the major components, protein and starch constituted 11.3–17% and 53.2–75.1% of dry weight, respectively. Apparent amylose content of quinoa starch was lower than those of other grains, ranging from 2.7% to 16.9%. Quinoa starch exhibited gelatinization temperatures of 52–79°C, and enthalpy of 10–12 J/g. RVA of starch showed peak viscosity from 193 to 344 RVU and setback from 53 to 140 RVU. Cooking quality of quinoa varied among cultivars. Optimal cooking time ranged from 12 to 19 min. During cooking, quinoa can take up 2.5–4 times seed weight of water. Texture profile analysis (TPA) was performed on the same samples. The results showed that cooked quinoa varieties varied in hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness. Correlations were studied between TPA parameters and seed characteristics, composition, starch thermal properties and viscosity, and cooking qualities. Seed density, seed coat proportion, protein content, apparent amylose, starch enthalpy and final viscosity, optimal cooking time, and water uptake ratio, were most highly correlated with texture. Studies currently in progress on consumer preference of quinoa varieties and the relationship with seed quality and instrumental analysis of texture and taste will also be presented. 37-O Ultra-low gluten barley C. A. HOWITT (1), G. J. Tanner (1), M. J. Blundell (1), H. Goswami (2), M. L. Colgrave (2) (1) CSIRO – Agriculture Flagship, Canberra, Australia; (2) CSIRO – Agriculture Flagship, St. Lucia, Australia

Celiac disease is a well-understood disorder, occurring in 1% of the population and requiring lifelong exclusion of gluten proteins from wheat (gliadin and glutenins), barley (hordeins), rye (avenins), and, in some individuals, oats (secalins). Those with untreated celiac disease suffer from low bone density, increased intestinal malignancy, and must consume a diet low in fiber and high in fat. To address these issues we have used conventional breeding to create hordein triple-null, ultra low gluten (ULG) barley. This line has smaller grains, making processing and malting less efficient relative to wild-type barley. We have increased the seed weight and agronomics similar to commercial malting barley. In addition we have developed a hull-less version for use in the food industry, to provide additional whole grain options for those with celiac disease and those who suffer from gluten intolerance. The hordein levels in these ULG lines are well below the legislative limit of 20 ppm in gluten-free foods. These cultivars may be useful for the preparation of foods and beverages for the estimated 5% of people in the world who suffer from celiac disease and gluten intolerance. 38-O Non-linear rheological behavior of gluten-free flour doughs and their correlation with bread properties G. YAZAR (1), O. Duvarci (1), S. Tavman (2), J. L. Kokini (1) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.; (2) Ege University, Izmir, Turkey

Baking properties of gluten-free products remain a challenge, and there is no good marker for their performance. Large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS) and baking tests were applied on selected samples to understand if there is a correlation between the non-linear rheological properties of the dough samples and loaf volume. The water absorption capacities of rice, buckwheat, and soy flours were determined by applying frequency sweep tests at different moisture contents and matching their G′ values with the G′ value of the soft wheat flour dough at 500 BU. Water levels of 110%, 90%, and 160% were determined to be appropriate for rice flour, buckwheat flour, and soy flour, respectively, to match soft wheat flour properties. Since the materials undergo high deformation during kneading and proofing baking, rheological measurements in the non-linear region provide more useful

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information. Samples showed non-linearity beyond 0.1% strain. Frequency sweeps in the range of 0.1–100 rad/sec were used. LAOS tests were carried out at 25°C using 10 rad/sec and between the strain values of 0.01 and 200%. The ratio of elastic first and third Chebyshev coefficients, e3/e1, was positive for rice and soy doughs, suggesting they showed strain stiffening even at the highest strains. Buckwheat dough showed strain stiffening up to 7% strain, then showed softening, followed by stiffening again after 100%. Gluten-free breads showed much lower volumes using the rapeseed method (552.5 ± 3.53, 565 ± 7.07, and 655 ± 7.07 cm3 for rice, buckwheat, and soy breads, respectively) than wheat bread (805 ± 7.07 cm3). Due to its high strain stiffening behavior, the lowest volume was obtained for the rice bread. Negative correlation was observed between the max e values of the dough samples and the bread volume, suggesting that the stiffening behavior observed prevents the growth of cells and results in smaller loaf volumes. 39-O Protein Division Walter Bushuk Graduate Research Award in Cereal Protein Chemistry – Cross-linking of gluten, globular proteins, and mixtures thereof in aqueous ethanol and water M. A. LAMBRECHT (1), I. Rombouts (1), J. A. Delcour (1) (1) Ku Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium

Network formation between proteins determines processability and product quality of many food products. The structure of wheat-based foods is in many instances impacted by gluten proteins (e.g., in bread and pasta) and in some cases also by albumins and globulins (e.g., in cake and egg noodles). Protein aggregation is triggered by chemical forces between amino acid side chains and their immediate environment. This study compared the impact of water and aqueous ethanol on heat-induced aggregation and polymerization of various food proteins. In a first part, wheat gliadin, bovine serum albumin (BSA), and soy glycinin were heated in water and 50% (vol/vol) ethanol. Extracts of the unheated and heated model proteins in sodium dodecyl sulfate-containing media were then analyzed using size exclusion HPLC. Gliadin were polymerized in water but not in 50% (vol/vol) ethanol. In water, cross-linking of gliadin, which lacks free sulfhydryl (SH) groups, was initiated by β-elimination reactions. Ethanol appeared to slow down these reactions. In 50% (vol/vol) ethanol, BSA already denatured at room temperature and the increased exposure of free SH groups induced polymerization through SH-disulfide interchange reactions. Soy glycinin, which had a low level of free SH groups, polymerized to a larger extent in water than in 50% (vol/vol) ethanol. Possibly, the few SH groups originating from β-elimination reactions in 50% (vol/vol) ethanol were rapidly consumed in oxidation reactions, which terminated disulfide cross-linking. In a second part, interactions and reactions between different protein types (albumins, globulins, prolamins) were investigated. Gliadin–BSA and gliadin–glycinin mixtures polymerized to a larger extent in water than in 50% (vol/vol) ethanol. Globular proteins and gliadin influenced each other’s behavior in both media. During heating in water, more gliadin was incorporated in the protein network of the mixture than in that of isolated gliadin. In 50% (vol/vol) ethanol, gliadin slightly slowed down the polymerization of both glycinin and BSA. In a third part, pretreatment of isolated proteins with aqueous ethanol induced conformational changes that affected subsequent cross-linking of protein mixtures in water. 40-O The influence of size, shape, and hydrophobicity of starch for Pickering emulsion stabilization H. SAARI (1), M. Sjöö (1), M. Rayner (1), M. Wahlgren (1) (1) Lund University, Lund, Sweden

Particles can be used to stabilize systems known as Pickering emulsions. The aim was to investigate how starch particles affect emulsion properties. Starch modification by size fractionation, acid hydrolysis, surface gelatinization, or dissolution precipitation, resulted in different particle sizes and shapes. Starches were selected based on natural variation (quinoa, oat, waxy barley, waxy maize, and potato). All samples were modified with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) to 1.7–3%. The particle size is important, since decreased particle sizes lead to decreasing emulsion drop size and increased stabilization against creaming (Rayner et al, 2012). Decreased particle size by acid hydrolysis up to 89% (potato), 64% (waxy maize), and 62% (waxy barley) and by dissolution precipitation from 15 μm to 60 nm (waxy maize) showed an impact on decreasing emulsion drop size. Starch particles from ~60 nm (nanoparticles) to <10 μm (granules) suitably stabilized emulsions, and the smaller the particle, the smaller amount needed for drop surface coverage. Surface gelatinization (oat) caused larger particles but with unique shapes affecting the emulsifying capacity. The shape clearly influenced the affinity for the oil/water interface. Smooth rounded particles (waxy barley <10 μm, size fractionation) seemed to provide smaller emulsion drops than smaller/similar sizes of polyhedral particles (quinoa and oat), believed to maximize packing at the interface. Light scattering and microscopy showed some particle aggregation due to hydrophobization. Interestingly, these aggregates may disperse into individual particles during high-shear emulsification, resulting in narrow drop size distributions. This study demonstrated the possibility to affect emulsion properties by varying starch particles and that smooth round particles, 60 nm to 10 μm, (≥1.7% OSA) were preferred.

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41-O Rheological stability of waxy wheat flour and its potential as a unique freeze–thaw stable ingredient R. KOWALSKI (1), A. Meldrum (2), S. Wang (1), S. Constantinescu (2), H. Joyner (2), C. Morris (3), G. Ganjyal (1) (1) Washington State University, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.; (2) University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, U.S.A.; (3) USDA, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.

Frozen and shelf-stable foods can undergo significant variation in temperature from production to when the consumer uses the product. Maintaining consistent food quality through these temperature changes as the food goes through freeze-thaw cycles is critical to consumer acceptance. Waxy wheat could provide a solution to this persistent problem. In an effort to develop a solution, rheological properties of multiple waxy wheat flour varieties were analyzed before and after 10 freeze-thaw cycles between 25°C and –20°C and compared with normal wheat flour varieties. It was hypothesized that the properties of the waxy wheat flours would remain the same even after subjecting them to the freeze-thaw cycles. Herschel-Bulkely models as well as storage (G′) and loss (G″) moduli across strain and frequency were identified for gelatinized flour solutions before and after the freeze-thaw cycles using a parallel plate rheometer. All of the waxy wheat flour pastes exhibited lower viscosities than the normal flour pastes. The viscosity values remained constant after freeze-thaw cycles for the waxy flours, while the normal flours exhibited a significant drop in viscosity. It was also found that the storage and loss moduli for the waxy wheat varieties was stable at strain rates of over 10%, both before and after freeze-thaw cycling, with no significant changes. The rheological results were also compared to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results for initial gelatinization and retrogradation. The normal flours exhibited significantly larger retrogradation enthalpies than the waxy wheat flours in all cases, with some of the waxy wheat varieties exhibiting no significant retrogradation. Overall, the data suggest that the rheological properties of waxy wheat flour change very little through the freeze-thaw cycles, thus offering the solution as a natural freeze-thaw stabilizer. 42-O Monitoring protein network formation during pound cake making using 15N-labeled egg protein L. J. DELEU (1), E. Wilderjans (1), I. Van Haesendonck (2), K. Brijs (1), J. A. Delcour (1) (1) KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; (2) Puratos, Groot-Bijgaarden, Belgium

Pound cake batter proteins originate from flour (about 45% of all protein), egg white (about 30%), and egg yolk (about 25%). The protein network formed during cake baking is essential for end-product quality since it codetermines cake volume and texture. However, how the different proteins react and interact during cake baking is unclear. Protein labeling allows distinguishing between those originating from egg white, egg yolk, and flour. Here, hens were fed with feed containing 15N-labeled leucine, such that the proteins in their eggs were strongly enriched with the stable isotope 15N. The labeled egg white and yolk were used separately for pound cake making. An Osborne type protein fractionation method was applied to different batter and cake samples. A salt-containing buffer, 60% ethanol, and a sodium dodecyl sulfate- and a dithiothreitol-containing buffer were subsequently added to extract the different proteins. The extracted proteins were quantified and the overall 15N-enrichment of the extracts was used to determine the portions of egg protein. This showed that during baking, almost all egg white proteins are incorporated into a covalent disulfide network, while some egg yolk proteins remain extractable. 43-O Novel wheat flour imparting a reduction in bread staling P. VRINTEN (1), T. Inokuma (2), T. Shimbata (2), T. Nakamura (3) (1) Bioriginal Food and Science Corporation, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (2) Central Laboratory, Nippon Flour Mills Co., Ltd., Atsugi, Japan; (3) Tohoku National Agriculture Research Center, Morioka, Japan

Specific starch characteristics may be preferable depending on the end-use of flour or starch. In some cases, it may be possible to create such characteristics through genetics and breeding. Hexaploid bread wheat is an especially promising platform for such developments, since a gradient in variation can potentially be created by combining wild-type and null alleles of genes from each of the three genomes. Here, we created such variation in a calculated manner by using marker-assisted selection to combine null and wild-type alleles for A-, B-, and D-genome copies of two starch synthesis genes, SSIIa and GBSSI. Null mutations in the B-genome–derived genes have the largest effect for both these enzymes, followed by the D-genome–derived genes. Therefore we completed detailed analysis of starch characteristics for type 3-3, which is null for the B-genome copy of the SSIIa and GBSSI genes, and type 5-5, which has null mutations in the B- and D-genome–encoded copies of both genes. As expected, type 5-5 showed the largest differences from wild-type, while type 3-3 had starch characteristics that were intermediate between type 5-5 and wild-type. The differences among genotypes were significant for many starch attributes, such as percent amylose, chain length distribution, and pasting properties. Most notably, bread made from type 5-5 flour showed a greatly reduced level of staling. This provided a clear demonstration of the practical usefulness of identifying genotypic variation that is not visible phenotypically, and using this variation in a calculated manner to develop novel products.

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44-O Young Scientist Research Award – Soluble grain fibers: Finding the optimal balance between nutritional and technological functionality L. NYSTRÖM (1) (1) ETH Zurich, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, Zurich, Switzerland

Soluble dietary fibers, such as β-glucan and arabinoxylan, are cornerstones of the health-promoting properties of whole grain foods. They decrease cholesterol levels, regulate glucose uptake, and support cognitive functions, among other nutritional, as well as technological, properties. While increased viscosity of soluble fibers is often found to positively correlate with health benefits, it is also associated with negative technological properties and sensory quality. On the other hand, evaluation of oxidized fibers has provided evidence that the nutritional functionality may not always be dependent on viscosity. We have extensively studied oxidative reactions of soluble cereal fibers, with a main focus on β-glucan. To maximize and optimize the health-promoting and technological effects of β-glucan, it is crucial to have a detailed understanding of the conditions that lead to oxidation and the nature of the oxidation products and to associate these with the changes in functional properties. Recent studies have shown that various functional properties (bile acid binding, dough rheology, and baking properties) of cereal β-glucan may be improved with targeted or non-targeted oxidation, but the structure–function relationships are still somewhat poorly understood. Furthermore, subtle differences in the fine structure of β-glucan may have a major impact on the susceptibility of β-glucan to oxidation and subsequent molecular changes. Our mission is to establish the structure–function relationships of β-glucan with other molecules (e.g., bile acids, minerals, sugars, proteins) on a molecular level using state-of-the-art analytical technologies, including high-resolution mass spectrometry, NMR, and EPR. This information can later be applied to tailor functional β-glucan–enriched ingredients with desired nutritional and technological properties. 45-O Dietary fiber polysaccharides in the digestive tract: Physical properties and health implications M. GIDLEY (1) (1) University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Australia

Plant cell walls and associated polysaccharides (a.k.a. dietary fiber) play a pivotal role in the digestion of a healthy diet, mostly as the defining structural characteristic of whole grains, fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Credible hypotheses can be constructed to link cell wall properties of these plant-based foods to reduction in risk factors for major non-communicable diseases (Gidley, Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science, 18:371-378, 2013). The physical properties of plant cell wall polysaccharide components relevant to digestive tract functionality can be grouped into (i) bulk structuring, (ii) transport barriers, and (iii) molecular binding. These three physical property types are contributed to by (i) continuous phase rheology, (ii) local microrheology within particles/solutions, and (iii) rigidity and hydrophobicity of fiber particles/solutions. Examples of each type of functionality from both in vitro and in vivo studies will be presented. The conventional sub-division of dietary fiber into soluble and insoluble types disguises the reality that the physical form of plant cell walls in digesta is typically intermediate between the extremes of dissolved polymers and non-swollen solid particles, which are often used to exemplify soluble and insoluble fiber fractions. An alternative method of categorizing dietary fibers is proposed based on a two-dimensional plot of particle/molecule size and effective local density. Location of each of the commonly encountered fiber types on this plot provides a framework for displaying and rationalizing the diverse physical properties that contribute to the structuring, transport, and binding features that are proposed to form the basis for the nutritional value of dietary fiber beyond fermentation. 46-O Gastric emptying rate of brown rice may be controlled by factors other than slower physical degradation in the stomach E. A. PLETSCH (1), B. R. Hamaker (1) (1) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

Brown rice is perceived as having higher carbohydrate quality compared to white rice due to a lower glycemic response and higher fiber content. However, manipulation of starch-related components may also improve the physiological effects of white rice. Increased amylose content, slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch (RS) have all been associated with slower in vitro digestion rates and lower glycemic responses, which are closely related to slower gastric emptying rates. In this study, cooked white rice with a moderately high amylose content (~24–29% amylose) was temperature-cycled to increase in vitro SDS and RS fractions and compared to low amylose (~17%) and medium amylose (~24%) white and brown rice. Rice (50 g of available carbohydrate) was then fed to human subjects (n = 10) to measure gastric emptying rates using the 13C-labeled octanoic acid breath test method. When higher amylose white rice varieties were temperature-cycled, SDS and RS fractions increased, with some rice samples showing a similar in vitro starch digestion profile to low-amylose brown rice. In the

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human study, while both low- and high-amylose brown rice delayed gastric emptying to a greater extent than all white rice treatments (P < 0.05), the lag phase, a parameter related to the breakdown of a food inside the stomach, remained the same among treatments, suggesting that factors other than physical degradation, such as slow starch digestion, may trigger a feedback control to slow gastric emptying. Defining the mechanisms of whole grain digestion would help determine how refined grains with good carbohydrate quality can be used in products to delay gastric emptying for slower meal digestion and a sustained energy effect. 47-O Conversion of 8-5-coupled dehydrodiferulates by human intestinal microbiota R. SCHENDEL (1), C. Karrer (1), A. Hildebrand (1), D. Bunzel (2), M. Huch (2), S. Kulling (2), M. Bunzel (1) (1) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Karlsruhe, Germany; (2) Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Max Rubner Institute (MRI), Karlsruhe, Germany

Numerous health benefits are proposed for fiber-bound hydroxycinnamates, especially for ferulic acid and its dehydrodiferulate (DFA) dimers, which covalently cross-link arabinoxylans or arabinoxylans and lignin in cereal grain fiber. Ingested DFAs are assumed to be partially released from the dietary fiber complex by colonic microbiota, but little research has explored the further metabolism of 8-5-DFA, the most abundant DFA regioisomer, by intestinal microbiota. This study investigated the in vitro metabolism of free 8-5-DFAs (both the benzofuran and open forms) and an esterified analogue, 8-5-DFA diethyl ester (benzofuran), by human intestinal microbiota and structurally elucidated major metabolites. Individual substrates were synthesized and incubated with fresh human fecal suspensions in brain-heart medium as batch cultures (strictly anaerobic, pH 7.6, 37°C, 120 hr), using appropriate controls. Periodic aliquots were removed, extracted, and screened for metabolite formation (LC-DAD/ESI-MS). Metabolites were isolated and structurally elucidated with HR-LC-TOF-MS, GC-MS, and 1D- and 2D-NMR. Nine metabolite structures were unambiguously characterized with NMR, and four additional metabolites were tentatively identified to reveal key structural conversion motifs: propenyl side-chain hydrogenation (all substrates), demethylation and reductive ring-opening (8-5-DFA diethyl ester and free 8-5-DFA [benzofuran]), and de-esterification (8-5-DFA diethyl ester). Metabolite formation kinetics were used to propose a metabolic pathway of 8-5-DFAs. Importantly, de-esterification of the 8-5-DFA diethyl ester occurred after other metabolism steps, and no free, unmetabolized 8-5-DFAs were detected at any point during incubation of the esterified compound. Cleavage to monomers was not observed, in contrast to 8-O-4 DFA, another common DFA regioisomer. 48-O Edith Christensen Award for Outstanding Contributions in Analytical Methods – Development of new methods to assess the nutritional aspects of cereal grain products N. AMES (1) (1) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Winnipeg, MB, Canada

With the growing consumer interest in functional foods and emerging evidence for cereal grain health benefits beyond basic nutrition, the need for novel methodologies to meet the requirements of each member of the value chain is increasing. In response to this growing need, the methods used in AAFC’s multidimensional approach to improving cereal grains have evolved to incorporate assessment of nutritional quality and functionality. These techniques are utilized to support cultivar improvement, development of improved processing strategies for industry, and nutritional studies investigating the health benefits of cereal grain consumption, such as glycemic control, cholesterol lowering, and body weight management. For example, in addition to quantifying carbohydrate components, novel in vitro methodologies are now being utilized to characterize relevant physicochemical properties of fiber and predict physiological responses such as starch digestibility and gut viscosity. Opportunities exist for employing cell culture screening techniques and dynamic stomach models to simulate the physiological response and thereby facilitate pre-screening of cultivars, food formulations, or processes based on prediction of bioactivity. 49-O Effects of a proline endopeptidase on the detection and quantification of gluten during the fermentation of beer R. PANDA (1), K. L. Fiedler (1), C. Y. Cho (1), W. L. Stutts (1), R. Cheng (1), E. A. Garber (1) (1) Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, U.S.A.

In 2013, the FDA issued a regulation requiring that food bearing the claim “gluten-free” must contain less than 20 ppm gluten. It was also recognized that scientifically valid analytical methods did not exist for the quantification of fermented and hydrolyzed gluten. Using the brewing of beer as a model for a fermentation process that involved gluten hydrolysis, the reliability of antibody-based methods and mass spectrometry to detect and quantify gluten were evaluated. Also examined were the effects of a proline endopeptidase (PEP), marketed to hydrolyze immunopathogenic sequences. Sorghum beer containing 0, 20, and 200 μg/mL (ppm) wheat gluten was brewed with and without PEP. Samples collected throughout the brewing process were analyzed by ELISAs and western

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blot. The final product of the 20 and 200 ppm beer samples, brewed without the addition of PEP, displayed an average reduction in the detectable gluten concentration of 82% and 70%, respectively, by ELISA. Addition of PEP at a concentration of 4 mL in 31 gallons of wort increased the loss to 99%. Decreasing the PEP concentration by 8-fold or increasing it by 6-fold also resulted in ≥98% reduction in detectable gluten in the final product. Western blot confirmed the results of the ELISA. Hydrolyzed gluten peptides could be observed in the 200 ppm beer samples after a week of fermentation using global mass spectrometry, and a subset of these peptides could be observed in the 20 ppm final beer sample using a targeted method. PEP treatment radically altered the hydrolyzed gluten peptide profile to include peptides predominately ending in proline residues. Research is underway to characterize gluten peptides throughout the fermentation process, determine whether immunopathogenic epitopes are present, develop a method to assess the extent of protein hydrolysis, and quantify gluten subjected to fermentation and hydrolysis. 50-O Volatile compounds characterization of aged rice using colorimetric sensor array H. LIN (1), H. Jin (1), B. Guan (1) (1) Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China

Aroma of rice greatly affects palatability, as well as consumer acceptability, and is one of the main factors of rice quality. Japonica rice (Wuyujing three strain) was kindly donated by farmers from Sihong Village, Jiangsu Province, PR China. After harvest, rice samples were stored in normal temperature for different storage periods (1, 3, 6, and 12 months). During storage, a number of volatile organic compound (VOC) changes occur, which is termed “aging.” In this work, a total of 120 samples (30 samples per storage period) was used for the experiment. GC-MS was primarily used to investigate the VOCs of rice samples with different storage ages. It was found that the compounds of benzaldehyde and 2-fluoro-5-methylaniline increased remarkably during storage, while hexanal, octaethylene glycol, and monododecyl ether continued to decline. According to results from GC-MS, several colorimetric dyes sensitive to VOCs of aged rice were selected. Furthermore, the mechanism of colorimetric dyes reacted to VOCs was investigated. Then, a colorimetric sensor array composed of sensitive dyes was used to characterize the VOCs of aged rice. A CCD camera was employed to capture the images of the colorimetric sensor array before and after exposure of the VOCs of rice samples. The red (R), green (G), and blue (B) component images were extracted from the images. Then, images were further optimized by image processing methods and turned into digital data for the next analysis. Principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to characterize the difference among fresh and aged rice samples. Rice samples stored for 6 and 12 months were distinguished with newly harvested rice samples through 3-dimension space PCA clusters trend. The research suggests that colorimetric sensor array was an excellent method for characterization of VOCs of aged rice. 51-O Updating AACCI Method 32-45.01 for the measurement of total dietary fiber B. V. MCCLEARY (1), A. Draga (1), N. Sloane (1) (1) Megazyme International Ireland Ltd., Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland

The definition of dietary fiber (DF) introduced by Codex Alimentarius in 2008 includes resistant starch (RS) and optionally non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDO) with degree of polymerization of 3–9. The integrated TDF method introduced by McCleary in 2007 (AACCI Approved Method 32-45.01) appeared to satisfy this definition. However, various analytical challenges have since been identified relating to incubation time with pancreatic α-amylase/amyloglucosidase; underestimation of phosphate cross-linked starch; incomplete hydrolysis of maltodextrins; underestimation of fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS); and use of sodium azide in the buffer. The literature indicates that the residence time of food in the small intestine is 4 ± 1 hr. Consequently, in the research reported here, an incubation time of 4 hr was chosen, and levels of PAA (6 KCU/assay) and AMG (1.7 KU/assay) were adjusted so that the RS values obtained were in line with those obtained in ileostomy studies for a defined set of starch samples. With these levels of PAA plus AMG, the resistant maltodextrins that are formed on hydrolysis of starches under the conditions employed in AACCI Approved Method 32-45.01 are no longer present. Also, with the new format much higher DF values are obtained for phosphate cross-linked starch (e.g., Fibersym). Problems observed in the separation of fructotriose (in FOS preparations) were resolved by employing TSK-GELR G2500PWXL for HPLC of non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDO). With the shorter incubation time of 4 hr, there was no requirement for inclusion of sodium azide in the incubation buffer. Finally, sample preparation for HPLC has been simplified. In conclusion, the integrated total dietary fiber method (AACCI Approved Method 32-45.01) has been modified to remove all currently identified challenges, simply by changing the concentrations of PAA and AMG that are employed in the assay.

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52-O Preparation and characterization of starch/PVOH/Laponite RD films for biodegradable food packaging A. Thatte (1), P. H. MANEPALLI (2), S. Thomas (3), S. Alavi (2) (1) Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India; (2) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.; (3) Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

Petroleum-based packaging is of great concern for the environment. Starch-based packaging is biodegradable and has the additional benefits of abundant availability and natural polymerization. In this phase of study, starch and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) (1:1 to 4:1) were blended with Laponite RD (LRD) (0–20% polymer basis) to form a nanocomposite using solution mixing and melt mixing methods. Films with thicknesses ranging between 200 and 400 μm were formed using a compression molding technique. Mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), universal testing (UT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and permeability analysis (PA). Study of mechanical properties showed that ultimate stress and maximum elongation of films ranged from 1.83 to 15.41 MPa and 13.02 to 103.6% respectively, while Young’s modulus ranged from 13.81 to 42.17 MPa. Mechanical properties improved up to 10% LRD concentration, indicating better surface interface interaction between polymer matrix and layers of LRD. A further increase in LRD concentration led to a decrease in mechanical properties, indicating agglomeration of LRD leading to lesser surface interactions and breaking continuity of the polymer matrix. Increasing starch level in the polymer matrix weakened the nanocomposites. Water absorption studies showed higher water absorption for solution mixing compared to melt mixing, indicating a higher degree of exfoliation occurred with melt mixing method. Water absorption decreased with addition of LRD. An increase in mechanical and barrier properties with the addition of LRD showed that a starch/PVOH/LRD nanocomposite can be used as a biodegradable food packaging film. 53-O A bio-plastic application for kafirin, the sorghum prolamin protein, but what is needed to enable its commercialization? J. TAYLOR (1) (1) University of Pretoria, Pretoria Gauteng, South Africa

Environmentally friendly, edible bio-plastic materials can be made from zein and kafirin, the prolamin storage proteins found in maize and sorghum grain, respectively. These natural materials show potential for use in the food industry as encapsulating agents for nutraceuticals and as coating materials to extend the shelf life of fruit as described below. Kafirin-based edible coatings variously containing functional additives propylene glycol (PG) and glucono-δ-lactone (GDL) were found to be effective at extending and maintaining the shelf-life quality of ‘Hass’ avocados for 21 days at ambient temperature. This was attributed to reduced respiration rate and consequently reduced ethylene production of the coated fruit. Descriptive sensory analysis showed kafirin-PG+GDL coatings were most effective, extending the quality of the avocados 7 days beyond the untreated control. GDL, an acidulant widely used in the food industry appeared to act by improving kafirin solvation. Thus, kafirin-PG+GDL coatings are an effective method of extending eat ripe quality of climacteric fruit. However, this and other promising prolamin bio-plastic products have not been commercialized. High costs and inferior functional properties compared with synthetic polymer plastics are the primary reasons for this. Improved economic viability should be possible by utilization of prolamin-rich co-products from grain biofuel production, wet milling, and brewing. To enable bio-plastic materials with improved functionality to be produced, a greater understanding of how these very complex prolamins self-assemble into nanostructures and then how these structures further assemble into various prolamin bio-plastic materials is needed, and our research into this is presented here. Such knowledge should enable scientists to manipulate and direct the process to improve functionality. 54-O Developing soy protein isolate-based biopolymers with enzyme in food packaging E. MOHAMMAD ZADEH (1) (1) Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, U.S.A.

Plant-based biopolymer materials are becoming attractive as an alternative to animal-based biopolymers through recent technical improvements and rising social-cultural and hygienic concerns. Soy protein isolate (SPI) with more than 90% protein purity was enzymatically modified with transglutaminase and fabricated with glycerol as a plasticizer for three different enzyme incubation times (1 hr, 2 hr, and 3 hr) and two protein denaturation temperatures (80 and 90°C). Tensile strength, percent elongation, and surface hydrophobicity of the films were characterized by comparing to a control film that was not treated with the enzyme, and the viscosity of the film-forming solution was measured by concentric rheometer as a function of enzymatic incubation time. Enzymatically modified films showed a significant increase in mechanical properties and initial contact angle of the films compared to the control film. The contact angle of the air side of the films was higher than the plate side,

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which could be attributed to the influence of orientation of molecules during drying and the material of the plate. Increasing enzyme incubation time increased tensile strength and reduced percent elongation of films prepared at 80°C; however, it did not have a significant effect on the films prepared at 90°C (P > 0.05). The viscosity profile of the film-forming solution treated with the enzyme was significantly increased as the incubation time increased, which is excellent evidence of enzymatic treatment to biopolymeric film. It is in good agreement with the mechanical properties of SPI-based films. Based on the above observations, the enzymatic treatment to protein-based polymer can be a useful way to control the physical properties of protein-based biopolymeric film, and this treatment can be applied to the wide spectrum of business areas such as packaging, food, pharmaceutical, and agricultural industries. 55-O Evaluation of partial germ supplementation to improve dry fractionation ethanol fermentation D. RAMCHANDRAN (1), P. Wang (2), B. Dien (3), W. Liu (1), M. A. Cotta (3), V. Singh (1) (1) University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.; (2) National Energy Technology Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A.; (3) National Center of Agricultural Utilization Research, USDA, Peoria, IL, U.S.A.

Ethanol fermentation of dry fractionated grits (corn endosperm pieces) containing different levels of germ was investigated using the dry grind process. Typically, dry fractionated grits are prepared using a dry degerm defiber process, where germ and pericarp fiber are recovered as valuable co-products prior to fermentation of the endosperm (grit) fraction. Partial removal of the germ fraction allows for marketing the germ fraction and potentially more efficient fermentation. Dry fractionated grits used in this study were obtained from a dry-milling plant and a commercial dry-grind facility. Dry-milled endosperm grits were mixed with different amounts of germ (2, 5, 7, and 10% germ of the total sample) and compared to control grits (0% germ). Fermentation rates of germ-supplemented grits (2, 5, 7, and 10% germ) were faster than control grits (0% germ). Addition of 2% germ was sufficient to achieve a high ethanol concentration (19.1%, vol/vol) compared to control grits (18.2%, vol/vol). Commercial endosperm grits were prepared so as to recover 92, 95, and 97% of initial starch in the endosperm stream, resulting in three grit samples: 92, 95, and 97% grits, respectively. Fermentation of 92, 95, and 97% grits was compared to ground whole corn (control) using conventional dry-grind enzymes (composed of α- and gluco-amylases). Fermentation rates were slower and final ethanol concentrations were lower for commercial grits than for the control sample. However, in a final experiment, commercial grits were subjected to raw starch hydrolyzing enzyme (RSH), resulting in higher ethanol concentrations (20.2, 19.9, and 19.5% [vol/vol] for 92, 95, and 97% grits, respectively) compared to whole corn control (18.6%, vol/vol). Therefore, high ethanol concentrations can be achieved with dry fractionated grits provided inclusion of a certain amount of germ and use of RSH for controlled starch hydrolysis. 56-O Comparison of fermentation characteristics between colored corn and yellow dent corn in two dry grind process methods Z. WANG (1), H. Huang (1), E. de Mejia (1), Q. Li (1), V. Singh (1) (1) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, U.S.A.

In the dry-grind ethanol process, distiller’s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is the main co-product, which is primarily used as an ingredient in nonruminant animal diets. Increasing DDGS value will improve the profitability of the dry-grind ethanol process. One possible way to increase DDGS value is to use colored corn rich in anthocyanin content as feedstock for ethanol production. The effect of anthocyanin on fermentation characteristics in the dry-grind process is not known. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of anthocyanin content in corn on the dry-grind process. Ethanol conversion efficiencies of colored corns (78.4 ± 0.51% for blue corn and 74.3 ± 0.43% for red corn) were comparable to that of yellow dent corn (75.1 ± 0.20%) in both the conventional dry-grind process and modified dry grind process using granular starch hydrolyzing enzyme (GSHE) (83.8 ± 0.83% for blue corn, 81.1 ± 0.32% for red corn, and 85.6 ± 0.08% for yellow dent corn). The modified process uses GSHE to replace the high-temperature liquefaction, which increases the anthocyanin stability in the process. These results indicate that colored corn rich in anthocyanin does not negatively affect the fermentation characteristics for the dry-grind process, and there is a potential to use colored corn in the dry-grind process, especially with granular starch hydrolyzing enzymes.

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2015 Abstracts of Poster Presentations

1-P Preparation and properties of protein concentrates prepared by aqueous alcohol washing of air-classified pulse protein R. Peter (1), V. Meda (1), R. T. TYLER (1) (1) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Preparation of protein concentrates from air-classified pea protein (55.5% protein) by aqueous-alcohol washing was optimized using a Box Behnken response surface experimental design. The effects of alcohol concentration (50, 60, and 70%), extraction temperature (20, 40, and 60°C), and extraction time (5, 10, and 15 min) on yield, protein content, and functionality were determined. Alcohol concentration had significant effects (P < 0.05) on yield, protein content, and functionality; neither temperature nor time had a significant effect on any of the dependent variables. Corresponding concentrations of ethanol and isopropanol yielded similar results. The yields and protein contents of ethanol-washed concentrates ranged from 66.4–76.1% and 68.2–72.1%, respectively. Corresponding values for isopropanol-washed concentrates were 63.1–73.2% and 66.6–73.1%. The concentrations of crude fat, total lipid, and ash in ethanol-washed and isopropanol-washed protein concentrates ranged from 1.1–2.4% and 0.3–0.8%, 4.1–5.2% and 1.3–3.0%, and 4.4–5.5% and 4.3–5.9%, respectively. Optimum process conditions with respect to yield for ethanol-washed and isopropanol-washed concentrates were predicted by the model to be 65% alcohol, 40°C, and 11 min and 70% alcohol, 44°C, and 10 min, respectively; corresponding optimum conditions with respect to protein content were 52%, 32°C, and 12 min and 55%, 50°C, and 11 min. Alcohol-washed pea protein concentrates were similar in functionality (water hydration, oil absorption, emulsion activity and stability, foaming, solubility) to commercial soy concentrates but exhibited lower emulsion activities. Protein concentrates also were prepared from air-classified lentil, faba bean, and navy bean protein fractions using the optimum extraction conditions identified for pea and for the most part exhibited functionality similar to that of pea protein concentrates. 2-P Evaluation of the quality of nixtamalized tortillas enriched with soybean bagasse K. E. HERNÁNDEZ REYES (1), C. García Villanueva (1), L. Ortega Castillo (1), V. S. Estrada Flores (1), G. Montemayor Mora (1), E. Pérez Carillo (1), S. O. Serna Saldívar (2) (1) Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico; (2) Departamento de Biotecnología e Ingeniería de Alimentos, Centro de Biotecnología, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico

Nixtamalized tortillas are one of the main food sources in Mexico; however they present poor quality protein. Soybean bagasse (SB) is a cellulosic by-product obtained as a residue of soybean protein isolates production that is rich in protein, dietary fiber, and phytochemicals. The aim of this research was to evaluate the physicochemical properties of nixtamalized tortillas enriched with SB. Three treatments with nixtamalized corn flour/soybean bagasse (100:0, 95:5, and 90:10) were tested. On mixed flours, moisture, protein, water absorption (WAI), and solubility index (WSI) were analyzed. Masa properties were obtained by texture profile analysis (TPA). Tortillas were tested in terms of yield, moisture, protein, ash, force, diameter, color (L, a*, b*), rollability, and sensory perception by 30 untrained panelists. All flours had similar moisture and protein content. Flours with 5% and 10% SB had the highest WAI and WSI, respectively. The higher the SB content, the softer the masa was. No adhesiveness change was observed, but 10% SB masa was the least cohesive. Tortillas had similar statistical yield, moisture, and protein. An increase in ash content was observed with an increase in SB. The force of tortillas with 5% and 10% SB increased from day 0 to day 2 and decreased from day 2 to day 3; tortillas with 0% SB remained constant after day 2. Tortillas with 10% SB had the greatest diameter, 13.26 ± 0.20 cm. Tortillas with 0% SB showed an L* and a* value 11% lower and 8.5% higher, respectively, than 5% SB; b* value in 0% SB was 10% lower than the others. Rollability diminished after day 3. Finally, all treatments had the same sensory acceptability for flavor, texture, and color. Tortilla with 5% SB was the most preferred in odor and general acceptability parameters. 3-P The effect of sprouted grain flour concentration on physical and textural properties of whole wheat pan bread M. FELDPAUSCH (1), S. Cropper (2), J. Faubion (2), D. Krishock (2) (1) Kansas State University, Hastings, MI, U.S.A.; (2) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

The inclusion of sprouted wheat has been shown to enhance flavor and increase digestibility and nutrient content in bread formulations. Due to the phytochemical presence and bioavailability of vitamins and minerals, sprouted wheat can provide added nutritional value to baked goods. Dough processing challenges and quality issues exist with the addition of sprouted flour. Currently, little research exists showing how different concentrations of sprouted grains can affect the physical attributes and shelf-stability of pan bread. The objective of this study was to evaluate the concentration effect of sprouted whole grain flour on the physical and textural qualities of a sponge-and-dough processed whole wheat pan bread. Treatments consisted of breads containing 0% (control), 30%, or 50% whole grain sprouted flour (SF) based on the final dough. After fermenting a sponge for 3 hr at room

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temperature (21°C), the final doughs containing different levels of sprouted flour were mixed for 6 min. A final proof occurred for 1.25 hr in a proof box at 38°C and 90–95% humidity. Loaves were baked at 210°C for 28 min, cooled to room temperature, and stored in closed plastic bags. Shelf-life testing was conducted on days 0, 3, 5, and 7 post-bake, where C-cell testing, pH, and texture analysis were conducted on two randomly selected treatment loaves. Loaf volumes were not significantly different (P < 0.05) between the control (2,463 cm3) and 30% (2,520 cm3) or 50% (2,539 cm3) breads. Initial pH of loaves containing either 30% (5.1) or 50% (5.1) was less than the control (5.2). Texture analysis determined that the addition of 30% (110 g) and 50% (87 g) sprouted flour created a softer crumb than the control (120 g). In summary, moderate additions of whole grain sprouted flour to pan bread can lengthen shelf-life and increase loaf volume thereby improving consumer satisfaction. 5-P Using germinated grains as a breadmaking ingredient A. PAGANI (1), M. Marengo (1), A. Marti (1), M. Zanoletti (1), S. Benedetti (1), S. Buratti (1), A. Barbiroli (1), S. Iametti (1), L. Quaglia (2) (1) University of Milan, Milan, Italy; (2) Molino Quaglia, Vighizzolo d’Este, Italy

The addition of flours from germinated grains to conventional flours has become a popular strategy in the Western world to improve the quality of cereal-based products. This study was aimed at addressing the overall quality of a wheat bread from sourdough leavening enriched (10%, wt/wt) with either germinated buckwheat flour or germinated wheat flour, in comparison with flours from non-germinated grains. Addition of the flours from germinated grains was expected to improve product sensory properties, as nutritional improvement at these enrichment levels may be considered marginal. However, even a small enrichment can cause problems during the breadmaking process, which needs to be carried out in a specific way. E-nose data indicate that bread containing flours from germinated grains had peculiar aroma components. Crumb image analysis indicated no changes in bubble size distribution in bread upon addition of germinated wheat. On the contrary, addition of non-germinated buckwheat flour caused a 20% decrease in the total porous area of wheat-based bread. No negative effects were observed when using germinated buckwheat as the enriching ingredient. From a molecular standpoint, germination gave the expected starch hydrolysis (peak viscosity = 75 BU for mix with 10% germinated wheat vs 550 BU for non-germinated wheat), whereas protein hydrolysis was minimal and limited to large proteins. As a consequence, proteolysis in either germinated material did not impair gluten formation, which is crucial to the final bread quality. In conclusion, appropriate conditions in the germination process may lead to the selective formation of breakdown products that provide unique aroma notes upon bread baking, without resulting in detrimental effects on product appearance. Also of interest is the possibility of using germinated grains other than wheat as a bread supplement. 6-P Physicochemical characterization of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) starches grown in Brazil I. M. DEMIATE (1), A. F. Mileo (2), M. E. B. Zortea (1), H. Yangcheng (1), X. Li (1), J. L. Jane (1) (1) Iowa State University, Ames, IA, U.S.A.; (2) State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Brazil

A combination of beans and rice is commonly consumed in Brazil daily as a source of energy and protein for both low- and high-income families. In the present study, 11 different beans grown in Brazil were processed at a laboratory scale for starch extraction, and the isolated starches were evaluated using selected physicochemical analyses. Starch was obtained after grinding (IKA M20) the dried kernels, and 0.1 M NaOH steeping was employed together with sieving (53 μm) and centrifuging (4,000 × g, 10 min at 10°C), followed by washings and drying to produce starch with less than 1% (wt/wt) protein. The yields were roughly 30%. The apparent amylose content and molecular weight (Mw)/gyration radii (Rz) of the starches were evaluated using iodine potentiometric titration and high-performance size-exclusion chromatography with multi-angle laser light-scattering and refractive index detectors (HPSEC-MALLS-RI), respectively. Paste properties, syneresis (freeze-thaw cycles), paste clarity, and thermal properties of the starches also were evaluated. Results showed amylose contents ranging from 27.0 to 35.9% and Mw and Rz from 6.5 to 10.5 × 108 and 297 to 345, respectively. Clarity of the pastes ranged from 2.8 to 3.4% of transmittance, and DSC analysis showed onset temperatures ranging from 55.6 to 67.2°C and gelatinization enthalpy from 8.7 to 14.9 J g–1. The starch with the lowest content of amylose also had the least syneresis in the first freeze-thaw cycle, and those with greater amylose contents released more water. Bean starches have been less studied than cereal and tuberous starches. Because of the slow digestive rates of bean starch and the large protein content, common beans represent a huge opportunity for the food industry as new and healthy ingredients.

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7-P Use of a fermented soy ingredient to enhance saltiness and overall flavor in hot dog buns M. BAKKE (1) (1) Kikkoman USA R&D Laboratory, Inc., Madison, WI, U.S.A.

