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Subsidiarity – we are working on it. Impulses for a modern understanding of subsidiarity

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Published by Münchner Trichter, c/o ETC Sonnenstraße 12, 80331 München 0049-(0)89 54 91 7777 info@muenchner-trichter.de www.muenchner-trichter.de

Editor and legally responsible for content: Dr. Martina S. Ortner Layout by Matthias Weinzierl Printed by Number of copies printed: 1,000 English Translation: Students of translation and interpreting from

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Münchner Trichter is sponsored by the Welfare and Social Services Division of the City of Munich. Munich, October 2013

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Table of Contents page

Introduction (Martina Ortner) 4

Subsidiarity (Frank Groner) 5

Curse or blessing (Emil Nasser / Beyrouth) 6

Subsidiarity, participation and political education (Alexander Klier) 8

Subsidiarity in the One World network (Heinz Schulze) 10

Subsidiarity – a matter of politics (Frédéric Jambu / Marseille)) 12

Some thoughts on inclusion and the principle of subsidiarity within the

educational debate (Karl-Michael Brand)

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Governments and associations (Jean Hurstel / Strasbourgl) 16

Self-help initiatives – from group-based activities to legal standardization

(Hans Dietrich Engelhardt)

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NGOs in Egypt – politics, practice and legitimation (Iman Noureldine /

Alexandria)

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Subsidiarity as a part of civil society (Günther Gugel) 22

The principle of subsidiarity – the Albanian case (Mustafa Besnik / Tirana) 24

Subsidiarity, decentralisation and participation in cultural policy: views from

Spain (Jordi Baltà / Barcelona)

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The promotion of pop and youth culture: an example from Munich

(Klaus Martens)

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Subsidiarity in public youth work (Daniel Rottner) 29

Subsidiarity: a city policy perspective (Christian Müller) 31

The subsidiarity campaign: a top priority in Europe and in Germany

(Michael Mattar)

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Subsidiarity in child and youth services (Jutta Koller) 33

Implementing subsidiarity is an act of balance (Beatrix Burkhardt) 35

The art of subsidiarity (Helmut von Ahnen) 36

Subsidiarity and education for sustainable development (Marion Löwenfeld) 37

Paving the way for inclusion and adopting an attitude imbued with a sense of

subsidiarity (Georg Staudacher)

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The principle of subsidiarity as pretense for neoliberalism and government

disinvolvement (Gerhard Endres)

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Subsidiarity – a side stage for migrants? (Tunay Önder) 43