Sodium reduction has been widely studied and is a hot topic for the food industry. There is ongoing interest in developing products that satisfy consumer demands for lowering sodium. Recently, a characteristic soy sauce, which has less soy-sauce type flavor and a lighter color than traditionally brewed soy sauce, can be produced using a fermentation process with modified temperature and time parameters. Previous studies have demonstrated that it can be successfully utilized in frankfurters to achieve a sodium reduction while maintaining product quality and enhancing some organoleptic properties [McGough, M. M., et al., Meat Sci. 91:185-194 (2012)]. Moreover, the flavor enhancer (FE) also exhibited saltiness potentiation effect in white bread [Jimenez-Maroto, L. A., et al., J. Cereal Sci. 58: 313-317 (2013)]. In this study, hot dog buns were prepared with dehydrated FE at three salt levels. Buns were evaluated with both hot dogs and brats to determine if the FE would have a flavor- or salt-enhancing effect. First, two controls (Cont-1: 1% salt in dough; Cont-2: 25% salt reduction) and three test buns (Test-1: 75% salt was replaced by 3% FE; Test-2: 25% salt reduction and 75% salt was replaced by 3% FE; Test-3: 50% salt reduction and 50% salt was replaced by 2% FE) were prepared. Then hot dog buns were evaluated with beef franks or with beef bratwurst. We found that the Test-2 and Test-3 buns were equal to or directionally higher in saltiness versus the control buns. Regarding overall flavor intensities, Test-1 and -2 were directionally higher than the controls. Almost no significant differences were found in overall acceptability. These data suggested that there is a benefit to adding the FE to buns, because flavor intensities are increased and overall salt content can be reduced without an impact on salt perception in hot dog and bratwurst sandwiches. 9-P Effectiveness of wheat protein isolates as egg replacers in bakery products E. FORT (1), R. Miller (1), M. Angermayer (1), K. Brackebusch (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Recently, interest in egg reduction for bakery products has increased in lieu of elevated egg prices. Wheat protein isolate (WPI) is a highly concentrated wheat gluten product with functionality similar to eggs, including extensibility, binding, film formation, and structure. The objective of this study was to evaluate the functionality of WPIs for partial or complete replacement of dried whole egg or dried egg white in various bakery products. Following AACCI and locally developed KSU Wheat Quality Lab methods, high-ratio cakes, pound cakes, pancakes, waffles, and muffins were prepared using either dried egg white or dried whole egg. Batter specific gravity, product volume or height, firmness, elasticity, and crumb grain characteristics (cell number, cell wall thickness, and cell size) were analyzed. Two different commercial WPIs were used to replace 25, 50, or 100% of the egg in the formula. Dried egg white was successfully replaced with WPI at 50% in layer cakes, 100% in pancakes, and 75% in muffins. Waffles lost their crisp character when WPI was added. Dried whole egg was successfully replaced with WPI at 50% in layer cakes and pancakes and 100% in muffins but was unsuccessful at all levels in waffles and pound cake. Waffles containing all levels of WPI lost their crisp character while the crumb grain of pound cakes became more open and coarse. 10-P Influence of amylase addition on physical and textural properties of cassava fiber-enriched wheat bread E. RODRIGUEZ-SANDOVAL (1), L. E. Sánchez-Agredo (1), E. M. Cadena-Chamorro (1) (1) Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellin, Colombia

The aim of this study was to assess the addition of α-amylase on yield, specific volume, crumb and crust moisture content, water activity, firmness, hardness, elasticity, and cohesiveness in cassava fiber-enriched wheat bread. Cassava fiber was used to replace wheat flour at 10% substitution level, whereas the enzyme was added to the formulation at levels of 0.007% (F1), 0.0085% (F2), and 0.01% (F3), based on the total weight of wheat flour. There were no significant differences in the yield, elasticity, and water activity of samples. The addition of cassava fiber without enzyme (F) decreased the specific volume of samples (4.2 ± 0.6 cm3/g) and increased hardness (39.5 ± 4.2 N) and firmness (27.3 ± 3.7 N) compared to those of control (C) samples without fiber and enzyme (7.6 ± 0.4 cm3/g, 13.04 ± 3.9 N, 12.9 ± 0.0 N, respectively). Crumb (64.1–65.1% wb) and crust (12.7–13.8% wb) moisture content for F1 and F3 samples were significantly lower than those for C samples, with values about 59.4 ± 4.2% (wb) and 9.5 ± 0.8% (wb), respectively. The textural results indicated that the addition of cassava fiber in wheat bread decreased the cohesiveness and increased the hardness and firmness; however, as the concentration of enzyme increased, the hardness and firmness decreased, with values of F2 and F3 samples about 27.9–29.6 N and 14.9–15.2, respectively, which were near those of C samples. Utilization of α-amylase for cassava fiber-enriched wheat bread (higher than 0.0085%) improved bread qualities such as loaf volume, firmness, and hardness, as compared with F breads, probably due to synergistic effects with damaged starch and some other enzymes.

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12-P Challenges and ingredient solutions for replacing egg whites in baked goods M. Yurgec (1); D. UZUNALIOGLU (1) (1) Ingredion, Bridgewater, NJ, U.S.A.

Over the past 1–2 years, the price of egg whites has risen to historically high levels, from less than US$6 per pound (dehydrated) in July 2012 to a peak of over US$15 per pound in July 2014. Although the price has come down from its high, the current price is still twice the historical average. This price spike has driven baked product manufacturers to look for replacement or reduction options for egg white products. However, egg whites offer very unique functionality that is necessary for many baked products. Egg whites are able to provide emulsification, foaming and foam stability, gelation during baking, product volume, crumb strength and rigidity, and color development. In this study, a starch-based texturizing ingredient system was developed to replace egg whites in several applications, including angel food cake, yellow cake, muffins, and gluten-free bread. An ingredient solution was developed using a systematic screening of various ingredients, including various starches and hydrocolloids, to identify the functional texturizing system that led to improved volume and texture of reduced egg white baked goods. The final system developed is labeled as potato starch, tapioca dextrin, and xanthan gum. Each ingredient contributes functionality that improves the reduced egg product quality. Cake dimension measurements, instrumental texture analysis, and descriptive sensory were used to evaluate an egg white reduction blend in an angel food cake system. In this case, 40% egg white reduction was achieved with significantly improved volume and texture over a negative control. In this study, significant egg white or whole egg reduction was also seen in white cake and muffins (50%) without significantly impacting the product volume, appearance, or texture. 15-P Influence of extruded rice and wheat flours and particle size on the rheological and textural properties of cold sauces L. ROMÁN (1), M. Gómez (1) (1) University of Valladolid, Palencia, Spain

Sauces are products commonly used as dressings in a number of dishes. Many sauces, such as béchamel or white sauces, are prepared using starchy products as main ingredients. Therefore, these sauces have to be cooked to develop their viscous properties, based on the gelatinization of starch granules. However, as the retrogradation process takes place during cooling, the starch paste can form a cuttable gel. Extruded flours, whose starch has been previously gelatinized, possess the ability to absorb water in cold and a reduced retrogradation tendency. Therefore, they represent an alternative to starchy products, allowing the preparation of sauces with no necessity of heating. Nevertheless, the type of cereal and their particle size can significantly affect their physical characteristics. In this research, rheological properties, stability, extrusion properties and color of sauces prepared with oil, water, and extruded wheat or rice flours of different particle size were analyzed. Sauces made with extruded rice flours, with lower percentages of protein and higher levels of amylopectin, showed higher resistance toward freezing and a whiter color compared to extruded wheat flours. Regarding rheological properties, rice sauces displayed lower values of the consistent index and yield stress, as well as less structural breakdown and higher flow behavior index and viscous character. On the other hand, the finest flour displayed higher syneresis after a freeze-thaw process and color, whereas lower values of consistent index, yield stress, G′ and G″ moduli, and extrusion force were observed. These results are of great interest for the development of cold sauces and similar products such as confectionery creams. 16-P Hairless canary seed: A promising alternative source for small starch granules E. ABDELAAL (1), S. M. Razavi (2), M. Irani (2), P. Hucl (3), C. A. Patterson (4) (1) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada; (2) Ferdowsi University of Mashhad International Campus, Department of Food Science and Technology, Mashhad, Iran; (3) University of Saskatchewan, Crop Development Centre, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (4) The Pathfinders Research & Management Ltd, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Global demand for starch is increasing and projected to reach 133.5 MT in 2018. This increase is driven by the diverse applications of starch in food, beverage, cosmetic, and other industries. Canary seed could offer an alternative source of starch, protein, and oil due to its chemical composition. In the current study a wet-milling process based on ethanol, alkaline, and water extractions was employed to fractionate the seeds into oil, protein, coarse fiber, fine fiber, and starch. Starch was recovered and characterized in terms of particle size, pasting, functional, and rheological properties. The seeds yielded 53 g of starch/100 g with about 89% recovery and 95% purity. The starch granules were small, with an average size of 2.5 μm. DSC and X-ray analyses detected the presence of a strong amylose–lipid complex compared to wheat starch but a similar crystal structure. The starch formed high-viscosity pastes when heated in water, which developed a firm gel after cooling. The canary seed

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starch had a lower amount of amylose (23%) and starch damage (1.5%) compared with wheat starch. Dynamic rheology showed that the storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) increased with a decrease in complex viscosity (η*) as a function of the angular frequency (ω). G′ is significantly greater than G″ over the measured frequency range (0.01–10 Hz) and did not show a strong dependence on low frequencies (until 1 Hz). The results suggest strong molecular association and gel structure for canary seed starch. 17-P Analysis of ascorbic acid effects on dough properties during proofing G. VERICEL (1), L. Bosc-Bierne (1) (1) CHOPIN Technologies, Villeneuve-la-Garenne, France

The dough proofing tolerance and therefore the characteristics of the final product can be enhanced by adding ascorbic acid. The latter improves dough properties in regard to stability, tenacity, and proofing tolerance. It also increases final volume by enhancing the creation of disulfide bonds within the gluten network via an oxidation mechanism. The goal of this study is to evaluate the effects of ascorbic acid on dough during proofing. White flour treated with different levels of ascorbic acid (0 ppm, 40 ppm, 80 ppm, 120 ppm, and 160 ppm) was tested according to a 3 hr proofing protocol at 28.5°C. The Rheo F4, a laboratory device that measures the characteristics of dough during proofing, has been used in this study to monitor gas production and retention, in addition to dough development and stability during proofing. The results have shown that ascorbic acid improves the development of dough during proofing (on Hm parameter +10.6 cm at 160 ppm incorporation), which is associated with a higher retention volume (+289 mL). The dough development is proportional to the ascorbic acid amount, while the retention volume curve increases and then reaches a plateau when the amount becomes higher than 80 ppm. Those observations are in agreement with the data reported on the impact of ascorbic acid on stabilizing the gluten network and increasing the gas retention capacity. Surprisingly, addition of ascorbic acid also increases global gas production (on H’m parameter +8.3 mL at 80 ppm incorporation). This observation needs to be confirmed by further work. In this study, it was possible to evaluate the impact of ascorbic acid on dough behavior during proofing by using the Rheo F4 instrument. 18-P Effect of fermented products on sensory and physical properties of wheat flour tortillas S. K. PASUPULETI (1) (1) Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, U.S.A.

Increased sodium intake has been directly linked to the increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. Reducing sodium in baked products remains a big challenge, as salt plays an important role in tortillas by strengthening the gluten network and thereby improving dough machinability. It also enhances flavor perception and increases shelf life by reducing aw. Fermented products contain compounds like alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and amino acids, which have the ability to induce strong flavor perception. The objective was to evaluate the effect of fermented products (tempeh and miso) on the sensory and physical properties of wheat flour tortillas. Flour tortillas were prepared using a factorial design of 3 × 1 × 2 made up of three levels of salt, NaCl (0.75, 1, 1.5%, wt/wt), one level of miso (2%, wt/wt), and two levels of tempeh (2, 3.5%, wt/wt). A hot-press tortilla-making process was used for experiments. Extensibility of tortillas was evaluated in bone shape with a texture analyzer (TA.XT). The tortillas were subjected to sensory evaluation by untrained panelists. A 9 point hedonic scale was used for attributes of saltiness, bitterness, sourness, sweetness, aroma, pasteboard, and overall palatability. Scores for tortillas were similar for NaCl at 0.75, 1, and 1.5% (P < 0.05), especially with respect to saltiness; the panelists could identify any difference in taste and flavor perception. Tortillas containing tempeh (2, 3.5%) received lower scores compared with the NaCl control (1.5%). But, the tortilla samples containing 2% miso were similar to the control containing different levels of salt, as the panelists gave similar scores for most of the attributes. This study suggests that fermented products can be used as a partial substitute for sodium in tortillas. For improved acceptability and consumer preference with sensory attributes, the results suggest lowering tempeh to less than 2%. 19-P Accurate measurement of soya proteins in food by ELISA M. LACORN (1), S. Siebeneicher (1), T. Weiss (1), T. Dubois (1), U. Maelzer (1), S. Haas-Lauterbach (1) (1) R-Biopharm AG, Darmstadt, Germany

Soybean allergy is a common food allergy, especially among children and babies. Allergic reactions to soya are typically mild; however, although rare, severe reactions like anaphylactic shock can occur. These patients have to avoid the intake of soya. Therefore, many countries regulate soya labeling if present in food. As a consequence, detection of soya in food by the manufacturer is mandatory. Commonly, soya is heated during production. However, these processed soya proteins can still exert allergic reactions in predisposed patients. The main allergens in soya are glycinin (Gly m 6) and β-conglycinin (Gly m 5). R-Biopharm’s sandwich ELISA RIDASCREEN®FAST Soya (R7102) detects these two proteins in native as well as in processed foods, because the extraction procedure leads

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always to denatured proteins. Compared to other test kits on the market, the ELISA RIDASCREEN®FAST Soya (R7102) is the only suitable assay for the quantification of strongly heated soya proteins in various foods. The detection limit (LOD) of this fast assay is 0.31 mg/kg soya protein and the limit of quantification (LOQ) is 2.5 mg/kg soya protein. The ELISA shows low cross-reactivity to beans (0.0017%), green peas (0.0004%), and common tare (0.0003%) but not to peanut, lentil, and lupine. A mean recovery was found at 98% in the case of spiked samples and at 91% for processed food. Preliminary results from a small collaborative test indicate high accuracy. The RIDASCREEN®FAST Soya (R7102) is the most reliable test system for the detection of soy allergens in raw and processed foods. 20-P Novel chromatographic and spectroscopic profiling approaches to characterize pseudocereal non-starch polysaccharides D. WEFERS (1), M. Bunzel (1) (1) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany

Structural details of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) have a major impact on both potential health benefits and processing of pseudocereals such as amaranth, quinoa, and buckwheat. Conventional methods used to characterize NSP are monosaccharide analysis after hydrolysis and methylation analysis. Application of these methods to pseudocereal NSP indicated high, but varying, contents of the pectic neutral side chains arabinans and galactans, with different degrees of ramification. Because these methods are based on complete and unselective chemical cleavage of the polysaccharides, much information is lost by using these approaches. Thus, new screening tools using selective enzymatic cleavage were developed. To get detailed structural information about arabinans and galactans, endo-arabinanase and endo-galactanase were used to release mostly branched oligosaccharides. HPAEC analysis yielded good separation, and relative abundance of defined low molecular weight oligosaccharides was determined. For example, it was demonstrated that xylopyranoses may be amaranth arabinan constituents and that β-arabinofuranoses are incorporated into quinoa arabinans. These structural elements were also detected by another profiling approach, 2D NMR spectroscopy of endo-arabinanase hydrolysates. In addition, information about higher oligo- and polysaccharides were obtained by using this technique. NSP-bound ferulic acid, which is known to modify NSP properties, is conventionally analyzed after saponification. Because this method gives no information about the esterified structures, an LC-PDA-MS method for the analysis of pectin-bound ferulic acid after enzymatic liberation was developed. Using this approach, additional differences between the pseudocereals were demonstrated. To sum up, these novel profiling approaches are highly suitable to structurally characterize pseudocereal NSP. 21-P Size exclusion HPLC of proteins for evaluation of durum wheat quality J. B. OHM (1), E. M. Elias (2), F. Manthey (2) (1) USDA ARS Cereal Crops Research Unit, Hard Spring and Durum Wheat Quality Lab, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (2) Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Present research aimed to assess size-exclusion HPLC (SE-HPLC) in protein molecular weight distribution determination for quality evaluation of durum semolina. Semolina samples were milled from 13 durum genotypes grown at 7 locations in 2009 and 2010 in North Dakota. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) buffer-soluble and -insoluble proteins extracted from semolina samples were separated into three main fractions (F1–F3). Main component of the fractions are glutenin polymers for F1, gliadins for F2, and albumins and globulins for F3. Correlation coefficients were estimated between percentage of UV absorbance area (PAA) of the protein fractions and semolina quality traits. The PAA represents the percentage of protein fractions when protein content is adjusted to the same level. The protein fractions appeared to have different effects on semolina quality traits. Mixograph pattern and gluten index showed significant (P < 0.001) and negative correlations with F2 in SDS-soluble extract and positive correlations with F1 in insoluble extract. This result indicates that a higher proportion of gliadin and lower proportion of glutenin polymer of SDS-insoluble fraction in total protein resulted in lower gluten or dough strength for semolina samples. Firmness of cooked pasta showed different correlation profiles. Pasta firmness had significant (P < 0.001) negative correlations with F3 in SDS-soluble fraction and positive correlations with F1 and F2 in insoluble fraction. These results indicate that a lower proportion of albumins and globulins and a higher proportion of polymeric proteins and gliadins in insoluble fraction could increase the firmness of cooked pasta. The SE-HPLC requires short analysis time (5 min) and small sample quantity (10 mg). Overall, these results indicated that SE-HPLC might be useful in quality evaluation of early generation lines in a durum breeding program.

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24-P Extraction of soluble dietary fibers from wheat bran and barley grain using ultrasonication and homogenization A. Ahmad (1), B. K. BAIK (2) (1) Ohio State University/PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Department of Food Technology, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; (2) USDA ARS CSWQRU Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Wooster, OH, U.S.A.

The incorporation of soluble dietary fibers (SDFs) into food products increases along with the documented health benefits. Currently, SDFs are commercially extracted from cereal sources using strong alkaline or acidic chemicals. Considering consumer preferences for natural and non-chemical food ingredients, the preparation of SDFs without using chemicals is of great interest. Physical extraction methods employing homogenization or ultrasonication were explored for preparation of SDFs from grains of a hulled and a hulless barley and wheat bran from two varieties and were compared to an alkaline extraction method in yield, composition, and physical properties of SDFs. The SDF yields, percent dry weight of the extracts of 25.9–30.7, 24.9–27.9, and 25.5–30.4% were obtained from wheat bran using ultrasonication, homogenization, and alkaline extractions, respectively. From barley grain, a SDF yield of 4.8–5.4% was achieved by alkaline extraction, 3.4–4.9% by ultrasonic extraction, and 4.3–5.1% by homogenizer extraction. Significant differences in SDF yield were observed between brans of two wheat varieties and between hulless and hulled barley grains. β-Glucan content of SDF extracts ranged from 3.13 to 4.14% for bran and from 62.3 to 74.7% for barley. The water-holding capacity and oil-binding capacity of SDFs were different between sources of wheat bran and barley grain, but not between extraction methods. SDFs extracted using homogenization exhibited higher RVA final viscosities than those extracted using ultrasonication and the alkaline for both wheat bran and barley grain. SDFs extracted using ultrasonication and homogenization exhibited comparable to, or better, yield and physical properties than those extracted using the alkaline for wheat bran and barley grain, indicating that physical extraction is a viable alternative to chemical extraction of SDFs. 25-P A screening method for determining relative average degree of channelization within maize starch granule populations Y. H. CHAO (1), K. C. Huber (2) (1) University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, U.S.A.; (2) Brigham Young University Rexburg, ID, U.S.A.

Starch channels were shown to affect chemical reaction patterns; thus, the ability to quantify channel frequencies is important for identifying starch genotypes that are best suited for chemical modification. Development of a simplified screening method to determine the relative average degrees of channelization (RADC) amongst starch granule populations of five maize inbred lines (A188, B73, Oh43, W22, and W23) was investigated by comparing three methods. Starch granules were stained with a methanolic solution of merbromin under non-hydrated conditions and visualized via a confocal laser scanning microscope. The number of channels per granule within the selected digitally stacked optical cross-sections were counted. Results showed the five lines can be grouped into three levels of high (Oh43), medium (A188 and W22), and low (B73 and W23) RADC. Nitrogen gas adsorption and a fluorescent probe, 5-(4,6-dichlorotriazinyl) aminofluorescein (DTAF), the other two methods, were used to evaluate the frequencies of channelization. The external surface areas of the five maize inbred lines were similar, which was proven valid by particle size analysis, so the differences in surface areas likely reflect the frequencies of channelization. However, the gas adsorption measurements were greatly influenced by degassing temperatures. Thus, the method provided more information of relative rankings of RADC rather than the specific surface areas for each line. The fluorescence results showed that A188 had the greatest RADC, and W22 had the lowest. In each method overall, A188 and Oh43 lines had higher RADC than the other three lines, although the relative ranking orders were different. The channel counting was believed to give a better estimation of RADC, but was labor-intensive. The fluorescence and gas adsorption methods may provide a more efficient way to evaluate RADC in starch granules. 27-P Quantitative analysis of genetically engineered traits in grain samples using droplet digital PCR T. DEMEKE (1), M. Holigroski (1), M. Eng (1) (1) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Genetically engineered (GE) canola, corn, cotton, and soybean are widely grown in many countries. There are regulatory requirements for labeling of GE crops and derived products, and some countries have zero tolerance for unapproved GE events in food or feed. Real-time quantitative PCR is widely used for the detection and quantification of GE traits. However, reference material (certified or equivalent) is required in order to generate a standard curve and measure the GE content of a specific trait in real-time quantitative PCR. Digital PCR is a technology being explored for different applications, including absolute quantification of GE traits. Reference material is not required for digital PCR, which is an advantage over real-time quantitative PCR. The RainDance RainDrop™ digital PCR system was evaluated for absolute quantification of GE traits in spiked samples of canola,

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flaxseed, and soybean. Duplex PCR (combining of target and reference primers and probes) was used for absolute quantification of the GE traits. The effect of DNA treatments (sheared vs. nonsheared DNA) on digital PCR results was evaluated for three GE events. Low levels of OXY235 canola, FP967 flax, and DP305423 soybean GE events were successfully quantified using the RainDrop™ digital PCR system. Droplet digital PCR has the potential to be used for absolute quantification of GE traits in grain samples. 28-P Statistical analysis of starch structural measures—A combined NMR, FTIR-ATR, DSC, and XRD study F. J. WARREN (1), M. J. Gidley (1), B. Flanagan (1) (1) University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

As a semi-crystalline polymer, one of the most important determinates of the physicochemical behavior, reactivity, and functionality of starch is the degree of crystallinity, or molecular order, of the polymer. A wide range of methods, including NMR, FTIR-ATR, DSC, and XRD, have been used to measure the degree of molecular order in starch, but each method measures a subtly different aspect of the complex, heterogeneous, starch structure. In the first part of the present study we demonstrate, using a wide range of samples (115 starches), including native, mutant, cooked, extruded, retrograded, and enzyme-digested resistant starches, that partial least squares regression (PLS) analysis can generate a predictive model from solid-state NMR spectra (RMSE ~ 5%) of the double helical ordered structure in starch, facilitating a significantly simpler and more robust method for determining ordered structure from NMR spectra than previous fitting approaches. Loadings from the 1st and 2nd principal components, which are employed in the model, demonstrate that there are contributions from all three of the major carbon peaks in the NMR spectra of starch to the determination of double helical order. Using a subset of 64 of these starch samples, NMR, FTIR-ATR, and DSC data were obtained. Using principal component analysis it was found that FTIR spectra for the starches (in the hydrated state) divided into two separate groups, high and low ordered starches, with a significant shift in the peak positions in the 1,150–800 cm–1 “fingerprint region” between the two groups. PLS modeling found a good correlation between IR spectra and DSC enthalpy, with a clear delineation between the “high” and “low” order IR spectra, while a poorer relationship was observed with ordered structure as measured by NMR. 29-P Equivalence of near infrared transmission instruments for grain analysis C. HURBURGH (1), S. McGinnis (1), G. Rippke (1) (1) Iowa State University, Ames, IA, U.S.A.

At the present time, only one make and model of near infrared transmission instrument is used for providing official USDA-GIPSA test results for proximate analysis factors in whole grains. Instrumentation platforms (makes and models) would be equivalent if the variability of test results within a system or network is no greater with multiple makes and models than with multiple copies of the same make and model. A factorial-design study was designed to evaluate the equivalence of the three National Type Evaluation Program (NTEP) approved NIRT models. NTEP-approved instruments are legal for non-official trading in most states. The study involved five copies of each model, using 250 wheat samples (protein, 5 classes included), 100 barley samples (protein), 200 corn samples (protein, oil, and starch), and 200 soybean samples (protein and oil), with all constituents measured three times each. This presentation reports the statistical model for equivalence and the wheat data. The standard deviation across the 15 units on a randomly chosen sample was 0.15% points of protein (12% moisture basis), while the standard deviations of the three makes individually were 0.12, 0.06, and 0.10% points, respectively. Therefore, with present calibration and standardization (within make, across copies) practices, equivalence was not met for the wheat samples. Changes to these practices may create equivalence. The three makes had standard deviations across the three replicates (per sample) of less than 0.05% points, indicating that hardware consistency was quite good. The three makes had a collective (over all 15 units) accuracy of 0.28% points, as measured by standard error of prediction vs. reference chemistry. 30-P Lubrication and rheological properties of swollen starch ghost suspensions from maize and potato B. ZHANG (1), N. Selway (2), K. J. Shelat (2), S. Dhital (2), J. R. Stokes (2), M. J. Gidley (2) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.; (2) University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

Lubrication has long been considered to play a critical role in oral perception of foods, and the importance of soft-tribology measurements was realized by food scientists in the past few years. After heating in excess water under little or no shear, starch granules do not dissolve completely but persist as highly swollen fragile forms, commonly termed granule “ghosts.” The tribological and rheological properties of isolated starch ghost suspensions from maize and potato over a range of concentrations are reported for the first time. Smaller, more robust maize ghosts subjected to the tribology or rheology tests resulted in only slightly reduced integrity in morphology, whereas large, fragile potato ghosts showed significant amounts of granule fragments after testing. A markedly decreased

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maximum friction coefficient point at an entrainment speed of 40 mm/sec with increasing concentration (from 0.01% to 1%, wt/wt) of maize ghost suspensions was observed, while the apparent friction coefficient was concentration independent for potato ghosts, although this is likely to be due to disintegration of fragile potato ghosts under tribological contact. We conclude that soft-tribological properties of starch ghost suspensions can be due to either particulate (e.g., maize ghosts) or polymeric (particularly for potato ghosts) forms, the balance between which could potentially contribute to the perception of starch-containing food in the mouth. 31-P Tempered wheat kernels and their doughs: A study of viscoelasticity for indirect distinctions among wheat classes N. PONCE GARCÍA (1), B. Ramírez Wong (2), P. Torres Chávez (2), J. d. Figureoa Cárdenas (3), S. O. Serna Saldívar (4), M. O. Cortez Rocha (2), A. Escalante Aburto (5) (1) UAEMex Campus Universitario “El Cerrillo,” Toluca, Mexico; (2) Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado, Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico; (3) CINVESTAV-IPN Unidad Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; (4) Departamento de Biotecnología e Ingeniería de Alimentos, Centro de Biotecnología, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico; (5) CINVESTAV-IPN Unidad Querétaro, Querétaro, Moldova

Wheat product quality is related to the physicochemical and viscoelastic properties of the kernel and dough. However, there is no information as to the extent the viscoelastic properties are transferred to the dough in specific wheat classes. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of moisture content on the viscoelastic properties of kernels and doughs for indirect distinction of wheat classes. Tempered kernels and their doughs, from soft and hard wheat classes, were evaluated for total work (Wt), elastic work (We), and plastic work (Wp) using uniaxial compression test under small strain. Soft wheat kernels showed lower We than Wp, while in the hard wheat kernels the We was higher than Wp. Regarding dough viscoelasticity, both wheat classes showed higher Wp than We. The data suggested that the degree of elasticity (the ratio of We to Wt) that was transferred from the conditioned kernel to the dough was ≈54% in both wheat classes. The Wt, We, and Wp from the soft wheat kernel and dough were correlated with physicochemical data. Wet gluten from hard wheat presented highly significant negative correlations with the maximum compression force, the Wt, and Wp of doughs. The modulus of elasticity was affected mainly by the wheat classes and decreased as moisture content increased. The uniaxial compression test could be an important tool for indirect distinctions among wheat classes and different moisture contents in wheat kernels and doughs. 32-P Viscoelastic properties of tablets from Osborne solubility fractions, pentosans, flour, and bread using relaxation tests J. d. FIGUEROA CARDENAS (1), A. Escalante Aburto (1), J. J. Véles-Medina (1), Z. J. Hernández-Estrada (2), P. Rayas Duarte (2), S. Simsek (3), N. Ponce-García (4) (1) CINVESTAV Unidad Queretaro, Queretaro, Qro, Mexico; (2) Robert M. Kerr Food & Agricultural Products Center, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, U.S.A.; (3) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (4) UAEMex Campus Universitario “El Cerrillo,” Toluca, Mexico

There is no previously published data covering the viscoelasticity of Osborne protein solubility fractions. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare the viscoelastic properties of Osborne fractions, water-soluble pentosans, flour, and bread using relaxation tests. Sintered tablets from glutenins presented elasticity similar to gliadins but almost twice the viscosity. However, most of the wheat viscoelasticity performance in tablets was given by the sum of the non-gluten components (albumins, globulins, residue, and especially water-soluble pentosans). The residue was 86.1% (wt/wt) in flour and contained 4% protein, while its estimated viscoelastic effect was higher compared to all the other flour components. Regarding the estimated viscosity in flour due to protein from specific fractions, it was higher in gliadins compared to glutenins. The residue although it had low protein in flour (3.995%), the large amount of residue in the flour had a significant viscoelastic effect. Protein (2.269%) in water-soluble pentosans in flour showed relatively low viscoelasticity due to the dilution effect. The results indicate that the starch, pentosans, and non-gluten components may not be considered merely as inert filler and do play a major role in determining the viscoelastic nature of flour and bread. 33-P Evaluating cooked macaroni hardness with Kramer shear cell, wire mesh extrusion fixture, and Ottawa cell Y. LIU (1), F. Manthey (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

AACCI Approved Method 66-50.01, “Pasta and Noodle Cooking Quality-Firmness,” uses the pasta blade attachment to determine the cooked firmness of long goods such as spaghetti. Using the pasta blade on short goods, with their unconventional shapes, can be challenging. Attachments such as Kramer shear cell, wire mesh extrusion fixture (WMEF), and Ottawa cell are available and have been used to determine cooked hardness of

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short goods. Two experiments were conducted to compare the ability of these three attachments to detect differences in cooked hardness when using a texture analyzer with a 50 kg load cell. The first experiment determined the effect of sample size (15, 25, 35, and 45 g) and cooking time (8, 10, and 12 min). Results indicated that for Kramer shear cell, 25, 35, and 45 g sample sizes were large enough to detect the difference in hardness of cooked macaroni. For the WMEF, all four sample sizes were large enough to detect differences. But, for the Ottawa cell with 5 mm wide rectangular slots, differences in cooked hardness could only be detected with the 45 g sample size. The second experiment determined the effect of compression on the ability of the attachments to detect differences in the hardness of macaroni cooked at 2 min intervals for 16 min. Attachment settings allowed the plunger to pass through the bottom plate of the Kramer shear cell and stopped at 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 cm from the base plate of the WMEF and Ottawa cell. The Kramer shear cell could detect differences in the hardness of macaroni cooked for 6 to 10 min but not 10 to 16 min. The WMEF could detect the differences from 2 to 16 min at all three levels of compression. The Ottawa cell could only detect the differences from 2 to 16 min at 0.5 cm level of compression. Thus, the WMEF was the only attachment that could differentiate cooked hardness for all sample sizes and levels of compression tested. 34-P Developing an objective method for measuring firmness of cooked noodles to characterize diverse Asian noodle qualities H. OKUSU (1) (1) Nippon Flour Mills Co Ltd, Kanagawa, Japan

There is no AACCI-approved method for measuring the firmness of cooked Asian noodles. Thus, the Asian Products Technical Committee (APTC) has been attempting in recent years to develop an instrumental test. The approach described here is based on a TA-XT2 instrument with the A/LKB-F blade attachment. To conduct interlaboratory studies on the firmness of cooked noodles, APTC must provide to the various testing laboratories samples of dried noodles that are homogeneous and free of cracks. In addition, APTC must establish cooking conditions that when used in various laboratories will produce uniformity in a cooked sample. When judged by width and thickness, each sample of three commercial dried noodles appeared to be more homogeneous than the laboratory-prepared sample. I attempted to use the moisture content (mc) of cooked noodles as an index of the extent of cooking of dried noodles. The mc was determined according to AACCI Approved Method 44-19. One commercial sample of dried noodle was cooked for 8.5 min and then for an additional 1–3 min. As cooking time increased, the mc of the cooked noodle increased from 66.1 to 69.5%. The CV on the mc was low (0.0–1.2%), and there was an excellent correlation (R2 = 0.98) between mc and cooking time. In agreement with the instrumental test, the firmness was also reduced in the sensory test. Thus, mc appeared to be a good measure of the extent of cooking of a noodle sample. However, when the three samples of commercial dried noodles were cooked according to the directions on their packages, the mc of the cooked samples ranged between 66.1 and 74.3%. Moreover, although the instrumental firmness of the three noodle samples was different, their sensory evaluation gave acceptable firmness and eating quality for all three. The noodle samples and the results of our study were donated to APTC to assist in its quest to develop a method to measure noodle firmness. 35-P Automated solvent retention capacity system for the evaluation of soft and hard wheat flour functionality A. DUBAT (1), G. Tawil (1), M. Berra (1), O. Le Brun (1), G. Vericel (1) (1) CHOPIN Technologies, Villeneuve-la-Garenne, France

An automated solvent retention capacity system (SRC-CHOPIN) was used for the first time to evaluate the functional properties of each polymeric flour component. The methodology employed was the same as described earlier [Kweon, Slade, and Levine (2011)]. Six wheat flours classified into two categories, called hard (high protein) and soft (low protein), usually used for bread and biscuit making, respectively, were analyzed and compared for their SRC profiles. The results have shown that increasing protein content led to an increase in lactic acid (LA) SRC. The SRC values (LA) for soft and hard wheat flours ranged from 81 to 96% and 130 to 138%, respectively. The other diagnostic solvents (i.e., water, sucrose, and sodium carbonate) also showed significant differences. The SRC values (water, sucrose, and Na2CO3) for soft and hard wheat flours ranged from 49 to 62% and 66 to 70%, from 92 to 107% and 108 to 113%, and from 70 to 85% and 80 to 91%, respectively. This study showed that the new automated SRC equipment enabled discrimination within intercategory of soft wheat. The equipment also was shown to be suitable for evaluating the functionality of hard wheat.

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36-P Texture evaluation of porous foods by acoustic emission measurement and compression fracture test N. ITO (1), K. Sato (2), T. Miyoshi (3), M. Miura (4) (1) Graduate School of Agriculture, Iwate University, Morioka, Japan; (2) Graduate School of Engineering, Iwate University, Morioka, Japan; (3) Faculty of Engineering, Iwate University, Morioka, Japan; (4) Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Morioka, Japan

The aim of this study was to develop an objective evaluation method of crispness by correlating sensory evaluation values with objective evaluation values. Crispness has been evaluated by sound measurement using a microphone. However, the detected sound signal is not the same as the original signal due to ambient noise and the frequency characteristics of microphones. By contrast, the acoustic emission (AE) method has flat frequency characteristics and good sensitivity because elastic waves are directly detected. In this study, porous foods were stored in desiccators at relative humidities of 22, 43, 56, 68, and 81% and drying state. Porous foods with a low degree of starch gelatinization, like cookies, are softened by moisture absorption and those which have high degree of starch gelatinization, like senbei, are hardened by moisture absorption. Two kinds of porous foods similar to the former category and four kinds of porous foods similar to the latter category were used. Force-strain curves, fracture characteristics, and force peaks were obtained by a uniaxial compression test of humidity controlled porous foods. Characteristic values of force-strain curves were defined in the region of frequency and scale by discrete Fourier transformation (DFT) and discrete wavelet transformation (DWT), respectively. AE event, duration, and max amplitude were obtained as AE characteristics by AE signal during compression of porous foods. X-ray images also were obtained by X-ray CT apparatus to observe porous structure. The porous food with higher moisture content had fewer AE events and force peaks. Porous structure did not change with humidity control. Correlation between objective and sensory evaluation values of crispness will be discussed. 37-P Comparison of local small-scale surface characteristics in native and processed wheat bran using atomic force microscopy H. Koivula (1), E. Arte (1), A. Määttänen (2), P. Ihalainen (2), R. Coda (1), J. Peltonen (2), K. KATINA (1) (1) University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; (2) Åbo Akademi, Turku, Finland

Wheat bran is a major side stream of flour production but has restricted usability. Bioprocessing with microbes and enzymes has been shown to improve its technological and nutritional properties. The surface structure and composition of the bran are determining factors for its functionality. An average chemical composition of bran is well known, but small-scale variation and local distributions are not well established. Our aim is to provide better insight into changes and fundamental phenomena taking place locally on the bran surface during bioprocessing. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used for imaging and collecting small-scale topographic data. Obtaining representative local surface characteristics is challenging due to the intrinsic uneven and inhomogeneous nature of bran. Native bran and two bioprocessed bran samples (enzyme treated and enzymes + microbes fermented) were analyzed using AFM. To our knowledge, bran surfaces and the changes in them due to bioprocessing have not been characterized previously using AFM roughness parameters. We were able to collect local data from bran surfaces, and the roughness parameters provided descriptive values for each sample. Results showed clear differences in the surface properties of bioprocessed bran in comparison to native bran, indicating a potential explanation for improved functionality in food matrixes. 38-P Ultrasound: A new tool for texture evaluation of raw Asian noodles A. SALIMI KHORSHIDI (1), A. Strybulevych (1), D. Daugelaite (1), M. G. Scanlon (1), J. H. Page (1), D. W. Hatcher (2) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Traditional sensory evaluation techniques and empirical tests are useful for consumer appreciation evaluations but are unable to interrogate the underlying fundamental rheological parameters responsible for the texture of cereal products. To address this need, while also being fast, inexpensive, and easy to use, researchers investigating Asian noodle texture have employed new techniques such as ultrasound. The objective of this work was to examine the capability of ultrasound for noodle texture evaluation, using customized transducer assemblies attached to a TA-XT texture analyzer. Longitudinal ultrasonic wave measurements at 1–1.6 MHz were carried out simultaneously with stress relaxation measurements on raw Asian noodles. Noodle samples were prepared with different formulations, two Canadian wheat flour classes, various barley β-glucan addition rates, and manipulation of work input during the sheeting process. Biomechanical characteristics of raw noodles, including storage modulus (M′), loss modulus (M″), and loss tangent (M″/M′), were determined using the wave’s velocity, attenuation coefficient, and raw noodle density. Also, Peleg’s fundamental rheological parameters k1 and k2, stress relaxation, and elasticity index (EI) were calculated. Determination of Young’s modulus (E) and apparent extensional viscosity (AEV) were performed using a TA-XT Kieffer extensibility rig. Employing a generalized linear model

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(GLM), significant effects (P < 0.05) of wheat flour protein content, noodle formulation, functional food addition, and sheeting work input on the determined textural parameters of raw Asian noodles were observed. A comparison between parameters derived from the ultrasonic measurements and those obtained using conventional rheological tests demonstrated the capability of the ultrasound technique to evaluate the texture of raw Asian noodles. 39-P A novel method for evaluating changes in raw Asian noodle texture during sheeting process A. SALIMI KHORSHIDI (1), A. Strybulevych (1), D. Daugelaite (1), M. G. Scanlon (1), J. H. Page (1), D. W. Hatcher (2) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Textural characteristics of Asian noodles are the most important factors that are adjusted by manufacturers to address consumer sensory preferences for high-quality noodles. An easy, fast, and cost-free method to evaluate noodle texture has been proposed with advantages over sensory and empirical techniques that need to be carried out off-line. A total of 162 Asian noodle samples (3 replications of 54 completely randomized samples) with a wide range of noodle textures (e.g., very soft and extensible to very firm and elastic textures determined by stress relaxation and Kieffer extensibility tests) were prepared using 37% water absorption level, three ratios of salt to kansui (9:1 sodium: potassium carbonate), two Canadian wheat flour classes, three addition rates of barley β-glucan (0, 2.5, and 5%), and three levels of work input manipulation during sheeting (3, 5, and 10 laminations of noodle dough sheets before the start of the seven reduction passes). Measuring the changes in the weight and the dimensions of noodle dough sheets during the sheeting process enabled the definition of the parameters WidthI (% width increase), LengthI (% length increase), ThickD (% thickness decrease) and WtRatio (a measure of weight change during sheeting). The changes in noodle dough texture engendered by manipulating sheeting work input and noodle dough formulation were shown to change WidthI and WtRatio, and these, therefore, are proposed new tools for a fast search for optimum textural properties during the production of Asian noodles. Good correlations (r2 ≈ 0.70) between fundamental rheological parameters derived from stress relaxation and Kieffer extensibility tests and the sheeting parameters WidthI and WtRatio confirmed the capability of this new method to evaluate changes in raw Asian noodle texture during routine sheeting process with a fast, simple, and cost-free procedure. 40-P Use of FTIR spectroscopy and ultrasonics for investigating salt reduction in nonyeasted bread doughs F. KOKSEL (1), K. M. Gough (1), M. G. Scanlon (2), M. T. Nickerson (3) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (3) Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Salt reduction in bread is one of the most effective ways to decrease daily sodium intake. However, reducing sodium chloride (NaCl) content in bread formulation is not an easy task, since NaCl alters the machinability and mechanical properties of dough as well as dough aeration during mixing. The effect of NaCl concentration on dough mechanical properties was investigated using a low frequency (50 kHz) ultrasonic transmission technique. At this frequency (a frequency well below the resonance frequency of bubbles in the dough), ultrasonic parameters are affected by both the volume fraction of gas in the dough and the properties of the dough matrix (which are strongly influenced by interactions of the dough’s constituent polymers). Decreasing NaCl concentration in the dough altered the dough development time and the volume fraction of gas in the dough. With a decrease in gas volume fraction and a stronger gluten network formation, a smaller attenuation coefficient and a larger ultrasonic velocity were observed. The longitudinal moduli of doughs derived from the attenuation coefficient and ultrasonic velocity were sensitive to NaCl concentration, reflecting the changes in dough strength brought about by manipulation of NaCl concentration. An FTIR spectrometer with an ATR accessory was employed to investigate whether the changes in dough strength that were measured by ultrasound could be linked to changes in gluten secondary structure. The amide absorption signatures in the infrared spectra were monitored for indications that there was a change in the secondary structure of gluten as a function of NaCl concentration. Our results indicate that FTIR spectroscopy and ultrasound are both sensitive to changes in dough structure brought about by changes in NaCl concentration and that the two techniques complement each other by elucidating structure at different resolutions. 41-P Delayed harvest affects quality of durum wheat P. CABAS-LUHMANN (1), E. Elias (1), F. Manthey (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Harvest can be delayed for many reasons, including weather and competition of other crops and fields that are ready to harvest. Delayed harvest prolongs the exposure of the grain to the environment. This research was

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conducted to determine the effect of delayed harvest on the quality of durum wheat. Twelve durum cultivars were planted in eight row plots with four replications at Prosper, ND. Durum cultivars represent popular old cultivars (Ben, Dilse, Lebsock, Mountrail, Pierce), currently grown cultivars (Alkabo, Divide, Grenora, Strongfield), and new cultivars (Carpio, Joppa, Tioga). Two rows were harvested at four times: when grain had about 18% moisture, had 13–14% moisture, and with harvest delayed 1 and 2 weeks after the second harvest. Harvest time did not affect 1,000 kernel weight, kernel protein content, or vitreous kernel content. Percent large kernels increased with delayed harvest, while grain yield and test weight generally decreased. Decline in test weight and an increase in large kernels could be due to swelling of the bran layer with exposure to moisture from heavy dew that commonly forms during autumn mornings. Increased seed size without an increase in weight would result in decreased test weight. When comparing the first and last harvests, greatest yield loss occurred with Grenora (27%) and Carpio (23%). No yield loss occurred with Alkabo, Dilse, Joppa, or Pierce. Grenora lost the most test weight (6%) and Carpio the least (2%). Polyphenol oxidase activity increased with delayed harvest for Carpio, Strongfield, and Tioga but generally decreased for the remaining cultivars. Yellow pigment content decreased (25%) in Ben and in Mountrail. Yellow pigment content did not decrease in Lebsock. These results indicate that grain quality generally declined with delayed harvest and that the magnitude to the decline varied with cultivar. 42-P Effects of agronomic practices and soil and climatic zones on the content and properties of dietary fiber in barley M. IZYDORCZYK (1), T. McMillan (1), A. Kormendi (1), S. Bazin (1), J. O’Donovan (2) (1) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lacombe, AB, Canada

Hull-less barley grain is an excellent source of soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. The major dietary fiber components in barley grain are the cell wall polysaccharides, arabinoxylans, and (1→3, 1→4)-β-glucans. In Canada, the interest in barley as a health food has received a boost with the recent Health Canada approval of the claim linking the consumption of barley β-glucan with low blood cholesterol. While it is known that hull-less varieties contain relatively high β-glucan content, little is known about the effects of agronomic practices on the content and composition of dietary fiber constituents in hull-less barley varieties. The major objective of this project was to determine how certain agronomic practices (nitrogen fertilization and seeding rates) affect the level of dietary fiber constituents in hull-less food barley varieties, CDC Rattan and CDC Hilose, grown in various soil and climatic zones. A field experiment was conducted in 2013 at five locations in western Canada. The effects of nitrogen rate (60 and 120 kg/ha) and seeding rate (200, 300, and 400 seeds/m2) were determined. Generally, the increasing rates of nitrogen fertilization significantly increased the content of protein, but decreased the content of starch in food barley. Increasing rates of nitrogen fertilization had a small but statistically significant effect on the content of arabinoxylans and insoluble dietary fiber, but no effect on the content of β-glucans and soluble dietary fiber in the two food barley varieties investigated in this study. The increasing seeding rates significantly decreased the content of β-glucans and soluble fiber, but increased the content of arabinoxylans and insoluble dietary fiber. The results indicated significant effects of variety and environments on the composition, molecular structure, and properties of barley dietary fiber constituents. 43-P Phenotypic diversity in Avena species S. S. MILLER (1), A. Kaka (2), C. P. Wight (1), N. A. Tinker (1) (1) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada; (2) La Cité Collège d’Arts Appliqués et de Technologie, Ottawa, ON, Canada

In addition to the common Avena sativa, which is a hexaploid oat, the genus Avena includes a variety of non-domesticated diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid species. Although there are basic similarities in the vegetative and reproductive structures in all of the species, there is a wide range of phenotypic characteristics within and between ploidies and species, and, indeed, within species. At our center we are interested in mining rare but valuable alleles that are present in wild Avena relatives. Part of this project involves the phenotypic characterization of the germplasm available from Plant Gene Resources of Canada and world gene banks. We have documented differences in plant growth habits in both vegetative and reproductive growth phases. Broad diversity has also been observed in the hull (size, color, presence and placement of awns, presence, position and color of trichomes, shape, abscission characteristics, and lemma architecture), as well as in the enclosed groats (size, shape, amount and color of trichomes, and pericarp integrity). In addition to the molecular characterization of wild Avena relatives, which is also part of this project, awareness of these phenotypic characteristics will assist breeders in making informed choices regarding integration of wild germplasm into breeding programs working to develop new, value-added oat varieties.

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45-P The role of transgenic corn hybrids in reducing contamination by mycotoxins H. K. ABBAS (1), N. Bellaloui (1), H. A. Bruns (1) (1) USDA ARS, Stoneville, MS, U.S.A.

Transgenic Bt corn hybrids have been available for more than 10 years and are known to control specific insects. More recently so-called “stacked-gene” hybrids have been released with multiple insect resistance genes and genes for herbicide resistance, resulting in up to six genes per plant. Because insect damage can lead to increased levels of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins and fumonisin, we designed a study to compare various corn hybrids, including those without added genes, single gene Bt hybrids and stacked-gene hybrids to determine if any effectively reduce mycotoxin contamination in corn. Hybrids studied included two conventional (31P41 and 33N56), four transgenic RR2 without Bt genes (1615R, 31P40, 33N55, and DKC 67-22), and four transgenic RR2 and LL with multiple Bt genes (31G96, 31P42, DKC66-96, and DKC67-21). Experimental conditions studied included multiple years; Tunica clay soil vs. Bosket fine sandy loam; and various field conditions. No consistent significant differences were observed in yield among the hybrids under any field conditions. Thus, we are unable to recommend transgenic hybrids as superior to non-GMO corn or single Bt gene hybrids for higher yield or reducing aflatoxin or fumonisin contamination in corn. However, these hybrids gave higher yields with lower mycotoxin contamination growing in clay soil than in sandy soil. More research is needed to identify conditions under which transgenic hybrids give increased yields and lower mycotoxin levels. In the meantime, selection of transgenic hybrids will not replace integrated strategies of biocontrol, host plant resistance, and crop management for achieving adequate mycotoxin control in corn. 46-P Identification of the production area of wheat using trace-element concentrations and heavy element isotopic ratios Y. Ishida (1), K. NAKAMURA (1), K. Ariyama (2), A. Kawasaki (3) (1) Nisshin Flour Milling Inc., Tsukuba-city, Ibaraki, Japan; (2) Japan Grain Inspection Association, Koto-ku, Tokyo, Japan; (3) National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, Tsukuba-city, Ibaraki, Japan

In Japan, customer needs are becoming wider and wider recently. The production area of food is one of our targets. So the development in scientific technology to identify the production area is desired. The objective of this study was to develop a method for identifying a wheat production area by measuring trace element concentrations and heavy element isotopic ratios in wheat by means of high-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HR-ICP-MS). The wheat samples produced in Australia, North America, and Japan for two years were tested. Statistical analysis was conducted to assess the measured values to identify production area by linear discriminant analysis. The Rb and Sr concentrations of the wheat produced in Australia were more than twice as high as those in North America and Japan. The Sr and Se concentrations of wheat produced in Japan were significantly lower than those in Australia and North America. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the wheat produced in Australia was different from that in North America and Japan. The wheat samples collected from three areas (Australia, North America, and Japan) were characterized by nine parameters (concentration of Rb, Sr, Mo, Ba, Mn, Co, Zn, and Se and 87Sr/86Sr ratio). In addition, eastern or western Australian wheat and the others could be accurately identified by only four parameters (concentration of Rb, Sr, and Ba and 87Sr/86Sr ratio) regardless of production year. This study could provide a method for identifying the production area of wheat by measuring trace element concentrations and heavy element isotopic ratios in wheat. These results are expected to apply to identification of foreign grown wheat imported into Japan and traceability in the future. 48-P Phytochemical response to Fusarium in Chinese spring wheat and a line containing a chromosome fragment from Thinopyrum S. S. MILLER (1), T. Delorme (2), E. M. Watson (1) (1) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada; (2) University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Fusarium head blight (FHB), or scab, is a devastating disease of wheat caused by Fusarium graminearum. Although some success in reducing the effects of FHB has been achieved using crop rotation and application of antifungal agents, it is widely acknowledged that the best long-term solution is production of resistant varieties. The addition of a fragment of the 7E chromosome of Thinopyrum elongatum (a wild relative of wheat) to the genome of the Fusarium-susceptible wheat Chinese Spring (CS) confers FHB resistance to the resulting wheat line (CS-7E). Histochemical studies have shown that a component of this resistance is expressed in the rachis, inhibiting the spread of the fungus from the infected floret to the rest of the wheat head, but have been inconclusive in determining the chemical nature of the resistance. Florets of both varieties were point-inoculated with F. graminearum at anthesis, and the heads harvested after 4 days for chemical analysis. Mean deoxynivalenol (a trichothecene toxin produced by Fusarium) concentration was higher in the rachis of CS than in CS-7E. Analysis of rachises extracted sequentially with methanol and NaOH showed higher concentrations of total phenolics in inoculated rachises of CS-7E than

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in CS in both fractions. Preliminary metabolomic analysis of the methanol extracts was conducted using QToF- HPLC-MS. Principal component analysis clearly separated the CS samples from the CS-7E samples. Discriminant analysis demonstrated differences in expression (upregulation/downregulation) of a number of chemical components between the resistant and susceptible wheat varieties. Of the compounds that contributed the greatest discriminant effect, p-coumaroylagmatine (a hydroxycinnamic acid amide) and salviamalvin (a flavonoid) were found to be upregulated in CS-7E compared to CS. Both compounds are part of the phenylpropanoid pathway. 49-P A wheat immature spike culture screening method to identify Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistant wheat genotypes C. HUANG (1), P. Sharma (1), M. Gangola (1), R. Kutcher (1), R. N. Chibbar (1) (1) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a fungal disease caused by many Fusarium species, such as F. graminearum, F. culmorum, and F. avenaceum. Among these Fusarium species, the most prevalent is F. graminearum Schwabe (teleomorph of Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch). FHB infection results in the production of harmful mycotoxins, especially trichothecenes, including deoxynivalenol (DON), leading to yield loss and quality reduction of infected wheat grains. The acceptable amount of DON intake is 1.0 μg/kg of body weight. In a previous study immature spike cultures were treated with ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS) to develop a variant population. In this study, we optimized a novel in vitro screening system, using immature spike cultures and point inoculation (type 2 resistance) to differentiate between the FHB resistant and susceptible wheat lines. Screening of 100 variant lines derived from the second generation of EMS treated variants for FHB resistance, 10 variants were classified as susceptible (P < 0.05) 7 days after inoculation (DAI), and 9 lines were considered resistant (P < 0.05) after 9 DAI. The remaining 81 lines showed intermediate levels of FHB resistance. The screening rates for resistant and susceptible lines are 9% and 10% respectively. The UDP-glucosyltransferase (UGT) gene family plays a key role in the spread of the disease and resistance to DON. Therefore, TaUGT-2B and TaUGT-3B genes were used as target genes to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) to distinguish FHB-resistant and -susceptible wheat lines. We identified two SNPs in these genes by high-resolution melting curve analysis, and they were shown to correlate significantly with FHB infection and disease severity (P < 0.01). In conclusion, immature spike culture is a good screening system for FHB resistance as it is time and resource efficient. 50-P Towards developing plants with improved digestibility and other functional properties R. G. GILBERT (1), C. Li (1) (1) University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Functional properties of starch-containing foods include the rate and location of digestion in the gastrointestinal tract and mouthfeel. These have significant dependence on starch molecular structure, particularly the chain-length distribution (CLD) of both the amylose and amylopectin components of the starch. Conventional GM and nontransgenic approaches have met with some success here. This presentation gives an alternative approach. Theory (Wu, Morell, and Gilbert, 2013) indicates that slightly altering the minimal chain lengths required for starch branching enzyme (SBE) to operate should significantly, but not drastically, increase the lengths of both amylopectin and shorter amylose chains. This can be done by changing a single residue at appropriate locations on the SBE binding site. Molecular dynamics simulations, coupled with in vitro data for activities of mutant SBEs, suggests optimal mutations (Li et al., 2015). These are implemented by creating plasmids with the desired sequences and expressing these in E. coli and in plant cells. Experimental results for the CLD of the mutant in plants show that this indeed leads to significant, but not drastic, changes in the starch microstructure. 51-P Do starch–protein–lipid interactions account for the low glycemic property of millets? G. A. ANNOR (1), M. Marcone (2), E. Bertoft (3), K. Seetharaman (4) (1) University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana; (2) University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada; (3) Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland; (4) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.

The low glycemic property of millet can be exploited in developed countries for the management of type 2 diabetes and its complications. Understanding the attributes that confer this low glycemic property in millet is important in maintaining this property following processing. This study investigated the effects of starch–protein–lipid interactions, as well as the type and amount of fatty acid, on millet starch hydrolysis rates and glycemic index from pearl, proso, foxtail, and finger millets grown in Ontario, Canada. The first part of the study involved the removal of proteins and lipids from millet flour, while in the second part, fatty acids were added to millet starches in the amounts present in the respective millet flours. Starch hydrolysis rates and glycemic index were then calculated for all samples. Removal of proteins, lipids, or both significantly (P < 0.05) increased the enzymatic starch hydrolysis rates and glycemic index of the millet starches, with starch–lipid interaction having

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more effect than starch–protein interactions. The complimentary effects of lipids and proteins on reducing starch hydrolysis rates also was observed. Reductions in starch hydrolysis were significantly linked to the amounts of fatty acids added. The addition of 2.3 mg of palmitic acid and 23.8 mg of linoleic acid/g of proso millet starch resulted in a glycemic index of 63.6 and 53.1, respectively. Oleic acid was very effective in reducing millet starch hydrolysis rates, while linoleic acid-complexed starches were much less resistant to hydrolysis. Cis oleic acid was more effective in reducing glycemic index than its trans configuration. This study showed that starch–protein–lipid interactions were part of the reason why millets have low glycemic and insulinemic response. 52-P Factors affecting starch composition and digestibility in white and whole wheat breads K. WHITNEY (1), S. Simsek (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Health concerns have caused increased consumption of whole wheat bread. The changes in starch composition of white and whole wheat flours after baking were investigated. Breads were prepared from white flour, whole wheat flour, and whole wheat flour with wheat starch. The starch content of the second whole wheat sample was increased to the same level as the white flour. Samples were evaluated for estimated glycemic index (eGI) by the Englyst assay. Amylose content and starch molecular weight were determined by high-performance size-exclusion chromatography with multi-angle light-scattering detection. The apparent amylose content of the bread decreased significantly (P < 0.05) compared to the flour, and the decrease in amylose content was greatest in the white bread. Amylopectin and amylose underwent significant (P < 0.05) changes in molecular mass after baking. Amylose molecular weight ranged from 6.84 × 106 to 7.25 × 106 g/mol for the flours and from 5.29 × 106 to 6.56 × 106 g/mol for the breads. After baking, the molecular weight of the amylopectin in white bread decreased by almost 5 × 106 g/mol, while the amylopectin molecular weight in whole wheat bread decreased by approximately 2.5 × 106 g/mol. The differences in starch molecule composition may have affected the digestibility of the starch. White bread had significantly (P < 0.05) higher eGI than both whole wheat bread and whole wheat bread prepared with additional starch. The eGI of the white bread was 98.82, while the whole wheat bread and whole wheat bread with extra starch had eGI of 81.19 and 82.29, respectively. Overall, whole wheat bread had lower degree of starch hydrolysis during baking and lower starch hydrolysis by in vitro starch digestion assay. Additional investigation is needed to determine the causes of reduced starch hydrolysis in wheat bread. 53-P Influence of plant proteins in their native and hydrolyzed forms on wheat starch amylolysis N. LOPEZ (1), T. Vasanthan (1), R. Hoover (2) (1) University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; (2) Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s, Canada

Consumption of slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) has been shown to have many human health benefits. Therefore, the rate and extent of wheat starch digestibility has been subjected to extensive research as most of the grain foods are based on this cereal. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of isolated plant proteins from wheat, corn, potato, soy, pea, and rice in their native and enzyme hydrolyzed forms on the in vitro wheat starch digestibility by porcine pancreatic α-amylase. The hypothesis is that hydrolyzed proteins are more efficient than native proteins in reducing the rate and extent of starch digestibility. Native proteins and their hydrolyzed counterparts from each plant source were mixed with wheat starch and cooked in a boiling water bath and in a pressure cooker. The cooked “starch protein mix” was cooled under refrigeration, freeze-dried, and then subjected to starch digestibility profiling (rapidly digestible starch [RDS], SDS, and RS). The data indicated that among the six native proteins investigated, under both cooking methods, only rice protein showed a significant influence on starch digestibility (i.e., significant reduction in RDS and increment in SDS). However, when hydrolyzed with protease, all protein sources showed a significant influence on starch digestibility. The extent of decrease of RDS was highly pronounced (~17%) in hydrolyzed pea and rice proteins followed by other protein sources (9–15%). The study clearly demonstrated that plant proteins in their enzyme hydrolyzed forms have better potential to mitigate the rate and extent of starch digestibility. The mechanism by which proteins influence starch digestibility is now being studied in our lab. The outcome of this study can be used to develop a novel natural protein ingredient-based strategy to formulate low glycemic food products.

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54-P Effect of different nixtamalization processes on physiochemical properties, nutritional composition, and glycemic index R. M. MARISCAL MORENO (1), J. d. Figueroa Cardenas (1), D. Santiago Ramos (2), J. J. Véles-Medina (1), G. Arámbula Villa (1), S. J. Jiménez Sandoval (1), P. Rayas Duarte (3), H. E. Martínez Flores (4) (1) CINVESTAV Unidad Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; (2) Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos del Centro de la República, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; (3) Robert M. Kerr Food & Agricultural Products Center, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, U.S.A.; (4) Facultad de Químico Farmacobiología. Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Mexico

The objective of this research was to evaluate corn tortillas produced from different nixtamalization processes. Tortillas elaborated with the traditional nixtamalization process that uses lime (TNP), classic nixtamalization process with ashes (CNP), and ecological nixtamalization with Ca salts (ENP) were investigated regarding mineral content (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Zn), chemical composition, resistant starch (RS), and glycemic index (GI). ENP with calcium propionate and carbonate had higher fat values than CNP. ENP presented the highest crude fiber, explained by pericarp retention. In TNP the pericarp and external layers are lost during the cooking, steeping, and washing steps and had lower crude fiber. The amount of RS in maize (0.90%) increased in tortillas (2.15–3.06%) independent of the nixtamalization process used. Starch annealing was detected by the increase of onset, peak, and final gelatinization temperatures in nixtamalized products compared with maize. Gelatinization was higher for calcium propionate ENP and 1% ash CNP. Native maize changed from an A-type to V-type pattern in nixtamalized products, denoting the formation of amylose-lipid complexes. Nixtamalization process and salts used increase significantly the minerals (Ca, Fe) and RS in the majority of tortillas. Tortillas made from ENP with Ca propionate showed a GI of 37.39 and those from ENP 1% ash CNP a GI of 29.19, which can be classified as low (<55) GI foods compared to traditional tortillas, which showed GI values of 70.00. 55-P Glycemic index and bread quality characteristics of soy protein fortified bread C. HALL (1), N. Fujiwara (2) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (2) Northern Crops Institute, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Glycemic index (GI), a measurement of how a food affects the blood glucose level, is a method for selecting foods by diabetic populations. The effect of soy protein isolate (SPI) on the glycemic response of bread was determined, including the quality characteristics of bread made with various SPI percentages (0–10%). Significant differences in wet gluten but not in gluten index were observed. Reduction of wet gluten indicates that dilution of gluten likely resulted, due to introduction of non-gluten protein into the gluten system. This was supported by farinograph results and bread quality analysis, which showed lower loaf volumes, firmer texture, and open grain structure as the level of SPI increased. Scanning electron microscopy images provided evidence for structural changes in the bread fortified with SPI. Estimated GI (eGI) and total starch significantly decreased with increased SPI levels, and a significant correlation also was found between these indices and SPI concentrations. This indicates that fortification of SPI in white bread can reduce eGI and possibly provide a health benefit to the diabetic population. This experiment provided useful insights into SPI effect on eGI and bread quality characteristics. 56-P Physicochemical and in vitro digestion properties of swollen maize starch complexed with maize oil and zein protein X. CHEN (1), X. He (1), Q. Huang (1) (1) South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China

Food formulations (starches, proteins, and lipids) contribute significantly toward the functional and nutritional aspects of foods, including their texture, flavor, and digestibility. The objective of this study was to develop a method to enhance the complex formation between maize starch (MS), maize oil (MO), and zein protein (ZP) to mimic the natural forms of starch and protein in maize grains and to study the effect of temperature on physicochemical and digestion properties of MS complexed with MO and ZP. We hypothesized that high-speed shearing under the pasting temperature of MS can avoid the sticky state of the system and could improve the interaction among three components. The three-component complex showed heterogeneous spheres with various sizes, and ZP was located mainly on the surface of starch particles, observed from confocal laser scanning and scanning electron microscopy. Two/three separate peaks were observed in DSC results, which indicated the formation of amylose–lipid complexes and a greater heterogeneity in structural organization caused by hydrothermal treatment. The hydrothermal/MO treatments changed the X-ray pattern to a mixture of A- and V-type patterns, which was attributed to formation of amylose–lipid complexes. Reduced peak viscosity and increased pasting temperatures of the three-component complex were found. Compared to MS, the hydrothermal treatment for MS complexed with MO and ZP resulted in a small decrease in digestibility. At 120 min of hydrolysis, MS-ZP40 had the lowest hydrolysis rate (39%) compared with that of MS (47%). The lowest

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levels of rapid digestible-starch fractions (14.17%) were obtained with hydrothermal treatment at 40°C. This study provided a better understanding of the formation mechanism and physicochemical properties of the three-component complex. 57-P Glycemic response of ancient and genetically modified barley lines using both static and dynamic digestion models D. SAGNELLI (1), S. Chessa (2), M. Di Martino (3), J. Bao (4), A. Blennow (1), K. Hebelstrup (5) (1) University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark; (2) Institute of Food Research/The Model Gut group, Norwich, U.K.; (3) University of Naples, Naples, Denmark; (4) Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; (5) Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

New types of grain can help to combat life-style related diseases. Hordeum vulgare is a major crop with nutritional and health-promoting effects because of its high content of β-glucan and other bioactive compounds. Hordeum spontaneum, a wild ancestor of modern barley, differs from domesticated varieties and contains high-value components such as prebiotic carbohydrates that have been lost during the domestication process (1). We predicted glycemic indexes (pGI) and resistant starch contents in grain models from H. spontaneum, a transgenic amylose-only (AO) barley line, and normal barley cultivar, using both a static and a dynamic human gastrointestinal in vitro model. The in vitro hydrolysis index (HI) values were correlated with in vivo GI data of barley products, allowing the calculation of the pGI (2). Both the AO line and H. spontaneum had a higher content of prebiotic carbohydrates; the undigested starch was 75% and 68%, respectively, of total starch content compared with the control barley, which was 50%. H. spontaneum grain had high (15%) β-glucan content compared with AO (4.0%) and control grains (5.0%). The pGIs of both the ancient and AO lines were lower (17.5 and 15.8, respectively) than the control barley (35.0). Our work supports the potential to include health-promoting grain of both high/full amylose and ancient germplasm origin as an ingredient in grain-based products like breads and snacks. 58-P Growth rate of a human gut symbiont on starch is source dependent Y. E. TUNCIL (1), E. C. Martens (2), B. R. Hamaker (3) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.; (2) University of Michigan Medical School Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.A.; (3) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

There has been an increasing interest in manipulating the gut microbiota via diet, especially glycans, as a way to improve health. However, this requires an understanding of how colonic bacteria respond to different carbohydrate structures in order to achieve intelligent and predicted manipulation. From this point of view, the growth of a human gut symbiont, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron VPI-5482 (Bt), on different autoclaved starches (waxy starches from corn [WC], rice [WR], potato [WP], and wheat [WW] and native starches from tapioca [NT], wheat [NW], corn [NC], pea [NPE], rice [NR], and potato [NP]) was determined. Although gelatinized starches are not available energy sources for colonic bacteria due to enzymatic digestion in the upper gut, they were valuable conceptually to show the effect of modest differences in starch structures on bacterial response. Growth rate and maximum density of Bt on these starches were calculated after reading the density at 10–15 min intervals for 72 hr using an automated plate density reader. The MW of starches was determined using HPSEC with MALS and RI detectors. Branching density of starches were determined using 1H NMR. Correlation analysis and mean differences were determined using Pearson’s and Tukey’s HSD tests, respectively. Our results demonstrate that variation in starches, and more broadly in structures of glycans, affect the growth response of Bt. The growth rate order was NT > WC > WR > NW > NC > WP > NPE > WW > NR > NP. The growth of Bt on NT starch was 12 times faster than that on NP starch. This may be attributed to variations in their MW (NT = 4.42E + 8 g/mol; NP = 1.68E + 8 g/mol), which was strongly correlated with growth rate of Bt (r = 0.88, P < 0.01). The study implies that, at the strain level, colon bacteria have different specificities to starch types and more broadly to the different glycan classes. 59-P Sorghum and millet exhibit slower gastric emptying than pasta, potatoes, and rice A. M. HAYES (1), F. Cisse (2), D. P. Erickson (3), A. R. Opekun (4), B. L. Nichols (4), B. R. Hamaker (1) (1) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.; (2) Institut d’Economie Rurale du Mali (IER), Bamako, Mali; (3) Nestle Purina North America, St. Louis, MO, U.S.A.; (4) Departments of Medicine & Pediatrics G.I. & S.A.H.S., Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, U.S.A.

Gastric emptying rates of sorghum- and millet-based starchy foods (couscous, thick and thin porridges made from sorghum and millet), which are traditional Sahelian West African foods, were studied versus modern urban staple foods (white rice, wheat pasta, white potato) for gastric emptying rate differences that relate to the sustained energy concept. Our interest was to investigate whether traditional African foods have positive attributes that can

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be promoted for enhanced understanding of carbohydrate absorption and metabolism. A 13C-labeled octanoic acid breath test method was used with subjective pre-test and satiety response questionnaires. Fourteen healthy volunteers initially participated in this study located in Bamako, Mali, which was followed up by a later validation trial with six volunteers. Eight different meals were tested, and collected breath samples were analyzed to assess gastric emptying rate. Traditional African solid foods had nearly half the gastric emptying rate of rice, potatoes, and pasta as measured by lag phase and half-emptying time (P < 0.0001), and this was found in the repeated validation trial. Millet couscous and rice had higher fullness and lower hunger scores compared to others (all P < 0.05). Satiety rankings were not the same, and it was noted that pre-test satiety rankings correlated well with actual satiety test rankings, which suggests that preconceived ideas of satiety may confound subjective satiety scoring. Traditional sorghum- and millet-based African foods were concluded to provide slower same meal gastric emptying than non-traditional, modern foods. Such foods made with sorghum and millet could serve as high-quality carbohydrate sources with superior ability to promote prolonged energy delivery to the body. Future initiatives should focus on gaining a mechanistic understanding of how such foods are utilized within the body. 60-P Mucosal α-glucosidases on starch glucogenesis in animal models A. M. LIN (1), R. Quezada-Calvillo (2), S. K. Chacko (3), S. I. Oda (4), B. R. Nichols (3) (1) University of Idaho and Washington State University, Moscow, ID, U.S.A.; (2) Universidad Autonoma De San Luis Potosi, San Luis Potosi, Mexico; (3) Children’s Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, U.S.A.; (4) Okayama University of Science, Okayama, Japan

Digestion of starch to glucose (glc) in mammals requires α-amylase (AMY) and mucosal α-glucosidase composed of maltase-glucoamylase (MGAM) and sucrase-isomaltase (SI). AMY hydrolyzes starch to linear oligomers and branched dextrins. MGAM and SI directly digest starch and convert AMY-hydrolysates to glc. When one of the mucosal α-glucosidases is missing, such as in patients with congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency (CSID), chronic diarrhea and abdominal pain are observed. In our previous studies of Mgam knock-out mouse, with only SI activity, we revealed MGAM modulates gluconeogenesis and generated identical blood glc as wild-type had when feasting. When snacking, the more efficient MGAM activities dominated the glucogenesis. It leads to a hypothesis that missing SI, such as CSID, has poor starch digestion. In this study, sucrase deficient mutant shrews were used to examine its digestion. The mutant (MUT) and heterozygous (HET) shrews were fed with 13C-enriched starch diets. Blood glc, 13C-glc enrichment, in vitro activities, and residual starch were quantified. Exo- and endogenous glc were quantified separately. Maltase and maltodextrinase of MUT were lower than HET in the duodenum (P < 0.05) and were similar to HET in the ilium. After feedings, HET had higher starch digestion, as shown by blood glucose enrichment and had lower blood glc response (P < 0.05). The intact residual MGAM in MUT conserved relative starch glucogenic capacity. Our results also suggest that total blood glc responses were modulated by endocrine and metabolic regulatory factors beyond digestion at the mucosal level. New knowledge obtained from our research provides a better understanding of the digestion capacity of individual α-glucosidase and blood glucose response. Strategies to control glucogenesis at the mucosal level could lead to improves glucose management in humans. 61-P Effects of moisture content during extrusion of whole grain oats on in vitro fermentation by human fecal microbiota S. BRAHMA (1), S. A. Weier (1), D. J. Rose (1) (1) University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

Due to the high pressure and shear experienced by grain components during extrusion, fermentation properties of extruded grains may be affected by processing variables. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of flour moisture content during extrusion on in vitro fermentation properties of whole grain oats. Extrudates were produced under three moisture contents: 15%, 18%, and 21%, with screw speed (300 rpm) and temperature (130°C) fixed. The extrudates were subjected to in vitro digestion followed by in vitro fecal fermentation. Samples were taken after 0, 8, and 24 hr of fermentation for short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) analysis. During the initial stage of fermentation (0–8 hr), moisture had significant effects on the production of acetate (P = 0.03), propionate (P = 0.03), butyrate (P = 0.03), and total SCFA (P < 0.01). During this period, bacteria grown on extrudates processed at 21% moisture produced the highest concentrations of all SCFA types. During the latter portion of fermentation (8–24 hr), moisture had significant effects on the production of acetate (P < 0.01), butyrate (P = 0.04), and total SCFA (P = 0.01), but not propionate (P = 0.09). During this period, bacteria grown on extrudates processed at 15% moisture had the highest production of acetate and total SCFA. Our results demonstrate that moisture content during extrusion significantly affects fermentability by the gut microbiota. In particular, higher flour moisture during processing leads to high initial fermentability, while lower moisture during processing leads to extended fermentability.

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62-P Test baking: A new method with improved discriminating power B. DUPUIS (1), B. X. Fu (1) (1) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Test baking has been part of quality evaluation of Canadian wheat breeding trial entries for decades. However, the current Canadian short process (CSP) bake method, which has been used for the annual evaluation of Canadian bread wheat trials since 1994, cannot reflect the effect of dough strength on baking quality. The objective of this study was to develop a new test bake method with improved discriminating power for assessing genotypes. A lean, no-time bake method was derived from the CSP process with significant modifications. Salt and shortening were reduced and oxidant was removed to minimize the masking effect of these ingredients on the intrinsic quality of wheat flour. The pan/dough volume ratio was altered to reduce the physical support provided to the proofing and baking dough. Inherent dough strength, thus, impacts baking quality more significantly. A new objective parameter, loaf top ratio, was also introduced. For the 21 breeder lines examined in this study, the relative range doubled for loaf volume (11 to 21%) and almost quadrupled for loaf top ratio (14 to 52%) with the lean, no-time method. Correlation between loaf volume and dough strength (as measured by extensograph Rmax) improved fourfold with the lean, no-time method (R2 increased from 0.11 to 0.45). Similar improvement was observed for the loaf top ratio (R2 increased from 0.15 to 0.45). These results indicated that the lean, no-time bake method can better discriminate genotypes and provide objective indicators of the effect of intrinsic dough strength on baking quality. In addition, the no-time bake method is fast, simple, and well-suited to high-throughput test baking conditions encountered in the evaluation of large numbers of breeder lines. 63-P Predicting wheat flour functionality with SDS sedimentation and GlutoPeak tests A. Mahendru (1), G. KAUR CHANDI (2), A. Kumar Ahlawat (1) (1) Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India; (2) Brabender GmbH & Co. KG, Duisburg, Germany

The sedimentation test is used worldwide to measure the gluten strength of wheat flours. The technique is commonly used as a screening test in wheat breeding programs. Forty-two wheat lines/varieties were tested for their protein quality using the sedimentation test and compared against the new GlutoPeak test. GlutoPeak is a shear-based instrument that measures the strength of gluten in terms of torque, peak max time, and aggregation energy. SDS sedimentation test of whole meal showed a weak correlation of 0.39 with the protein content of the whole meal flour, while GlutoPeak aggregation energy showed a slightly better correlation of 0.46 with protein content. SDS sedimentation test was also positively correlated (0.68) with GlutoPeak aggregation energy. Hierarchical cluster analysis of the data revealed that GlutoPeak plateau energy of wheat lines in cluster 1 had a correlation of –0.63 compared with 0.73 for whole meal sedimentation test with protein content. However, in cluster 2, peak max time emerged as a better predictor of protein quality (r = 0.66), while SDS sedimentation test had an r of 0.47. Cluster 3 had very weak correlations of protein content with both the techniques, but both the techniques were very significantly correlated to each other (0.86). The current analysis of the data suggests that the new GlutoPeak technique is comparable to the SDS sedimentation test and can be used as an alternative screening tool by wheat breeders, yielding more information than the traditional sedimentation test. Further, relationships of baked product quality with the two techniques will be discussed. 64-P Quality requirements of soft red winter wheat for making steamed bread F. Ma (1), B. K. BAIK (2) (1) Ohio State University/USDA ARS CSWQRU, Wooster, OH, U.S.A.; (2) USDA ARS CSWQRU, Wooster, OH, U.S.A.

Steamed bread is a staple food in China and is becoming increasingly popular in other Asian countries, North America, and some European countries. Wheat flour with 10–12% protein and medium to strong gluten strength is generally used for making steamed bread, but little is known about the suitability and required quality characteristics of soft red winter (SRW) wheat for making steamed bread. Flours of 19 SRW wheat varieties having protein contents of 6.5 to 9.9% were used to determine the suitability of SRW wheat for making steamed bread, and the influence of flour characteristics on the quality attributes of steamed bread was observed. Both protein content- and dough strength-related parameters, including SDSS volume, wet/dry gluten content and midline peak time (MPT), were significantly associated with the quality attributes of steamed bread. The rapid viscosity analyzer (RVA) setback value exhibited significant negative correlations with specific volume, smoothness, crumb structure, and total score of steamed bread. Stepwise multiple regression analyses indicated that 89% of variability in total scores of steamed bread could be predicted from SDSS volume, wet gluten content, and MPT. High molecular weight-glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) 7*+8 and 5+10 showed greater positive contributions to flour characteristics, specific volume, stress relaxation score, and total score of steamed bread than their counterpart allelic variations. Absence of the 1B/1R translocation in SRW wheat varieties was desirable for the production of high-quality steamed bread.

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65-P Prediction of Mixolab parameters by using single-kernel characterization system O. ACAR (1), H. Koksel (2), T. Sanal (1) (1) Central Research Institute for Field Crops, Ankara, Turkey; (2) Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

Mixolab® is new equipment that provides information about water absorption, development time, stability, enzyme activity, and protein and starch properties of flour samples. These properties are determined over time with stepwise temperature changes in a kneader equipped with twin blades with adjustable speed. The single kernel characterization system (SKCS 4100) is a unique analytical instrument that determines the characteristics of grain samples (300 kernels). It takes the individual kernels, weighs and crushes them, then measures the conductivity of the crushed kernels. The data are processed to give weight, size, moisture, and hardness properties of grains. The SKCS can be used in seed breeding, grain trade, as well as milling and malting industries. The objective of this study was to examine the correlations between SKCS 4100 and Mixolab® parameters and test the possibility of predicting Mixolab® parameters using SKCS. For this purpose 27 wheat samples developed by different Grain Research Institutes of Turkey were used. Significant correlations (P < 0.01) were observed between the hardness index (%) of grain samples and water absorption (r = 0.814), C3 (r = –0.578), C3-C2, (r = –0.589), and C5 (r = –0.619) values of dough samples. Furthermore, significant negative correlations (P < 0.05) were observed between the hardness index of grain samples and C5-C4 (r = –0.472) and C4 values (r = –0.482) of dough samples. There were also significant correlations (P < 0.01) between the classing index and water absorption (r = –0794), C3 (r = 0.549), C5 (r = 0.691), and C5-C4 (r = 0.604) values. It can be concluded that Mixolab® parameters such as water absorption, C3, C3-C2, and C5 can be predicted by using the SKCS hardness index. This is a great benefit since it is rapid, does not require skilled personnel, and is automated. 66-P Improved method for measuring whole wheat flour mixing properties R. MILLER (1), A. Oakley (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Dough mixing properties of whole wheat flours are often not correctly measured in recording dough mixers such as the farinograph and mixograph because the bran impedes the ability of the dough to form a cohesive gluten mass, which often results in the dough adhering to the sides of the mixing bowl where it cannot be fully developed and dough characteristics measured. This is attributed in part to the bran, which dilutes the gluten and also impedes hydration and development. The objective of this study was to determine whether measurement of whole wheat mixing properties could be improved by mixing at a slower speed to allow additional time for the bran to hydrate and by strengthening the gluten with sodium chloride to aid in the formation of a continuous dough mass that could be measured. Sodium chloride is known to have a shielding effect on the charges in gluten, which strengthens the dough and shortens the mix time. Mixing properties were measured using the Brabender Farinograph AT. Mixing tests were conducted at the default speed (63 rpm) and at the slower speeds of 53 rpm, 43 rpm, and 33 rpm. Salt was added at 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% on a flour weight basis. Evaluation of two commercial flours showed that reducing mixer speed by 10 rpm lowered the water requirement by 1% (flour A) and 2% (flour B), while significantly increasing mixing time by 2 min (flour A) and 11 min (flour B). Both flours exhibited longer dough stability times and no change in MTI. The addition of salt at all levels did not affect water absorption, mixing time, or dough stability in either flour. In conclusion, water absorption decreased while mixing time and dough stability increased as mixing rpm was lowered. Thus, the doughs appeared to be hydrating and developing more quickly at slower mixing speeds. 67-P Pizza under the toppings: Macro- and microstructure of different Italian pizza types A. PAGANI (1), F. Faoro (1), A. Marti (1), L. Quaglia (2), F. Racinelli (2) (1) University of Milan, Milan, Italy; (2) Molino Quaglia, Vighizzolo d’Este, Italy

Various kinds of pizza, different for dough base preparation, sauces, and topping, are available according to various customs and traditions. Differences in dough preparation likely affect product structure. This work aimed at investigating the macro- and microstructure of the most widespread pizza styles in Italy: Neapolitan pizza (NP) and Romana pizza (RP) with a doughy crust, and “pizza al piatto” (PP) with a crispy crust. Flour with high proteins (14%) and farinograph stability (8 min) was used for all the samples. Pizza-making processes differed for hydration, mixing, leavening, and baking conditions. The thickness and honeycomb structure of both the outer edge and the internal disk bread were evaluated by image analysis and light microscopy. NP, which is defined as traditional specialty guaranteed (TSG) food by the European Commission (Council Regulation 97/2009), exhibited a high outer edge (about 25 mm), where the large alveoli (>3 mm2) represented more than 80% of the porous area, even if their number was less than 10%. This organization was similar to that of RP and very different from that of PP, where small (<1 mm2) and medium (1–3 mm2) alveoli represented more than 25% of the porous area. The long homemade dough preparation (30 min) and long proofing step (12 hr at 25°C) of

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NP promoted the development of large alveoli and a network with thick protein strands (>200–300 μm) that were able to expand while baking in a wood-fired oven. The mechanical kneading used for PP promotes the development of thin proteins strands (50–100 μm), which were responsible for a less porous structure and a more crispy crust. In conclusion, dough-making process greatly affected pizza structure. Differences in structure between NP and PP led us to investigate their digestibility. 68-P Determining dough mixing properties from a single test in the doughLAB M. BASON (1), J. Dang (2) (1) Perten Instruments AB, Hägersten, Sweden; (2) Perten Instruments Australia, Sydney, Australia

Flour quality evaluation by conventional farinography typically requires two tests, the first to establish flour water absorption (WA) at a target torque (normally 500 FU), and the second to determine dough development time (DDT) and mixing tolerance using this WA value. Test and cleaning time is usually 30–40 min per sample. The recently approved rapid doughLAB method (AACCI Approved Method 54-70.01) reduces this to 10 min per test but still typically requires two tests to be performed. The objective of this study was to determine if a single test can be used to determine the WA, DDT, and mixing tolerance of a sample. Sixty wheat flours with diverse properties were analyzed on the doughLAB using both rapid and conventional methods. The full torque/time curve data from each test were then analyzed by multivariate analysis (MVA) to determine if the dough mixing parameters determined after optimizing WA could be predicted from the initial non-optimized test. Results show that a single rapid test may be used to estimate WA, DDT, stability, and other flour properties by applying MVA calibrations to the data. Software has been developed to apply these calibrations in the doughLAB, allowing the user to determine all necessary flour quality data from a single rapid test. 69-P The rheo extrusion meter: A new device for measuring wheat flour baking absorption and dough consistency K. BRIJS (1), B. Pareyt (1), J. Vanneste (1), J. A. Delcour (1) (1) KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

The rheo extrusion meter (REM) measures wheat flour dough consistency based on vertical upward dough extrusion. The time necessary to extrude three volumetrically identical dough pieces, i.e., the extrusion time (ET), increases with dough consistency. ETs are highly reproducible and very sensitive to differences in dough moisture content. The height of the extruded dough pieces is negatively correlated with straight-dough bread-loaf specific volume, both when comparing different flour samples and when adjusting moisture content of dough prepared from a single flour. A single REM analysis takes only 20 min and is highly effective at tailoring dough consistency by calculating the correct baking absorption at relevant desired temperatures from the measured dough ET. The REM also allows determination of the consistency of complex wheat flour-based systems and the impact of vital wheat gluten or ascorbic acid thereupon. Furthermore, in contrast to the farinograph, it detects the impact of endoxylanases hydrolyzing water-extractable arabinoxylan on dough consistency. 70-P Constant vs. optimized mixograph absorption and relationships to wheat gluten strength and insoluble glutenin content C. ISAAK (1), H. Sapirstein (1), Y. Wu (1), R. Graf (2) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) AAFC Lethbridge Research Centre, Lethbridge, AB, Canada

The mixograph is a recording pin mixer routinely used to analyze bread wheat flours for gluten strength. The test is often conducted at optimized absorption (OA) based on subjective assessment, farinograph absorption (FA), or statistical models, e.g., using protein content. The aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of mixograph results of hard red winter (HRW) wheat flours using OA based on FA and constant absorption (62%) using both unsalted and 1.5% salted doughs. We also evaluated relationships between mixograph variables and insoluble glutenin (IG) content, a key factor underlying gluten strength. Straight-grade flours were milled from 19 genotypes of Canadian HRW wheats grown in the same location. FAs ranged from 54 to 64%. IG contents varied from ~17 to 25% of flour protein, which ranged from 11.3 to 14.5%. Mixograph variables of interest were work input to peak development (WIP), dough development time (DDT), and bandwidth (BW) at DDT. Differences in effects of mixing at CA or OA were modest at best compared to the significant dough strengthening effect of salt. For unsalted doughs at CA, correlations between IG content and WIP (r = 0.77) and DDT (r = 0.69) were lower than those for OA mixed doughs (r ~ 0.82 for WIP and DDT). For salted doughs at OA, there was no difference in correlations between IG content and WIP or DDT (r ~ 0.79 for both), whereas the correlation between BW and IG was higher for CA (r = 0.77) compared to OA mixing (r = 0.66). It was concluded that for the wheats and methods used in this study, there was little if any benefit to evaluate mixograph results at OA. Considering aspects of sample throughput, assessing relationships to gluten protein composition, and relevance of

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salt in breadmaking, using the mixograph at CA with salted doughs appears to be appropriate and effective to screen flours for gluten strength and breadmaking potential. 71-P The use of synchrotron X-rays and ultrasonics for investigating the bubble size distribution and its evolution in dough F. KOKSEL (1), A. Strybulevych (1), S. Aritan (2), V. Leroy (3), J. H. Page (4), M. G. Scanlon (5) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Biomechanics Research Group, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey; (3) Laboratoire MSC, Université Paris-Diderot, CNRS (UMR 7057), Paris, France; (4) University of Manitoba, Physics and Astronomy Department, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (5) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Understanding mechanisms of aeration of dough during mixing and how the aerated structure of dough evolves during breadmaking are critical for attaining a desirable bread crumb structure. X-rays from a synchrotron source (BioMedical Imaging and Therapy beamline, Canadian Light Source) and ultrasonic transmission and reflection techniques were independently but simultaneously used to characterize the bubble size distribution and its evolution in nonyeasted dough subsamples as a function of time after mixing. The time-dependent series of discrete bubble size distributions were extracted from the X-ray images using image analysis software and were fed to an ultrasonic model for predictions of ultrasonic phase velocity and attenuation coefficient. These predictions of phase velocity and attenuation coefficient derived from X-ray images exhibited frequency-dependent peaks that are characteristic of bubble resonance, as expected from the ultrasonic model. Furthermore, as the bubble size distribution changed as a function of time after mixing, the ultrasonic model qualitatively followed the changes in the experimental velocity and attenuation coefficient that accompanied changes in dough’s bubbly structure. Our results point to the capability of the ultrasonic technique as a tool to noninvasively monitor the dynamic changes arising from the diffusively driven evolution of bubble sizes during breadmaking with the potential for determining the bubble size distribution in dough. 73-P High-altitude baking mitigation—Bread baking J. HU (1), R. Ostrander (1), T. Pohlman (1), Y. Jiang (1) (1) Ardent Mills, Denver, CO, U.S.A.

It is well-known that altitude can affect baking performance due to changes in atmospheric pressure and humidity. A number of adjustments may be needed in order to achieve consistent results across various locations at different altitudes. Through a study between three locations, with elevations of 890 ft (Lab-1), 1,070 ft (Lab-2), and 5,420 ft (Lab-3), methods for evaluating the baking performance of bread flours at high altitude (Lab-3) were developed to produce results comparable to those obtained at sea level (Lab-1 and Lab-2). Methods were optimized for the production of refined white flour pound loaves, refined white flour pup loaves, and whole wheat pound loaves at high altitude (Lab-3). Compared to baking formulations and processes at sea level (Lab-1 and Lab-2), the changes made at high altitude (Lab-3) included decreased yeast levels, increased water absorption, and adjustments in fermentation times. To validate the method developed for high-altitude baking (Lab-3), over 200 flour samples (commercial and experimental mill flours) were collected and evaluated between the three labs (Lab-1, Lab-2, and Lab-3) over a 6 month period. Specific volume and bake scores were collected and analyzed by pairwise comparison and a clustering method. The results from the high-altitude bake lab (Lab-3) had similar ranking to bake test results from comparable flours baked at sea level (Lab-1 and Lab-2). 74-P High-altitude baking mitigation: Cookie and cake baking in Ardent Mills Y. JIANG (1), R. Ostrander (2), T. Pohlman (3), J. Hu (1) (1) Ardent Mills, Denver, CO, U.S.A.; (2) Ardent Mills, Minnetonka, MN, U.S.A.; (3) Ardent Mills, Martins Creek, PA, U.S.A.