Subsidiarity and freedom (Andreas Gösele) 45

List of illustrators 47

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IntroductionWhatdoessubsidiarityreallymean?Thequestionofhowdemocracyfunctionsquicklyevokesnumerousdebates,suchasthoseregardingthegovernment´sresponsibilitiesandwhatcitizensorcivilsocietyorganisationsareallowedtodo,cando,orshoulddo.Thefollowingdiscussionseekstobalance,withvariousdegreesofemphasis,therespectoftheindividual,thestimulationofthecommunityspiritaswellasthestruggletodeterminetowhatextentthegovernmentshouldbeinvolved.Whenexactlyisthecallforsubsidiarityinlinewiththeseideas,andatwhatpointdoweequateitwithsecuringone´sownresources?Isthedemandforsubsidiarityuptodate?Weaskedvariousexpertsandpractitionersfromallovertheworldfortheiropinions.Thetwenty‐fourreportsinthisbrochurehighlightthepoliticalheartofthematter.“Subsidiarity”asaprincipleiswell‐known,yetthetermismissinginseverallanguages,asreferencedinthereportsfromAlbania,Spain,andEgypt.Thetermstandsforasystem.Itstandsforagovernmentthatprovidesthesupportneededtogiveeveryindividualtheopportunitytodeveloptheirstrengthsandachievetheirgoals(Groner).Therefore,thegovernmentisresponsibleforcreatingconditionswhichenableeveryindividualtoorganizeorhelpthemself.Thatdoesnotimplymerelyoutsourcingsovereignty,asdescribedinthecriticalreportfromLebanon.Furthermore,itisimportanttohighlightbreachesofsubsidiaritywhenusedinconnectionwithjustifyingrenationalisationandprivatization(Rottner).Professionalgroupsareoffendedbythefactthatself‐organizedgroupsareformingalliances,saysEngelhardt.Asaresult,self‐organizedgroupsarecriticsofestablishedstructuresthatorganizehelpforbutnotwiththepeopleaffected,andtheyareanearlywarningsystemrelatedtoinjustice.Withincivilsocietytherearevestedinterestsandnewdevelopmentswhicharecreatingnewtensionstobedealtwith,asÖnderclearlydescribesinherarticle.Subsidiarityisanessentialprinciplebywhichlifeinasocietyisarranged.Itassurestherightofparticipationforeachindividual,butalsoimposestheobligationtohelpthosewhohelpthemselves.Thereforeinstitutionalsafeguardsarerequired(Klier).Inhisreport,Göseletakesupthelineofargumentsfromtheseriesofarticlesandarguesfromtheperspectivethatsocietyshouldservetheinterestsofrealfreedomforeveryindividual.Withthatinmind,subsidiarityoughttosupportfreedombyensuringself‐determination.Wewouldliketothankallauthorsforenrichingthediscussionwiththeircontributions.Wethankallillustratorswhosupportedthisproject.Andwelookforwardtofurtherdiscussionsattheinternationalconference“NewImpulseforEducation?”inMunichfrom20to22NovemberthatwewillbeorganizingtogetherwithBanlieued´Europeandeuromedinculture(s),wherethediscussionwillbecarriedoninaworkshopsetting.ThebrochureisavailableasaPDFdownloadonourhomepage.Dr.MartinaS.OrtnerPlanningandCoordinationManageratMünchnerTrichterTranslation:EmilyPickerill,BelmaSlatina

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SubsidiarityTheFederalRepublicofGermanyisafederaliststate.Itisbuiltupontheprincipleoffederalismandthereforeconsistsofmemberstateswhichhavetheirownspheresofcompetences.Moreover,eachlocalcommunityhastheconstitutionally‐protectedrighttoselfgovernment.Theconceptofsubsidiarityisalwaysembeddedinthiscontext.Thereareafewratherabstractdefinitionsofsubsidiarity.Theterm,whichhasitsoriginsinCatholicSocialTeaching,can,forinstance,beusedtodescribeaspecificrelationshipbetweenthestateandsociety.Accordingtothisdefinition,thelargerunitisentitledtointerveneifthesmallerunitisnotabletofulfillitstasksonitsownmerits.But,inturn,thisalsomeansthatthestatehastoprovidethenecessaryassistancetoalloweachindividualtodevelophisstrengthsandtopursuehisgoals.Inotherwords,thestatehastheobligationtolaythefoundationsneededtoplacethesmallerunitinapositiontofulfillitsdutiesonitsown.Withregardtoyouthwelfareservices,forexample,thisimpliesthatthegreatestpossiblesuccessshallbeachievedbythecoordinatedeffortsofbothpublicandprivateentities(basedonapivotalFederalConstitutionalCourtrulingin1967).Againstthisbackdrop,independentnon‐profityouthwelfareorganizationshaveonlylimitedpriorityovermeasurestakenbystate‐fundedyouthwelfareagencies(Section4(2),Volume8oftheGermanSocialSecurityCode(Sozialgesetzbuch,SGB)).Andyet,itistheorganizationsinchargeofstate‐fundedyouthwelfarewhichassumetheoverallresponsibility.Thisalsoincludesplanningresponsibilityinordertofulfillcertaintasks(Sections79,80SGBVIII).Thissystemguaranteesexplicitfunctionalprotectionforprivatenon‐profityouthwelfareorganizationsprovidedthattheymeettheprofessionalstandardsrequired.Furthermore,itshouldbeensuredthatplanningisgovernedbytheprincipleofpluralityofservices(accordingtoSection3(1)SGBVIII).Obviously,alltheserequirementscanonlybemetinareasonablewayifthoseinchargeworktogetherasateam.Section4(1)SGBVIIIstipulatesthatstate‐fundedyouthwelfareorganizationsareobligedtorespecttheindependenceoftheindependentnon‐profityouthwelfaresector.AccordingtoSection4(3)SGBVIIIandSection74SGBVIIIthissectormustbesupportedandgrantedfinancialassistance.Inthiscontext,otherimportantsectionsareworthconsidering:Section78SGBVIII(themandatoryvoteonplannedmeasures)aswellasSection74(4)andSection80(4)SGBVIII(theevermoreimportantfocusontheneeds‐orientedapproachandontheprincipleofactiveparticipationwhichholdsthatthosewhoareaffectedbyadecisionhavearighttobeinvolvedintheplanningprocesses).January24,2013Prof.FrankGroner(lawyer)wasalecturerattheKatholischeStiftungsfachhochschule(CatholicUniversityofAppliedSciences)inMunichfrom1978until2009.Heisactivelyengagedinseveralcivil‐societyorganizationsandtakespartinsocio‐politicaldiscussions.Translation:EmilyPickerill,BarbaraSchatzIllustrationbySamarErtsey:Bears