Sugar snap cookies (AACC Approved Method 10-50.05) and high-ratio cake (AACC Approved Method 10-90.01) are widely used to evaluate the baking quality of cookie and cake flours in flour quality labs. It is commonly known that altitude affects baking performance of soft flours due to changes in atmospheric pressure. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of high altitude on the above standards and adjust them for a high-altitude bake lab (Ardent Mills Innovation Center to be located in Denver, CO, at 5,420 ft). Cookies baked at high altitude using AACC Approved Method 10-50.05 had larger diameters, were less thick, and had wider cracking than those baked in sea-level labs. The spread factor calculated by AACC Approved Method 10-50.05 was significantly lower than cookies baked at sea level. It is not uncommon to find that cookies baked using AACC Approved Method 10-50.05 tend to be of irregular shape, which compromised the accuracy of test results that are largely dependent on cookie diameter. Shortening and sugar are accountable for cookie spread and cracking. Within certain ranges, both shortening and sugar have a positive correlation with cookie spread (R2 > 0.97). More

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sugar caused larger and wider cracking, while more shortening gave a finer cookie top. Meanwhile, cakes baked at high altitude using AACC Approved Method 10-90.01 easily collapsed, which was resolved by adjusting baking temperature. In summary, soft wheat flour cookie and cake baking quality can be successfully evaluated at high altitude by increasing shortening and decreasing sugar for sugar snap cookie formulas and increasing baking temperature and decreasing baking powder for high-ratio cake formulas. To validate these adjusted methods, over 200 cookie and 30 cake flours with various quality were analyzed at Ardent Mills high-altitude (Denver, CO, 5,420 ft) and sea-level (Minneapolis, MN, and Omaha, NE, <1,000 ft) labs. Elevation had no significant effect on cookie and cake flour quality results. 75-P Effects of glutenins on gluten viscoelasticity and relationships to the rheological and breadmaking properties of wheat Z. J. HERNÁNDEZ-ESTRADA (1), P. Rayas-Duarte (1) (1) Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, U.S.A.

Effects of high molecular weight glutenin subunits on gluten rheology, as well as mixing, extensibility, and breadmaking parameters of 19 hard red winter wheat flours were investigated. Relaxed wet gluten obtained from glutomatic was performed by creep-recovery test using rheometer, with parallel plate geometry (diameter = 2.5 cm, cross-hatched), 100 Pa of shear stress imposed and holding for 100 sec, and recovery recorded at 100 sec. Data was fitted to a six-element Kelvin-Voigt model (R2 = 0.999). Gluten elastic moduli (G0, G1, and G2) and viscosity coefficients (η0, η1, and η2) were obtained and correlated with loaf volume resistance to extensibility and water absorption. Glu-D1 5+10 samples had higher loaf volume, resistance to extensibility, and values of elasticity and viscosity coefficients compared with 2+12. Higher viscoelasticity was found in G0 and η0 associated with non-gluten components. Differences in elasticity, G1 or G2, and viscosity, η1 or η2, by glutenins attributed to entanglement of short-chain and large-chain sizes, respectively, were correlated with quality. Also, η2 explained the variability in loaf volume better (r = 0.57; P < 0.0001) compared to η1 (r = 0.45; P < 0.0001). Elastic moduli, G1 and G2, showed differences among poor and good quality samples. Correlation of viscosity and elasticity of creep-recovery tests suggested that end-use quality represented by loaf volume is mainly influenced by viscosity, η2, and protein elasticity, G2, of long chain sizes and η1 of short chain sizes have only a minor effect. 76-P The impact of resting time on dough rheology and bread quality in a no-time dough system L. CATO (1), J. Ma (1), S. Cauvain (2) (1) Australian Export Grains Innovation Centre, South Perth, WA, Australia; (2) BakeTran, Freeland, Witney, U.K.

To meet market requirements new hard wheat varieties in Australia should have excellent baking quality. Test baking to date is the best test to evaluate flour performance for baking. Test baking, however, is time-consuming and typically only applied to advanced lines in a breeding program. Many tests and methods have been used as “predictive” tests for baking quality. Many are based on traditional cereal chemistry, dough rheological methods but none actually mimic mixing conditions: full bread formulation, mixing speed, final dough temperature, energy input during baking, and molding/sheeting of subsequent mixed dough. The problems of understanding the behavior of wheat flours in baking are further compounded by the fact that there is hardly a standard bakery, with many variations in recipe, equipment, dough processing methods, and bread types being encountered around the world. Some standardized test-baking methods have been developed, but because of the wide geographical variation in breadmaking processes, they have not achieved truly international standards or universal status. The aim of this study was to investigate the relative importance of resting time on dough rheology and test baking quality. Much of the work was carried out using three combinations of mixing speed, final dough temperature, and Australian wheat flours. DoughLAB was used to mix bread doughs, a no-time dough baking method was used for test baking, a digital bread volume analyzer (BVM), TA-XT2-iPlus, and C-Cell were used to study bread quality, respectively. Discrimination between resting periods was reduced at the highest speed and dough temperature combination. Bread volume and slice height (C-Cell) were greatest with the combination of 200 rpm and 36°C and least with 100 rpm and 24°C. The number of measured cells per unit area of the crumb slice was greatest with the combination of mixer speed at 100 rpm and dough temperature at 24°C and least with the combination of 200 rpm and 36°C. Dough stickiness (Warburton’s stickiness rig) will be discussed and related to dough processing and bread quality traits. The outcome of the studies will have significant implications for future wheat and flour evaluation programs.

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77-P Effects of enzymes and NaCl content on dough rheology using Harvest and Pembina CWRS wheat E. J. HOPKINS (1), P. Hucl (2), M. G. Scanlon (3), M. T. Nickerson (4) (1) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (2) University of Saskatchewan, Crop Development Centre, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (3) University of Manitoba, Food Science Department, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (4) Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

The overall goal of this research was to investigate the rheological properties of bread dough prepared with flour from two different Canadian Western red spring wheat cultivars (Harvest and Pembina) and supplemented with crosslinking enzymes (transglutaminase [TG] and glucose oxidase [GO]). These samples were produced at two different salt concentrations (1% and 2%) and with the inclusion of either one of two enzymes: TG (0.01% or 0.05%) or GO (0.001% or 0.01%). Increases in G′ (storage modulus), G″ (loss modulus), and |G*| (complex modulus) were found for samples treated with GO at low and high concentrations and with TG at high concentrations in comparison to control samples. Additionally, higher values were observed for these variables with Pembina versus Harvest. All G′ values were higher than G″ values, which suggests a structured network, and the higher |G*| values indicate an increase in dough stiffness. Creep compliance (Jmax) and recovery compliance (Jel) were both assessed; these factors relate to the amount of deformation and elasticity of the dough samples, respectively. Generally, enzyme treatment (except for 0.01% TG) showed a decrease in Jmax and increase in Jel. Differences between cultivars were prominent with control groups and 0.01% TG, however, they were not as significant when the other enzyme treatment (GO or 0.5% TG) was applied. 79-P Effects of NaCl level on rheology, stickiness, and extensibility of dough prepared from different CWRS wheat N. A. AVRAMENKO (1), P. J. Hucl (2), M. G. Scanlon (3), M. T. Nickerson (1) (1) Department of Food and Bioproducts Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (2) Crop Development Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (3) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Dough rheology and stickiness were determined for four CWRS wheat varieties (McKenzie, Roblin, Harvest, and Pembina) as a function of NaCl (0–4%). More specifically the rheological properties examined were extensibility, oscillatory frequency sweeps, and creep and recovery to give an indication of dough strength and structure. An analysis of variance found that in all instances both the effect of NaCl and variety, along with their associated interaction, was significant. Therefore, the effect on dough rheology and stickiness with changing NaCl levels depended on each variety being tested. With respect to rheology, the loss tangent suggested that the dough properties of Roblin, McKenzie, and Harvest were similar and formed weaker gluten networks than that of Pembina. In all cases, dough became stronger in a curvilinear fashion as the NaCl levels increased from 0 to 4%. The amount of deformation of the dough decreased with increasing NaCl levels, indicating that the gluten network became stronger as it was able to resist the imposed stress. For extensibility, increasing the levels of salt caused an increase in resistance to extension, although for Pembina this increase was more drastic at the 4% NaCl level. Extensibility was found to increase from 0 to 1% NaCl, with the magnitude being variety dependent; with 2–4% NaCl there was only a slight increase in extensibility. For dough stickiness at the 0 and 2% NaCl levels, Pembina and Roblin had the least stickiness relative to McKenzie and Harvest; as the NaCl level was increased from 2 to 4%, a greater variety effect was observed. Overall, Pembina and Roblin formed stronger gluten networks than McKenzie and Harvest, where the sensitivity of NaCl was found to be variety dependent. Stickiness was more notable in the weaker varieties than the stronger. 80-P Effect of salts from the lyotropic series on the handling of dough prepared from Harvest and Pembina CWRS wheat N. A. AVRAMENKO (1), P. J. Hucl (2), M. G. Scanlon (3), M. T. Nickerson (1) (1) Department of Food and Bioproducts Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (2) Crop Development Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (3) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

The influence of select salts from the lyotropic series (NH4Cl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, and MgSO4) on the rheology and stickiness of dough prepared from a strong (Pembina variety) and weak (Harvest variety) CWRS flour were examined at a 1 and 2% level. Overall, Pembina was found to develop stronger gluten networks that were more resistant to imposed stress than Harvest, as evidenced by a lower tan δ and reduced amount of deformation (Jmax) during creep recovery. However, the effect of salt type was different depending on the variety. In the case of Pembina, MgCl2 and MgSO4 resulted in lower complex moduli values relative to those with NaCl, whereas all other salt types were similar to dough containing NaCl. In the case of Harvest, greater salt sensitivity was observed, where the addition of KCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2 resulted in a weaker gluten network (lower complex modulus) associated with increased hydration of the gluten. In the case of Pembina, only dough prepared with

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NH4Cl was found to have significantly reduced Jmax relative to those with NaCl, whereas all other salt types were similar. For Harvest, KCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2 all showed a weakening effect on the gluten network, as indicated by higher Jmax values relative to NaCl. In contrast, NH4Cl and MgSO4 resulted in higher Jmax values relative to NaCl. Overall Pembina showed lower dough stickiness than Harvest in all cases. For both Pembina and Harvest, dough stickiness was showed the greatest decrease with the addition of NH4Cl. In summary, the stronger gluten network of Pembina was found to mitigate some of the effects of reducing salt levels more than Harvest. In all cases, NH4Cl was found to be most effective at reduced salt levels at strengthening the gluten–gluten interactions, most likely through hydrophobic interactions as protein–protein interactions become favored over protein–water. 83-P The effect of salt on dough properties of flour as measured by Farinograph and Extensograph J. SAKAMOTO (1), J. Suchy (2), B. Dupuis (2), B. X. Fu (2) (1) Nippon Flour Mills Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan; (2) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

The Brabender Farinograph and Extensograph are widely used in the wheat industry for the measurement of physical dough properties of flour. The standard Farinograph method is conducted in the absence of salt, while the standard Extensograph method specifies the farinograph for preparation of dough in the presence of 2% salt. Dough without salt does not reflect physical properties exhibited during commercial baking, where 1–2% salt is typically used. However, high salt levels can also mask intrinsic dough properties. Three hard red spring wheat flour samples of diverse strength were selected for this study. The effect of salt on dough properties was measured using a Brabender Farinograph and Extensograph at five levels of salt ranging from 0 to 5%. Farinograph stability increased with increasing salt level from 0 to 2% for the medium-strong and strong flour samples. For the medium-weak flour, there was no significant change in stability between 0 and 1% salt, and the increase in stability from 1 to 2% salt was much less pronounced. These results show that the response to salt is dependent on inherent flour strength. Extensograph maximum resistance increased with increasing salt content and the effect of salt increased with resting time. It is important that dough prepared for the Extensograph test be fully developed in order to properly assess dough handling properties and baking potential of wheat flour. Loaf volume for all samples baked from dough prepared with the Farinograph was significantly smaller than that of samples prepared with the National pin mixer, regardless of strength. Dough prepared following the standard Farinograph protocol is not sufficiently developed and is too dry for baking. These results suggest that dough prepared with the pin mixer can better mimic dough development in the baking process and improve the effectiveness of the Extensograph in assessing dough properties. 84-P Storage conditions influence increase in falling number of wheat grain T. JI (1), B. K. Baik (1) (1) USDA ARS CSWQRU Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Wooster, OH, U.S.A.

Falling number (FN) of wheat grain increases during storage, while the implicated grain and storage conditions have yet to be defined. Wheat grains of varying FN were obtained by malting, by incubating wheat stalks, or directly from the field and used to determine the effects of storage temperature, grain moisture content, and initial FN on changes in FN and α-amylase activity. Changes in FN of malted grain during storage were significantly affected by temperature, but not by grain moisture or initial FN. The FN of malted grain increased when stored at 5, 23, and 35°C for 20 weeks by averages of 9.4, 24.1, and 34.4, respectively. Storage temperature significantly influenced the increase in FN of grain obtained from incubated stalks when stored for 8 weeks, whereas the effects of wheat variety and initial FN were not evident. Wheat grain obtained directly from the field also exhibited significant increases in FN during 8 weeks of storage at 5, 23, and 35°C with average increases of 10.0, 27.1, and 38.5, respectively. With induced sprouting, no apparent relationship between α-amylase activity and FN of grain during storage was observed, whereas for field-harvested grain FN increase during storage was accompanied by a significant reduction in α-amylase activity. α-Amylase activity exhibited a negative logarithmic relationship (r = –0.94) with FN of field-harvested grain. FN increase during storage was affected by temperature, but not by grain moisture, initial FN or variety. The impact of α-amylase activity on the increase in FN during storage was evident only for the field-harvested grain of varying FN. 85-P Comparison of the action of three GH 51 α-L-arabinofuranosidases on feruloylated arabinoxylan-oligosaccharides R. R. SCHENDEL (1), A. K. Puchbauer (1), M. Bunzel (1) (1) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany

Arabinofuranosidases act synergistically with other enzymes to depolymerize arabinoxylans by cleaving arabinofuranose substituents from the β-(1→4)-linked D-xylopyranose backbone. Because arabinose feruloylation is a barrier to some arabinofuranosidases, we investigated the actions of three commercially available GH 51 α-L-arabinofuranosidases on feruloylated arabinoxylan-oligosaccharide standard compounds

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with and without the presence of feruloyl esterase. Arabinoxylan-oligosaccharide standard compounds, 5-O-trans-feruloyl-α-L-arabinofuranosyl-(1→3)-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-xylopyranose (FAXX), and β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-[5-O-trans-feruloyl-α-L-arabinofuranosyl-(1→3)]-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-xylopyranose (FAXXX) were hydrolyzed from wheat bran insoluble fiber with endo-xylanase treatment, purified with Amberlite XAD-2, Sephadex LH-20 chromatography, and semi-preparative RP-HPLC and identified with MS and NMR. FAXX and FAXXX were separately incubated with three GH 51 α-L-arabinofuranosidases isolated from Clostridium thermocellum, Cellvibrio japonicus, and Aspergillus niger. Incubations of FAXX were also performed using the same arabinofuranosidases plus a feruloyl esterase isolated from Clostridium thermocellum. Released feruloylated arabinose was quantified by HPLC-UV following reduction. The mono- and oligosaccharide profiles of the incubations were monitored using HPAEC-PAD. Incubation with Clostridium thermocellum released 68% and 31% of feruloylated arabinose from FAXX and FAXXX, respectively. Cellvibrio japonicas released only a trace amount of feruloylated arabinose from FAXX and 14% from FAXXX. The Aspergillus niger preparation contained an esterase contaminant, as only free ferulic acid was detected after incubation of both standards. Incubation of FAXX with arabinofuranosidases plus feruloyl esterase resulted in quantitative release of arabinose. 86-P New insights into the action mode of amylosucrase on amylopectin H. ZHANG (1), X. Zhou (1), T. Wang (1), Y. Li (1), X. Luo (1), L. Wang (1), R. Wang (1), Z. Chen (1) (1) Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China

To investigate the action of amylosucrase (AS) on amylopectin, waxy corn starch (WCS) was selected as an acceptor. The effects of WCS dissolution method, reaction temperature, starch and sucrose concentrations, and AS activity on transglycosylation rate (TR) were investigated. Under the selected reaction condition, the enzymatic reaction process was simulated by a mathematical model and expressed by the regression equation Y = 38.87 ln X + 101.44, where Y was TR and X was reaction time. Then, the elongated WCSs with different TRs were produced according to the theoretical reaction time, which was calculated based on the regression equation. The chain length distribution of the elongated WCSs indicated that all of the branch chains of WCS were greatly elongated by AS before occurrence of starch precipitation. Afterward, however, AS merely elongated the branch chains, of which the non-reducing ends were exposed to the surface of the precipitate. 88-P Recombinant wheat protein disulfide isomerase and its effects on flour processing quality T. T. Zhang (1), Y. Hou (1), L. Li (1), S. Q. HU (1) (1) South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China

As an endogenous enzyme, wheat protein disulfide isomerase (wPDI) participates in the formation and modification of gluten networks during breadmaking by the catalysis of thiol/disulfide interchange reaction. The effect of wPDI on the processing quality of wheat flour was controversial until now. In our study, a wPDI gene with 1548 bp was cloned from wheat (‘Zhongyou 9507’) leaves. Then the recombinant wPDI was overexpressed in E. coli and purified with affinity chromatography, followed by the analysis of the enzyme characteristics for the purified proteins. The enzyme exhibited the substantial catalysis activities acting as isomerase, oxidoreductase, and chaperone. The specific enzyme activity determined by the reductase activity test was about 4.3 U/mg. The wPDI could renature 60% activity of scrambled RNase at the concentration of 1.4 μmol/L and inhibit 35% denatured glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPD) to aggregate at the concentration of 30 μmol/L. The effect of wPDI on flour processing quality was also investigated. With the addition of 0.2% (wt/wt) wPDI, the strength and mechanical stirring performance of dough, which were measured by farinograph testing, were improved significantly (P < 0.05). Development time and stability time increased to 1.56-fold and 1.51-fold, respectively. Meanwhile, the mechanical tolerance index decreased from 158 ± 10.41 FU to 118 ± 2.89 FU. When 0.01% (wt/wt) wPDI was added during breadmaking, more pores were formed within the bread. Furthermore, some textural parameters of bread crumb measured by texture analyzer were improved significantly (P < 0.05): hardness decreased from 1,910 ± 74.83 g to 1,254 ± 84.27 g and chew resistance decreased from 1,121 ± 121.08 g to 739 ± 129.68 g. The results promise wPDI to be a potential candidate for biological wheat flour modifier with a “clean” label. 89-P Processing optimization of whole naked oat kernel extrusion X. HU (1), Z. Zhang (1), X. Li (1) (1) Shaanxi Normal University, Xian, China

Whole oat kernel extrusion technology has attracted increasing attention due to the advantages of whole grain food manufacturing, energy conservation, high raw material utilization, and low starch retrogradation. In the present study, whole oat seeds with various lipid concentrations were selected, precooked, and mixed with other starch prior to extrusion (twin extruder, model FMHE-36; L/D = 24, diameter = 1 mm, length = 5 mm). Parameters, including precooking time, concentration of mixed starch, and extruder screw speed, were optimized using response

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surface methodology. The quality of extruded products in terms of expansion ratio, surface area, color, texture, overall sensory properties, as well as lipid and protein contents were evaluated by factor analysis. Results indicated that 1) the extruded products from high-fat whole oat seed (7.94%, wt/wt) showed relative hard texture and compromised mouthfeel (–0.56*) compared to low-fat oat (4.96%, wt/wt), while adding other starch into the formula resulted in improved color and mouthfeel of the extrude products. 2) Enhancing water content in whole oat seed by 5–10 min precooking process rather than room temperature soaking improved the mouthfeel of the products. 3) The quality of extruded products was affected by extruder screw speed, mixed starch concentration, and cooking time in descending order. The optimized parameters were as follows: extruder screw speed 300 rpm, precooking time 5 min, mixed starch concentration of 20%. Compared to oat flour products, whole oat seed extrusion could save energy by 15%, with close sensory properties. 90-P A phenomenological model of starchy materials expansion by extrusion M. Kristiawan (1), G. DELLA VALLE (2), A. Ndiaye (3), C. David (4), B. Vergnes (5) (1) INRA, Nantes, France; (2) INRA, Nantes Cedex 3, France; (3) INRA-University Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France; (4) SCC, SAINT-ETIENNE, France; (5) MINES ParisTech, Sophia-Antipolis, France

During extrusion of starchy products, the molten material is forced through a die so that the sudden pressure drop causes part of the water to vaporize, giving an expanded cellular structure. At die outlet, the material cools down, crosses glass transition (Tg) and becomes solid. No simple model is available to describe satisfactory dynamic, multiphysic, and multiphase phenomena during expansion. Current models are too complex to be coupled with a simple mechanistic model of a co-rotating twin-screw extrusion process in order to predict foam cellular structure. Our objective is to elaborate a phenomenological model of expansion that is simple enough to be coupled with Ludovic®, a simulation software of twin-screw extrusion process. From experimental results that cover a wide range of thermomechanical conditions, a concept map of influence relationships between input and output variables is built. It takes into account the phenomena of bubble nucleation, growth, coalescence, shrinkage, and setting in a viscoelastic medium. The input variables are moisture content (MC), melt temperature (Tp), specific mechanical energy (SME), shear viscosity (h) at the die exit computed by Ludovic®, and the melt storage modulus (E′(Tp>Tg)). The latter represents the elongational viscosity and takes into account the influence of starch amylose content. The outputs of the model are the macrostructure (expansion indices and anisotropy factor) and cellular structure (fineness) of solid foams determined by X-ray tomography. Then a general model is suggested: VEI = a(h/h0)n, in which VEI is the volumetric expansion index. The model parameters, a and n depend on Tp, MC, SME, and E′. The link between macroscopic anisotropy and fineness is also established, allowing the prediction of cellular structure. Finally, the model is validated using experimental data of wheat flour extrusion from the literature. 91-P Extrusion characteristics of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) flour P. GULATI (1), S. A. Weier (1), D. Santra (1), J. Subbiah (1), D. J. Rose (1) (1) University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is emerging as an important agricultural crop in the US but has limited human consumption. The present work focuses on determining the extrusion characteristics of proso millet flour to promote its consumption and distribution in the US market. An inscribed central composite rotatable design generated conditions for extruding proso millet flour in a twin screw extruder by varying three extrusion parameters: moisture content (17–25%), screw speed (170–250 rpm), and temperature (90–150°C). Multiple regression models fitted through response surface methodology were used to evaluate the effect of extrusion variables on process (torque and specific mechanical energy) and product (bulk density, radial expansion ratio [RER], water absorption index [WAI], water solubility index [WSI], and hardness) responses of extrudates. The fitted model was validated by extruding millet flour under additional conditions obtained through the Latin hypercube sampling technique. Model fit errors, model representation errors, actual versus predicted, and residual versus predicted plots, indicated that all models were valid except for WSI. Thus, all variables except WSI were used in optimization. Moisture was the most important variable affecting proso millet extrusion. Optimum conditions for extruding proso millet in the present lab-scale extruder type were: screw speed, 236 rpm; moisture, 17%; and temperature, 94°C; the predicted responses were bulk density, 0.12 g/cm3; RER, 3.22; WAI, 4.16 g/g; and hardness, 136 N. Values obtained for the physical properties of proso millet extrudates were similar to other grains reported in the literature. This study demonstrates the ability of proso millet flour to be extruded like other grains and demands further research to establish it in US markets.

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93-P Starch modification using reactive extrusion X. Bao (1), A. Ali (1), D. Qiao (1), L. YU (1), H. Liu (1), L. Chen (1) (1) School of Food and Light Industry, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Many modified starches have been developed to overcome various shortcomings of native starches and to expand their usefulness in food and non-food industries. Reactive extrusion (REX) has been defined as the concurrent reaction and extrusion processing of polymers in an extruder. REX was developed in the 1980s, primarily for the modification of synthetic polymers. Since then the technology has been developed quickly and has been applied in various areas, such as polymerization, grafting, crosslinking, etc. The flexibility and efficiency of REX for starch modification, compared to batch processes, are particularly noteworthy. The use of an extruder as a chemical reactor allows high-viscosity polymers to be handled in the absence of solvents. It also affords a large operational flexibility, as a result of the broad range of processing conditions, the possibility of multiple injection, and the controlled residence time and degree of mixing. This paper presents our recent work on starch modification using REX. The facility developed in our laboratory includes a starch modification reactor established based on a Haake rheometer incorporating a twin-roll mixer, which was modified to improve its sealing and feeding and to establish an oxygen-free environmental. The advantages of the system include a) starch modification can be carried out at high starch concentration (up to 70%); b) combining the steps of starch gelatinization and chemical modification; c) controllable reaction time; and d) smaller sample size (60 g) requirement. 95-P The effect of feed moisture on the physical properties and in vitro digestibility of extruded rice and pinto bean flours F. SUMARGO (1), S. A. Weier (1), D. J. Rose (1) (1) University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

The incorporation of bean flour into extruded snack foods offers the opportunity to increase dietary fiber and protein contents of snacks. This may be desirable to consumers interested in healthy snacking options. Four blends of brown rice and pinto bean flour (0%, 15%, 30%, and 45% bean flour) were extruded using a pilot-scale twin-screw extruder under five moisture conditions (17.2%, 18.1%, 18.3%, 19.5%, and 20.1%). Physical properties (bulk density, true solid density, apparent density, radial expansion, axial expansion, overall expansion, specific volume, hardness, color, water solubility index [WSI], and water absorption index [WAI]) and in vitro starch and protein digestibilities were determined. Overall expansion ratio ranged from 3.5 to 4.2, and bulk density from 0.09 to 1.55 g/cm3. With increases in bean flour or moisture, overall expansion significantly decreased and density characteristics significantly increased (P < 0.01). Hardness ranged from 138 to 196 N and significantly increased with the increase of bean flour and feed moisture (P < 0.01). Increases in bean flour or moisture content during extrusion resulted in decreased RDS, which ranged from 66 to 75% (starch basis). Protein digestibility ranged from 68 to 78% and significantly increased with a decrease in feed moisture (P < 0.01). In conclusion, addition of bean flour and adjustment in moisture content can significantly alter the physical characteristics and in vitro digestibility of rice-bean snack products. 96-P Particulate flow measurements and implications in food extrusion C. L. MCGUIRE (1), K. Ambrose (1), S. Alavi (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

The fundamental principles of extrusion, as applied to food processing, are described. Basic extrusion theory, hardware, various commercial uses, and role of process and design parameters in specific food applications are provided. Innovations in food extrusion technology are enabling its rapid expansion and applicability in diverse areas related to bioprocessing and value addition. Ongoing research spans various cutting-edge areas, including nutrition and nanotechnology. As an example of ongoing extrusion research, a recent study is described that relates raw material particulate rheology to the granular flow regime in a single-screw food extruder. Cornmeal, corn flour, wheat flour, and wheat starch were used as model particulate systems for the study. Various particulate-scale characteristics and flow parameters of these four materials were determined using a powder rheometer, a promising new offline tool. Properties such as basic flow energy (767 mJ for corn starch, 1,004 mJ for corn flour, 596 mJ for wheat starch, and 926 mJ for wheat flour), specific energy, cohesion, and flow function were good indicators of flowability in an extruder. In all tests, corn starch exhibited lower energy requirements and stability index than corn flour (wheat showed a similar pattern), while both wheat systems showed comparatively lower energy requirements, stability, and stress limits than their comparable corn systems. These results were validated in a particulate flow study involving the four model systems in a pilot-scale single-screw extruder. Visualization data, obtained using a transparent Plexiglas window, confirmed that the flours exhibited much lower flow impedance compared to the starches during extrusion. It was concluded that powder rheometry is a potentially valuable tool for design of screw metallurgy and geometry, although further studies are needed in this area.

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97-P Effects of extrusion cooking process on Maillard reaction products M. T. MASATCIOGLU (1), P. K. Ng (2), H. Koksel (3) (1) Food Engineering Department, Mustafa Kemal University, Alahan, Hatay, Turkey; (2) Food Science and Human Nutrition Department, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A.; (3) Food Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

Sucrose and fructose are commonly used to develop flavor, color, and texture in extrusion products, but there is little published information on the utilization of ribose in extrusion products or its comparison with common sugars. Due to application of high-temperature and low-moisture, the extrusion process is expected to promote formation of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) depending on the raw material. The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of different reducing sugars (glucose and ribose), extrusion cooking conditions (die temperatures: 110, 150°C and feed moisture: 22, 24, 26%), chemical leavening agents (sodium and ammonium bicarbonate), and citric acid on formation of MRPs such as acrylamide (AA), furfural, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in corn-based extrudates. The influence of CO2 injection as a mitigation strategy on AA formation also was investigated. The type of reducing sugar (glucose or ribose) did not have a considerable effect on the formation of AA. It is well known that furfural and HMF are the main decomposition products of pentoses (e.g., ribose) and hexoses (e.g., glucose), respectively. In all extrudates, MRPs levels decreased gradually as feed moisture increased from 22% to 26%, while increased die temperature had a promoting effect. Addition of ammonium bicarbonate into formulations significantly increased MRPs levels. Only the AA level was increasingly affected by sodium bicarbonate. Although citric acid addition restricted AA formation, the furfural level of extrudates increased 15-fold compared to the samples without citric acid. The AA content of extrudates produced with excessive extrusion conditions (150°C die temperature, 22% feed moisture) decreased by 61% in CO2 injection method compared to conventional extrusion. It can be concluded that the CO2 injection method restricted acrylamide formation without increasing other MRPs (furfural and HMF). 98-P Modification of functional properties of dry bean powders by extrusion cooking Y. AI (1), K. Cichy (2), J. B. Harte (1), J. D. Kelly (1), P. K. Ng (1) (1) Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A.; (2) USDA ARS for Sugarbeet and Bean Research in East Lansing, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A.

Extrusion is a process in which a material is cooked by a combination of heat, shear, and pressure. In the current study, we aimed to examine the impacts of extrusion cooking on chemical composition and functional properties of four dry bean cultivars (Zorro Black, Medalist Navy, Merlot Small Red, and Fuji Otebo). The raw dry beans were ground into powder using a Thomas Model 4 Wiley® mill to pass through a screen with pore size of 1.0 mm (coarse) or 0.5 mm (fine). The coarse bean powders were extruded (APV Baker MP 19T-25 twin-screw extruder) under different conditions by varying feed moisture, screw speed, and barrel temperature. The extrudates were dried at 50°C and ground into fine powder (<0.5 mm), and their chemical composition and functional properties were analyzed and compared to those of the fine raw bean powders. Starch gelatinization and protein denaturation peaks of all four bean cultivars disappeared after extrusion, but starch and protein contents were not substantially changed. The viscosities of the bean powder samples were drastically reduced by extrusion. Compared to the raw bean powders, the extruded bean powders displayed substantial increases in 5% lactic acid retention capacity and water-holding capacity, but slight decreases in oil binding capacity. Different extrusion conditions showed similar effects on the functional properties of the bean powder samples. Our research suggested that extrusion could be used to prepare bean-based food ingredients with desirable functionalities. 99-P Development of starch foam used as loss-fill materials L. Meng (1), Z. Ji (1), L. YU (1), X. Xiao (1), H. Liu (1), L. Chen (1) (1) School of Food and Light Industry, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Online shopping is one of the most active and fastest developing businesses in the world, which requires a large quantity of packaging materials, including loss-fill during transport. The waste and pollution of these post-used packaging materials have been recognized, but the problem is increasing faster than we expected, in particular in China. So-called “white pollution” of plastic waste products is mainly from plastic bags and foams of traditional petrol-based synthetic materials (such as polyethylene and polystyrene), which need a hundred years for full degradation. In this paper we introduce our work on developing starch-based loss-fill materials, in particular foaming materials and techniques suitable for individual small online shop and delivery centers, such as using microwave foaming for a family shop and extrusion foaming for a delivery center. It is well known that one of the key challenges in developing starch-based foam materials is to increase their melt strength. Various modified starches and plasticizers, as well as nuclei agents, have been evaluated in this work. Various starches from different sources and with different amylase/amylopectin ratios also were studied.

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100-P Elongational properties and proofing behavior of wheat flour dough G. DELLA VALLE (1), A. Turbin-Orger (2), A. Shehzad (3), L. Chaunier (4), H. Chiron (4) (1) INRA, Nantes Cedex 3, France; (2) INRA & Arvalis, Nantes, France; (3) NIFSAT, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, France; (4) INRA, Nantes, France

The cellular structure of bread is created during fermentation, when wheat flour dough porosity can increase from about 0.1 to 0.7, because of gas bubble growth. It can be visualized at a macroscopic scale by the follow-up of the volume increase, i.e., porosity, and its spreading or stability loss. It is controlled by two main mechanisms: gas production by yeast and resistance by dough elongational viscosity. Bubble growth models usually refer to a single bubble, and elongational viscosity is scarcely taken into account. Our aim is to examine the possible links between this rheological property and the behavior of dough during fermentation. Two series of dough pieces are prepared: a) at constant composition and different mixing conditions, thus mainly acting on the gluten network, and b) under the same mixing conditions but adding various levels of water, fat, or sugar, hence modifying its liquid fraction. For both series, elongational properties are measured by lubricated squeezing flow test (LSF) and proofing kinetics determined by 2D imaging. Results show that elongational viscosity follows a power law in the strain interval (0.1, 1.25) for all dough tested, and strain hardening index values did not vary much, in the interval (1.2, 2). Correlations between consistency and flow index suggest that mixing conditions modify gluten network crosslinking (series a), whereas an increase of volumic liquid fraction plasticizes the network (series b). Porosity kinetics are found to be mainly governed by gas production factors (dough temperature for series a, and sugar content for series b) rather than dough rheology. Finally, elongational viscosity limits stability loss during fermentation, which can be attributed to the resistance it imparts to bubble coalescence. This interpretation is being ascertained by studies of bubble growth in dough by X-ray microtomography. 101-P Bran hydration and physical treatments improve the bread-baking quality of whole grain wheat flour L. CAI (1), I. Choi (2), C. S. Park (3), B. K. Baik (4) (1) MGP Ingredients Inc., Atchison, KS, U.S.A.; (2) Rural Development Administration, National Institute of Crop Science, Suwon, Korea; (3) Chonbuk National University, Department of Crop Agriculture and Life Science, Jeonju, Korea; (4) USDA ARS CSWQRU Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Wooster, OH, U.S.A.

Bran particles are largely responsible for the decreased product quality and sensory acceptance of whole grain wheat flour (WWF) bread. Physical pre-treatment of bran for the reduction of detrimental properties before being blended with wheat flour would be an ideal and practical way to improve the quality of WWF bread. Fine and coarse bran particles of a hard red and a hard white wheat were pre-hydrated and/or physically treated (autoclaved and/or frozen) with the aim of improving the dough properties and bread-baking quality of WWF. For both hard red and hard white wheat, WWF containing bran pre-hydrated to a 60% moisture content exhibited higher dough water absorption and longer dough mixing time and produced bread with a larger loaf volume and lower crumb firmness at 0 and 7 days of storage than did the corresponding WWF containing bran without prior hydration. Hard red and hard white WWF containing bran pre-autoclaved at 121°C for 2 hr and hydrated to various moisture contents (20–60%) produced bread with a loaf volume comparable to that produced by the corresponding WWF containing non-autoclaved bran of 60% moisture, suggesting that autoclaving bran could substitute for bran hydration to improve the bread-baking quality of WWF. The bran pre-hydrated to 60% moisture with or without prior autoclaving, as well as the hydrated and frozen bran, produced bread with a larger loaf volume than the bran of as-is moisture content. Hydration, autoclaving, freezing of bran, and their combinations appear to be promising approaches for mitigating the deleterious effects of wheat bran on the loaf volume of WWF bread. 102-P Experimental data and modeling of the electrical properties of bread dough during proofing and ERO baking S. ANGALET (1) (1) Angalet Group International, Elmhurst, IL, U.S.A.

There are many different commercial electric resistance (ERO) baking ovens in use around the world for manufacturing bread products. Previous work describing energy modeling was performed using laboratory-scale (pup loaf) ERO and was limited to describing the science of bread baking without the onset of a crust. We built upon these modeling studies in order to identify the electrical properties in a commercial ERO system. In this two-part study, an ERO was first used to study the dough electric resistance, current draw, dough temperature, resistivity, dough density, and power “J” at increasing proof heights. The results showed that as the dough rose during proofing, the resistivity increased and power decreased as the dough increased in volume, thus lowering its density. Therefore, to the extent dough is proofed in a commercial setting, the electrical property “resistivity” will affect the starting condition when applying voltage during the specified time for commercial ERO baking, resulting in finished product variability. Literature on ERO baking speaks to regulating voltage to simulate the temperature profile of conventional heating in pup loaf. Therefore, in the second part of the study, a commercial

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ERO with constant voltage was used to study the current drawn, the temperature rise, resistivity, oven spring, and onset of steam for 2 different dough weights (800 g and 1,600 g). The results showed that the larger dough required more current (amperes) to bake the loaf, although there was no difference in the temperature profile during baking time. Using this information, a model commercial ERO system could be configured from the following inputs: cell dimensions, distance between electrodes, voltage selection, weight of dough, and degree of proof. Thus, the anticipated amperes required via modeling would be established and benefit in the equipment design. 103-P Effect of puroindolines on dough rheological properties E. T. QUAYSON (1), A. Marti (1) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.

Puroindoline proteins are related to grain hardness and affect milling yield, flour particle size, damaged starch content, and water absorption. Little information is available on the role of puroindolines in dough rheology. This study was aimed at investigating the rheological properties of durum wheat (T. durum, Svevo cv, S), soft-textured durum wheat (Soft Svevo, SS), soft wheat (T. aestivum, Alpowa cv, A), and hard-textured wheat (Alpowa with 5DS distal end deletion, AD). Samples were kindly provided by Dr. Morris (USDA-ARS, Western Wheat Quality Lab). Gluten aggregation properties (GlutoPeak test, GPT), dough mixing properties (farinograph test), extensibility (micro-extensograph test), and pasting properties (Micro-Visco-Amylograph test, MVAG) were measured. GPT profiles showed AD exhibited a higher area under the curve than A (1,498 vs 787 GPE) at maximum torque, indicating strong gluten. SS showed a lower area under the curve than S (969 vs 1,467 GPE) at maximum torque. Differences in particle size and damaged starch (S vs SS and A vs AD) are responsible for differences in maximum torque (GPT), water absorption, and dough development time. Moreover, AD showed higher stability than A (8.5 vs 2.2 min), while dough from SS was slightly less stable than dough from S (3.3 vs 2.5 min). AD showed higher resistance to extension than A (108 vs 82 BU), while no differences in dough extensibility were measured between S and SS. MVAG profiles showed that AD had lower pasting temperature (59 vs 61°C), higher peak viscosity (638 vs 566 BU), lower breakdown (303 vs 323 BU), and higher setback values (746 vs 631 BU) than A. Conversely, SS showed higher pasting temperature (60.8 vs 58.3°C) and higher peak viscosity (723 vs 849 BU) than S. This study showed that puroindolines affect rheological properties and pasting properties, but the trend is different in T. aestivum and T. durum. 104-P Water and salt effects on dough mechanical properties X. SUN (1), F. Koksel (1), M. G. Scanlon (1), M. T. Nickerson (2) (1) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Dough mechanical properties are used for predicting baking performance and bread quality. Water and salt have pronounced effects on the mechanical properties of wheat flour dough. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effects of salt, water, and their interaction on the mechanical properties of doughs prepared from Canadian western red spring (CWRS) cultivars with a range of breadmaking strengths to determine if salt reduction tolerance varies with variety. The rheological parameters of all the doughs were determined by mixograph analyses. With the exception of first minute slope (FMS), where only water had a significant effect, significant effects of both water and salt were observed for mixing development time (MDT), peak height (PKH), peak bandwidth (PBW), total energy (TEG), bandwidth energy (BWE), and energy to peak (ETP) (P < 0.05). Few interaction effects between water and salt on mixograph parameters were observed. However, a strong interaction between water and salt for BWE was observed for all varieties. Negative correlations of salt reduction with dough strength demonstrated by MDT, PKH, PBW, TEG, BWE, and ETP varied with flour variety. Water addition positively correlated with MDT but negatively correlated with PKH, PBW, TEG, BWE, and FMS, which signifies that excessive hydration softens the dough and delays its optimum development time. Under isomolar salt conditions, MDT, PKH, PBW, TEG, BWE, and FMS of the doughs prepared from stronger cultivars were more significantly affected by water (P < 0.05). In conclusion, salt and water generally exert independent effects on dough mechanical properties. Variety determines salt reduction tolerance of the flour. Thus, low-salt bread production needs optimum coordination of flour type, water, and salt. 106-P PHO emulsifier reformulation J. DOUCET (1) (1) Corbion, Lenexa, KS, U.S.A.

Bakery emulsifiers play a very important role in managing the interfaces, interactions, and transitions of the various components (i.e., fats, sugars, starches, etc.), which are key to promoting process tolerance, shelf life, and eating quality. Traditionally the composition of these emulsifiers (plastic mono- and diglycerides, powdered

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softeners, and hydrated monoglycerides) have been based predominantly on partially hydrogenated oils (PHO). Partial hydrogenation has been a very cost-effective and flexible platform for providing the desired physical and chemical attributes with the undesired consequence of formation of trans isomers. Due to the relationship between consumption of trans fats and cardiovascular health, the FDA announced on November 7, 2013, the tentative determination to revoke GRAS status for PHO. This paper identifies the available commercial approaches for reformulation without PHO and the corresponding relationship to the key functionalities associated with each of the above-mentioned emulsifier categories. 107-P Salt substitution with a potassium-based salt in bread P. RAYAS-DUARTE (1), S. Rao (2), Z. J. Hernández-Estrada (3), S. Keys (2) (1) Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, U.S.A.; (2) NuTek Food Science, Omaha, NE, U.S.A.; (3) Robert M. Kerr Food & Agricultural Products Center, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, U.S.A.

Sodium reduction in bread is of interest to the global baking industry for its relation to increased health risk factors in a number of diet-related diseases such as hypertension and cardiovascular disorders. The effect of salt substitution using a potassium-based salt NTS 24510 from NuTek Food Science on mixing properties, shelf life (1, 3, and 7 days after baking), sensory evaluation, and crumb fine structure of white pan bread were investigated. Commercial wheat flour control with 2% salt and substitution of 33% salt at 1:1 and 1:1.2 ratios of salt/NTS 24510 (wt/wt) were used in experimental baking with 1 lb loaf breads. Sensory evaluation was conducted with a consumer acceptance test with 48 untrained panelists. The substitution at both ratios had no significant effect on dough stability (19.2 min), time to breakdown (3.5 min), and water absorption (57.8, 14% mb) (P < 0.05). Shelf life was evaluated by crumb firmness with a texture analyzer (TA.XT) and revealed softer crumb in the substituted treatments (9–30%; P < 0.05) compared to the control, while this was not confirmed in a consumer acceptance test in which scores of texture were not affected by the substitution treatments (P < 0.05). No significant effects (P < 0.05) on the perception of white bread saltiness, sweetness, sourness, paste-boardyness, aroma, bitterness, overall acceptability, texture, and metallic taste were observed when comparing the two treatments with the control within 1 and 7 days after baking. Substitution treatments also did not affect the fine structure of the crumb. NTS 24510 does not affect critical quality characteristics of white pan bread (33% substitution and at both ratios) appreciated by bakers and consumers. 108-P Use of faba beans as protein source for cereal applications N. Sozer (1), N. Rosa Sibakov (1), L. Melama (1), S. Silbir (2), V. Micard (3), R. L. Heiniö (1), T. HAKALA (1) (1) VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Espoo, Finland; (2) Ege University, Food Engineering Department, Izmir, Turkey; (3) SupAgro-INRA, Montpellier, France

Additional alternative and sustainable plant protein sources with high technological, sensory, and nutritional functionality are needed to meet increasing protein demand. Pulses are an excellent, low-cost source of protein, as well as dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is an ancient crop cultivated in the Mediterranean basin, Ethiopia, Central and East Asia, Latin America, and northern Europe. Faba bean flour (35% protein content) or faba bean flour fermented with lactic acid bacteria were used in gluten-free (GF) spaghetti and bread formulations. Mechanical, structural, and sensory properties were evaluated for both product categories. Compared to semolina, pasta prepared with faba bean flours had lower cooking quality, i.e., 44% increase in cooking loss and 16–32% reduction in water absorption for faba and fermented faba pasta, respectively, but most of the textural parameters were comparable. The starch hydrolysis index (HI) of pasta prepared with the faba bean flours (50%) also was similar to reference semolina pasta (46%). According to sensory results, faba bean pasta was less elastic and harder in texture than semolina pasta, but chewiness, stickiness, sourness, and possible off-flavor intensity were comparable. Fermentation increased chewiness, sourness, and intensity of flavor and color. Bread samples were made from fermented and unfermented faba flour with total protein contents of 16 and 21%. The samples also were compared with GF bread made with soy protein. Faba breads had 60% higher loaf volume than soy breads. Fermentation of faba flour improved nutritional properties by reducing HI from 85% to 75% and almost doubling the amount of free amino acids. Faba breads were softer (583 g vs 1,123 g) and less gummy (311 vs 612 g). Fermentation and higher protein content in faba bread increased hardness.

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109-P Modification of oat and barley β-glucan for liquid food applications J. K. Sibakov (1), T. Hakala (1), M. Nappa (1), E. Aktas (1), O. Santala (1), A. KAUKOVIRTA-NORJA (1), K. Poutanen (1) (1) VTT Technical Research Centre, Espoo, Finland

Oats and barley are excellent sources of dietary fiber, especially β-glucan. However, the complex structure of oat and barley fractions enriched in β-glucan, as well as the characteristics of β-glucan molecules, set up technological challenges in liquid food applications. This work aimed to find technological solutions for incorporation of soluble oat and barley bran fiber into beverage models. Partial hydrolysis of β-glucan in the cell wall-enriched fractions of oats and barley was studied at high consistency in an extruder using acid (8% phosphoric acid) or enzymatic hydrolysis (Depol 740L, Biocatalyst Ltd; with xylanase and β-glucanase as the main activities) as a means to improve solubility of β-glucan. Acid hydrolysis was controlled by extrusion temperature (up to 130°C) and enzymatic hydrolysis by incubation time (up to 4 hr at 50°C). The soluble fraction was extracted thereafter with hot water, and the insoluble material was removed by centrifugation. Dispersion stability of soluble oat and barley fiber fractions was studied at different β-glucan concentrations and molecular weights. Hydrolyzed oat bran preparations with a molecular mass of β-glucan <50 kDa enabled beverages with 1.5 g of β-glucan in a 100 mL serving. The feasibility of different process alternatives was evaluated by techno-economic calculations. 110-P Cookie dough and baking quality of pulse flour cookies M. SINGH (1), J. A. Byars (1) (1) USDA ARS, Peoria, IL, U.S.A.

Pulses are globally recognized as a part of a healthy diet to address obesity, as well as to prevent and help manage chronic diseases such as diabetes, coronary conditions, and cancer. They are a good source of soluble fiber, B vitamins, iron, calcium, potassium, and phosphorous and low in sodium and fat. Several studies have been reported on the addition of pulse flour in bread, cakes, and cookies, but most of the previous researchers have focused on the partial replacement of wheat or rice flour with bean flours. The objective of the present study was to study the effect of complete replacement of wheat flour with whole and dehulled pulse (navy bean, garbanzo bean, and lentil) flours on the quality of cookie dough and gluten-free cookies. Replacement of wheat flour with whole and dehulled pulse flour significantly increased the protein content. The protein content of whole and dehulled pulse flours was adjusted to 10, 15, and 20% with addition of their starch. The storage and loss modulus of whole and dehulled bean flour cookie doughs were higher than wheat flour cookie doughs. The color difference of bean flour doughs from wheat flour cookie dough (ΔE) was low (1.5 to 6.2), but higher ΔE for bean cookies (8.9 to 15.5). The hardness of cookie dough measured by texture analyzer was significantly higher (P > 0.05) for whole and dehulled bean flours than wheat flour cookie doughs. Dehulled pulse flour cookies had higher spread factor than the cookies from whole pulse flour. Protein content of bean flours had a significant positive correlation with dough hardness, cookie hardness, and cookie color (ΔE) and a negative correlation with cookie spread factor. Pulse flours with protein content adjusted to the level of wheat flour have potential as a healthy alternative in gluten-free cookies. 112-P Effects of dietary fibers on dough rheological behavior and final products G. VERICEL (1), L. Bosc-Bierne (1), F. Gras (2) (1) CHOPIN Technologies, Villeneuve-la-Garenne, France; (2) Rettenmaier, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France

Addition of fibers into wheat products has an impact on both the functionality of the dough and on the characteristics of the final product. Dietary fiber has two main components: soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, and insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water. The Mixolab, a laboratory instrument that measures the rheological properties of dough subject to the dual stress of mixing and temperature changes, has been used. The goal of this study is to evaluate the impact of fiber on breadmaking trials and on the Mixolab curve and to find out if the type of fiber (soluble or insoluble) has the same type of effects or not. Common wheat flour added with 2% of two soluble fibers (P95 and Nutriose) and one insoluble fiber (WF200) was analyzed. They have different physiological characteristics and various botanical origins. In the meantime, breadmaking tests were conducted. For comparison, the flour also was analyzed without fiber. The results show that addition of fibers has an impact across the Mixolab curves and on the breadmaking results. There is no common trend between soluble and insoluble fibers. For example, the water absorption measured with the Mixolab increases by 7.5% when incorporating psyllium fibers but decreases by 2,8% when incorporating Nutriose even if they are both soluble fibers. All parameters measured during breadmaking trials are more or less impacted by fiber addition regardless of their solubility. It appears that WF200 and psyllium fibers have the same kind of impacts (water absorption and stiffness increase, while shelf life, stickiness, smoothing, and volume decrease). This study shows there is no common behavior when working with soluble and insoluble fibers, but one specific behavior for every fiber. Each type of fiber acts differently on the rheological properties of the dough and the characteristics of the finished products.

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113-P Assessing deodorized pea flour as an ingredient in sugar cookies C. HILLEN (1), C. Hall (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

The aim of this study was to evaluate deodorized pea flour functionality in sugar cookies and to assess the sensory acceptability of cookies made with treated flour. Peas are rich in proteins, including the amino acid lysine, and folates. Pea protein, complement cereal proteins, and the high folate could be a way to enhance folate concentrations in wheat-based foods. However, a reduction of the strong aroma is necessary to be able to incorporate high levels of pea flour into foods. In this work, raw pea flour was subjected to different solvent, pressure, and heat deodorization methods, including high-pressure extraction with different combinations of ethanol and water, supercritical fluid carbon dioxide extraction (SFE), and whole peas soaked in water and dried at different conditions. Rapid visco analyzer (RVA) was used to determine final viscosity of treated flours. A total of 11 pea flours were evaluated by a trained panel for pea flavor intensity. Flours with the lowest pea flavor and RVA final viscosities similar to raw flour were further evaluated. The pea flour treated with high-pressure aqueous ethanol for 30 and 60 min was deemed, by the train panelists, to have the lowest pea flavor intensity. The SFE flour had similar final viscosity compared to the raw flour. These three flours were incorporated into a sugar cookie formulation. Formulations consisted of replacing 30% of the total wheat flour weight with pea flours. Treated pea flour cookies were compared to a cookie with raw pea. The flavor and overall acceptability of the cookies containing treated pea flour were significantly liked more than the cookies with raw pea flour using an untrained sensory panel. Based on these results, deodorization reduced the pea flavor intensity of the pea flours, and the cookies made from these flours were more acceptable, suggesting that deodorization was beneficial. 114-P The addition of pulse flours in gluten-free bread formulations and their effect on bread quality L. BOURRÉ (1), H. Maskus (1) (1) Canadian International Grains Institute, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Despite the popularity of gluten-free diets, there continues to be a need for gluten-free products that are both healthy and palatable. Commonly made using a combination of starches, gluten-free breads are generally of lesser quality compared to traditional breads. Pulse flours have unique functional properties that can potentially improve bread quality when added into gluten-free formulations. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of incorporating different pulse flours in gluten-free pan bread. Commercial pulse flours (yellow pea, red lentil, chickpea, faba bean, and navy bean) were incorporated into a gluten-free bread formulation at levels of 30 and 50%. Bread quality, height, color, texture, and cell characteristics were evaluated. Although not significantly different (P < 0.05) than the control, the yellow pea flour produced bread with the greatest height (10.1 cm). Texture analysis on the day of baking indicated all breads containing pulse flours were firmer than the control. On day 4 of analysis, the force required to puncture breads made with pulse flours ranged between 2.5 and 9.2 kg, with the control requiring 3.0 kg. Breads made with yellow pea and faba bean flours required less force to puncture, regardless of inclusion level, than the control bread. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed among cell characteristics, with breads containing pulse flours having smaller cell diameters, reduced cell wall thickness, and a lower number of cells, indicating a finer cell structure compared to the control. Differences in crumb color were dependent on pulse type. This study has shown that pulse flours can be used in gluten-free bread formulations. Differences among pulse types indicate that consideration should be given to flour specifications when selecting flours for use in order to produce breads of acceptable quality. 115-P Composition, functional properties, and cookie-baking performance of dry bean powders from 25 Michigan-grown cultivars Y. AI (1), Y. Jin (1), J. D. Kelly (1), P. K. Ng (1) (1) Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A.

The high contents of protein, dietary fiber, and phytochemicals and low glycemic effect of beans has fostered an increasing research interest in developing value-added food ingredients from beans. Objectives of the present study were to investigate chemical composition, functional properties, and cookie-baking performance of bean powders from 25 dry, edible bean cultivars grown in Michigan. The beans were ground into fine (particle size <0.5 mm) or coarse (<1.0 mm) powders using a Thomas Model 4 Wiley® mill. The fine bean powders were used for the analyses of chemical composition and thermal properties. Starch contents of the beans varied between 34.4 and 44.5% (db). Differential scanning calorimetry thermograms of bean powders showed two peaks: peak I mainly corresponded to starch gelatinization and peak II to protein denaturation. The starch gelatinization peak temperatures of bean powders ranged from 76.1 to 79.4°C, and the protein denaturation peak temperatures varied between 88.0 and 96.4°C. For the same cultivar, fine bean powder displayed a higher viscosity than coarse powder. Final viscosities of fine bean powders were between 49.4 and 126.7 rapid visco units (RVU), whereas those of

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coarse samples were between 26.3 and 72.7 RVU. After blending bean powders with commercial corn starch at a ratio of 70:30 (bean/starch, db), the mixtures were used for cookie baking following AACCI Approved Method 10-54 with minor modifications. Generally, cookies baked from fine bean powders had smaller diameters (range 7.13–7.85 cm), greater thicknesses (0.96–1.13 cm), and greater hardness values (14.03–29.25 N) than their counterpart cookies baked from coarse powders (8.48–9.53 cm, 0.63–0.88 cm, and 5.40–13.61 N, respectively). Cookies baked from fine bean powders of certain cultivars were comparable in size and hardness to those baked from soft wheat flour. 116-P Potential sugar reduction in cookie formulations with sucrose alternatives M. KWEON (1), L. Slade (2), H. Levine (2) (1) Pusan National University, Busan, Korea; (2) Food Polymer Science Consultancy, Morris Plains, NJ, U.S.A.

Sucrose is the most commonly used sugar for formulating cookies with low moisture content. The greater anti-plasticizing action of dissolved sucrose delays or prevents gluten development during dough mixing and starch gelatinization/pasting during baking, which are critical factors to attain desired product attributes. Consumer interest in healthier baked goods is increasing, including expectations for prebiotic nutritional benefits and reduced glycemic impact. In 2014, the WHO proposed to decrease recommended intake of sugars from 10% to 5% of total daily calories, and the US FDA also proposed a Nutrition Panel update to include a line for “added sugars.” The cookie-baking industry will need to reduce sugars in low-moisture baked goods, but production of cookies with excellent quality will be challenging, because detrimental gluten development and starch gelatinization/ pasting increase as sugar concentration decreases. As a result, formulation with reduced sugars will create difficulties to reach target product attributes of moisture content, diameter, height, texture, and shelf life. In the present study, sucrose and two prebiotic and lower glycemic carbohydrate oligomers (i.e., isomaltulose and Mylose) were used to explore the effect of these sugar alternatives on DSC, RVA, SRC, and AACC wire-cut cookie baking. DSC and RVA results showed retardation of starch gelatinization and the onset of starch pasting, respectively, both in the order: water < Mylose ≤ sucrose ≈ isomaltulose. SRC results indicated similar swelling of solvent-accessible arabinoxylans in both sugar solutions compared to that in sucrose solution. Both sugars exhibited baking responses similar to that for sucrose, suggesting that these sugars could be used successfully as sucrose alternatives to produce wire-cut cookies with reduced sugar and lower glycemic impact. 117-P Isolation of pentosan from rye bran as a natural hydrocolloid in gluten-free bread S. D’Amico (1), K. Török (2), S. Tömösközi (2), R. SCHOENLECHNER (1) (1) University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria; (2) Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

The production of gluten-free products requires several adaptations of the recipe and processing technique. For gluten-free baking a system of protein-emulsifier-hydrocolloid has emerged to be successful. The selection of the hydrocolloid plays an important role—the cellulose derivates (in particular HPMC) have shown very good properties. As a natural alternative to such hydrocolloids that have to be labeled as a food additive, the objective of this study was to investigate the isolation of pentosans (arabinoxylan) from rye bran. Pentosan is the most important thickening component in rye, responsible for breadmaking from rye. In this study pentosan was extracted from rye bran, being a cheap by-product of the food industry and containing a high concentration of pentosans. Furthermore, bran contains mainly proteins from the aleurone layer, which are nontoxic for celiac disease patients. Pentosans were extracted on pilot scale at temperatures of 30, 50, and 70°C under alkaline conditions and purified. Dietary fiber, protein, starch, β-glucan, ferulic acid, and monosaccharide composition were determined. The temperature during extraction influenced yield and properties to a high degree. At an extraction temperature of 70°C highest yields were achieved, but the amount of ferulic acid, which is responsible for the functionality of pentosans, was diminished with increasing temperature. The protein residues, which can trigger celiac disease, were measured using a competitive ELISA. To evaluate the properties of the isolates for future application in gluten-free products rheological measurements were performed. In conclusion, this study has given some insights on the effect of selected conditions on the yield and properties of isolated pentosans from rye bran. 118-P Evaluation of the quality of wheat flour tortillas enriched with soybean bagasse G. MONTEMAYOR MORA (1), K. E. Hernández Reyes (1), E. Heredia Olea (1), E. Pérez Carillo (1), A. A. Chew Guevara (1), S. O. Serna Saldívar (2) (1) Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico; (2) Departamento de Biotecnología e Ingeniería de Alimentos, Centro de Biotecnología, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico

Production of soybean protein isolates generates a bagasse that is rich in protein, dietary fiber, and phytochemicals that exert positive effects on human health. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effects of

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addition of soybean bagasse on the physical and nutritional characteristics of wheat flour tortillas. In order to evaluate these effects, three different wheat flour tortilla systems were tested: 100% wheat flour; 95% refined wheat flour with 5% soybean bagasse; and 90% refined wheat flour with 10% of soybean bagasse. Studies were performed on the soybean bagasse as raw material and on the composite flour mixes and doughs. Tortillas were produced following the hot press manufacturing procedure and tested in terms of yield, moisture, water activity, dietary fiber, protein, fat, texture, diameter/thickness, color, and sensory perception by an untrained panel. Results showed that soybean bagasse addition increased dough water absorptions, likely due to the higher protein in the supplemented doughs. Therefore, the composite flour containing 10% soybean bagasse yielded higher amounts of dough and tortillas. As expected, the soybean bagasse-supplemented tortillas contained higher amounts of moisture, crude protein, crude fat, minerals, and both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber values. Untrained panelists liked the supplemented tortillas similarly to the control tortilla. Dough and tortilla texture were similar among treatments throughout the storage days studied. Rollability of 10% soybean bagasse-supplemented tortillas tended to break more easily than the control and 5% soybean bagasse tortilla on all storage days studied. The addition of 5% soybean to hot press wheat flour tortillas did not affect tortilla features and organoleptic properties and positively influenced protein and dietary fiber. 119-P Effect of direct mineral and vitamin fortification on taste of rice-based products J. MANFUL (1), M. Owusu (2), L. Hagan (2), S. Ndindeng (1), S. Graham-Acquaah (1) (1) Africa Rice Center, Cotonou, Benin; (2) CSIR – Food Research Institute, Accra, Ghana

Direct fortification of rice with mineral and vitamin premixes that deliver specified recommended daily intakes of essential nutrients can be used to tackle the problem of micronutrient deficiencies in populations that have a predominantly rice-based diet. For direct fortification to be acceptable, it should not have an adverse effect on taste. This study evaluated the effect of fortification on three rice-based foods—boiled rice, porridge, and rice biscuits. Two sensory evaluation studies using 12 trained panelists per study were conducted at CSIR Food Research Institute, Ghana, and at the Africa Rice Center, Benin. At each location, three premixes (VitaRice, IronRice_Orth, and IronRice_Sul) at two levels of incorporation (0.5% and 1.0%) were tested for each product by comparing the fortified to the unfortified product in a triangle test. For boiled rice, panelists could not detect a difference between the fortified and unfortified samples. In the porridges, a difference in taste between the fortified and unfortified rice was perceived for samples fortified with VitaRice and IronRice_Orth at 1%. In the case of biscuits, panelists detected differences in taste when IronRice_Orth was used. These detectable changes in taste were not undesirable, as most panelists preferred fortified samples to the unfortified samples when asked to choose. Direct rice fortification did not have any undesirable effect on the taste of the products. 120-P Effect of sorghum proanthocyanidin interaction with gluten on dough rheology A. L. GIRARD (1), J. M. Awika (1) (1) Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, U.S.A.

Proanthocyanidins (PA) from sorghum are known to strongly bind with proteins thereby reducing their digestibility. However, studies on PA interaction with gluten are lacking. Phenolic extracts from wheat bran (WE) and white (WY), black (BL), and high-tannin (TA) sorghum brans were added to wheat flour doughs with different gluten compositions: a strong-gluten commercial bread flour (HP) and an experimental wheat line with highly extensible glutenins (HE). Phenolic profile was determined by HPLC. Mixing behavior and rheological properties of dough were recorded using a mixograph and TA.XT2 texture analyzer. Only TA and BL contained PA (55 and 17 mg of PA/g of extract, respectively). Addition of TA and BL at 5 mg of extract/g of flour increased peak time by 16% and 22%, respectively, for HP and by 26% and 18%, respectively, for HE. However, with addition of 10 mg of extract/g of flour, only TA increased peak time by 25% for HP and 47% for HE. Conversely, WE and WY decreased peak time by an average of 12% for both flour types, likely due to the antioxidant effect of monomeric phenols in these extracts. Compared to the control, 10 mg of TA/g of flour also increased force to extend dough by 21% for HP and 85% for HE but did not significantly (P > 0.05) affect distance to extend. Among other treatments, only BL significantly increased force to extend HE by 59%. The data suggest that sorghum PA significantly changes dough rheology, probably due to crosslinking with gluten proteins. Further studies are looking at mechanisms and effects of these interactions on gluten functionality. 121-P Effect of hydrocolloids on functional properties of navy bean starch J. A. BYARS (1), M. Singh (1), J. A. Kenar (1) (1) USDA ARS, Peoria, IL, U.S.A.

Pulses are recognized as a low-fat source of gluten-free protein, soluble fiber, B vitamins, and minerals, and their use in foods has increased in recent years. The functional properties of pulse starches have received relatively little

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attention, but they are important since starch is the major component of pulse flours, and more pulse starch may become available as a result of pulse protein isolation. Pulse starches typically have higher amylose contents than cereal starches, which can negatively affect performance and therefore require modification. Hydrocolloids are commonly used with starches to improve their functional properties. This work studies the effects of hydrocolloid replacement on the pasting properties of navy bean starch and on the properties of navy bean starch gels. Navy bean starch was isolated, and blends were prepared with β-glucan, guar gum, pectin, and xanthan gum. The total solids concentration was maintained at 8%, and starch was replaced with 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6% of each hydrocolloid. Guar gum led to an increase in the peak viscosity during pasting, as well as an increase in the final viscosity. Each of the other hydrocolloids decreased the peak and final viscosities, with xanthan gum causing the largest decrease. Guar gum did not affect the pasting temperature, while each of the other hydrocolloids caused the pasting temperature to increase. The effects of the hydrocolloids on water absorption, freeze–thaw stability and textural properties of navy bean starch gels were also examined. These results show the possibility of improving navy bean starch and flour properties through the addition of hydrocolloids. 122-P Properties of amylose-oleic acid inclusion complexes from corn starch grafted with poly(methyl acrylate) F. C. FELKER (1), V. L. Finkenstadt (1), G. R. Selling (1), G. F. Fanta (1), K. Hornback (1) (1) USDA ARS NCAUR, Peoria, IL, U.S.A.

Corn starch granules have previously been investigated as fillers in polymers. In this study, much smaller starch particles in the form of spherulites produced by steam jet-cooking high-amylose corn starch and oleic acid to form amylose inclusion complexes were graft-polymerized with methyl acrylate. Spherulite preparations were used both with and without washing to remove amylopectin. For comparison, granular high-amylose corn starch was graft-polymerized in a similar manner. The amounts of grafted and ungrafted poly(methyl acrylate) were similar for all of the starch-graft-poly(methyl acrylate) copolymers. Starch graft copolymers were processed by extrusion, and tensile properties of the extrudates were analyzed. Although extruded ribbons with similar tensile strengths were obtained from the three starch-PMA graft copolymers, the spherulite-containing copolymers exhibited higher values for percent elongation. Analyses of the graft copolymers indicated that the molecular weights of grafted and ungrafted PMA were similar for the three copolymers. Interaction of the grafted starch material and the homopolymer in extrudates as revealed by iodine staining and scanning electron microscopy supported the conclusion that the higher percent elongation values may be attributable to the smaller size of the amylose-oleic acid spherulites compared with unmodified starch granules. The steam jet-cooking technique for producing the spherulites can be adapted to large-scale industrial processing. 123-P Antioxidant activity of phenolic acid and yellow pigment extracts in milling fractions of durum wheat C. Chiremba (1), S. Nam (1), D. Taylor (1), C. Pozniak (2), B. X. FU (1) (1) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Phenolic compounds and carotenoids are bioactive components found in durum wheat and their antioxidant activities were compared in milling fractions. The ABTS radical was used due to its suitability to react with lipophilic and hydrophilic extracts. Phenolic acids donate hydrogen or electrons, while carotenoids quench the free ABTS radicals. Total phenolic compounds and total yellow pigments (TYP) were extracted with acidified methanol and WSB, respectively. Furthermore, separation of compounds in TYP extracts was accomplished by UPLC. The ABTS radical scavenging activity of the milling fractions decreased in the order short bran > bran > feed flour > flour > semolina in both phenolic and TYP extracts. TYP from bran, short bran, and feed flour had a high antioxidant activity approximately 35% higher than that measured in phenolic extracts. Carotenoids were identified on the basis of their UV/Vis spectra and absorption maxima. Lutein was the major carotenoid in the entire wheat fractions and increased gradually from 75% of total carotenoids in bran to 85% in flour. Carotenoids eluting at 1.6–2.5 min (Rt) were proposed to be 13-cis and 9-cis isomers of lutein. Unknown peaks at Rt 0.45– 0.55 min displayed phenolic-type spectra ranging between 217 and 328 nm. The peaks were present in fractions of the grain outer layers decreasing in the order short bran > bran > feed flour but were absent in semolina and flour. These results suggest that phenolic acids that occur in high concentrations in grain outer layers were probably co-extracted in soluble form with carotenoids in the polar WSB solvent and could result in carotenoid overestimation. Furthermore, higher levels of antioxidant activity in bran and short-bran fractions measured in TYP extracts compared to phenolic acid extracts can be attributed to the combined activity of carotenoids and the co-extracted phenolic acids.

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124-P Effects of organic acids and NaCl content on dough stickiness using Harvest and Pembina CWRS wheat E. J. HOPKINS (1), R. Lam (1), A. K. Stone (1), P. Hucl (2), M. G. Scanlon (3), M. Nickerson (4) (1) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (2) University of Saskatchewan, Crop Development Centre, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; (3) University of Manitoba, Food Science Department, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (4) Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

The effect of organic acids (acetic, lactic, fumaric, and citric acid) and sodium chloride content on dough stickiness was investigated using Harvest and Pembina Canadian western red spring wheat varieties. During the fermentation process in bread these organic acids are produced by yeast and can affect dough-handling properties. At reduced salt levels, this acid production can result in increased dough stickiness, which can cause processing and quality issues. Organic acids were added at a concentration of 1.2 mmol/100 g of flour and sodium chloride was added at 0%, 1%, or 2% (wt/wt) with respect to flour weight. This concentration was selected due to previous literature, which examined organic acids and their impacts on dough-handling characteristics. Pembina and Harvest wheat flours were selected for their known differences with respect to stickiness, where the latter is much stickier than the former. Generally, the addition of acid increased dough stickiness, while the addition of salt decreased stickiness. An ANOVA determined that the main effects of acid type, salt content, flour type, and their interactions were found to statistically significantly affect dough stickiness. When fumaric acid was added to Harvest flour, its effect on dough stickiness was different from the other acids. The addition of fumaric acid caused doughs to have similar stickiness despite salt addition. It would appear that the type of acid used, flour type, and their interaction had a significant effect on dough stickiness. 125-P Effects of puroindolines on protein characteristics in flour and dough E. T. QUAYSON (1), F. Bonomi (2), A. Marti (1) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.; (2) University of Milan, Milan, Italy

Puroindolines are wheat endosperm proteins that account for most differences in kernel texture among soft, hard, and durum wheat. Puroindoline expression results in soft kernel texture, whereas mutations in one or both genes controlling their expression results in a hard texture. This study was aimed at investigating the effect of puroindolines on some features of wheat proteins in both flour and dough. Flours and related doughs were characterized for 1% SDS protein solubility, 1% SDS-accessible thiols content, surface hydrophobicity, and conformation, using durum wheat (Svevo cv, S), soft-textured durum wheat (Soft Svevo, SS), soft wheat (Alpowa cv, A) and hard-textured wheat (Alpowa with 5DS distal end deletion, AD). Puroindoline expression resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in soluble proteins (S: 867; SS: 504 mg/g protein) and in SDS-accessible thiols (S: 12.4; SS: 8.2 μmol/g protein) in flours. On the other hand, 5DS distal end deletion resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the amount of soluble protein (A: 537; AD: 816 mg/g protein) and of SDS-accessible thiols (A: 5.6; AD: 7.0 μmol/g protein) in flours. No significant (P < 0.05) differences related to puroindoline expression were found in either protein solubility or thiol content in dough, if not for 5DS distal end deletion affecting the thiols content (A: 5.9; AD: 7.2 μmol/g protein). Puroindoline expression (S vs SS) resulted in a decrease in protein surface hydrophobicity, whereas the 5DS distal end deletion (AD vs A) did not change protein hydrophobicity. Both expression and deletion caused an increase in β-turn structures (S: 40.1%; SS: 46.8%; A: 35.4%; AD: 40.3%). In conclusion, puroindolines seem to affect some gluten protein overall characteristics, but specific effects seem to be species-dependent. 126-P Effects of damaged starch and protein contents on pasting properties of flours composed of wheat and rice flours J. H. LIN (1), W. T. Kao (2), W. S. Chang (2), Y. H. Chang (3) (1) Department of Hospitality Management, MingDao University, ChangHua, Taiwan; (2) Department of Food and Nutrition, Providence University, Taichung, Taiwan; (3) Providence University, Shalu, Taichung, Taiwan

In this study, composite flours were prepared with combinations of 70% wheat flour (WF) and 30% japonica rice flour (RF). The WF, with 14.0% to 18.3% protein content, was composed of bread wheat flour (BWF) and high-gluten wheat flour (HGWF) at various ratios. RF, possessing 2.3 to 13.2% damaged starch content, was composed of dry-milled rice flour (DMRF) and semi-dry–milled rice flour (SDMRF) at different ratios. Pasting properties of the WF-RF composite flours, as well as the contribution ratios of damaged starch and protein contents on the pasting properties, were determined and investigated. Results indicated that the pasting properties, including peak viscosity (PV), hot paste viscosity (HPV), and final viscosity (FV), of WF decreased with increasing content of protein. Pasting properties of WF-RF composite flours were higher than that of WF, with the exception of the BWF-DMRF composite flour. Pasting properties of the composite flours showed negative correlations (P < 0.0001) with damaged starch content of RF, while correlation between pasting properties of the composite flours and protein content of WF was not significant (P > 0.05). The contribution ratios of damaged starch content on PV,

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HPV, and FV of the composite flours were 57.85, 80.44, and 70.44%, respectively, while the contribution ratios of protein content properties were all below 25%. Results indicate that pasting properties of the WF-RF composite flours is mainly affected by the damaged starch content of rice flour. 127-P Effects of concentration and hydrolysis on solubility and foaming properties of hull-less barley protein concentrates E. Şirin (1), E. YALÇIN (1) (1) Department of Food Engineering, Abant İzzet Baysal University, Bolu, Turkey

Defatted hull-less barley flour (HBF) was used for the preparation of hull-less barley protein concentrates (HBPCs). HBPC-1 and HBPC-2 were prepared by extracting with dilute salt solution (0.15 M NaCI) at pH 9 and with alkaline solution (0.06 N NaOH) at pH 11.2, respectively; then, isoelectric precipitation was applied at pH 5 and pH 5.4, respectively. Protein contents of HBPC-1 and HBPC-2 were 70.6% and 90.7% (dwb), respectively. HBPC-1 and HBPC-2 were hydrolyzed with Alcalase to produce barley protein hydrolysates (BPH) of 2% (BPH-1 and BPH-3, respectively) and 5% (BPH-2 and BPH-4, respectively) degree of hydrolysis. Protein solubility properties (PS, %) of the HBPCs were determined in distilled water (dw) at concentrations of 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0% (wt/vol) on a protein basis (opb). PS of the hydrolysates was determined in dw at concentration of 0.25% opb. The filtrates of the HBPCs and their hydrolysates were used in testing foaming properties after finding out the soluble protein contents. A 10 mL sample solution was foamed with dry air at a constant flow rate of 0.5 L/min for 10 sec in a glass-sintered column at room temperature. Foaming properties (FP) were expressed as foam volume (FV, cm3) and foam half-life (FHL, sec). PS and FP were studied as a function of pH (2–10). PS of HBPC-1 was higher at all protein concentrations and pHs than that of HBPC-2. The soluble proteins of HBPC-1 had the highest FV values at 0.5% (wt/vol) concentration at all pHs, except for pH 6. The soluble proteins of HBPC-2 had the highest FHL values at all protein concentrations and pHs, except for pH 6. The solubility values of BPH-1 and BPH-2 were higher at all pHs, except for pH 6, than that of BPH-3 and BPH-4. The hydrolysates of HBPC-1 (BPH-1 and BPH-2) had the highest FP among the hydrolysates. Due to enzyme hydrolysis, the FV and FHL could be increased at around isoelectric point. 128-P Correlations between gluten aggregation properties and content of quality-related protein fractions of wheat flour A. MARTI (1), E. Augst (2), S. Cox (2), P. Koehler (3) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.; (2) General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, MN, U.S.A.; (3) Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie, Freising, Germany

The GlutoPeak test (GPT) is a rapid, small-scale (5 min, 8.5 g of flour) technique to determine the gluten aggregation properties of wheat flour. To date, it is largely unknown how the results of the GPT are affected by the quantitative composition of gluten proteins. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish correlations between the concentrations of quality-related protein fractions of wheat flour and its aggregation behavior. Contents of gliadins (GLIA), glutenins (GLUT), SDS-soluble proteins (SDSS), and glutenin macropolymer (GMP) of 19 winter wheat varieties (12–16% protein) were determined by two extraction/HPLC methods. The results were correlated to gluten aggregation kinetics determined by the GPT. Two groups of samples were distinguished based on the shape of their GPT curves. The curves generated by group A had a slower buildup in torque (measured as aggregation time) and a higher area under the curve at peak (maximum torque) compared to those generated by group B. The overall characterization of protein fractions showed that group A was characterized by lower GLIA (63–89 mg/g of flour) and higher GLUT (38.8–47.4 mg/g) and GMP (19.6–30.7 mg/g) contents than group B (GLIA: 55–98 mg/g; GLU: 29.5–41.2 mg/g; GMP: 12.3–22.8 mg/g). GLIA and SDSS concentrations were significantly correlated with peak torque (GLIA: r = 0.70, P ≤ 0.001; SDSS: r = 0.59, P ≤ 0.01), probably because these fractions contained more than 60% of the crude protein, which is also related to peak (r = 0.75, P ≤ 0.001). GLUT and GMP contents were correlated to the aggregation time (GLUT: r = 0.72, P ≤ 0.001; GMP: r = 0.77, P ≤ 0.001) and the area under the curve at peak (GLU: r = 0.68, P ≤ 0.01; GMP: r = 0.78, P ≤ 0.001), confirming the importance of GMP for gluten strength. The study has shown that the GPT is an alternative to the labor-intensive quantitation of quality-related protein fraction of wheat flour.

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129-P Changes in levels of enzyme inhibitors, lectins, and phytic acid undergoing domestic processing of Canadian pulses L. SHI (1), K. Mu (1), S. Arntfield (1), M. Nickerson (2) (1) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

The effects of pulse type and processing (soaking and cooking) on antinutritional factors in a wide range of Canadian pulses (4 peas, 9 lentils, 3 chickpeas, 2 faba beans, and 4 beans) were investigated, using soybean as a control. Analysis of variance indicated that pulse type had a significant effect (P < 0.0001) on levels of α-amylase inhibitor, trypsin inhibitor, lectins, and phytic acid. Soybean contained the highest contents of trypsin inhibitor (45.89 TIU/mg), lectins (692.82 HU/mg), and phytic acid (22.91 mg/g) among all seeds investigated. α-Amylase inhibitory activity was absent in peas, lentils, chickpeas, and faba beans but was present in beans, where values ranged from 786 to 1,370 AIU/g. Trypsin inhibitor levels of raw peas, lentils, chickpeas, faba beans, and beans ranged from 3.16 to 20.8 TIU/mg, with the lowest values for peas and the highest for beans. Beans contained relatively high lectin levels, followed by lentils, peas, faba beans, and chickpeas with very low values (2.73– 2.74 HU/mg). Phytic acid was detected in all samples, with the lowest contents in peas (8.55–12.40 mg/g) and the highest in faba beans (19.7–22.8 mg/g). Soaking markedly decreased the contents of α-amylase inhibitor, trypsin inhibitor, and lectins but had no impact on phytic acid. Cooking of presoaked seeds was more effective; all proteinaceous antinutrients (α-amylase inhibitor, trypsin inhibitor, and lectins) were decreased by 80–100%, and significant reductions in phytic acid content (11–39%) were observed for all pulses except beans. The level of antinutritional factors in Canadian pulses varied widely, but levels were generally lower than those found in soybean. Processing, specifically heat treatment, drastically reduced these levels. 130-P Physicochemical properties of normal, immature, and chalky brown rice kernels from six U.S. long-grain rice cultivars A. I. GONZALEZ CONDE (1), J. A. Patindol (1), D. Lujan Rhenals (1), Y. J. Wang (1) (1) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.

Milled rice appearance is an important criterion of grain quality and is unfavorably affected by the presence of chalky and immature kernels. This work examined the physicochemical properties of normal (NK), immature (IK), and chalky kernels (CK) to better understand the underlying causes of rice kernel defects. Normal, immature, and chalky kernels were sorted from the brown rice of six cultivars (CL151, CLXL729, CLXL745, Taggart, Wells, and XL753) by visual inspection. The percentage of CK was 5.0–18.2% and was lowest for Taggart and highest for CLXL729. IK ranged from 4.6% (Wells) to 11.8% (XL753). Based on means pooled across cultivars, the overall trends in total starch (68.4–75.2%), total protein (6.8–11.4%), and apparent amylose contents (15.8–21.7%) were: NK = CK > IK, IK > NK = CK, and NK > CK > IK, respectively. Amylopectin chain-length distribution obtained by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection differed noticeably among cultivars but minimally among kernel classes. A similar trend was likewise observed in thermal properties obtained with a differential scanning calorimeter. Paste peak, final, and breakdown viscosities obtained with a rapid visco analyzer had the following trend: NK > CK > IK. Such variations in pasting characteristics may be attributed to the differences in gross chemical composition, particularly amylose and starch contents. 131-P A comparative study on the nutritional composition of purple barley, yellow corn, and wheat aleurone V. NDOLO (1), T. Beta (2), R. G. Fulcher (1) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) Department of Food Science & Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Wheat aleurone is a food ingredient of commercial value because of its relatively superior nutritional profile compared to other fractions of the kernel. However, little is documented on the nutritional composition of aleurone from other cereal grains. Therefore, duplicate samples of manually isolated aleurone originating from purple barley (PB), normal barley (NB), Dasca yellow corn (YC) and MSUD8006 wheat (MW) were analyzed for protein content, amino acid profiles, mineral composition, and vitamin levels of thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin. Protein content was measured using the Kjeldahl method. Amino acid, thiamine, and niacin levels were determined using HPLC. Macro- and micro-nutrient elements were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma absorption emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Average protein content decreased in the order: PB (18%) > YC (14.5%) > MW and NB (13.1%). PB and YC aleurone had higher levels of the essential amino acids phenylalanine, leucine, and methionine compared to wheat aleurone. Both macro- and micro-elements were generally higher in wheat aleurone than in PB and YC, except for Ca, which was highest in PB. On average, wheat aleurone had the highest levels of both thiamine (38 μg/g) and niacin (158 μg/g), followed by PB and NB aleurone, with 18 μg/g and 15 μg/g and 110 μg/g and 117 μg/g, respectively. YC had the lowest levels of thiamine (10 μg/g) and niacin (93 μg/g). The results provide useful information on the potential of PB aleurone as an alternative food ingredient.

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132-P Characterization of starch from 34 Michigan soft wheat varieties Y. Jin (1), Y. AI (1), E. Olson (1), P. K. Ng (1) (1) Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A.

Soft wheat is an important crop in Michigan, and it can be a good source of starch for various industrial applications. In this study, 34 varieties of soft wheat grown in Michigan in 2013 were milled using a Buhler MLU-202 mill to obtain straight-grade flours, which had 65.3–73.9% starch (db) and 8.5–11.4% protein (db). The straight-grade flours were used for starch isolation. Amylose contents of the isolated wheat starches ranged from 16.7 to 33.2%. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results showed that the onset gelatinization temperatures of the starches varied between 57.2 and 60.2°C, conclusion gelatinization temperatures between 68.9 and 73.6°C, and gelatinization enthalpy changes between 9.1 and 15.4 J/g. A dissociation peak of amylose–lipid complex (peak temperatures 91.6-101.0°C) also was observed in the DSC thermograms of the isolated starch samples. The starches from different varieties displayed different pasting properties as analyzed using a rapid visco analyzer (Standard Method I): peak viscosities ranged from 4,441 to 5,175 cP, breakdown viscosities from 670 to 1,226 cP, setback viscosities from 1,754 to 2,239 cP, and peak times from 6.2 to 6.8 min. The data obtained from the present study could be useful for the industrial utilization of starch from soft wheat. 133-P The lethality of a commercial batch process on Salmonella in flour J. R. FUDGE (1), M. L. Dunn (1), F. M. Steele (1), O. A. Pike (1), R. A. Robison (1) (1) Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, U.S.A.

The heat treatment of flour has become a recent practice by food companies as they have sought to provide a safer product for their consumers. While this practice is currently in use in industry, there is very little published data about the lethality of these processes. The present study evaluates a currently used commercial batch process carried out on product in final packaging, which minimizes the probability of post-process contamination. Treatments were carried out on 50 lb bags of pastry flour. A non-pathogenic surrogate for Salmonella was used to mimic the death curve of Salmonella at the testing temperatures. The effect of come-up time on the population of the bacteria was determined for each target temperature. Three temperatures were tested: 65.6°C, 71.1°C, and 76.7°C. The come-up time for the testing parameters resulted in a 2.3 log reduction for 65.6°C, a 2.9 log reduction for 71.1°C, and a 3.8 log reduction for 76.7°C. The effect of holding the product for 1 hr at each temperature was also determined and resulted in a 2.35 log reduction at 65.6°C, a 3.1 log reduction at 71.1°C, and a 4.5 log reduction at 76.7°C. The majority of the lethality occurred during the come-up time. This finding will help in the development of more precise heat-treatment procedures that optimize the come-up time to achieve the desired lethality. The results will also preserve the functionality of the flour by helping to minimizing the total process time. 134-P Microbial load of hard winter wheat varieties produced at three growing environments across the state of Nebraska, USA L. Sabillon (1), A. BIANCHINI (1), J. Stratton (1), D. Rose (1), T. Regassa (1), R. Flores (1) (1) University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

As a raw agricultural commodity, wheat is exposed to naturally occurring microorganisms; consequently spoilage organisms, as well as pathogens may be among its microflora creating a food safety and quality issue in milled products. Environmental conditions during the growing season may influence the microbial flora and load that might reside on wheat. In this study the effect of growing conditions from flowering to harvesting on the microbial load of three winter wheat cultivars (Overland, McGill, and NW07505) were evaluated over two consecutive seasons (2011–2012 and 2012–2013) in three contrasting growing regions (southeastern, south central, and panhandle) in Nebraska, USA. Crops were grown under rain-fed conditions. Warmer than normal temperatures and low precipitation rates occurred during the 2011–2012 growing season, while the 2012–2013 was dominated by moist and cool conditions. In both seasons, localized areas of high and low rainfall occurred in the southeastern and panhandle regions, respectively. There was considerable difference in the microbial load of wheat between locations (P ≤ 0.05) harvested, moving from the western to the eastern part of the state. However, no statistical difference in microbial load was found among cultivars for each location (P > 0.05), indicating that microbiological quality is more dependent on location than varieties. In year 1, microbial counts (log CFU/g) for total aerobes (3.0) and molds (2.3) were on average significantly lower in samples collected from the panhandle region as compared to those from the south central and southeastern regions (total aerobes, 5.8; molds, 3.4). Similar trends were observed in year 2; however, difference in microbial counts among regions was less pronounced. The microbial flora of wheat, therefore, can be greatly influenced by growing conditions, and an annual variation in microbial load may be expected.

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135-P Use of a centrifugal mill to produce whole wheat durum flour L. DENG (1), F. Manthey (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

The objective of this research was to determine the configurations necessary to mill durum into whole wheat flour that had similar particle size distribution as commercially available whole wheat flours. Bulk durum wheat sample was milled using a centrifugal mill. The mill had a vibratory feeder and a vacuum air cooling system. Mill configuration variables included screen aperture size (250, 500, and 1,000 μm) and rotor speed (6,000 to 18,000 rpm). Milled flour was compared to two commercial whole wheat flours. Milling surface temperature and milled whole wheat flour temperature, flour brightness, starch damage, and particle size distribution were evaluated. Results showed that milling surface temperature and milled whole wheat flour temperature increased with increased rotor speed and decreased with increased mill screen aperture size. Brightness of milled whole wheat flour increased with increased rotor speed and decreased with increased mill screen aperture size. Starch damage was affected more by the mill screen aperture size than by rotor speed. Starch damage was 6.5 to 8.5% as rotor speed varied from 6,000 to 18,000 rpm. While starch damage was 2.9% with 1,000 μm mill screen aperture size and increased to 12.3% with 250 μm mill screen aperture size. Particle size decreased with increased rotor speed. Whole durum wheat ground using a 250 μm aperture screen and a 12,000 rpm rotor speed produced a flour similar in fineness to whole wheat commercial flour, where 93% of the flour was retained on 50 to 150 μm sieves. Similarly, whole durum wheat ground using a 500 μm aperture screen and a 18,000 rpm rotor speed produced a coarser flour, with 75% of the flour retained on 50 to 150 μm sieves, which was similar to that of another whole wheat commercial flour. 136-P Degree of starchy endosperm separation from bran as a milling quality trait of wheat grain L. KONG (1), B. K. Baik (2) (1) Ohio State University, Department of Horticulture and Crop Science/USDA-ARS-CSWQRU, Wooster, OH, U.S.A.; (2) USDA ARS CSWQRU Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Wooster, OH, U.S.A.