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CurseorblessingAnydebateontheconceptofsubsidiarityrequiresacautiousapproachbecausethepolitical,economic,socialandreligiousenvironmentmustbetakenintoaccount.IwouldnowliketotalkaboutLebanonwhereIliveandwherethisprinciplehasbeenanintegralpartoflifeinallrespectsfromtimeimmemorial.IsLebanonthereforeagoodexampleofademocraticcountrythatmightserveasarolemodelforothercountriestoemulate?Onthecontrary,inLebanonsubsidiarityactuallypreventsthestatefromexercisingitsrightsandperformingitsduties;inmanyfieldsthestatehasneitherrightsnorduties.Maybeourunderstandingofsubsidiarity,i.e.delegatingortransferringsovereignauthoritytosmallerentities–isnotideallysuitedfordiscussionsinaglobalcontext.Andyet,wemustaddressthetopicofdelegatinggovernmenttasks,bearinginmindthatthegovernmentdoesnomorethanmerelyapproveoftheprincipleunderlyingsubsidiarity.LetusnowlookattheculturalandpersonalenvironmentforLebanesecitizenstoillustratethesituationinLebanon.Lebanonisacountryoffourmillionpeoplewitheighteendifferentreligiousgroups.Thecommonstrategywhendealingwiththenumerousanddiversemattersofstatus(marriage,death,will,etc.)istotransferthesetaskstoreligiousentitieswherebythestatehastorespecttherulingsissuedbyreligiouscourts.Ifitisimpliedthatthistypeofdecision‐makingismoreeffectivethandecisionsmadebyinstitutionswhichhavethelegitimateauthoritytoexercisepower,canthisstillbereferredtoassubsidiarity?Delegatingpowerstoreligiousgroupsboilsdowntomorepowerforthesegroupsovernon‐religiousmatters.Therefore,thestatefeelsdeprivedofitspowerandgiveswaytoreligiousgroupsbyhandingoveranincreasingnumberoftasks.Responsibilitiesinthefieldsofeducation–especiallyM.A.programs–healthcareandhospitalservicesarepassedontothem.Thestateasacompetitorplaysasmallandinsignificantroleandisamereproviderofsubsidies.Theonlypositiveaspectisthefactthatthecitizens’well‐beingisnowinthehandsofalargernumberofactors,whichtendstocushiontheproblems.CulturalactivitiesinLebanonarenothinderedbystateinterferenceorreligiouspatronization.Interestinglyenough,thisistheresultoftheworkofhundredsofprivateculturalorganizations,whichwascarriedoutovermanygenerationspriortotheadventofNGOs.However,thisisonlyaboutdelegatingtasksandnotabouthandingoverrealstateauthoritytotheseinstitutions.Infact,theseorganizationsareanxiousaboutpotentialstateinterventionandinterferenceintheiraffairs.Theseprivateinstitutionsmanagedtoridthemselvesofrestraintsbecausetheywereabletosecurefundingfortheirprojectswiththehelpofsponsorsandpublicsupport.Ithinkthisisarealachievement.Ultimately,theprincipleofsubsidiarityisalegitimateclaimindemocracieswhichareanxioustoensuredecentlivingconditionsfortheircitizens.Forvariousreasonsthestatesectorindevelopingcountriestendstobeintheweakerposition.Somenationshavegainedpoliticalindependencemorerecently;oftenpoliticalbordersdonotcorrespondtosocio‐ethnicboundaries;andeveniftheydothereisnoeliteandnopoliticalculture.Butatthesametime,thesecountriestendtobemoreopentowardstheworld,itspeoplesandtheyoungergenerationimpatientforpoliticalchange.

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Duetotheweaknessofthestate,indigenousgroupsorgroupsunknowntothestatetakeitsplace.Thismeansthatthestatemusttryandreclaimitsrightsinordertobeabletodelegatethem.January18,2013EmilNassarwasborninBeirut,Lebanon,in1939andstudiedsocialeconomicsandsocialplanning.NassarworkedasmanagingdirectorinchargeofR&D(1968‐1980)andasafinancialconsultant.In1994,hefoundedl´AgendaCulturel(culturalagenda)andhasbeenitsmanagingdirectorsincethepublicationwaslaunched.In1999hefoundedtheLebaneseSponsoringAssociationandisitssecretarygeneral.Heisanexpertinthefieldofcreativeindustries.EmilNassarismarriedandhasthreechildren.Translation:BenjaminEderIllustrationbySteffenHaas:1–CurseandBlessing

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Subsidiarity,participationandpoliticaleducationBoththerighttoparticipationandthedutyofcapacitybuilding,whicharethetwocomplementaryaspectsoftruesubsidiarity,havetobeensuredbyinstitutionalmeasuresandmustnotbedependentonthemoreorlessaccidentalgoodwillofthegovernmentanditselites.(Müller,1997;unofficialtranslation)Foralongtime,inmyintensepursuitofpoliticaleducation,thesubjectofsubsidiarityhasbeenintheforefrontofmymind.However,Ihavenormallyneglectedtothinkaboutwhatitactuallymeansinthiscontext,oreven,whatitshouldmean.MyinterestinthedeepermeaningofthetermsubsidiaritywasfirstsparkedduringthelecturesthatIattendedonthesubjectof“internationaldevelopmentcooperation”.Thishasalwaysbeen“my”subject,too–invariousways.Itisalsocloselyconnectedwiththesubjectofsolidaritywhichhasalsoalwaysbeenimportanttomeasatradeunionist.Subsidiarityespeciallycomesintoplaywhensolidarityisnotmeantinapaternalistic,patronisingmannerbut,forinstance,whenitimpliescapacitybuilding.Asaprinciple,subsidiaritythusalsomeansformeanaspirationtowardsthedevelopmentofindividualskills,self‐determinationandautonomy.Onlyafterone’sownpossibilitieshavebeenexhausted,othersuperiorunitssuchasthelocalauthority,thefederalstatesorotherorganisationssuchastradeunionscanbebroughtintoplay,accordingtotheprincipleofsubsidiarity[Hence,thisdiscussionisequallyofvitalimportanceinatradeunioncontextandarisesinthedebateabout“politicsbydelegation”,oralternatively,withthedemandforanendtoit.Problemshavetobesolvedandsuccessesfoughtfortogetherwiththoseaffected–notforthem.Andonlythendoessolidarityhaveafutureinandwithtradeunions].Subsidiaritymustnotbeconfusedwithworkonacompletelyvoluntarybasisorabsoluteself‐reliance,foritrequiressocialdiscipline(Müller1997,p.161)–andapersonalcontribution,ifpossible.Tome,theconceptofsubsidiaritycarriesgreatweightespeciallyregardingdemocraticactionandthuspoliticaleducationsincethisiswheresomuchdependsontheinvolvementofeverysingleperson.Reciprocally,thequestionofwhenpeoplereceivenecessarysupportmustnotbearbitraryorrandomlydetermined.…participationandpoliticaleducationThesecompetenciesdonotonlyexistinternally–unrelatedtodoingsomething,sotospeak–butarealwaysmanifestedinthecontextofactionsandconduct.(Himmelmann2005,p.34;emphasisintheoriginal;unofficialtranslation)Asaconcept,politicalparticipationrequeststheparticipationinthedecision‐makingprocessofasmanymembersfromsocietyaspossible.Authenticsubsidiaritythusimpliestakingacloselookatthe(groupsof)peopleaffectedandtheireverydayworldinordertobeabletoactinapoliticallyresponsibleandrealisticmanner.Thisappliesontheonehandwithrespecttotheabilityofpeopletoactuallyparticipate;ontheotherhand,totheirwillingnesstocontributetoprocessesofchange.Byimplication,alackofparticipationcanquicklyleadtoapoliticalattitudeofrefusal.Especiallywhenitcomestotherealisationofpoliticaldecisions,thelocallevel,thefamily,thecommunitiesandmunicipalitylevelsareveryquicklyindemandasaresult.Attheselevels,thespecificcoursethathasbeensettowardspolitical(major)projectshastocomeintooperation.Atthispoint,bigandtrans‐regionalimpulsesformodernisationinparticularhavetobecompatible;inothercircumstancestheywilltriggerresistance.Participation,however,alwaysrequireswillingparticipants.Astocompetenciesandthecapacityorproficiencytoparticipation,peoplehavetobeempoweredappropriatelyinordertobeabletoparticipateandtofullystaketheirclaiminsociety.Aproficiencyinthissensealsoimpliespersonalwillingnessandvolition.Competenceandthewillingness(thevolition)topoliticalparticipationdevelopinthemicrocosmofthelived‐inworldofthepeople