Flour yield is an important quality trait of wheat, especially for flour millers because it directly affects profitability. In addition to grain characteristics and milling conditions known to affect flour yield, easy and clean separation of starchy endosperm from bran during milling is expected to positively contribute to the flour yield of wheat, but no confirming evidence exists. Starch content and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) extractable content of bran were determined as the estimates for remnant endosperm content of bran, which indicates the degree of starchy endosperm separation from bran during milling, for 61 and 100 soft red winter (SRW) wheat genotypes grown in 2013 and 2014, respectively. To confirm the impact of endosperm separation from bran during milling on flour yield, variation in remnant endosperm content of bran, as well as its relationship with flour yield, was determined for SRW wheat genotypes. The DMSO-extractable content exhibited greater reproducibility than starch content for the estimation of remnant endosperm content of bran. The remnant endosperm content of bran estimated using the DMSO-extractable content ranged from 33.9 to 43.6% in 61 SRW wheat varieties grown in 2013 and from 35.9 to 47.4% in 100 SRW wheat varieties grown in 2014. The remnant endosperm content was significantly related to flour yield and exhibited a greater correlation coefficient (r = –0.54) than other grain characteristics, including test weight, kernel hardness, and kernel weight. Yet the degree of endosperm separation differed widely among bran pieces and even different parts of the same piece of bran, as revealed by microscopic observations. The degree of starchy endosperm separation from bran significantly contributes to flour yield and needs to be considered in the development of soft wheat varieties with improved flour yield potential. 138-P A modified protocol for producing whole wheat flour from a standard CHOPIN CD1 laboratory mill A. DUBAT (1) (1) CHOPIN Technologies, Villeneuve-la-Garenne, France

The AACC definition of whole grain is “whole grains shall consist of the intact, ground, cracked or flaked caryopsis, whose principal anatomical components—the starchy endosperm, germ. and bran—are present in the same relative proportions as they exist in the intact caryopsis.” When producing flour in the industry, such a result is obtained either by using stone mills or by using roller mills. US CFR 137.200 states that “Whole wheat flour requires that all components of the wheat kernel be present in the flour at their normal proportion.” This is achieved by reassembling, in the required proportions, all the components separated in the production of white flour. Since the particle size of the bran and germ is different than that of flour, they may be further processed by regrinding with a hammer mill. The reground material is then blended with straight-grade flour to produce whole wheat flour. At the laboratory level, operators have the choice between grinders and laboratory mills. Grinders are used to obtain ground meal principally used for analysis (moisture, ash, fiber, etc.), and laboratory mills are designed to produce flour with rheological properties (absorption, stability, etc.) representative of the industrial

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flour. Different strategies were studied to mimic the industrial process. Standard medium hard French wheat was tempered at 16% moisture and rested for 24 hr. Flour quality was assessed by looking at granulation (Rotachoc), protein and moisture (Infraneo), starch damage (SDmatic), and rheological properties (Mixolab). Results showed that simple grinding with a hammer mill and sifting through a mesh of 500 μm does not produce flour that is representative of an industrially milled flour. The best results are obtained by associating standard white flour production from the CD1 mill and regrinding of the bran and short particles. 139-P Modeling of cumulative ash curve in hard red spring wheat T. BAASANDORJ (1), L. Dykes (2), J. Ohm (2), S. Simsek (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Department of Plant Science, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (2) USDA ARS, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Analysis of cumulative ash curves (CAC) is very important for evaluation of milling quality of wheat and blending different millstreams for specific applications. The aim of this research was to improve analysis of CAC. Five hard red spring wheat genotype composites from two regions were milled on a MIAG Multomat laboratory mill. A quadratic regression was identified as a useful method to develop models of CAC obtained from the MIAG millstream data. The fitness of the quadratic regression model was very high and range of coefficients of determination was 0.988–0.999. Individual slopes of tangent lines that represented the rate of change of cumulative ash at a given point were calculated as the values of a derivative at 50% and 70% flour extraction points using the model coefficients. Flour yields of first, second, third breaks, and break dust streams were negatively correlated with the slope at 50% flour extraction. This indicated that the higher flour yield in these streams resulted in the flatter cumulative ash curve at 50% extraction. In addition, first break stream ash content showed a high and positive correlation (r = 0.91, P < 0.01) with the slope at 70% extraction indicating that ash content of the first break flour influenced significantly the rate of increase of cumulative ash at 70% flour extraction. In this research, we identified a quadratic regression to model CAC and derived novel parameters, slopes of tangent lines, from the models. Results indicated that information obtained from the numerical approach could improve objective analysis of CAC and, consequently, enhance evaluation of milling quality of wheat samples. 140-P Effects of seed treatments on flour quality of black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) milled on a centrifugal mill H. ANDO (1), C. Carter (1), F. Manthey (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

The use of dry bean flour in food products is becoming more common. Dry beans contain antinutritional components that can be negated by cooking for 20 min or soaking the seed in water for 24 hr. Understanding the effects of these seed treatments on milling and flour quality is important. Treated and non-treated seeds at 10% moisture content were milled into flour using a centrifugal mill (model ZM 200, Retsch GmbH, Haan, Germany) containing a vibratory feeder and a vacuum air cooling system. Based on preliminary data, the centrifugal mill was configured with a 500 μm screen, rotor speed of 12,000 rpm, and a feed rate of 246 + 18 g/min. Milling conditions were air temperature of 22°C and relative humidity of 27%. Both the cooked-dried and soaked-dried treatments changed the shape and increased the size of the seed, which reduced the feed rate compared to non-treated seeds. Both seed treatments reduced test weight and kernel weight. Seed fracture force was determined on individual seeds using a texture analyzer (TA-XT2, Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY). The cooked-dried and soaked-dried pretreatments reduced seed fracture force 48 and 51%, respectively, which indicates an increase in seed brittleness and could affect milling and flour properties. Fine particle yield decreased 15 and 10% with cooked-dried or soaked-dried pretreatments, respectively, when compared to non-treated seeds. Gain in flour temperature during milling was 5.5°C for both non-treated and cooked-dried seeds and was 8.3°C for soaked-dried seeds. Bulk density of flour from non-treated beans was 0.77 g/cm3, from cooked-dried beans was 0.85 g/cm3, and form soaked-dried beans was 0.86 g/cm3. Cooking caused an increase in starch damage, reduction in ash content, but had no effect on protein content. Soaking caused a decrease in ash content but had no effect on starch damage or protein content. 141-P Dry milling, wet milling, and dry grind yield comparisons of purple corn and yellow dent corn P. SOMAVAT (1), E. de Mejia (1), Q. Li (1), V. Singh (1) (1) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, U.S.A.

Purple corn (Zea mays L.) is a variety of colored corn native to the Andes region of South America and is particularly rich in anthocyanins. In recent years, it has been postulated that anthocyanins possess anti-oxidant/anti-carcinogenic properties and help fight obesity, tissue injury, and inflammation. Various products made from purple corn and purported to be beneficial to humans are already available in market. In this study, we

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fractionated purple corn using wet-milling, dry-milling, and dry-grind processes at a 1 kg scale with three replications and compared various co-product yields against traditional yellow dent corn (Zea mays var. indentata). Purple corn yielded 3% more fiber and gluten solids while 6.7% less starch on a dry basis as compared to yellow dent corn in the wet-milling process. Dry-milling results show that purple corn contained 3% more pericarp, 2% more germ, and 5% less starch containing grit fractions on a dry basis as compared to yellow dent corn. In the dry-grind process, DDGS yield was 8.7% higher on a dry basis for purple corn, while final ethanol concentration was 2.7% lower than yellow dent corn. Purple corn can potentially be used in all three milling processes, yield differences being offset by health-promoting properties of various co-products recovered. However, further techno-economical analysis of the three processes is required. 142-P Effects of different tempering methods on sorghum kernel physical and milling characteristics Y. ZHAO (1), K. Ambrose (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Effect of cold water, hot water, and stream tempering on sorghum kernel physical properties and texture were studied. Sorghums were tempered by steam treatment under pressure of 40 psi with different duration, cold water under room temperature, and hot water at 60°C to 18% moisture content. Single kernel characteristics (SKCS) and abrasive hardness of sorghum kernels were studied after each tempering treatment. SKCS hardness is based on crush force and abrasive hardness was estimated based on the time (seconds) to remove 1% of kernel weight during decortication. The results indicate that hot water- and steam-tempered kernel hardness was less than the cold water-tempered sorghum grains. The SKCS hardness was 63.70, 62.33, and 61.19, respectively, for cold water-, hot water-, and steam-tempered kernels at same moisture level. Abrasive hardness decreased with increase in hot water tempering time. During steam tempering, SKCS hardness was decreased with increasing treatment time. When the tempering time was increased from 1 min to 2.5 min, the hardness decreased from 64.97 to 50.58. However, steam tempering time had opposite effects on abrasive hardness. As steam time increased, abrasive hardness increased significantly. This indicates that steam tempering could toughen the outer layer of kernels while decreasing the kernel resistance against crush force. The results of hardness values with steam tempering reveals that steam tempering could make kernels break easily during milling process, assisting better separation of bran and endosperm. 143-P Fiber recovery from whole stillage in dry grind process S. M. KIM (1), S. Li (1), R. Basu (2), P. van Egmond (2), V. Singh (1) (1) University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.; (2) DSM, Bio-based Products & Services, Elgin, IL, U.S.A.

A sieving step was developed to recover corn fiber from whole stillage of a dry-grind process. Recovering fiber from whole stillage has benefits. Distiller’s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) with reduced fiber contents would be suitable as an ingredient for nonruminants animals, and recovered fiber can be used as a cellulosic ethanol feedstock. Commercial whole stillage samples were sieved using U.S. No. 100 mesh (149 μm), 200 mesh (74 μm), and 325 mesh (44 μm) sieves. A greater amount of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was recovered in the retentate from the 200 mesh and 325 mesh sieves, which was about 85%, compared to the 100 mesh sieve. To remove oil and protein from fiber, whole stillage was ground or incubated with protease, cellulase, or surfactant. With the 200 mesh sieve, no significant improvement in protein and oil contents were observed in DDGS from treated whole stillage compared to untreated whole stillage. However, fiber content in DDGS was reduced up to 90% compared to original sample. Whole stillage and ground whole stillage were chosen for ethanol production, and samples were sieved in a scaled-up (15×) shifter equipped with a 230 mesh sieve. The retentate samples were pretreated with dilute acid (1% wt/wt) at 160°C for 15 min, followed by separate hydrolysis and fermentation. Fermentation was performed using genetically modified yeast capable of fermenting C5 and C6 sugars. Total ethanol yields of 40 and 51 gal/dry ton biomass were obtained from whole stillage and ground whole stillage, respectively. A sieving process that can be directly integrated in the current dry-grind process was effective to recover fiber from whole stillage, increasing both nutrient value of DDGS and ethanol production. 144-P Does bran particle size affect whole wheat bread quality? K. H. KHALID (1), L. Deng (2), F. Manthey (2), S. Simsek (2) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (2) North Dakota State University, Department of Plant Science, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Most consumers prefer refined products simply because of their smooth texture and fine particle size distribution. Whole grain foods need to mimic the refined white flour texture and particle size in order to entice consumers to eat whole grain foods. However, it is also known that the bran fraction in whole wheat will reduce bread quality.

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The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of bran particle size on whole wheat bread quality. Coarse (49% of particles >500 μm) and fine (50% of particles 100–50 μm) whole wheat flours were obtained from an ultra-centrifugal mill; restructured coarse (50% of particles 100–50 μm) and fine (60% of particles 100–50 μm) whole wheat flours were obtained by blending the reground bran and shorts portion (from Buhler laboratory mill) with white flour. White flour (70% of particles 100–50 μm) and commercial whole wheat flour (70% of particles 250–150 μm) were used as control. Bran fraction impacted the water absorption, since 10% more water was needed to reach 500 BU. Fine bran produced easy-to-handle dough, while coarse bran produced hard-to-seam dough. Fine bran produced smoother crumb texture, darker crust color, higher loaf symmetry, and higher proof height compared to coarse bran. However, regardless whether it is a fine or coarse bran fraction, the loaf volume of whole wheat bread was not significantly (P > 0.05) different. Despite the health benefits of bran and whole wheat products, the bran fraction tends to negatively impact dough viscoelastic properties, loaf volume, and crumb texture. Decreasing the particle size of bran (for blended whole wheat flour) and whole wheat flour does not improve bread quality. It is suggested that the bran might interact with the gluten network and disrupt gluten development or yeast activity during fermentation/proofing. 145-P Application and validation of a statistically derived risk-based sampling plan K. M. LEE (1), T. J. Herrman (2) (1) Texas A&M AgriLife Research, College Station, TX, U.S.A.; (2) Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, U.S.A.

The statistically derived risk-based plan of work for chemical and biological hazard surveillance assignments was designed using binomial probability statistics. Binomial statistics was applied to the past 3 year data to estimate a confidence interval and a sample size, aiming to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the agency’s inspectional sampling activities. The accuracy of the statistical models and computed estimates were validated in the following years. The range of confidence interval and sample size appeared to be significantly influenced by the level of the violation rate of regulatory samples, an acceptable error, the number of the analyzed samples, and a statistical significance level. The violation rates of target analytes (aflatoxins, fumonisins, Salmonella, and dioxin) in the validation data were lower than those of the averaged 3 year data in most feed products. In addition, the actual violation rates of the validation samples did not fall within the anticipated range of the confidence interval estimates. Such a discrepancy is considered introduced by several factors such as sample size adequacy, skewed distribution of a target analyte in feedstuffs, and unique analyte/product combination. The overall study results indicate that the risk-based plan of work would provide a more effective and efficient risk management tool to help improve the oversight of the feed industry and the compliance of feed safety standards. 146-P Development of a sustainable management system for a gluten-free commercial bakery V. STOJCESKA (1), C. Barnard (1), S. Tassou (1) (1) Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, AB, U.K.

The food processing industry is a very dynamic industry and one of the major economic forces in the European Union. Around 20% of greenhouse gas emissions are linked to food production, processing, transportation, and storage. The interest in producing food in sustainable ways has increased enormously and reduction of energy and food processing waste has become one of the major challenges in the 21st century. The objective of this study was to reduce the energy use and waste formation in the processes of gluten-free bakery production and to investigate methods and technologies that could be used to improve energy utilization and waste minimization on a commercial scale. The amount of food processing waste was recorded from different stages during the production process. Energy usage was benchmarked by taking meter readings, and energy consumed from all machineries involved in the production process was monitored. The data from total energy consumption and amount of food processing waste were critically evaluated. Emissions in carbon dioxide were calculated following the Carbon Trust Standards. Reduction of energy and food waste was achieved by the development of a sustainability management system: identification of the areas for potential energy savings, integration of good energy practices into operational procedures, and development of a green supply chain to address environmental concerns, waste and resource use minimization. The energy consumption and waste formation were significantly reduced by at least 20% and 25%, respectively. The calculations from the Carbon Trust Standards showed significant reduction of emissions in carbon dioxide.

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147-P Physicochemical properties of pyrodextrins prepared with acetic acid at different temperatures J. H. Lin (1), W. T. Kao (2), H. M. Zeng (2), Y. H. CHANG (3) (1) Department of Hospitality Management, MingDao University, Changhua, Taiwan; (2) Department of Food and Nutrition, Providence University, Taichung, Taiwan; (3) Providence University, Shalu, Taichung, Taiwan

Physicochemical properties of pyrodextrins prepared from corn starch using acetic acid (0–2.5%, starch weight basis) as catalyst at various temperatures (120–180°C) were compared in this study. Results showed the recovery of pyrodextrins prepared was above 90%. Reducing sugar content of pyrodextrins increased with increasing treatment temperature, except for pyrodextrins prepared at 180°C with 2.0% or 2.5% acetic acid. Solubility at 25°C of pyrodextrins increased with increasing treatment temperature and was profoundly increased as prepared with acetic acid at 160°C or higher. Solubility at 90°C of pyrodextrins prepared at 170 and 180°C without acetic acid was higher than 90%; the same is true for pyrodextrins prepared with acetic acid at 160°C or higher, which was also above 90%. The Hunter L value of pyrodextrins decreased with increasing treatment temperature and acetic acid concentration, especially for pyrodextrins prepared at temperature higher than 160°C. Color difference value (ΔE) of pyrodextrins, compared with native corn starch, was below 10 for pyrodextrins prepared with or without acetic acid at temperatures lower than 160°C, while ΔE of pyrodextrins prepared at 160°C or higher increased with increasing temperature and acetic acid concentration. Results indicate that acetic acid can be used as a catalyst for pyroconversion of starch, which reduces the treatment temperature needed in the preparation of pyrodextrins. 148-P Assessment of cassava fiber and hydrocolloids for their application in wheat bread E. RODRIGUEZ-SANDOVAL (1), L. Y. Polania-Gaviaria (1), M. Cortes-Rodriguez (1) (1) Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellin, Colombia

The aim of this study was to assess the addition of cassava fiber, CMC, and CMC/tara gum blend on specific volume, crumb and crust moisture content, water activity, color, firmness, hardness, elasticity, and cohesiveness in wheat bread. Breads were enriched with cassava fiber at levels of 5% and 10% wheat flour replacement basis. Moreover, hydrocolloids were added to the formulation at a level of 1%, based on the total weight of wheat flour. CMC (C), singly and in CMC/tara gum (CT) binary blends (50:50 wt/wt) were used. There were no significant differences in crust moisture content, cohesiveness, elasticity, and water activity of samples. In addition, there were no significant differences in specific volume of samples (48.3–51.7 cm3/g), except for those with CMC and cassava fiber at 10% (C10), which was the lowest (43.9 cm3/g). As the concentration of cassava fiber increased, the lightness (L) decreased, whereas a and b color parameters increased, which indicates that the addition of cassava fiber darkened the bread crumb. The crumb moisture content was affected by the type of hydrocolloids used but not by the fiber concentration. CT samples resulted in the lower data (35.2–39.5% wb) compared to those of C samples (40.9–47.6% wb). Hardness and firmness was not affected by the type of hydrocolloids used. However, the addition of cassava fiber decreased these textural properties. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in firmness for samples without and with cassava fiber at 5% (2.3–3.6 N), while breads with cassava fiber at 10% reported data about 6.7–7.6 N. Moreover, hardness of samples without fiber was about 13.2–14.7 N, whereas hardness of breads with cassava fiber at 10% was around 29.4–30.5 N. Therefore, baking quality of wheat bread was most similar to the sample of cassava fiber-enriched wheat bread at a level of 5%. 149-P Yeast performance in whole wheat bread system K. H. KHALID (1), S. Simsek (2) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (2) North Dakota State University, Department of Plant Science, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Whole grains are composed of fiber, vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients that are beneficial to human health. However, use of whole grain flours can present technological challenges in production of whole grain end products. Whole wheat bread is known for its poor bread quality, such as lower loaf volume, darker crust and crumb color, and nutty bran flavor. Most research has been done to improve whole wheat bread quality and acceptance. This study was aimed at evaluating the yeast activity in a whole wheat bread system. Whole wheat flour was compared with refined white flour in terms of their performance during fermentation, water absorption, and baking quality. Whole wheat flour absorbed 10% more water and needed 3 to 4 min less time to reach peak time. Whole wheat flour also produces less loaf volume (628 cm3) and darker crust color. Risograph was used to measure total carbon dioxide (mL) produced by the yeast throughout 1.5 hr of fermentation (from 50 g of dough). At the end of fermentation, carbon dioxide produced by whole wheat flour (336–350 mL) was 1 to 10 mL more than white flour (335–340 mL). Despite its low loaf volume, whole wheat dough produced more carbon dioxide in total compared to refined white flour. Bran contains significantly higher amounts of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sulfur. These minerals are necessary for yeast health and

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nutrition. Therefore, in a whole wheat dough system, yeast may be actively propagated and produce more carbon dioxide than with ordinary refined white flour. 150-P A multidisciplinary approach to define the molecular requirements for production of enriched pasta from pigmented wheat F. BONOMI (1), M. Zanoletti (1), P. Abbasi Parizad (1), M. Marengo (1), V. Lavelli (1), A. Carpen (1), S. Iametti (1), M. A. Pagani (1) (1) University of Milan, Milan, Italy

Functional foods derived from main crops, such as wheat and corn, are of interest within a balanced and varied diet. Among these, pasta has the advantage of being obtained through a consolidated and relatively simple technological process. However, producing a “functionally enriched” pasta may be tricky, in particular when using species other than wheat. The aim of the present research is to develop new types of pasta, naturally rich in phenolics and in fiber, through the application of appropriate technologies. Attaining this goal calls for an accurate characterization of the raw materials and for defining the physical pre-treatments necessary for selective enrichment in specific bioactive compounds. This study addresses the overall molecular and physical properties of the outermost fractions collected by debranning pigmented wheat grains, as well as those of the bran obtained from milling the same grains. Grains were hydrated and underwent two subsequent debranning steps that removed 3.7% and 9.7% of the starting material. Debranned grains and controls were then milled in a lab-scale conventional milling system. Analytical profiling of the phenolics in bran components/fractions separated by physical techniques was carried out by advanced LC methods, and indicated that the outermost fraction obtained through debranning represents a very rich (and convenient) source of phenolics (and fiber, as assessed by independent measurements). From a practical standpoint, this fraction can be incorporated into pasta with negligible or minimal detrimental effects on dough rheology, microstructure, appearance, and cooking properties of final pasta as measured by appropriate physical measurements. In conclusion, this multidisciplinary approach may allow the definition of the proper formulation and processes for the production of naturally enriched pasta. 152-P Influence of infrared cooking technology of pulses on the end-product quality of spaghetti G. BOUX (1) (1) Canadian International Grains Institute, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Infrared cooking technology is a process designed to improve the nutrition, palatability, and flavor profile of cereal grains and pulses. Increased starch gelatinization in pulses following this treatment can result in altered functional characteristics that are less understood and have an unknown impact on the quality of processed foods such as spaghetti. In this study, peas, lentils, chickpeas, and navy beans were treated using infrared heat and milled into flour. Treated and untreated pulse flours were blended at a 30% inclusion level with durum semolina, extruded into spaghetti, and dried using an 85°C drying cycle. Spaghetti quality was measured by testing color, cooking time, cooking loss, and cooked spaghetti texture. Infrared cooking of pulses resulted in increased brightness of the dried spaghetti represented by higher Minolta L* values between 6.7–8.0 for the treated and 4.4–7.2 for the untreated samples. Differences in cooking times of treated and untreated pulse spaghetti were minimal and ranged between 9.8 and 10.0 min. Treated pulse spaghetti samples showed an increase in cooking loss when compared to untreated pulse samples that ranged from 6.7 to 8.0% and 4.4 to 7.2%, respectively. Texture of the treated spaghetti following cooking at 10 min was lower (437.2–543.3 g) compared to the untreated pulse spaghetti (548.3–699.2 g). Spaghetti processed using micronized pulse flours exhibited acceptable end-product quality characterized by a brighter color and softer texture, although higher cooking losses were detected. 153-P Corn starch modification with CGTase at sub-gelatinization temperature A. Dura (1), C. M. ROSELL (2) (1) Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA – CSIC), Paterna, Valencia, Spain

Starch is widely used in food products and industrial applications, although it frequently, in its native form, does not fulfill the requirements for certain types of processing. The use of enzymatic modification provides modified starch with a clean label. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the enzyme cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase (CGTase) on corn starch at sub-gelatinization temperature to obtain modified starch-containing cyclodextrins (CDs). Cyclodextrin quantification, viscosity, and structural analyses of treated starches were studied along modification time. Microscopic analysis of the granules confirmed the enzymatic modification of the starches, obtaining structures with irregular surface and small holes. CGTase decreased significantly the peak viscosity of the starch, showing less stability after the disruption of the granules during heating. Enzymatically modified starch contained CDs, mainly β-CD after 24–48 hr of treatment. Overall, results showed that enzymatic modification at sub-gelatinization temperatures offers an attractive alternative for obtaining modified starch granules to be used in a variety of foods applications, with the additional benefits of containing cyclodextrins.

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154-P Sugar replacement in high-ratio white layer cakes O. DANN (1), R. Miller (1), M. Angermayer (1), A. Oakley (2) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.; (2) University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, U.S.A.

High-ratio white layer cakes were prepared using several commercial alternative sweeteners (erythritol, fructose, maltitol, stevioside, and sucralose) and bulking agents (powdered cellulose, maltodextrin, and polydextrose) with a multi-stage mix high-ratio cake formula (AACCI Approved Method 10-90.01). Cakes were measured for textural characteristics including: volume index (AACCI Approved Method 10-91.01), firmness and elasticity (TA.XTPlus), and the number of cells and cell diameter (C-Cell Imaging System). The cake properties were compared using Tukey’s LSD (P < 0.05). Cakes made with maltitol (140% fwb) and a sucralose–maltodextrin combination (18% and 75% fwb) were significantly similar in textural properties to the sucrose control cake. The mean volume index for the sucrose control was 98 units, the sucralose–maltodextrin combination was 97 units and 105 units for the maltitol cake. The mean firmness (g) and elasticity (%) measurements for the cakes were 676 g and 55% for the sucrose control; 742 g and 54% for sucralose–maltodextrin; and 600 g and 54% for maltitol. The means of the number of cells and cell diameters (mm) for cakes were 2,817 cells and 2.12 mm for the sucrose control; 2,573 cells and 2.37 mm for sucralose–maltodextrin; and 2,520 cells and 2.43 mm for maltitol. The sucrose control, maltitol, and sucralose–maltodextrin cakes will be evaluated for their liking in a consumer acceptance sensory panel. 155-P Effect of hard wheat and soft wheat flour blends on steamed bread quality C. Ong (1), W. Wang (1), G. G. HOU (1), A. Bettge (2) (1) Wheat Marketing Center, Portland, OR, U.S.A.; (2) ADB Wheat, Moscow, ID, U.S.A.

Steamed bread is one of the widely consumed wheat-based products in China and Southeast Asian countries. Good quality steamed bread is characterized by large volume with a soft, moist and fine crumb texture, and a smooth, bright white skin. The objectives of this study were to investigate and compare the effects of protein content and blending ratios between hard and soft wheat classes on steamed bread quality. Three classes of wheat—soft white (SWH), hard red winter (HRW), and hard red spring (HRS)—were used, and their flour protein was 8.8%, 10.9%, and 13.1%, respectively. Three flour protein levels (<9.5%, 9.8–10.0%, and >10.3%) were selected by blending SWH with HRS or HRW flour. No significant difference in specific volume was observed between SWH/HRW and SWH/HRS blends at the same protein content (P > 0.05). However, SWH/HRW steamed breads were softer than SWH/HRS streamed breads (P < 0.05). To compare the effects of soft wheat and hard wheat flour blending on steamed bread quality, SWH/HRW and SWH/HRS flour blends were each made into the following ratios: 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100. Steamed bread made with 100% HRW had the largest volume, and flour blends that consisted of more than 50% HRS resulted in significantly smaller volumes (P < 0.01). SWH/HRS blends also produced harder texture steamed breads than SWH/HRW blends (P < 0.01), indicating that HRS may be too strong for making steamed bread, as the steamed breads shrunk too much. GlutoPeak test results suggested that blends of SWH/HRW was more effective in improving mixing peak time than SWH/HRS blends, which might contribute to larger steamed bread volume and softer texture of SWH/HRW flour blends observed. 156-P Comparison of the properties of wheat starch and resistant starch J. WANG (1), H. J. Huang (2) (1) College of Light Industry and Food Sciences, Guangzhou, China; (2) College of Biological Engineering, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China

Autoclave processing (121°C, 40 min) was applied to prepare wheat resistant starch. The resistant starch content was 13.89%. Physicochemical and structural properties of wheat starch and resistant starch were studied. Results showed that the water-holding capacity, solubility, and swelling capacity of wheat starch was 499.69%, 5.50%, and 1.01%, respectively and was 459.20%, 16.10%, and 9.09% for wheat resistant starch. For wheat starch and resistant starch, the maximum absorption wave of the starch-iodine compound was at 583 nm and 594 nm; moreover, a wider absorption peak in the curve was found between 580~600 nm and 580~610 nm. Observed by light microscopy and polarizing microscopy, both of wheat starch and resistant starch, most granules were rotund, and Maltese crosses were evident in these particles under polarized light, with most particles exhibiting cross patterns and a few particles displaying X-shaped patterns. In addition, the crossing points were in the center of the granules. The surface and edge of wheat starch was smooth for wheat starch, but the surface of wheat resistant starch was wrinkled, and the edge was dented in the scanning electron microscopy pictures. The beginning of gelatinization was at 87.5°C for wheat starch and at 68.7°C for wheat resistant starch, and the maximum viscosity was 108 BU and 61 BU, respectively, determined by Micro-Visco-Amylograph. Results of X-ray diffraction showed that the diffraction peaks (2θ) of wheat starch were 10.103°, 11.501°, 15.248°, 17.945°, 19.926°, and

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22.995°, A-type diffraction pattern. And the diffraction peaks (2θ) of wheat resistant starch were 5.727°, 15.087°, 17.268°, 22.357°, and 24.038°, C-type diffraction pattern. Consequently, wheat resistant starch showed some different properties, compared to wheat starch. Therefore, the application of wheat resistant starch should consider its characteristics. 157-P Low gluten composite wheat bread: Sensory evaluation and acceptability by Jamaican consumers I. L. THOMPSON (1) (1) University of the West Indies, Kingston 7, Jamaica

The increasing demand for low-gluten and gluten-free products has begun to shape consumer choices in the baked goods category. This study was undertaken to determine the level of wheat flour substitution that would be acceptable to Jamaican consumers in terms of its appearance, taste, and texture. The substitute for wheat flour being investigated is cassava flour, which addresses Jamaican consumers’ demand for lower gluten products, reduces Jamaica’s reliance on imported wheat thereby improving food security, and providing economic opportunities for rural small farmers. Sensory evaluation was used to assess the acceptability of composite cassava–wheat bread by comparing the performance of 10–40% cassava flour-substituted wheat breads with 100% wheat bread, as reference. A 9-point category scale was used, with 100% wheat bread as reference. The crumb texture (compression force) also was determined instrumentally using a texturometer (TA-XT2) over the aging period. The results showed that bread prepared using 10–20% cassava wheat composite flour was not significantly different in sensory quality from the reference sample, while breads prepared from 30% and 40% cassava wheat composite flour were rated as being significantly different (higher) in texture. The textural qualities (firmness) of bread are affected by the composition of the flour (and dough) used in its preparation, which in turn affect consumer acceptability. Comparative data from the proximate analysis of cassava and wheat flour revealed significantly lower fat (0.47% vs 2.66%) and protein (1.01% vs 7.79%) contents, but higher ash (0.85% vs 0.45%) and carbohydrate (89.2% vs 82.6%) contents. The higher rate of firming (staling) in the 30–40% composite breads is thought to be due to weaker protein–starch interactions resulting from their relatively lower protein (gluten) content. 158-P Sensory evaluation of a new proso millet product E. Sanderson (1), M. MCSWEENEY (2) (1) School of Nutrition and Dietetics, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada; (2) Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada

In recent years consumers have been advocating for new food products that can provide health benefits. In order to develop these products, sometimes it is necessary to look to alternative crops. One such crop is millet. Millets have traditionally been grown in Africa and Asia and are important crops in these regions due to their short growing season and ability to grow under drought conditions. Millets do not contain gluten and have been found to have a beneficial role on blood glucose and cholesterol regulation. For millet to be successfully adopted by consumers, work must be undertaken to find product types that are acceptable to North Americans. A couscous-like product was produced from refined proso millet using a steam cooker and a rice cooker. Descriptive sensory analysis of the millet couscous and conventional couscous was performed using a trained descriptive analysis panel. Furthermore, the couscous products were evaluated by consumers (n = 68) recruited from the community. The consumers evaluated the texture, flavor, and their overall liking of each product. Differences were found in the couscous products in terms of the many attributes evaluated by the trained panel. Millet was found to create a bitter, chewy, dry, and tooth-packing couscous product. More product types must be explored to take advantage of the health benefits millets provide. 159-P Compositional analysis of wet-milled fractions of dry edible beans F. SUMARGO (1), H. Wang (1), D. J. Rose (1) (1) University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.

The wet-milling process can be useful for extraction and fractionation of functional ingredients from dry, edible beans. Three types of dry beans (navy, pinto, and great northern) were wet-milled in triplicate according to standard laboratory practices without the addition of any reagents to the steeping water. Following wet-milling, all fractions were dried to obtain starch, protein, and fiber fractions. The yield (dry weight of fraction recovered/dry weight of starting beans) for the starch fractions ranged from 23% to 28%; fiber fraction from 34% to 40%; and protein fractions from 18% to 25%. Starch, protein, dietary fiber, and trypsin inhibitor were analyzed in each fraction. The major components in each fraction were starch (starch [84%–93%] and insoluble fiber [1.6%–2.8%]); protein (protein [52%–58%] and a mixture of soluble [3.3%–4.5%] and insoluble fiber [15%–20%]); and fiber (starch [30%–48%], insoluble fiber [25%–28%], and protein [11%–13%]). Trypsin inhibitor was predominantly found in the protein fraction and ranged from 31 to 54 mg/g. Trypsin inhibitor was significantly higher (P < 0.05)

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in great northern bean than the other two bean varieties (pinto and navy). The wet-milling process may be advantageous for production of functional ingredients from dry, edible beans. 160-P Temperature- and moisture content-dependent discoloration patterns of milled rice during long-term rough rice storage K. HAYDON (1), T. J. Siebenmorgen (1) (1) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.

Two long-grain hybrid rice cultivars, XL753 and CL XL745, both grown in Arkansas, were stored in rough rice form at moisture contents (MCs) of 21%, 19%, 16%, and 12.5% (wet basis) at temperatures of 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 27°C, and 40°C for a total of 16 weeks, with samples taken at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 13, and 16 weeks, with no exposure to light during storage. After drying, dehulling, and milling to an approximate surface lipid content (SLC) of 0.4%, head rice was separated from broken kernels, and discoloration measured by WinSEEDLE analysis. Using a scanned image of 100 kernels on a blue background, the software performed a pixel-by-pixel assessment of kernel area with color values established by a set of discolored kernels of interest chosen from samples in this study. The percent area of the kernels exhibiting particular colors depended on both storage MC and temperature, as well as storage duration, with two divergent patterns appearing in 21%-MC rice stored at 27°C and 40°C for at least 6 weeks in both cultivars. While the rice stored at 40°C had a uniform, yellowed appearance, the 27°C samples showed a mottled pattern of discoloration, along with a greater variety of colors, including yellow, pink, brown, and black. These results corroborate observations of samples from on-farm bins possessing gradients of rice MCs and temperatures yielding distinctly different discoloration patterns. The head rice from samples of all MCs stored at the 10°C and 15°C temperatures exhibited uniform whiteness throughout the storage duration, indicating that grain chilling may be a viable option for maintaining color quality in undried rough rice stored for up to 16 weeks. 162-P Kernel dimensions affect the optimum conditions required in parboiling rice J. PATINDOL (1), J. Assirati (1), A. Alvaranega (1), R. Amorim (1), Y. J. Wang (1) (1) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.

Rough rice kernels from one medium-grain (Jupiter) and one long-grain (Roy J) cultivar were parboiled under varying soaking and steaming conditions to better understand the factors affecting parboiled rice quality. Process optimization consisted of two soaking temperatures (4°C below and 4°C above onset gelatinization temperature), three soaking durations (60, 120, and 180 min), and two autoclave-steaming durations (10 and 20 min) at 110°C and 10 psi. The length, width, and thickness of Jupiter brown rice kernels were 5.7, 2.8, and 2.0 mm, respectively, whereas those of Roy J were 7.4, 2.1, and 1.8 mm, respectively. Owing to these kernel dimension differences, Jupiter required a longer duration than Roy J to attain a moisture content of ≈30% upon soaking. Parboiled head rice yields were 51.2–65.6% for Jupiter and 67.5–70.4% for Roy J. Based on milled kernel surface area, the percentage of chalkiness (uncooked white core) was 7.2–52.5% for Jupiter and 7.6–25.2% for Roy J. Percentage of burst/deformed kernels was 4.9–12.3% and 1.9–6.8% for Jupiter and Roy J, respectively. The extent of starch gelatinization, as measured by differential scanning calorimetry, was 42.8–86.2% for Jupiter and 41.9–90.0% for Roy J. Amylose and protein contents were minimally affected. whereas, paste viscosity and protein solubility decreased with parboiling severity. Aside from gelatinization temperature, kernel dimensions should also be considered in optimizing the soaking and steaming conditions to be used in parboiling rice. 163-P Effect of genotype and environment on the physicochemical properties of air-classified faba bean protein concentrates M. F. MARTINEZ (1), A. K. Stone (1), A. Vandenberg (1), M. T. Nickerson (1) (1) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

The effect of genotype (SSNS-1, Tabor, Fatima, FB 9-4, FB 18-20) and environment (Mordon and Melita, MB; grown in 2011) on the physicochemical and functional properties of air-classified faba bean protein concentrates was evaluated. Specifically, surface charge, hydrophobicity, interfacial and surface tension, solubility, emulsion stability, foaming stability and capacity, and water- and oil-holding capacities were tested. Air classification of pin-milled faba bean flour yielded 68.9% and 26.3% of the coarse and fine fractions, where the mean protein level in the fine faction (protein concentrate) was 65%. The process also yielded a total protein recovery of 91.1%. Overall, surface charge on the protein was found to depend on both genotype and environment, where values ranged between –19.4 and –31.8 mV at pH 7.0. Findings also found no effect of genotype or environment as it related to surface hydrophobicity (8.5 arbitrary units) and surface tension (46.3 mN/m). In the case of interfacial tension, genotype was found not to be significant; however, protein concentrates derived from seeds grown at Morden (10.2 mN/m) were significantly higher than those grown at Melita (7.9 mN/m). Of the functional properties,

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significant genotype × environment interactions were found only for solubility and foaming stability, which ranged between 82.3% and 90.6% and 70.9% and 79.5%, respectively. For all other functional properties, no significant effects were seen. Emulsion stability (83%), foaming capacity (140%), oil-holding capacity (1.16 g/g), and water-holding capacity (0.54 g/g) were found to be independent of genotype and environment. 164-P Impacts of parboiling conditions on the quality characteristics of parboiled comingled rice K. Leethanapanich (1), J. PATINDOL (1), Y. J. Wang (1) (1) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.

Parboiling includes soaking, steaming, and drying. It is known to improve head rice yield, retain nutrients, and render rice more resistant to severe processing conditions (e.g., canning). Recently, rice processors have faced the problem of comingling due to the increased number of rice cultivars grown by farmers. Each cultivar has different inherent properties, particularly gelatinization temperature (GT). Thus, using comingled rice as a feedstock for parboiling may result in inconsistent parboiled rice quality. This study examined the impacts of parboiling conditions on qualities of comingled rice. Three combinations of rice varieties (low/low GT, high/high GT, and low/high GT) were prepared at 1:1 ratios. Paddy rice was soaked at 65, 70, or 75°C for 3 hr; steamed at 115°C for 10, 15, or 20 min; and then dried. The results show that all soaking temperatures significantly improved head rice yield, which was attributed to the removal of chalkiness after soaking, because chalkiness is known to increase breakage susceptibility during milling. The head rice yield increased when soaking temperature was 3°C below the GT of the high-GT variety in the combination. The higher soaking temperatures (70 and 75°C) also decreased the occurrence of white core kernels, possibly by reducing steaming duration to achieve complete starch gelatinization as a result of a decreased temperature gradient of rice kernels. Steaming also decreased occurrence of white core and reduced peak and final pasting viscosity, but could also lead to deformation under long steaming durations. However, steaming duration had no significant impact on head rice yield. The effects of soaking temperature on the finished parboiled rice properties were more evident when low-GT rice was comingled with high-GT rice. Therefore, comingled rice with a wide range of GT is not recommended as a feedstock for parboiling. 165-P Effects of different processing on selected “beany” volatiles from soybean flour by simultaneous distillation extraction Y. CHEN (1), S. Arntfield (1), M. Aliani (1) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Soybean production and consumption has increased in recent decades due to its health effects in the prevention of cancer, osteoporosis, and heart disease. However, the beany flavor is a big issue that limits the acceptability of soybean products by some consumers. The objective of this research is to investigate the effects of different processes such as micronization and ethanol washing, both individually and in combination, on volatile “beany” flavors in soybean. Soybean seeds were micronized at 100°C and 135°C. Non-micronized and micronized seeds underwent milling and defatting. Flour was then treated with 65% or 85% ethanol. Volatiles from soybean flour were extracted with pentane using simultaneous distillation extraction (SDE) apparatus and analyzed by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Identification of volatile compounds was done by comparing the ion distribution and linear retention indices (LRI) with the resources in the NIST Library and the literature. A semi-quantification technique was used to roughly estimate the volatile concentration. A total of 38 compounds were positively identified from the soybean flour extract; these included various alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, and some with diverse functional groups, such as phenols and carboxylic acids. Of these, hexanal, (E)-2-hexenal, 1-hexanol, heptanal, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-2-nonenal, (E,E)-2,4-nonadienal, 2,4-decadienal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, 1-octen-3-ol, 2-pentylfuran, and 3-octen-2-one were previously reported as being related to the “beany” flavor. Micronization at 100°C and 135°C significantly reduced these selected volatile levels, in large part due to destruction of lipoxygenase. However, the effects of defatting and ethanol varied with different volatiles. Overall, micronization at 135°C with a 65% ethanol washing was recommended for reducing the level of “beany” flavor-related volatiles. 166-P Effects of heat treatment on oil-binding ability of rice flour M. SEGUCHI (1), A. Tabara (1) (1) Kobe Women’s University, Suma-Ku Kobe, Japan

Heat-treated (120°C for 120 min) rice flour showed a high affinity to oil (oil-binding ability). This oil-binding ability could be observed by shaking the heat-treated rice flour (2.0 g), oil (4.0 mL), and water (20 mL) vigorously in a test tube, and the oil bound to the rice flour sank into the water. To examine the time-dependent levels of the oil-binding ability, rice flour was heat-treated at 120°C for 10, 20, 40, 60, and 120 min, and the precipitated

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volume of oil/rice flour complex increased with an increase in the heating time. The oil-binding ability of the rice flour was not affected by treatments with diethyl ether or boiled chloroform/methanol (2:1) solutions, which suggested no relationship to the oil in the rice flour, but was lost upon alkali (0.2% NaOH solution) or pepsin treatment, which suggested its relationship to the rice proteins. 167-P Physical and functional characteristics of broken rice kernels created by rapid moisture adsorption S. MUKHOPADHYAY (1), T. J. Siebenmorgen (1) (1) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.

Fissuring caused by rapid moisture adsorption generates appreciable amounts of broken kernels on subsequent milling, thereby reducing the economic value of rice. This study investigated how rapid moisture adsorption affects the extent of kernel fissuring in rice lots, as well as the physical and functional characteristics of broken kernels that result from milling such lots. Pure-line, long-grain cultivar Roy J was conditioned to 9% and 12% initial moisture content (IMC) levels, soaked in water at 30°C (86°F) for 2 hr, gently re-dried to 12.0% moisture content (MC), and then milled to a surface lipid content of 0.4%. Milled rice yield, head rice yield, number-percentage of fissured kernels, and number of fissures/kernel were determined. Physical and functional properties of the broken kernels also were determined. Results showed that as IMC prior to rewetting decreased, the extent of fissuring increased, and, hence, subsequent breakage increased. Additionally, with decreasing IMC, the number of fissures/kernel increased, leading to the generation of greater amounts of small brokens. The functional properties of the flour produced from small brokens were significantly different from the functional properties of the flour produced from large brokens. However, the functional properties of the flour produced from medium-sized brokens were not significantly different from those of the flour produced from either the small or large brokens. 168-P Pigmented heirloom beans: Quality characteristics before and after cooking L. GARRETSON (1), T. Michaels (1), A. Marti (2) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.; (2) University of Milan, Milan, Italy

This study was aimed at characterizing four varieties of heirloom beans—Hutterite Soup (HS), Jacob’s Cattle (JC), Koroni’s Purple (KP), and Tiger’s Eye (TE)—for composition (starch, protein, total [TDF], soluble [SDF], and insoluble [IDF] fiber), pasting properties (by Micro-Visco-Amylograph, MVAG), in vitro antioxidant activity (AOX), total phenolic content (TPC), soaking (hydration rate), and cooking (optimal cooking time) properties. Pinto beans (PB) were used as a control. Starch and protein amounts ranged from 36.3 to 40.2% and 22.3 to 25.9%, respectively. TDF ranged from 27.1% (PB) to 34.9% (KP), with an IDF/SDF ratio of 5.9 and 3.0, respectively. Heirloom beans exhibited lower gelatinization temperatures (72.1–75.2°C) compared to PB (77.5°C). Moreover, they reached higher values of maximum viscosity (332–468 mPa*sec) and setback (352–403 mPa*sec) than PB (max viscosity: 301 mPa*sec; setback: 295 mPa*sec), suggesting higher swelling and retrogradation tendency. Soaking time (defined as time to reach 50% hydration) ranged from 273 min to 319 min for TE and KP, respectively. All heirloom beans required lower soaking time than PB (490 min). Cooking times (determined by tactile method) were very similar (60 and 85 min for PB and HS, respectively). JC and HS showed the highest and lowest AOX activity (49.5 vs 10.5%) and TPC (2.38 vs 1.40 mg GAE/g), respectively. Before cooking, heirloom beans showed lower values for both AOX (13.3–49.5%) and TPC (1.40–1.73 mg GAE/g) compared to PB (AOX: 65.9%; TPC: 2.23 mg GAE/g), with the exception of JC, which showed a similar value to PB for TPC (2.38 mg GAE/g). Interestingly, loss of AOX activity during cooking was lower in heirloom beans (8.3–37.6%) compared to PB (49.6%). Moreover, after cooking TE showed higher TPC than PB (4.43 and 3.90 mg GAE/g, respectively). This study improved current knowledge of quality characteristics of heirloom beans. 169-P Effect of drying-air conditions on head rice yield and moisture content of rice S. MUKHOPADHYAY (1), T. J. Siebenmorgen (1) (1) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, U.S.A.

Rough rice is generally harvested at moisture contents (MCs) exceeding the safe MC for storage and, subsequently, is dried to 12 ± 0.5% MC (wet basis) in on-farm or commercial dryers using heated air. The objective of this study was to quantify the impact of various drying-air (da) conditions (temperature/relative humidity [Tda/RHda] and air-flow rate [Q]) on head rice yield (HRY) and tempered MC of rice, with distance from the hot-air plenum (HAP) for a stationary bed of rice. Drying runs were conducted in triplicate in a climate-controlled chamber under three preselected Tda/RHda conditions (60°C/12% RH, 55°C/15% RH, and 50°C/18% RH; RHdawas adjusted to maintain a fixed humidity ratio of the da), three air-flow rates (2.3, 2.9, and 3.5 (m3/sec)/m2), and one drying duration (50 min). The stationary bed of rice comprised an experimental assembly of six interlocking, screen-bottomed cylinders to facilitate sampling at various distances from the HAP. Following a drying run, samples were obtained from each cylinder and tempered individually for 2 hr at the Tda. Tempered MCs were recorded, then

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samples were conditioned to 12 ± 0.5% MC, milled, and HRYs determined. Increasing either Tda or Q resulted in reduced HRYs; however, Tda had a greater impact on HRY than did Q. In general, HRYs decreased significantly with increased Tda, as well as with increased Q; both effects were more prominent in cylinders closer to the HAP. Results also showed that at constant Tda, HRY decreased with increase in Q. At constant Q, HRY decreased with increase in Tda. Tempered MC increased with increasing distance from the HAP. Expectedly, HRY increased with increasing distance from the HAP and the associated increases in tempered MC. When the data were pooled for all six cylinders, the effect of Tda and Q followed the same trend in that both significantly affected HRY and tempered MC. 171-P Development and application of starch-based biodegradable materials L. YU (1), S. Khalid (1), L. Meng (1), X. Xiao (1), H. Liu (1), L. Chen (1) (1) School of Food and Light Industry, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Starch has been identified as one of the most promising renewable resources for developing environmentally friendly polymeric materials. It has attracted more and more attention in the last two decades for two major reasons: environmental concerns and finite petroleum resources that are becoming limited. Adding value for agriculture products is another important concern in many countries. This paper introduces the development and application of starch-based materials developed in our group, including both fundamental science, such as microstructure, phase transition, and rheology, as well as application techniques, such as facilities, conditions, and formulations. The unique microstructure of starch and its multi-phase transitions during thermal processing provide an outstanding model system to illustrate our conceptual approach in understanding the relationship between structure–processing–property in polymers. One of the unique characteristics of starch-based polymers is their thermal processing properties. They are much more complex than those of conventional polymers since the multiple chemical and physical reactions might occur during the processing, such as water diffusion, granular expansion, gelatinization, decomposition, melting, crystallization, etc. The amylose/amylopectin ratio contained in different starches is one of the key issues affecting the performance of starch-based materials. Water solubility of starches increases their degradability and the speed of degradation, however, and moisture sensitivity limits their applications. Blends and multi-layer composites can be used to improve this property. New blends and composites are extending the utilization of polymers from renewable resource into new value-added products. Recently, we have developed and commercialized starch-based medicine capsules. 172-P Biomaterials production utilizing plant-crafted starches D. SAGNELLI (1), K. Hebelstrup (2), V. Giosafatto (3), J. Kirkensgaard (4), D. Lourdin (5), K. Mortensen (4), A. Blennow (1) (1) University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark; (2) University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark; (3) University of Naples, Naples, Italy; (4) University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; (5) Institut National De La Recherche Agronomique, Nantes, France

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is processable using conventional plastic processing techniques, such as extrusion and molding. Mechanical performance typically is improved by blending with synthetic polymers. Alternatively, starch designed directly in the grain could be sufficiently functionalized to provide improved plasticity, stability, and water resistance. We generated over-expressor and suppressor barley lines with radically improved starch, including an amylose-only barley (AO, Carciofi et al. 2012). TPS prototypes were produced using conventional extrusion processing and glycerol as reference plasticizer. The prototypes were tested for crystallinity, dynamic temperature gradient mechanics (DMTA), stress and strain at break tests, and gas permeability. Control barley starch mostly had the A-type crystalline polymorph, while the AO starch had both B-type and Vh-type. Following extrusion and equilibration at 57% RH, both the control and the AO prototypes had mainly the Vh-type crystalline polymorph, demonstrating that all B- and A-type crystals were melted. Furthermore the AO prototypes showed a 6-fold higher stress at break and 1.6-fold higher strain at break compared to control barley starch. 173-P Techno-economic analysis of ethanol production from Temperate × Tropical Maize H. HUANG (1), M. H. Chen (1), F. Below (1), L. Gentry (1), V. Singh (1) (1) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.

Temperate × tropical maize (TTM) is a maize hybrid (Zea mays L.) that was bred by crossing temperate and tropical parents for sugar and biofuel production. TTM has prolonged vegetative growth and accumulates soluble sugar in the stalk, which provides an opportunity to emulate the sugarcane ethanol industry in Brazil. Soluble sugars (sucrose, glucose, and fructose) accumulate in the TTM stalk during maize development, and the concentration could increase up to 30.1% (wt/wt) of dry material. Biomass yield of TTM can reach 8.0 tons per acre (dry basis). In this study, techno-economic models were developed to evaluate the economic feasibility of TTM for ethanol

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production. In the TTM process models, soluble sugars were extracted and fermented to produce ethanol. Bagasse, a by-product in the TTM process, was burned to produce steam to generate electricity for TTM processing plants, with the excess sold to the grid. Process models were built using SuperPro Designer software, which quantifies the processing characteristics, energy requirements, material flows, and conversion efficiencies at each step. Preliminary results showed that ethanol production costs from TTM were between $1.70 and $2.09/gal, depending on the composition of TTM. Ethanol yield from TTM was 345 gal/acre of land area, when TTM was harvested at the R5 growth stage. Sensitivity analysis will be conducted to determine the variation of ethanol production costs with the variables used in the economic analysis. 174-P Improving recovery of corn distillers oil from corn bioethanol process by enzyme addition: A model study L. FANG (1), T. Wang (1), B. Lamsal (1) (1) Iowa State University, Ames, IA, U.S.A.

Distiller’s corn oil is a valuable coproduct of the corn bioethanol process; if not recovered separately from thin stillage, it becomes part of animal feeds. The corn oil presents in different forms during fermentation, which makes conventional centrifugation not very efficient for oil recovery. Corn components, protein and non-starch polysaccharides, play important roles in corn oil recovery and distribution. We want to utilize enzyme technology during fermentation to make more oil recoverable downstream by modifying the protein and non-starch polysaccharides in cells. The oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by different corn fractions (corn germ meal, corn gluten meal) were destabilized using enzymes: protease and non-starch polysaccharide hydrolysis (NSPH) enzyme. The role of physical pretreatments, including particle size reduction and different grinding methods, was evaluated for their effects on oil recovery. Corn germ meal-stabilized emulsion was found to hold approximately 50% more oil than corn gluten meal-stabilized emulsion, and the corn germ meal stabilized the emulsion at room temperature for 1 week. However, the addition of proteases can change the system in either direction, either a weaker or more stable emulsion system may result, depending on the type of protease used. This result was confirmed with the pure corn germ and non-germ fractions. Proper particle size reduction can improve oil recovery, but a further size reduction may reduce oil recovery due to protein and other particles being released from corn cells. The proteases had a synergistic effect with NSPH enzyme, which can release more oil and oleosomes from corn germ. This model helped in understanding the effects of physical and enzymatic treatments of corn fractions on oil distribution and recovery. It can be used as a simple guide for industry to choose the proper enzyme for a specific aim. 175-P Application of cellulose and lignin-coated cellulose-based nanofillers for bio-based packaging J. XU (1), P. H. Manepalli (1), L. Zhu (1), S. Alavi (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Bio-based polymers are of great interest to industry because of environmental concerns about environmental plastics. The objective of this study was to enhance the barrier and mechanical properties of films made from poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) by adding nano-fillers such as nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) and lignin-coated nanocrystalline cellulose (LNCC). NCC and LNCC (3%, wt) were melt blended into PLA and PBS before being hot-pressed into 0.075 mm films. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) imaging indicated morphological studies, showing nano-fillers were dispersed uniformly in the polymer matrix. Changes in heat capacity (ΔCp) decreased from 0.5 J/g °C to 0.4 J/g °C and 0.43 J/g °C with addition of NCC and LNCC to PLA, respectively, at glass transition, indicating greater confinement due to increased nucleation of crystalline regions with addition of NCC and LNCC. Enthalpy of crystallization (ΔHc) increased from 24.55 J/g to 26.33 J/g and 25.23 J/g with addition of NCC and LNCC to PLA, respectively, confirming the increase in crystallization. In the case of PBS-based nanocomposites, ΔCp decreased with addition of NCC (0.14–0.11 J/g °C) but increased with addition of LNCC (0.14–0.18 J/g °C). ΔHc increased with NCC addition (65.94–67.09 J/g) and decreased with LNCC addition (65.94–63.63 J/g), indicating that crystallinity increased with addition of NCC only. Tensile testing data indicated an increase in tensile strength from 47.91 MPa to 52.75 MPa and 54.77 MPa with addition of NCC and LNCC to PLA, respectively. Similarly, in PBS-based nanocomposites, tensile strength increased from 27.11 MPa to 30.85 MPa and 29.87 MPa with addition of NCC and LNCC, respectively. Oxygen transmission rates (OTR) and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of PLA- and PBS-based nanocomposites decreased with the addition of NCC and LNCC.

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176-P Corn starch film properties as affected by plasticizers and amylose contents H. Y. KIM (1), J. l. Jane (1), B. Lamsal (1) (1) Iowa State University, Ames, IA, U.S.A.

Plasticized cornstarch films were investigated for their physical and mechanical properties. The films were prepared by casting aqueous dispersions of corn starches (normal corn with ≈25% amylose content and high amylose corn starches with 70% amylose content) and various plasticizers (glycerol, sorbitol, xylitol, and ethylene glycol). Starch content was constant at 3% (dry solids), whereas plasticizer content in the dispersion varied from 0 to 50% (wt/wt starch). The aqueous dispersions of starch and plasticizer were vigorously stirred at 100°C for 1 hr and then cast on a mold (155 × 205 mm glass plate with edges) and dried at 50°C overnight. Dried film specimens (20 × 68 mm) were equilibrated at 53% RH for 48 hr prior to tensile testing using a universal testing system. Mechanical properties were determined from the resulting stress-strain curve. All the films tested appeared uniform, smooth, and flexible. However, 10% glycerol and 20% ethylene glycol-plasticized normal cornstarch films were very brittle and difficult to handle, similarly to starch films without plasticizer. Regardless of plasticizer type and level or amylose content tested, the film had a thickness ranging from 0.11 to 0.17 mm. Normal cornstarch film containing 20% glycerol had the highest tensile strength (12.34 MPa) and Young’s modulus (321.71 MPa) among the four tested plasticizers. As the glycerol content was increased from 20 to 50%, the normal corn starch films became less rigid, showing a decrease in tensile strength (12.34 → 1.17 MPa), and more pliable, as seen with the increase in elongation at break (17.50 → 68.11%). A similar trend was observed in high amylose corn starch film. However, more glycerol (40%, wt/vol) in high amylose corn starch film prevented the phenomenon observed for the film containing 20% glycerol, which was broken into pieces during the drying process. 177-P Development of a mass balance model of a dry-grind ethanol plant C. K. NELSON (1), C. R. Hurburgh (1) (1) Iowa State University, Ames, IA, U.S.A.

Dry-grind ethanol industry growth has increased alternative processing technology research, including back-end oil extraction and front-end fractionation. Adding alternative processing technologies to an existing ethanol plant results in the production of more diverse, high-value co-products (relative to traditional dry-grind DDGS). This may increase overall profitability for an ethanol plant. An ethanol plant model was developed to evaluate the impacts of back-end oil extraction and front-end fractionation technologies, allowing prediction of the nutritional changes in co-products based on technology installed. The model runs in Microsoft Excel and requires inputs of whole corn composition (proximate analysis) and amino acid content, obtained by near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) or traditional wet chemistry methods. Component percentages plus grain weight predict co-product quantity and quality. Additional user inputs include plant efficiencies, plant capacity, and the presence or absence of alternative processing technologies. For example, model inputs for a traditional plant processing 60,000 bushels of corn/day would yield 504 tons of DDGS. Addition of front-end fractionation yields model outputs of 245 tons of DDGS, 34 tons of bran, and 151 tons of germ. The co-products predicted in this model are entered into the U.S. Pork Center of Excellence National Swine Nutrition Guide feed formulation software. This allows for evaluation of the nutritive value of new co-products as animal feed ingredients, including consideration of dietary essential amino acids for specific livestock diets. This model is intended for individual ethanol plants to assess and monitor variability in co-product composition due to variability in whole corn composition, resulting in value addition for the plant and more accurate use of novel co-products as feed ingredients. 178-P Flow behavior of corn starch suspensions as a function of concentration and temperature N. Y. SINAKI (1) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Corn starch makes up more than 80% of the world market for cereal starch. The flow behavior of suspensions containing starch is a major concern for the food industry. Precise knowledge of starch suspension viscosity for the concentration of suspended particles for specific process temperatures facilitates optimizing the production process for starchy food suspensions. In this study, the relationship between the viscosity of ungelatinized corn starch suspensions with varying solid volume fractions was studied as a function of temperature. All suspensions were prepared with a continuous phase of 60% sucrose solution to have a density-matched suspension at 20°C. Flow behavior was evaluated using a rotational rheometer by applying a steady simple shear flow and dynamic oscillation (0.1–50 Hz) at 20, 50, and 80°C. Six different solid volume fractions (1 to 25%) were used to represent the dilute and intermediate concentration regimes for the study. The relative viscosity of corn starch suspensions was almost constant with increasing shear stress and exhibited Newtonian behavior at all solid volume fractions. The relative viscosity increased with increasing starch content, but decreased with increasing temperature. Gravitational displacement of the starch granules as a result of non–density-matched suspensions at 50 and 80°C

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likely creates a depleted layer of liquid to make a lower-viscosity suspension. Dynamic viscosity results corroborated the shear viscosity results, except for high solid volume fractions (20% and 25%) in which the relative shear viscosity was higher than the relative dynamic viscosity. This possibly was a consequence of slight aggregation of starch granules in high concentration suspensions to which the shear flow test caused much greater structure disruption than the oscillatory test. 179-P Preparation of starch nanoparticles by acid hydrolysis and bath-type ultra-sonicator H. NAMKUNG (1), H. Y. Kim (2), S. T. Lim (1) (1) Graduate School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; (2) Department of Food Science & Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, U.S.A.

Starch nanoparticles can be used for various purposes such as food ingredients, pharmaceutical drug delivery systems, and paper coating agents. To apply starch nanoparticles to these fields, in this study we made starch nanoparticles using bath-type ultra-sonication followed by acid hydrolysis under various conditions (acid hydrolysis time, ethanol treatment, and ultra-sonication time). Waxy maize starch was hydrolyzed in aqueous sulfuric acid solution (3.16 M) for 6, 12, 18, and 24 hr and recovered by centrifugation. The precipitates were neutralized with 1 M NaOH and washed with water twice to remove the residual salts. The starch hydrolysates were re-dispersed into water and homogenized prior to ultra-sonication. During ultra-sonication, the starch hydrolysates were fragmented to nanoparticles by the cavitation effect of the ultra-sonicator. The hydrolysates obtained after the ultra-sonication treatment were recovered by centrifugation. The experimental results indicated that the yield of starches decreased as acid hydrolysis time increased but crystallinity of starch was slightly increased in the peak intensity of the X-ray diffraction pattern. The use of aqueous ethanol solution could increase the yield of starch nanoparticles (58.3–78.3%), but affect the crystallinity of the starch nanoparticles. With increasing ultra-sonication time, transmittance increased and starch particle size decreased. However, starch nanoparticles were continuously aggregated after ultra-sonication treatment. As a conclusion, acid hydrolysis for 24 hr was a suitable time for breaking amorphous parts of starch. Use of EtOH was not good for this study because crystallinity was decreased. Ultra-sonication was done until solution’s transmittance of 70%. The average diameter of particles at this transmittance was 240 nm. 180-P Impact of polymer physicochemical features on the physical stability of citric acid amorphous solid dispersions S. ARIOGLU TUNCIL (1), L. J. Mauer (1) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

Citric acid (CA) is an organic acid that has been used in food preparations and pharmaceutical applications for many purposes, including adjusting the pH of solutions and tablets, and as an antioxidant, chelating agent, preservative, and flavor enhancer. CA as an ingredient is most often used in a crystalline deliquescent form, which is stable as long at the environmental conditions (temperature and relative humidity [RH]) are below its deliquescence point. However, when CA is introduced into the food matrix, its structure can be converted into the amorphous form due to processing conditions and its interaction with other food components. Amorphous solids are prone to recrystallization, which can contribute to product quality loss. One of the promising methods to stabilize amorphous solids is to create solid dispersions by dispersing the ingredient prone to crystallization in naturally amorphous excipients such as polymers. The objective of this study was to investigate the CA crystallization inhibitor properties of a variety of polymers, including pectin, HPMC (hydroxypropyl methylcellulose), CMC-Na (carboxymethylcellulose sodium), guar gum, κ-carrageenan, and gelatin. CA-polymer amorphous solid dispersions were prepared by lyophilization and then stored at select temperature (25 and 40°C) and RH (0, 32, 54, 75% RH) conditions. X-Ray powder diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry were performed to monitor stability over time. CA amorphous solid dispersions were successfully created in the presence of the polymers of interest. Interactions between polymers and CA via hydrogen or ionic bonding was the key factor in inhibiting crystallization, and stability was less dependent on the glass transition temperature and hygroscopicity of the polymers. 181-P Effect of particle size on shear flow properties of wheat flour K. SILIVERU (1), K. Ambrose (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Separation of wheat flour particles based on size, with minimum bran contamination, is very important for a flour mill. The milling industries rely on the sieving process to obtain quality flour. There is tremendous loss in throughput when sieving soft wheat flour compared to that of hard wheat flour due to differences in particle to particle cohesion. The objective of the present work is to investigate the shear flow properties, i.e., cohesion, and unconfined yield strength as influenced by moisture content and particle size. Wheat flour from hard and soft

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wheat classes were used in this study. The properties were evaluated at three moisture contents (10, 12, and 14%, wet basis) and five different particle size ranges (<45, 45–75, 75–90, 90–125, >125 μm). The values for cohesion and unconfined yield strength obtained for hard and soft wheats were significantly (P < 0.05) different. In addition, the measured shear flow properties values decreased with increase in particle size, irrespective of wheat class. For hard wheat flour particles <45 μm cohesion was 1.41 kPa, whereas for flour particles >125 μm cohesion was 0.92 kPa. Results indicate that cohesion and other shear properties of wheat flour are highly dependent on particle size. The understanding of these shear flow properties could eventually be instrumental in improving the particle separation efficiency of flour from various wheat classes. 182-P Influence of oat and barley β-glucans on emulsification and lipolysis of canola oil H. ZHAI (1), P. Gunness (1), M. J. Gidley (1) (1) ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls; Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation; University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of cereal soluble dietary fibers on the process of lipid emulsification and subsequent lipolysis in an in vitro digestion model. Three emulsifiers, Triton ×100, lecithin, and whey protein isolate, were used to prepare canola oil-in-water emulsions in the presence of β-glucans (BGs) from oat and barley. The oil emulsions with added fibers were prepared in three different ways: 1) lipid droplets were initially coated by emulsifiers, and BGs were then added to form the final emulsion; 2) lipid droplets were initially coated by BGs, and the emulsifiers were then added to form the final emulsion; and 3) emulsifiers were dispersed in BG solution, and oil was then added to form the final emulsion. The emulsified lipids were subjected to an in vitro digestion model simulating the conditions found in the small intestine, where the majority of lipid digestion occurs. The changes in microstructure and droplet size distribution of the emulsions were monitored by confocal laser scanning microscopy and laser light scattering. The viscosities of emulsions were measured, and the rate and extent of lipid digestion were determined. In general, in the absence of soluble dietary fibers, lipid emulsification depended on emulsifier type, with larger lipid droplets found in WPI stabilized emulsions. The three ways of incubating emulsions with fibers increased viscosity and size of emulsified droplets, but to different extents depending on emulsifier type and mixing order. Addition of viscous fibers altered lipid digestion, possibly due to droplet flocculation or gel forming effects, which would restrict the access of lipase to the lipid droplet surfaces. These results enhance our understanding of the impact of soluble dietary fibers on the physicochemical and structural changes that may occur in emulsified lipids within the gastrointestinal tract. 183-P Effect of cultivar and growing location on physicochemical and cooking quality traits of beans N. WANG (1), A. Hou (2), J. Santos (1) (1) Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) AAFC Morden Research Station, Morden, MB, Canada

The quality of beans depends on many factors, such as cultivar, growing location, and environment. However, there is little information available on how these factors affect the quality of beans. This study was aimed at investigating the effects of cultivar and growing location on the physicochemical and cooking characteristics of beans grown in Manitoba, Canada. Bean cultivars were grown in three replications in a randomized complete block design at two locations (Morden and Portage la Prairie) in Manitoba in 2013. Physical characteristics (water hydration capacity and seed weight) were determined according to AACCI Approved Method 56-35.01. Nitrogen (N) was determined by the Dumas combustion method, and crude protein content (N × 6.25) was calculated. Starch and ash content were determined according to AACCI Approved Methods 76-13.01 and 08-16.01, respectively. Cooking time was determined with an automated Mattson cooker device. Firmness of cooked beans was measured with a TA-HDi texture analyzer. Seed weight ranged from 14.4 to 64.3 g/100 seeds. Water hydration capacity varied from 0.27 to 1.23 g of H2O/g of seeds. Crude protein content varied from 240.4 to 296.2 g/kg dry matter, starch content from 340.5 to 407.4 g/kg dry matter, and ash content from 40.9 to 50.6 g/kg dry matter. Cooking time ranged from 9.2 to 17.8 min, whereas firmness of cooked beans varied from 21.6 to 33.6 N/g of cooked seeds. Analysis of variance indicated that cultivar and growing location had a significant effect on seed weight, water hydration capacity, protein and starch contents, cooking time, and firmness of cooked beans. All quality traits were significantly affected by the interactive effect of cultivar and growing location, except ash content and firmness of cooked beans. Information gathered from this study will be useful to breeders in efforts to improve potential new bean cultivars with enhanced quality traits.

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184-P Preparation and characterization of aqueous starch-based α-lipoic acid composite dispersion Y. LI (1), S. LIM (1) (1) Graduate School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea

α-Lipoic acid (ALA), which is synthesized by animals and plants, functions as an essential co-factor in mitochondrial energy metabolism. ALA and its reduced form, dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA), readily interconvert and have received considerable attention due to their roles as bio-thiol antioxidants. In addition to its poor solubility in water, however, ALA is readily decomposed by photo-irradiation and considerably vulnerable to polymerization, resulting in activity loss and sulfurous odor. These problems make ALA difficult to use in potential applications. For delivery and stabilization of ALA, encapsulation would be an appropriate device. Starch, as a desirable encapsulation agent, could be expected to mitigate the disadvantageous properties of ALA. First, ALA pre-dissolved in ethanol (5% wt/vol) was dispersed in an aqueous solution of high amylose starch (1% wt/vol). The dispersion was incubated at various temperatures (50, 70, and 90°C) for various reaction times (3, 6, and 12 hr) and then slowly cooled to 20°C by stirring for 12 hr. Subsequently, a mild ultrasonication for 3 min was applied once to improve the reaction. The dispersion obtained was milky white and remained homogenous for up to 14 days at ambient temperatures in the dark. The precipitates isolated from dispersions contained V-type crystalline structure complexes under differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction analysis. The decreased recoveries of ALA under high temperature (90°C) and long reaction times (6 and 12 hr) might be mainly attributed to the polymerization of ALA. Approximately 50% of ALA resided in the precipitate, and 20% was in the supernatant. The results indicated the starch behaved as a stabilizer for dispersing ALA in aqueous solution by forming V-amylose complex, which could be used as an efficient method to protect bioactive components. 185-P The effects of native wheat lipids on the visco-elastic properties of dough S. CROPPER (1), H. Dogan (1), J. Faubion (1) (1) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A.

Native wheat lipids provide a secondary support system for gas cells in dough following the stretching and break down of the gluten–starch matrix during proofing and baking. Specifically, polar lipids are amphiphilic molecules that form compressed monolayers at the interface and stabilize gas cells. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of native wheat lipid fractions (nonpolar, phospholipids, and glycolipids) on the rheological properties of dough through small and large deformation testing. Total lipids were extracted from bread flour using chloroform (1:6 wt/vol) and then fractionated into nonpolar, glycolipids, and phospholipids using solid-phase extraction (SPE) with varying solvents. Defatted flour (100 g) was reconstituted with double the amount of each lipid fraction found naturally in the flour. Control, defatted, and lipid treated doughs were made following AACCI Approved Method 10-10.03. Small amplitude oscillatory rheology testing, which included stress, frequency, and temperature sweeps, was conducted on doughs after mixing and proofing. Large deformation analysis utilizing uniaxial testing also was performed. Stress sweep measurements determined the linear visco-elastic region to be below 40 Pa for all dough samples. Storage modulus (G′) increased as a function of frequency and was higher than the loss modulus (G″), indicating a more elastic dough. Nonpolar dough had the lowest G′ at 1 Hz (5,261 Pa) after mixing and after proofing (5,425 Pa) than any of the other treatments. Uniaxial testing determined that nonpolar (16 g), phospholipid (22 g), and glycolipid (17 g) additions weakened the dough, as the force measurements were lower than the defatted (26 g) and control (25 g). These results indicate that the addition of lipid fractions not only are beneficial for final loaf quality, but also influence the visco-elastic properties of the dough. 187-P Changing the molecular structure of milk proteins results in texture and structural differences in finished baked goods L. WARD (1), D. Hoffpauer (1), J. Nutsch (1), V. Zhong (1), J. Swindler (1) (1) Glanbia Nutritionals, Twin Falls, ID, U.S.A.

Trends in protein fortification have increased the awareness that protein ingredients can alter the gluten matrix found in bakery products. This research evaluated the impact of skim milk (high heat or low heat) on dough rheology and on finished bread characteristics. Farinograph tests showed that flour fortified with low-heat skim milk with non-denatured proteins (SM) had a 24.9% increase in development time and a 73.5% increase in stability arrival time when compared to a non-fortified control. The flour fortified with SM also had an average departure from stability of 16:07 min. High-heat skim milk with denatured proteins (SMD), in comparison, developed 30% more quickly than the control and arrived at stability similar to the control and didn’t show stability departure. SDS-PAGE confirmed the presence of multiple protein species and disulfide-linked aggregates that were created during the heating process. SDS-PAGE of mixed bread dough showed the major gluten and milk proteins under reducing and non-reducing conditions, highlighting significant disulfide interactions. In a model

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bread system SM resulted in bread that had an ≈1.5 times increase in firmness after two days of storage. However, skim milk is not suitable for protein fortification, so a milk protein concentrate (MPC 85, low- and high-heat treated) was used to fortify muffins and cookies. Muffins fortified with milk protein concentrate (high heat) were 1.8 times more firm compared to muffins containing standard milk protein concentrate. Protein-fortified cookies did not show a significant difference between low-heat and high-heat processed milk protein concentrate. Processing conditions used to develop protein ingredients can have a significant impact on the dough rheology, structure, and texture of baked goods. 188-P Pasting and textural properties of sorghum flours before and after germination C. YI (1), Y. Li (1), Y. He (2) (1) Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, HI, China; (2) James Cook University, Townsville, QC, Australia

The pasting and texture profiles of sorghum flours from germinated and ungerminated grains were compared. The effects of germination on the protease, amino acid nitrogen, crude protein, protein fraction, and protein tissue structure of the flour were analyzed. Results showed that the viscosities decreased with germination, including peak viscosity (PV), hot paste viscosity (HPV), final viscosity (FV), breakdown (BD), and setback (SB). PV value of white sorghum decreased from 1,324 rapid viscosity units (RVU) to 727 RVU after germination, and red sorghum decreased from 1,549 RVU to 1,295 RVU. The hardness of the sorghum pastes was enhanced after germination; for example, that of the white sorghum increased from 1,640 g to 5,374 g and red sorghum increased from 970 to 5,529 g. At the same time, the amount (or %) of proteases, amino acid nitrogen, albumin, and globulin increased, while crude protein and kafirin decreased. SDS-PAGE image showed that the color of γ- and β-kafirin bands of the sorghum was slightly lighter with the formation of a continuous protein network after germination. The results demonstrated that germination changed the content and structure of the proteins, which in turn affected the pasting and texture profiles of sorghum flour. 189-P Solvent retention capacity on milling fractions of hard red spring wheat flour A. LINDGREN (1), S. Simsek (2) (1) North Dakota State University, Department of Plant Science, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.; (2) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

The solvent retention capacity (SRC) method is often used to evaluate soft wheat for end-product functionality. The suitability of using solvent retention capacity for hard red spring (HRS) wheat was evaluated for Buhler mill-stream flour samples. There currently is limited research on the SRC profiles of HRS wheat and different milling fractions of HRS wheat. The wheat sample was a composite blend of Glenn, Prosper, and Barlow varieties. The sample was milled using a Buhler mill to produce five mill fraction samples: one break flour, three reduction flours, and one composite straight-grade flour. The quality and end-use functionality of the mill streams were measured using rheological and end-product quality methods. The results were analyzed for correlations between flour samples and SRC values compared to other flour parameter tests, including the farinograph, mixograph, and rapid visco analyzer (RVA). The mill fractions had significantly (P < 0.05) different SRC profiles. The water SRC values for the break flour, reduction 1, reduction 2, reduction 3, and straight-grade flours were 69.6, 84.6, 93.9, 104.9, and 88.2%, respectively. There were also significant (P < 0.05) differences in the flour composition, pasting properties, and end-product quality of the mill-stream samples. These results were expected because mill streams do not produce identical flour samples. The SRC had very highly significant (P < 0.001) correlations with farinograph water absorption and some end-product quality parameters. These correlations indicate that the SRC method could be used to test for the dough and end-use quality of different HRS wheat mill streams. The gluten performance index (GPI) had especially good correlations with end-use quality of the mill-stream samples. These results are helpful for millers who separate mill-stream fractions based on specific end-use products. 190-P Preparation of waxy maize starch nanoparticles using enzymatic hydrolysis and recrystallization D. J. LEE (1), S. T. Lim (1) (1) Graduate School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Seoul, Korea

Starch nanoparticles were prepared from waxy maize starch using enzymatic hydrolysis and recrystallization. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and nanoparticle size analysis were used to characterize the waxy maize starch nanoparticles prepared under different conditions in enzyme concentration (0.5–3%) and recrystallization process (4°C or at cycles of 4°C and 30°C for 24 hr each for 10 days). The time for starch hydrolysis was decreased by increasing enzyme concentration. The starch particle diameters were decreased less than 200 nm by enzymatic hydrolysis at 3% enzyme concentration. However, the starch particle size was increased by recrystallization process, possibly due to aggregation. The

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recovery yield of starch nanoparticles was greater than 80%. The crystal pattern of waxy maize starch nanoparticles was changed from A-type (native) to B-type (recrystallization) by nanoparticle preparation. The melting enthalpy of starch nanoparticles was increased as enzyme concentration increased from 0.5 to 3% and recrystallization process. The prepared waxy maize starch nanoparticles might be used in food and industrial products as a novel ingredient. 191-P Preparation and properties of starch nanoparticles in a water-in-oil microemulsion system Z. LUO (1), X. Wang (1) (1) South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China

In this research, 1-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide C16mimBr/butan-1-ol/cyclohexane/water ionic liquid microemulsion was prepared. The effects of n-alkyl alcohols, alkanes, water content, and temperature on the interfacial composition and thermodynamic properties of microemulsion were studied by dilution experiment. The microregion of microemulsion was identified by pseudo-ternary phase diagram and conductivity measurement. Starch nanoparticles were prepared by water in oil (W/O) microemulsion–cross-linking methods with C16mimBr as surfactant. Starch nanoparticles with a mean diameter of 94.3 nm and narrow size distribution were confirmed by dynamic light scattering (DLS). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) data revealed that starch nanoparticles were spherical granules with small size. The results of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) demonstrated the formation of cross-linking bonds in starch molecules. This work may provide a green and efficient pathway to synthesis of starch nanoparticles. 193-P Hydrothermal treatment of ‘Morado’ banana starch: Physicochemical and digestibility features L. A. BELLO-PEREZ (1), J. D. Hoyos-Leyva (1) (1) CEPROBI-IPN, Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico

Banana starch from variety Morado (purple), showed elongated granules similar to those reported in high-amylose maize starch and higher amylose content than plantain starch. In this sense, we hypothesized that hydrothermal treatment (HMT) could produce this functional ingredient with high levels of slowly digestible (SDS) and resistant (RS) starches. The goal of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical and digestibility changes in ‘Morado’ banana starch due to HMT. Starch was isolated from unripe ‘Morado’ bananas, and starch purity and amylose content were measured using kits from Megazyme International Ireland Ltd. Central composite design (moisture: 30–40%; heating time: 6.5–10.5 hr; temperature: 100°C) was employed to evaluate the effect of these factors on the yield of SDS and RS. Response surface methodology was used to optimize HMT conditions for production of starch containing the maximum SDS and RS content. Englyst’s method was used to analyze the starch digestibility of previously gelatinized native and HMT starches. Gelatinization parameters of native and optimal HMT-modified starch were measured using a differential scanning calorimeter. The moisture content of 32.2% and 6.5 hr of heating time at 100°C produced starch with 12% SDS and 30% RS contents, which did not deviate significantly from the prediction model (12% SDS and 29% RS). ANOVA indicated that the predictive equation explained 87% of SDS and 90% of RS variation. HMT increased all gelatinization parameters evaluated. The surrounding amorphous regions control the melting temperatures of the starch crystallites indirectly. After HMT, the amylose–amylose interactions reduced the mobility of the amorphous regions, causing the treated starches to need higher temperatures for swelling and disruption of the crystalline regions. HMT induced a major order in ‘Morado’ banana starch, which significantly affected its digestibility. 194-P Cooking quality of extruded and laminated noodles S. MOAYEDI (1), F. Manthey (1), Y. Li (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of thickness and of lamination on the quality of cooked noodles. Semolina was hydrated to 38% and extruded as a very thin (0.88 mm), thin (0.93 mm), and thick (1.78 mm) lasagna sheet. Two or three thin lasagna sheets were stacked together and formed into a laminated sheet by passing them through paired rolls with a roll gap setting for a thin sheet. The thickness of two lasagna sheets was 0.96 mm, and three lasagna sheets had a thickness of 1.17 mm. The extruded lasagna and laminated sheets were passed through cutting rolls to form noodles that were 5 mm wide. All noodles were dried in a pasta drier using a high temperature (70°C) drying cycle. Cooked quality was determined using a slightly modified AACC Approved Method 66-50.01, where noodles were cooked for 2, 4, 6, 8, 16, 18, and 20 min. For all samples cooked firmness decreased and cooking loss and cooked weight increased as cooking time increased. Cooked firmness was greatest with thick, intermediate with thin, and least with very thin extruded noodles. There was a negative relationship between thickness and cooking loss and cooked weight, so that the thick noodles had the lowest cooking loss and cooking weight. Thin and very thin noodles had similar cooking loss and cooking weight.

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Laminated noodles had greater cooked firmness than thin extruded noodle. However, there was no significant difference in firmness of noodles laminated with two or three layers. Lamination decreased cooking loss and cooking weight. Thin, non-laminated noodles had lower firmness and higher cooking loss and cooked weight compared to the laminated noodles. Cooking loss and cooked weight were similar for noodles that had two or three laminated layers. These results indicate that lamination can improve cooking quality by increasing cooked firmness and decreasing cooking loss and cooked weight. 195-P Preparation of starch nanospheres through hydrophobic modification followed by initial water F. Gu (1), B. Z. Li (2), H. Xia (1), B. Adhikari (3), Q. GAO (1) (1) South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China; (2) Guangxi Key Laboratory of Biorefinery, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, China; (3) RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Starch nanospheres smaller than 200 nm were produced from hydrophobically modified starch using an initial water dialysis method. The hydrophobic modification of starch was performed using octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA). The resultant starch nanospheres were characterized using Fourier transformation infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Effects of degree of substitution (DS) in OSA-starch, initial water content, and OSA-starch concentration on morphology and particle size of starch nanospheres were evaluated. The SEM micrographs showed that starch nanospheres with a spherical shape and sharp edge can be produced at DS values ≧0.67. The particle size of starch nanospheres decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with increase in DS of OSA-starch and increase in the initial water content, whereas the particle size increased significantly (P < 0.05) with the increase in the concentration of OSA-starch. These OSA-starch nanospheres can be preferentially used to microencapsulate hydrophobic drugs. 196-P Improvement of resistant starch and cooking stability of debranched cassava starch by hydrothermal treatments S. Boonna (1), S. TONGTA (1) (1) Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand

Annealing (ANN) and heat-moisture treatment (HMT) are two types of hydrothermal treatments that are widely used to modify the physicochemical properties and digestibility of starch. The effects of single (ANN or HMT) and dual (the combination of ANN and HMT) hydrothermal treatments on enzyme digestibility, thermal properties, and cooking stability of debranched starch were investigated. Cassava starch was gelatinized, debranched, retrograded by temperature cycling, and then subjected to hydrothermal treatments. All HMT-treated starches at 120–140°C (20% moisture) for 2 hr showed a higher content of resistant starch (RS) compared with all ANN-treated starches at 80–100°C (90% moisture) for 48 hr. Annealing at 100°C demonstrated a higher melting temperature range. Increasing HMT temperature from 120 to 140°C trended to increase the RS formation and melting temperature range. Dual hydrothermal treatment with HMT at 130°C followed by ANN at 100°C (HMT-ANN) was more efficient to improve a yield of RS (71%) than ANN followed by HMT (ANN-HMT) (46%). However, ANN-HMT–treated starch showed the higher melting temperatures of 105–127°C and 135–142°C. Cooking stability of samples with 50 and 70% moisture using steaming for 30 min was investigated. Cooking of ANN-HMT treated starch at 50% moisture could increase RS content, whereas a decrease in RS content less than 3% was observed at 70% moisture cooking. These results indicated that RS content and cooking stability could be improved by both single and dual hydrothermal treatments. 197-P Optimization and effects of forced convection roasting on physicochemical and antioxidants properties of Nigerian maize S. M. BALA (1), L. U. Opara (1), M. Kidd (1), M. Manley (1) (1) Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Effects of forced convection roasting on moisture and protein contents, bulk density, color, pH, kernel hardness, amino acids profile, total phenolics and flavonoids, and antioxidant activity of two Nigerian maize cultivars, SAMMAZ28 (S28) and SAMMAZ33 (S33), were investigated. A forced convection continuous tumble roaster was used, and experimental runs were generated using a central composite design with minimum and maximum roasting temperatures (136–234°C) and rotating speeds (20–90 Hz). A decrease in speed showed a significant (P ≤ 0.05) decrease in moisture content, while an increase in temperature did not result in a significant (P > 0.05) reduction for both maize cultivars. The bulk density of S28 decreased while that of S33 increased with an increase in temperature. A decrease in bulk densities of S28 and S33 with a decrease in speed were observed. An increase in temperature increased the whiteness index (WI) of S28 and decreased that of S33, while speed did not significantly change WI for either maize cultivar. A decrease in the yellowness index (YI) of S28 and increase in that of S33 with an increase in temperature were observed, whereas changes in YI for both maize cultivars due to

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variation in speed were not significant. Variation in temperature and speed did not significantly change pH, kernel hardness, protein, amino acids profile, total phenolics and flavonoids, and antioxidant activity of either maize cultivar. Coefficient of determination (R2), which explains how predicted models fit experimental data, showed that moisture, WI, and YI with R2 > 0.8 demonstrated good fit. Their fitted surface plots and desirability profiles of predicted values, at acceptable moisture content of ≤13.5%, indicated 189.9°C and 90 Hz and 140.9°C and 49.8 Hz were the optimum roasting conditions for S28 and S33, respectively, to produce whole grain maize flour with high WI and low YI. 198-P New insights into processing conditions for formation of soft, food-based, nanoparticle delivery systems A. STEEN (1), O. H. Campanella (1), B. R. Hamaker (2) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.; (2) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

The ability to deliver or mask flavor, enhance color, and incorporate nutraceuticals or functional ingredients into a specific food are a few of the potential applications of soft, food-based nanoparticles. These water-soluble, self-assembling nanoparticles are made of amylose, β-lactoglobulin, and linoleic acid and have the capacity to bind a fourth, sparingly soluble, small molecule. We are able to produce rod shaped, 20 × 50 nm soft particles in a pasting cell attached to a rheometer through a series of heating and cooling steps. Previously, the processing procedure consisted of heating corn starch, whey protein isolate, and water from 55 to 95°C and then cooling from 95 to 55°C while mixing. After this, linoleic acid was added, and the heating and cooling steps were repeated. It is only after the addition of linoleic acid that nanoparticles form. During the second cooling stage, a large peak in viscosity is observed only in the presence of nanoparticles. It was hypothesized that this peak corresponded to formation of nanoparticles. Recently it has been shown, aided by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) coupled with refractive index (RI) detection and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), that nanoparticles can be formed when the system is only heated to 65°C the second time. During cooling from 65 to 25°C no peak viscosity is observed, suggesting this profile is not indicative of nanoparticle formation. This new insight is helpful in understanding how nanoparticles are formed and how they affect bulk properties. It also provides more efficient avenues for preparation of nanoparticles and incorporation of a fourth component. 199-P Assessment of corn quality for nixtamalization: Development of a bench-top cooking method S. N. SAHASRABUDHE (1), W. S. Ratnayake (2), J. M. Mathew (3), D. S. Jackson (1) (1) University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, U.S.A.; (2) Ingredion, Bridgewater, NJ, U.S.A.; (3) Frito Lay/PepsiCo, Plano, TX, U.S.A.

A convenient small-scale laboratory method that can be used to simultaneously analyze multiple corn samples was developed to rapidly assess their suitability for nixtamalization. This new 100 g method was based on an existing 500 g laboratory nixtamalization procedure that has been shown to mimic industrial-scale nixtamalization. The 500 g and 100 g nixtamalization methods were compared by evaluating nixtamal moisture, dry matter loss (DML), degree of pericarp removal, and pasting and gelatinization properties. The heating and cooling profiles of the 500 g method were obtained by measuring temperature changes every 30 sec, using a data logger during cooking and steeping. This profile was reproduced in the new 100 g method. Nixtamalization was conducted using a corn to water ratio of 1:4, with 1% lime (corn as-is weight basis). For both the methods, response surface central composite designs were used to model a wide range of processing conditions used commercially: cook temperature (80–95°C), cook time (3–40 min), and steep time (2–12 hr). Processing conditions did not significantly impact degree of pericarp removal, total starch, and pasting properties (P < 0.05). The response surface models developed for the 100 g and 500 g methods were not significantly different for nixtamal moisture, DML, and gelatinization enthalpy (P < 0.05, r2 > 0.7); there was an overlap of the 90% Bonferroni confidence intervals. The bench-top 100 g nixtamalization method successfully mimicked the 500 g method over the tested range of processing conditions. Food corn breeders, wholesalers, or tortilla processors may use this technique to screen new hybrids and/or corn shipments for acceptability. 201-P Physicochemical and structural characteristics of starch isolated from banana cultivars E. AGAMA-ACEVEDO (1), M. C. Nuñez-Santiago (1), G. Pacheco-Vargas (1) (1) CEPROBI-IPN, Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico

Banana starches from diverse varieties (Macho, Morado, Valery, and Enano Gigante) were studied for their physicochemical and structural features. X-Ray diffraction indicated that the banana starches present a B-type crystalline pattern, with slight differences in crystallinity level. Macho and Enano Gigante starches showed the highest pasting temperatures (79 and 78°C, respectively), while Valery and Morado presented a slight breakdown and higher setback than the former varieties. Morado starch presented the highest solubility value and Valery

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starch the lowest. The swelling patterns of the banana starches was in agreement with their pasting profiles. All banana starches showed a shear-thinning profile. Molecular weight and gyration radius of the four banana starches ranged between 2.88 and 3.14 × 108 g/mol and 286 and 302 nm. The chain-length distributions of banana amylopectin showed that B1 chains (DP 13–24) is the main fraction, and an important number of long chains (DP ≥ 37) are present. The information generated from this study can be useful to determine banana varieties for isolation of starch with specific functionality: for example, salad dressing (viscosity), sausages (water retention), and pie fillings (texture). 202-P The short-term structure of gelatinized waxy starch dispersions F. FANG (1), O. Campanella (1), B. Hamaker (1) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

After gelatinization, entanglement of starch molecules can be induced, resulting in the formation of a network structure in solution that increases the viscosity of these materials with a decrease of temperature. The network structure can be altered by shear forces, leading to a reduction of the viscosity; hence, gelatinized starch dispersed in water exhibits shear-thinning behavior. Although starch molecules can re-entangle after the shear rate is stopped, the original structure is not capable of full recovery in a short time. We observed that gelatinized waxy corn and potato starch dispersions exhibit shear-thickening behavior around 20 sec–1 in a shear rate ramp experiment from 0.1 to 100 sec–1, a phenomenon that was not observed in gelatinized waxy wheat and rice starch dispersions. Shear recovery tests were developed at different shear rates (1, 20, and 40 sec–1) followed by two repeated cycles that were separated with a 1 min period at 500 sec–1 shear rate in order to detect the ability of the dispersions to recover the former structures. Results showed a decrease in viscosity at 1 sec–1 and 40 sec–1 shear rates for all waxy starch dispersions (rice, corn, wheat, and potato) and an increase of viscosity at a 20 sec–1 shear rate only for waxy corn and potato starch dispersions in the first shear cycle. That increase of viscosity was not observed in the second and third shear cycles, indicating that entanglements were not reformed in waxy corn and potato starch dispersions. Additionally, the third shear cycle showed better recovery capability than the second one, suggesting that altering this structure using high shear leads to more stable molecular organization. Given the importance of food viscosity on the digestion of foods, the results of this research help to understand how viscosity in the presence of shear may affect the digestion process of starchy foods. 203-P Physicochemical characteristics and digestibility of bean starches harvested in the Huasteca Potosina V. ESPINOSA-SOLIS (1), L. A. Bello-Perez (2), M. L. Carrillo-Inugaray (3), A. Gomez-Esparza (3), C. d. P. Suarez-Rodriguez (1) (1) Coordinación Académica Región Huasteca Sur, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosi, Tamazunchale, Mexico; (2) CEPROBI-IPN, Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico; (3) Unidad Academica Multidisciplinaria Zona Huasteca, Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosi, Ciudad Valles, Mexico

Starches from cowpea bean, lima bean, and runner bean, harvested in the Huasteca Potosina, located in San Luis Potosi, Mexico, a region with humid warm weather in which diverse varieties of beans are grown and not a lot of information about their properties has been reported due to the great variety of beans statewide. It is desirable to know the physicochemical characteristics and digestion properties of these starches to find food applications. We assume that the physicochemical properties and digestibility are different, taking as reference common black bean starch. For that purpose, starch was isolated and the chemical composition, pasting properties, thermal behavior, and digestibility were determined. Amylose content ranged from 31.51 to 35.13%, and cowpea bean presented the highest amount. Thermal characteristics of starches were analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC): lima bean had the highest gelatinization temperature (76.5°C), and cowpea bean the lowest value (71.9°C). After gelatinization, samples were stored at 4°C for 7 days and re-scanned by DSC to study retrogradation parameters: cowpea bean starch presented a lower retrogradation percentage (42.8%) than black bean starch (59.7%). Pasting properties were analyzed by a rheometer: lima bean had the highest peak viscosity, while runner bean presented the highest final viscosity. Digestion properties as measured by Englyst’s test showed that raw starches presented high amounts of resistant starch (RS) = 66.96–68.19% and low amounts of slowly digestible starch (SDS) = 8.78–14.04%. After cooking, the SDS property was almost lost in all four starches (1.10–3.02%), and some resistant components were preserved (12.98–16.85%). These starches could have beneficial physiological effects on the health of people who consume them due to their RS content.

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207-P Effects of calcium salts on thermal and pasting properties of maize starch during ecological nixtamalization process D. SANTIAGO-RAMOS (1), J. d. Figueroa Cardenas (2), J. J. Véles-Medina (2), R. Reynoso-Camacho (3), M. Ramos-Gómez (1), M. Gaytán-Martínez (1), E. Morales-Sánchez (3) (1) Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; (2) CINVESTAV, Unidad Queretaro, Querétaro, Mexico; (3) CICATA-Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico

The objective of the present work was to study the effects of annealing and concentration of lime (Ca(OH)2) and calcium salts (CaCO3, CaSO4, CaCl2) on thermal and rheological properties of maize starch during ecological nixtamalization process. Nixtamalization consisted on cooking 1 kg of maize for 35 min at 90°C with each calcium salt solution (2:1, vol/wt). Ten concentrations of each salt were tested: 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0% (wt/wt). The mixture was steeped for 16 hr. Thermal analyses were carried out in raw maize and nixtamal samples by DSC in the range of 30 to 140°C. Pasting properties were evaluated with a rapid visco analyzer. Structural changes in starch were evaluated by X-ray diffraction analysis. Statistical tests were analysis of variance and treatment mean comparison by LSD (P < 0.05). Thermal and pasting properties of maize starch changed during the ecological nixtamalization process due to three main causes: annealing phenomenon, type of calcium salt, and calcium salt concentration. Raw maize starch had onset (To), peak (Tp), and final (Tf) gelatinization temperatures of 61.42, 68.80, and 77.73°C, respectively. Gelatinization To, Tp, and Tf of nixtamal starch in processes and treatments increased between 1 and 6°C after cooking and steeping with respect to raw maize starch due to the annealing, whereas the type of salt or lime increased thermal properties and decreased pasting properties in this order: CaCl2 > CaSO4 > Ca(OH)2 ≈ CaCO3. This behavior was due to dissociation of each salt or lime in water. Anions (OH–) can penetrate much easier into the starch granule and start the gelatinization process by breaking hydrogen bonds. Additionally, the amylose–lipid complexes were formed during nixtamalization processes, as indicated by increasing a peak at 4.5 Å in X-ray diffraction patterns in all treatments at 1.0% of each calcium salt. 209-P Does diurnal photosynthetic activity influence the structure of barley starch? A. GOLDSTEIN (1), G. A. Annor (2), K. Hebelstrup (3), J. Kirkensgaard (4), K. Mortensen (4), A. Blennow (4), E. Bertoft (1) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.; (2) University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana; (3) Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; (4) University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Diurnal activity refers to activities that follow a daily rhythm, such as daily fluctuations in photosynthetic activity of plants. It has previously been proposed that the presence of growth rings, a universal structure in starch granules, may be due to a diurnal photosynthetic rhythm, because growth rings were not observed in starch from barley and wheat grown in constant light conditions. The influence of diurnal photosynthetic activity on the molecular structure and composition of starch, however, has not been elucidated. To investigate the impact of diurnal activity on starch structure, waxy and normal barley were cultivated under diurnal or constant light conditions. Unexpectedly, both waxy barley starch (WBS) and normal barley starch (NBS) granules displayed growth rings under constant light conditions. The relative crystallinity of WBS was suppressed, and the amylose content of NBS was elevated when grown in constant light compared to diurnal conditions. The unit chain and internal chain length distribution of amylopectin were characterized by anion-exchange chromatography. Similar average chain lengths were observed for the unit chain and internal chain profiles regardless of growing conditions for NBS and WBS. Clusters and building blocks from amylopectin were produced via partial and complete hydrolysis, respectively, with α-amylase of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. Clusters from NBS and WBS cultivated under constant light contained greater degree of branching and lower internal chain length and were smaller compared to diurnally grown counterparts. Clusters from NBS and WBS grown under constant light contained greater inter-block chain lengths, and building blocks contained lower molar amounts of branched dextrins than when grown diurnally. These results indicate an altered biosynthesis of NBS and WBS components grown without diurnal photosynthetic activity. 210-P Crystallization behavior of debranched rice starches monitored by time-resolved synchrotron wide-angle X-ray scattering W. KIATPONGLARP (1), S. Rugmai (2), A. Buléon (3), S. Tongta (1) (1) Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand; (2) Synchrotron Light Research Institute (Public Organization), Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand; (3) Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Nantes, France

Understanding the relationship between the structure and crystallization of starch is of fundamental importance in starch technological applications. Crystallization behavior during enzymatic debranching and subsequent

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incubation of waxy, low, and high amylose rice starches was studied using time-resolved synchrotron radiation wide-angle X-ray scattering. Aqueous solutions (10% and 21%, wt/vol) of rice starches were debranched at 50°C for 24 hr with isoamylase and then were crystallized by incubation at 25°C for 3 days or 50°C for 6 days. No crystallization occurred during debranching of waxy rice starch, but debranching of 10% low and high amylose rice starches gave a B-type crystalline structure, whereas the B-type crystalline structure of 21% rice starches was transformed into A-type after 20 hr of debranching. The B- or A-type structures were observed for all debranched starches during incubation at 25 or 50°C, respectively. The Avrami model was applied to determine the crystallization parameters, n and k. It was found that crystallization during debranching was favored by extra-long chains of glucans, and the mode of crystallization was rod-like growth from sporadic nuclei, whereas crystallization during incubation was favored by short chains with preferential growth into rod-like or disk-like geometry when it was crystallized at low or high temperature, respectively. 211-P Dosage effects of waxy gene on starch structures and properties of maize H. YANGCHENG (1), J. l. Jane (1) (1) Iowa State University, Ames, IA, U.S.A.

The objectives of this study were to 1) develop corn lines containing various dosages (0, 1, 2, and 3) of waxy gene in the endosperm, and 2) understand the dosage effects of waxy gene on starch structures and properties. Two sets of isogenic normal and waxy corn were used as parental lines in this study to eliminate interference from differences in the genetic background. Intercrossing between the isogenic normal and waxy corn was conducted to produce corn lines with various dosages of waxy gene in the endosperm: 0 (normal inbred), 1 (normal × waxy), 2 (waxy × normal), and 3 (waxy inbred). Amylose contents of the starch (1.6–27.9% for set 1 and 0.0–26.6% for set 2) were negatively correlated with the waxy gene dosage. The branch-chain length distribution of amylopectin showed that the percentages of A (DP <12) and B3 (DP >37) chains increased with the increase in waxy gene dosage, whereas the percentage of B1 (DP 13–24), B2 (DP 25–36), and extra-long branch chains (DP >100) decreased with the increase in waxy gene dosage. The conclusion gelatinization temperature, gelatinization temperature range, and gelatinization enthalpy change were positively correlated with the waxy gene dosage and inversely proportional to amylose content. Peak viscosities of the starches were not correlated with the waxy gene dosage, although the waxy corn starch showed substantially higher viscosity than the isogenic normal and hybrid corn. The setback viscosities, however, were negatively correlated with the waxy gene dosage. These results indicated that the waxy gene in the endosperm had dosage effects on the amylose content and amylopectin branch chain length, which in turn affected the thermal and pasting properties of the starch. The findings contribute to the fundamental understanding of the role of the waxy gene in biosynthesis of both amylose and amylopectin. 212-P Influence of oxidative gelation capacity of unchlorinated flour on pancake and Japanese sponge cake quality C. FAJARDO (1) (1) Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, U.S.A.

The aim of this study was to observe the influence of oxidative gelation (OG) of unchlorinated flour on pancake batter flow (BF), pancake diameter (PD), and Japanese sponge cake volume (JSCVOL). We also aimed to observe relationships between OG and break flour and flour yields, wheat and flour protein content, and solvent retention capacity (SRC). Two sample sets were used. The “pancake set” was four soft white (SW) winter wheat varieties harvested in 2013 that varied in OG capacity. The “JSCVOL set” was over 600 SW winter and club wheat samples harvested in 2011. The USDA Western Wheat Quality Lab (WWQL) provided JSCVOL data. Pancakes were processed using the AACCI Approved Method 10-80.01 formulation. OG capacity was measured using an RVA-based method. OG capacity is the maximum viscosity of a 33% (wt/wt) flour–water slurry after addition of hydrogen peroxide. Final viscosity is measured after 5 min of stirring of the oxidized slurry. In the pancake set, OG capacity was not significantly correlated with BF or PD, suggesting OG had no influence on pancake processing or quality. The only significant correlations between OG and any flour or quality traits in the pancake set were positive correlations with water- and carbonate-SRCs. In the JSCVOL set, OG was not correlated with JSCVOL. However, OG capacity was significantly but weakly correlated with kernel hardness (positive) and with break flour and flour yields (both negative). Additionally, OG capacity was significantly and positively correlated with all four SRC solvents. The final viscosity of the oxidized flour–water slurry had similar correlations with the four SRCs as with OG capacity, but these were numerically larger. The relationships in these two sample sets suggested that OG has no influence on batter-based products such as pancakes and Japanese sponge cakes made with unchlorinated flours.

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213-P Changes in corn protein matrix during post-harvest storage D. RAMCHANDRAN (1), M. P. Hojilla-Evangelista (2), K. D. Rausch (1), M. Tumbleson (1), V. Singh (1) (1) University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A.; (2) National Center of Agricultural Utilization Research, USDA, Peoria, IL, U.S.A.

The corn dry-grind industry is the major contributor of ethanol production in the U.S. Variability in ethanol yields with storage time are important; typically ethanol yields are lower right after harvest, higher after 2 to 3 months, and thereafter show a decreasing trend. One reason for variability is physiologic changes in corn grain during postharvest storage. The main goal of this study was to evaluate changes in corn protein properties during postharvest storage. A freshly harvested, identity preserved corn hybrid was stored at refrigerated and ambient conditions for 12 months, and samples were evaluated after 0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, and 12 months of storage. There were no changes in overall protein content of corn stored at refrigerated or ambient conditions. Changes in protein matrix were evaluated based on their solubility using a sequential extraction procedure. Using this procedure, 71.4% of total soluble protein was extracted. When ground corn was incubated with a protease enzyme, initial free amino nitrogen content (FAN) and rate of proteolysis were evaluated. FAN is an important nutrition source for yeast during fermentation and can affect fermentation rate and final ethanol yields. There was an increase in FAN content from 69 to 103 and 106 mg/L for corn stored at refrigerated and ambient conditions, respectively, after 3 months of storage. Storage temperatures did not have an effect on initial FAN content or rate of FAN production; however, as a result of storage, there were structural changes in protein matrix that can impact processing characteristics and end-product yields. 214-P Protein structural features in winter wheat: Benchmarking diversity in Ontario hard and soft winter wheats W. CAO (1), J. E. Bock (1) (1) University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

Winter wheat has agronomic advantages over spring wheat in that it characteristically gives higher yields. However, our understanding of the quality drivers in winter wheat is lacking, making it difficult to improve the quality of Ontario’s winter wheat. Recent work looking at gluten protein structural features has provided valuable insight into gluten quality, making now an opportune time to conduct an investigation to benchmark Ontario winter wheat as a first step toward improving quality. A set of 33 functionally different winter wheat lines were selected for analysis. Protein secondary structure was assessed by ATR-FTIR spectroscopic analysis at 3 different moisture levels. Total and accessible thiols were measured to establish thiolomic patterns. The protein conformational distributions showed that there was considerable diversity among the lines selected. Protein conformation changed significantly as the moisture content of the samples was increased to mimic different model product systems: flour (low moisture), dough (intermediate moisture), and batter (high moisture). The conformation of the flour samples exhibited different patterns between hard and soft wheat classes, although these differences became smaller in the dough and batter states. PCA showed that flour conformational states separate into one component, with dough and batter conformational states along the other component. This indicates that it is the extent of conformational change that may be the key to explaining flour performance. Thiolomics for hard and soft winter wheat showed considerable diversity within and between classes. Overall, hard wheat had fewer accessible thiols than soft wheat. This is in line with current literature and supports recent hypotheses suggesting a different role for thiols and disulfide bonds in gluten network formation in winter wheat, especially soft winter wheat. 215-P New insights into the properties of N-terminal domain of high molecular weight glutenin subunit J. J. Wang (1), G. Y. Liu (1), L. Li (1), Y. Hou (1), S. Q. HU (1) (1) South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China

High molecular weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS), especially its N-terminal domain, has been deemed to make a superior contribution to the processing qualities of wheat dough. Without an individual N-terminal domain, its properties and functions were not yet fully understood. This study made an attempt to clarify and determine the structure and characteristics of the N-terminal domain of a HMW-GS 1D×5 (1D×5-N) and, hence, to understand its functions in dough development. The N-terminal domain of a HMW-GS 1D×5 was expressed in E. coli, and its solubility was measured by spectrophotometry. The effects of the edible salts (NaCl and Na2CO3), disulfide bond reductant dithiothreitol, and hydrophobic interaction denaturant sodium dodecyl sulfonate (SDS) on 1D×5-N polymerization were investigated by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), SDS-PAGE, non-reducing SDS-PAGE, intrinsic fluorescence, and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). The recombinant 1D×5-N formed a soluble aggregate in aqueous solutions except near isoelectric points (pI ≈ 4.98), this fact is inconsistent with the suggestion in previous reports that the insoluble HMW-GS resulted from the insoluble N-terminal domain. Moreover, the addition of NaCl (0–1,000 mM) and Na2CO3 (0–500 mM) increased the polymerization of 1D×5-N. Meanwhile, both salts improved the formation of the intermolecular disulfide bond, which might be the

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main reason for the high salt content strengthening the gluten networks. The findings, in which hydrophobic interaction played a more important role than disulfide in promoting the aggregation of 1D×5-N, indicated that the hydrophobic interactions should not be neglected, while the intermolecular cysteine was emphasized as the main molecular reason for dough qualities. The results have brought new evidence to facilitate the understanding of the function of 1D×5-N in dough development. 216-P Gluten degradation of wheat flour with prolyl-endopeptidase to prepare a gluten-reduced bread N. HEREDIA-SANDOVAL (1), A. Calderón de la Barca (1), A. Islas-Rubio (1) (1) Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico

Celiac disease and other gluten-related disorders are characterized by an inadequate immunological reaction against gluten proteins. The only effective therapy is dietary gluten withdrawal. Because gluten is an essential protein in baked goods due to its technological properties, some strategies have been developed for gluten modification, to reduce or avoid the immune response while maintaining part of its properties. The aim of this study was to enzymatically modify the gluten in wheat flour using Aspergillus niger prolyl-endopeptidase (AnPEP) to elaborate bread supplemented with a mixture of raw amaranth (RA) and popped amaranth (PA) and evaluate bread immunoreactivity and technological quality. First, the optimal reaction conditions at 40°C at constant stirring: enzyme (dilution 1:1,000, 1:100, 1:10), substrate (wheat flour) (10% or 20%, p/vol), time (0–8 hr) were determined as the lowest gluten content by R5-ELISA and enough dough machinability. For breadmaking 60% of modified wheat flour and 40% of amaranth flour blend (60:40 RA/PA) was used, and two fermentation times (52 and 90 min) were tested. Specific volume and gluten content were evaluated. The best reaction conditions were the 1:100 dilution of AnPEP, 20% wheat flour (wt/vol) and 8 hr incubation. Specific volume of control breads (without AnPEP) after 90 min was significantly higher than that of 52 min fermentation (3.6 vs. 2.9 cm3/g). In contrast, the modified breads (with AnPEP) after either 90 or 52 min fermentation showed no difference on this parameter (3.4 vs. 3.1 cm3/g); however the modified bread with 52 min fermentation had 80% less immunogenic gluten than the control. The use of the amaranth blend in combination with wheat flour modified by AnPEP is an effective way to obtain gluten-reduced breads with acceptable quality. 217-P Changes in chemical composition of white and whole wheat breads after baking K. WHITNEY (1), S. Simsek (1) (1) North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, U.S.A.

Wheat, an important crop in the United States, is often used for bread. However, whole wheat bread has some technological issues concerning end-product processing, due to the inclusion of the bran, which are not simply caused by addition of particles. This study investigated differences in the composition of white and whole wheat hard red spring wheat flours and how those differences related to dough and bread quality. The proximate, phytic acid, and phenolic compositions were determined for white and whole wheat flour and bread samples. Bread was baked according to AACCI Approved Method 10-09.01 with a lean formula to minimize changes in composition due to addition of extra ingredients. Starch damage was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in all bread samples than for flour samples. However, the increase in starch damage between white flour (7.69%) and white bread (16.68%) was much greater than for whole wheat flour (6.29%) and whole wheat bread (14.21%). Phytic acid content ranged from 3.20 to 4.41 mg/g for flours and from 0.23 to 3.43 mg/g for breads. Phytic acid content decreased significantly (P < 0.05) after baking, but white bread (0.23 mg/g) had the most drastic decrease in phytic acid content compared to whole wheat breads. The phenolic compound composition also changed after baking. The extractable phenolic compound content decreased significantly (P < 0.05), while the hydrolyzable phenolic compounds increased significantly (P < 0.05) after baking. There were significant changes in the composition of white and whole wheat breads after baking. There seemed to be larger changes in the composition of the whole wheat bread compared to whole wheat flour than for the white flour and bread samples. Overall, we may be able to determine a relationship between changes in composition after baking and the end-product and nutritional quality of whole wheat bread products. 219-P Isolation and identification of α-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)-arabinose as an oligomeric side chain from maize arabinoxylans R. R. SCHENDEL (1), I. Sackmann (1), M. Bunzel (1) (1) Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany

Arabinoxylans display a variety of side chain (SC) substitutions along their β-(1→4)-linked D-xylopyranose backbones, including single L-arabinose units, acetyl groups, uronic acids, and oligosaccharides containing arabinose, xylose, and/or galactose. Some of the L-arabinose and oligosaccharide SCs are feruloylated via an alkali-labile, O-5-ester linkage to arabinose. Various feruloylated SCs have been characterized, including the

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feruloylated disaccharide, β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→2)-5-O-trans-feruloyl-L-arabinofuranose. Fewer non-feruloylated SC structural elucidations have been reported, and many described structures were isolated from alkali-treated materials. We report a novel, non-feruloylated SC from maize: α-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)-arabinose. Insoluble maize fiber was hydrolyzed under mildly acidic conditions (50 mM TFA, 3 hr, 100°C) to semi-selectively cleave furanosidic linkages and release SCs from the arabinoxylan backbone, while minimizing ester linkage degradation. Non-feruloylated SCs were separated from feruloylated SCs (Amberlite XAD-2) and applied to a BioGel P2 column (H2O). The disaccharide fraction was separated via semi-preparative RP-HPLC (C18, H2O). Structural elucidation included monosaccharide analysis (HPAEC-PAD separation/detection); methylation analysis (GC-MS separation/detection); LC-PGC-ESI-MS; and 1D- and 2D-NMR (1H, COSY, HSQC, HMBC, and HSQC-TOCSY). In contrast to the feruloylated SC disaccharide, xylose was in the α-configuration and O-3-linked to arabinose. These structural differences between feruloylated and non-feruloylated SCs, as well as the fact that we did not detect β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→2)-L-arabinofuranose in the hydrolysate, point to divergent biosynthesis pathways for non-feruloylated and feruloylated SCs in maize arabinoxylans. 221-P Phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of glucoarabinoxylans extracted from three types of sorghum brans F. E. AYALA-SOTO (1), S. O. Serna-Saldívar (1), J. Welti-Chanes (1), J. A. Gutiérrez-Uribe (1) (1) Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico

Sugars, phenolics, and antioxidant capacities (estimated with the ORAC assay) were evaluated in three types of sorghum brans and their respective glucoarabinoxylan extracts (GAX). Corn fiber (CF) and its arabinoxylans (CFAX) were used as a benchmark. Sorghum GAX had a higher branched structure (arabinose/xylose 1.08–1.41) than CFAX (0.59). From the nine 3-deoxyanthocyanins identified in sorghum brans, 7-methoxy-5-glucoside-apigeninidin and luteolinidin-5-glucoside remained in the compositions of GAX from red (R-GAX) and brown (B-GAX) brans. The highest antioxidant capacity was assayed in the B-GAX (81.75 mM TE/g, dwb), which was the only one containing condensed tannins (0.41 mg CE/g, dwb); the second highest was R-GAX (48.49 75 mM TE/g, dwb), which had the highest anthocyanin content (0.11 mg lut eq/g, dwb). No significant differences existed when the CFAX (25.83 mM TE/g, dwb) and white sorghum W-GAX (35.45 mM TE/g, dwb) were compared. In addition to being a rich source of polyphenols and other antioxidants, the three types of sorghum brans showed potential as sources of GAX with high antioxidant capacity that can be used as valuable health-promoting nutraceuticals. 222-P Thinking critically about whole grains: A commentary on ingredient- and food-based definitions R. KORCZAK (1), L. Marquart (1), J. L. Slavin (1), Y. Chu (2) (1) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.; (2) PepsiCo, Barrington, IL, U.S.A.

Current definitions for whole grains, including those published by AACC International, the USDA, the U.S. FDA, and the food industry are either ingredient or food based. Ingredient-based definitions focus on the principal components of the whole grain and their proportions, whereas food-based definitions describe the quantity of whole grain present in food. The variability between ingredient- and food-based definitions has created a complex food environment for bakers, millers, manufacturers, and nutrition researchers, which ultimately affects the end user of food products, the consumer. Furthermore, nutrition policy advises consumers to eat at least one-half of their total grain intake as whole grain (2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans), but confusion exists over what foods are considered whole grain, and how much is needed to achieve health benefits. For consumers, whole grain health claims provide some guidance, but these claims are not well suited to most whole grain foods. Since nutrition policy for whole grains is unlikely to change in 2015, broader support is needed from scientists who are willing to collaborate and agree on a definition that provides a shared benefit to all. In this commentary, we review whole grain definitions and address the complexities for providing clear and consistent consumer messaging around them. 223-P Health-promoting potential of high-amylose wheat A. REGINA (1), P. Berbezy (2), S. Chapron (2), A. Bird (3) (1) CSIRO, Canberra, Australia; (2) Limagrain Cereales Ingredients, Clermont Ferrand, France; (3) CSIRO, Adelaide, Australia

Reducing starch assimilation in the upper gut is an important strategy for addressing the global rise in diet-related public health problems, such as coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and bowel disorders. Resistant starch (RS) is starch that escapes digestion and absorption in the human small intestine. Accordingly, increasing the content of this particular type of fiber in foods, especially dietary staples, offers potential long-term health advantages for consumers. Wheat with >80% amylose content (as a proportion of total starch) was developed as a source of

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dietary fiber rich in RS through an integrated conventional breeding strategy. We demonstrate that the high-amylose wheat flour is rich in RS, whereas the wild type contains a negligible amount of this important type of dietary fiber. Our analyses also revealed that breads made from refined and wholemeal high-amylose wheat flour had almost 300% more total dietary fiber than corresponding products made from conventional wheat flour. 224-P Unusual fermentation property of low gas production found in microwave solubilized quinoa fiber L. Lamothe (1), X. ZHANG (1), T. Chen (1), B. Hamaker (1) (1) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

Dietary fibers have gained increasing attention due to the myriad of health benefits that arise from their fermentative properties and their effects on the gut microbiota. Quinoa is an important source of insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), which warrants an effort to make these fibers more soluble to improve fermentability. Microwave treatment was conducted on quinoa IDF, and its solubility was significantly increased. Monosaccharides and glycosyl-linkage composition analysis revealed that microwave-solubilized fiber was mainly composed by pectic polysaccharides and xyloglucans. Microwave-solubilized fiber was then used for in vitro fecal fermentation. The results showed that the microwave-solubilized fiber had an unusual but desirable fermentation profile where gas production was low in the initial stages of fermentation, but short-chain fatty acids were generated in high amounts. In addition, analysis of fecal microbiota composition showed that the specific structures of the microwave-solubilized fiber had a strong effect on the composition of the microbial community, shifting the population markedly to the Bacteroides genus. The results from this study might provide us a desirable functional fiber and promote human gut health. 226-P Mechanisms for synergistic interaction of sorghum and black-eyed pea flavonoid mixtures in Caco-2 cell model S. AGAH (1), H. Kim (1), S. Talcott (1), J. Awika (1) (1) Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, U.S.A.

Combination of specific sorghum and cowpea flavonoids showed strong enhanced action against inflammation and ROS generation in our previous study. As ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, including breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2), and P-glycoprotein (MDR1), are known to limit the bioavailability of flavonoids, their modulation may be a mechanism for the enhanced action of sorghum–cowpea flavonoid combinations. We investigate this hypothesis by measuring transport expression using a Caco-2 cell monolayer model. White sorghum extract, containing mainly apigenin and luteolin (4.31 mg/g), was combined with white cowpea extract with mainly quercetin glycosides (0.469 mg/g) in different ratios (3:1 to 1:3). mRNA expression was measured using real time PCR analysis. At the lowest tested concentration (100 ng/mL), exposure of Caco-2 cell monolayers to flavonoid combinations showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher down-regulation in ABC transporter (BCRP, MPR2, MDR1) expression than the additive effects of individual extracts relative to control. The sorghum–cowpea extract combination in a 1:1 ratio showed 80% reduction in BCRP expression compared to the additive effects of individual extracts (32%). For MRP2, the mixture with a 1:2 ratio had the strongest enhanced action (85%) versus the additive effect of individuals (37%), whereas the combination with a 1:3 ratio revealed 90% mitigation in MDR1 expression compared to the additive effects of individuals (42%). Thus, the interactive effect in transporter modulation revealed in combined flavonoids could be a mechanism for sorghum–cowpea enhanced action against inflammation. The sorghum–cowpea mixtures ratio significantly (P < 0.05) affects the magnitude of enhanced action, indicating strategic cereal and legume combinations might be formulated for optimized benefits in chronic disease prevention. 227-P Carotenoid profiles of local landrace corn grown in central Malawi T. Hwang (1), Y. SONG (1), V. Ndolo (1), M. Katundu (2), B. Nyirenda (2), R. Bezner-Kerr (3), S. Arntfield (4), T. Beta (1) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) University of Malawi, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi; (3) Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, U.S.A.; (4) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Orange maize with provitamin A can be a potential source of vitamin A for vitamin A-deficient (VAD) populations where maize is a staple food crop. One distinct line of orange (locally known as mthikinya) and several lines of white open-pollinated maize varieties were used. The study determined the proximate composition, total carotenoid content (TCC), and carotenoid profiles of 26 white and 35 orange maize samples grown in 4 geographical location clusters (A, B, C, and D) of central Malawi as part of the Malawi Farmer-to-Farmer Agroecology (MAFFA) project. Proximate analysis was carried out using the approved methods of AACC International. TCC and carotenoid composition were determined using spectrophotometry and HPLC. For both white and orange maize samples,

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cluster B showed lower contents of ash and crude fat than the other clusters. A positive, significant correlation was found between the carotenoid components and protein content of orange maize. TCC of white and orange maize ranged from 0.64 to 3.45 mg/kg and 43.17 to 73.43 mg/kg, respectively. Lutein was the most abundant carotenoid, comprising 47.8%, followed by zeaxanthin (24.2%), β-carotene (16.4%) and β-cryptoxanthin (11.6%). Cluster D showed the highest TCC in white and orange maize (0.64 and 45.68 μg/g). Using ANOVA, GLM, and PCA pots, carotenoid profiles were found to be strongly correlated to kernel color, while maize proximate composition was affected by location. Average retinol activity equivalent (RAE) from β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene in orange maize was 81.73 μg/100 g, contributing about 10% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA)/day. The results indicate that orange maize has potential to contribute to provitamin A content in the diets of Malawians. 228-P Comparison of phytochemicals and antioxidant capacity in three bean varieties grown in central Malawi G. FAN (1), V. Ndolo (1), M. Katundu (2), R. Bezner-Kerr (3), S. Arntfield (4), T. Beta (1) (1) University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; (2) University of Malawi, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi; (3) Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, U.S.A.; (4) Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

The aims of the current work were: 1) to study the influence of variety and geographical production area on the total phenolic acids, total anthocyanin, total flavonoids, total carotenoid, and antioxidant activity in three local landrace bean varieties (Dimeta, Napirira, and Nanyati) from different growing areas in central Malawi, and 2) to evaluate the possibility of establishing a classification based on the geographical areas of the growing regions. This study is part of a broader research project on agroecological methods to improve food security and nutrition for smallholder farm households. A total of 47 bean samples were collected from the Makowe Zone (10), Mphathi Zone (15), Chuma-Chitsala Zone (11), and Khulungira2 Zone (11). These four locations were segregated based on altitude, latitude, and longitude. Napirira bean is an improved variety bred for disease and pest resistance, while Dimeta is an improvement of the local landrace Nanyati. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were used to distinguish and classify among these samples. The statistical analysis showed significant differences (P < 0.05) in total phenolic acids (2.92–4.97 mg/g), total anthocyanins (14.52–152.31 μg/g), and total flavonoids (2.01–6.38 mg/g), as well as the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) (16.75–24.51 μmol TE/g), among the different sampled villages, showing a significant effect of the producing region on these parameters. Napirira bean had the highest total anthocyanins and total flavonoids among the three bean varieties. The beans in the Makowe Zone had lower polyphenol contents than in other locations. Results of PCA indicate that total phenolic acids, total anthocyanins, total flavonoids, total carotenoids, and ORAC could serve as parameters to establish a bean classification according to the geographical area of production. 232-P Whole grain consumption in Mexican restaurants in the Twin Cities X. LIU (1), H. Thornburgh (2), L. Marquart (2) (1) University of Minnesota, Falcon Heights, MN, U.S.A.; (2) University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.

The Hispanic population in the Twin Cities (St. Paul and Minneapolis, MN) has nearly doubled in the past 15 years. Tortillas, including both corn and wheat flour based, are typically eaten as a staple food in Mexico—wheat flour tortillas are mainly consumed in northern Mexico and corn flour tortillas in southern Mexico. The objective of this study was to examine the current use of refined and whole grain (WG) tortillas, and also factors that influence their future use in Mexican restaurants in the Twin Cities. Twenty Mexican restaurants were selected in the Twin Cities metro area based on location, the type of restaurant, availability of WG, and the willingness of management to be interviewed for this study. A 16-item questionnaire was developed to examine barriers and opportunities related to serving refined and WG tortillas. Input was solicited via telephone or face-to-face interviews with the manager/owner from each restaurant. Of 20 restaurants, 5 served both refined flour and WG tortillas. Results show that authentic/family-owned restaurants are much less likely to serve WG tortillas than chain restaurants. The main reasons for serving WG tortillas were to attract health-conscious customers and to be ahead of the potential market shift. Primary barriers for not serving WG were due to low customer request and low acceptability. This study identified challenges and opportunities in serving refined and WG tortillas in Mexican restaurants. Application of these results may assist in approaches for more effective use of refined and WG tortillas in restaurant settings. Ultimately, tortillas manufactured with attributes that are practical, healthy, affordable, and desirable (PHAD) will likely meet consumers’ needs and desire for healthier grain-based food options and incorporate WG throughout the food system, increasing sales of WG through the grains industry.

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233-P Seemingly subtle structural features in corn arabinoxylan fractions induce a lag phase shift of B. xylanisolvens XB1A X. NIE (1), B. L. Reuhs (1), E. C. Martens (2), B. R. Hamaker (1) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.; (2) University of Michigan, Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.A.

Alteration of colonic microbiota via dietary fiber is considered as a new strategy for addressing some diet-related chronic diseases (e.g., obesity, diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease). Nowadays, attention is being directed toward how to modulate target bacterial groups in a predictable way. Considering the myriad of fiber structures, there is little information on how the fine structure of fiber molecules specifically influence the growth of colonic bacterial strains and groups. In this study, six partially debranched hydrolysates of corn arabinoxylan (DHCAXs) were designed using enzymatic treatments to better understand how changes in molecular fine structure affect bacterial growth. Growth curves of B. xylanisolvens XB1A showed obvious lag phase differences on substrates with subtle structural differences. Comparison of fiber fraction structures suggests that the change of B. xylanisolvens XB1A growth behavior is linked to specific branch patterns involving 2-O position substituted arabinosyl moieties. Subsequent work was performed to explore the response of B. xylanisolvens XB1A to different ratios of bacteria/substrate, indicating sensitivity of B. xylanisolvens XB1A to the substrates. Different lag phases for each bacteria/substrate ratio were observed. Structural analysis of corn arabinoxylan fractions was conducted using HPSEC-RI, GC/MS, 1H NMR and 13C NMR. This study shows a clear connection between subtle fiber structural features and utilization of target colonic bacteria and implies a larger opportunity for how to promote beneficial bacteria in the complex competitive gut environment. 234-P Robust butryogenic effect of a mixture of fibers in in vitro fermentation T. CHEN (1), A. Keshavarzian (2), B. R. Hamaker (3) (1) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.; (2) Division of Digestive Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, U.S.A.; (3) Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.

The human gut microbiota is involved in human health in many aspects. Dietary fibers, which are the substrate for colonic microbial fermentation, produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and modulate the microbiota. SCFAs, especially butyrate, provide energy to the gut epithelium cells, improve barrier function, and have a regulatory effect on the host immune system. Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) is one of the widely used prebiotics. Studies also have shown prebiotic effects of β-glucan, pectin, and arabinoxylan. In this study, FOS, barley β-glucan, apple pectin, sorghum arabinoxylan (SAX), and the equivalent mixture of the 4 fibers were investigated in an in vitro batch fermentation system using fecal samples from 12 human subjects. Total carbohydrate for each substrate was adjusted to the same amount. After 12 hr of fermentation, pH, gas, and SCFA levels were measured, and the results were analyzed using 2-way ANOVA. The observed individual variance of fermentation profiles was large. FOS generated the least amount of butyrate in 3 of 12 fecal fermentations. β-Glucan, pectin, and SAX each produced the highest amount of butyrate compared to other fibers, in particular subject fecal samples. None of the single fibers consistently produced high butyrate in all subjects. However, the mixture of fibers generated a relatively high amount of butyrate in nearly all the subjects. Further investigation of the microbiota compositions will help identify better fiber mixtures. 235-P Antioxidant capacity of quinoa phenolics following in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (Chenopodium quinoa) G. BALAKRISHNAN (1) (1) University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A.

Quinoa, an ancient grain of the Incan civilization, has gained interest because of its excellent nutritional profile. Several studies have reported the rich phenolic profile of quinoa seeds. However, research on the antioxidant capacity of quinoa after in vitro digestion has not yet been conducted. The objective of this study was to determine the antioxidant activity of quinoa phenolics after gastrointestinal digestion under physiological conditions. Quinoa flour and commercially processed products, namely sprouts and flakes, were subjected to simulated in vitro enzymatic gastric (GP) and gastrointestinal digestion (GI) under physiological conditions. Supernatants recovered after GP and GI digestion were analyzed for total phenolics (TPC) and total flavonoids (TFC). Both ORAC and DPPH assay were utilized for determination of antioxidant capacity. Results from GP and GI digestion were compared to methanolic extracts. Both TPC and TFC slightly increased after GP and showed significant increase (P < 0.05) at the end of complete GI digestion. The TPC concentration ranged from 4.5 to 7.5 μmol gallic acid equivalents per gram dry weight. Further analysis of individual phenolic compounds before and after digestion, mainly phenolic acids and flavonoids, were performed. Antioxidant activity of GI-digested quinoa samples approximately increased twofold in both ORAC and DPPH assay. The order of efficacy was

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quinoa sprouts ≥ quinoa flour > quinoa flakes. The study demonstrated that in vitro enzymatic digestion positively affects TPC and TFC of quinoa and enhances antioxidant activity. In addition, commercial processing of quinoa did not have any negative impact on the antioxidant activity. The substantial improvement in antioxidant activity of quinoa after gastrointestinal digestion suggests that quinoa is a promising ingredient for formulating cereal foods with added health value. 236-P Flavonoids and saponins from black bean incorporated into whole bread and colon cancer prevention R. A. CHAVEZ-SANTOSCOY (1), M. Lazo-Velez (2), J. Gutierrez-Uribe (3), S. Serna-Saldivar (2) (1) UABC, Tijuana, CA, Mexico; (2) ITESM, Monterrey, AB, Mexico; (3) ITESM, Monterrey, AK, Mexico

Colorectal cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer deaths in the United States. Bread volume and textural properties of enriched bread with flavonoids and saponins from black bean (BBE) were studied. Finally, the inhibitory in vitro effects on the proliferation of human colon cancer cells (Caco-2 and HT-29) of bread with black bean compounds after enzymatic digestion were determined. Our results demonstrate that the supplementation of bread with 0.5% BBE resulted in enhanced chemo-preventive in vitro properties in comparison with normal bread. Finally, the BBE enhanced the nutraceutical properties of pan breads produced by the straight dough making procedure. Results clearly indicated that BBE nutraceutical doses (up to 0.5%) could be incorporated in the whole bread formulation without affecting baking performance and overall bread quality.

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2015 Abstracts of Deep Dive Presentations

1-D Contribution of staple foods to the recommended nutrient intake: Is bread “super food”? P. L. WEEGELS (1) (1) European Bakery Innovation Centre, Papendrecht, Netherlands

Undernutrition is a health threat both in developing and developed countries. To combat this, adequate nutrient intake is required. Staple foods by definition contribute a very large portion of our nutrient intake. It is important, therefor, that the contribution of ready-to-consume staple foods to the recommended intakes of nutrients can be compared. This can be done in a transparent and simple way by calculating the nutrient contribution of staple foods to the recommended daily intakes (RDI). Using online nutrition tables from the United States and Europe and RDI established by U.S. and European food authorities, the nutrient contributions of staple foods were calculated. It can be concluded that consumption of products from the bread category of staple foods overall contributes most to recommended nutrient intakes. 2-D In defense of fortified, processed bread and cereal products J. M. JONES (1) (1) St. Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, U.S.A.

Fortification, enrichment, and processed food have come under attack by various groups, such as the Environmental Working Group. Processed foods are denounced as high in fat and sugar and not being helpful in the diet. Fortified foods are under attack because the nutrients are deemed to be additives, and some bloggers misunderstand their chemical names. Further, some state that there is a potential risk of too much nutrient content for some age groups. Such attacks need to be addressed with a comprehensive review of the data validating the important role of processing, enrichment, and fortification in meeting the nutrient requirements for the population. Further, statements that certain diets contain too much of a nutrient due to fortification must be evaluated based on existing evidence. This will be done through a critical review of recent studies showing the benefits of folic acid fortification and the increase in various sectors of the population meeting B vitamin and iron recommendations through the inclusion of fortified foods, with a focus on enriched and fortified bread and cereal products. Charges regarding excessive intakes of nutrients due to consumption of fortified cereals and breads will be tested. Data on the contribution of these important processed foods to overall nutrient intake will be given, along with strategies for AACCI members to tout the benefits of cereal-based staples as ways to continue to address nutrients of concern. 2015 Abstract of Hot Topic Presentation

1-H A comparative analysis of grain composition in Canadian ancestral and present wheat varieties U. Kannan (1), C. Irvine (1), S. Jaiswal (1), M. Baga (1), C. Briggs (1), P. Hucl (1), R. CHIBBAR (1) (1) University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a staple food in human diets around the world. In a wheat grain, carbohydrates are the predominant (two-thirds to three-quarters) storage compound followed by proteins, which account for one-fifth to one-sixth of grain weight. Other minor components include phenolic compounds in the bran, fats, vitamins, and minerals, which also contribute to the quality of wheat-based food products and human health. The majority of wheat grain proteins are glutenin and gliadin subunits that form the gluten complex in dough, which is essential for making baked products such as bread. In the last few years, it has been suggested that grain products made from wheat varieties developed during the last decades contribute to increased incidences of obesity, diabetes, and other lifestyle-related health conditions in our society. Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat is the predominant market class, whose grain is mostly used for leavened bread products. To address some of the claims attributed to modern wheat varieties, we analyzed the grain composition of 37 CWRS wheat varieties dating from 1860 (Red Fife) to present varieties grown in a replicated trial at the University of Saskatchewan field plots in Saskatoon during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons. The total starch concentration varied from 52% to 67%, while the total protein concentration ranged from 11% to 14%. The total polymeric protein concentration in the grain proteins varied from 55% to 65%. Analyses of the glutenin and gliadin subunits by SDS-PAGE also revealed no change in accumulation of specific types of glutenin and gliadin subunits in present versus heritage wheat varieties. In conclusion, results show that the grain composition (total starch, protein, and minor components concentration) of modern varieties is similar to that of heritage wheat varieties grown in Canada during the 19th century.