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affected;wheretheycanactandwheretheresultsbecomevisible,too.Andwheretheyexperiencethat,theyandtheirrequestsaretakenseriouslyincaseofdoubt.Politicallearningforthepurposeofareflectiononpersonalactionanditsconsequencesforthesocietymustthereforeoccurinasubsidiarywaysothatthereisanopportunitytoactuallybeabletoachievesomethingthroughaction.Onthesubsidiarylevel,beingtakenseriously,however,alsomeansthattherearerequirementsforpersonalactioninthesenseofajointactivity.Theattitude,moralvaluesandthepoliticalconductofindividualscaneventuallyonlybechangedsustainablyviatruesubsidiarity,virtuallyseenasawayoraprocess.Andthus,participationandpoliticaleducationcanbemadepossible.ReferencesDürr,K.H.;FerreiraMartins,I.&Spajic‐Vrkas,V.(2001):Demokratie‐LerneninEuropa[PDF].Verfügbarunter:www.bpb.de/system/files/pdf/V0ZNDB.pdf[06.01.2013]Himmelmann,G.(2005):WasistDemokratiekompetenz?EinVergleichvonKompetenzmodellenunterBerücksichtigunginternationalerAnsätze[PDF].In:Edelstein,W.&Fauser,P.(Hrsg.):BeiträgezurDemokratiepädagogik.EineSchriftenreihedesBLK‐Programms"Demokratielernen&leben".Verfügbarunter:http://blk‐demokratie.de/fileadmin/public/dokumente/Himmelmann2.pdfMüller,J.(1997):EntwicklungspolitikalsglobaleHerausforderung.Stuttgart:KohlhammerAlexanderKlierworksfortheDGBBildungswerkMünchenandisinchargeofitsvocationaladulteducationandtrainingprograms(offeredbytheGermanconfederationoftradeunionsDGB),especiallyfortheMunichsection.Hestudiedphilosophy,economicsandadulteducation.Inhisdissertationheexaminedthephenomenaofsynchronyandthecomplexinterdependencebetweenthetimeconceptsofduration,waitingperiodsandbreaksincorporateorganizations.Translation:EmilyPickerill,MonikaWaldschützIllustrationby:

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SubsidiarityintheOneWorldnetworkSomeofyoumayhaveseenthelarge‐formatpostersproclaimingthattheorganisationEngagementGlobalsupportsandstrengthensthedevelopmentalcommitmentofindividualpeople,groupsandcities….Nodonationaccountisindicated,however,whichisonlylogicalbecausetheposterisaself‐promotionforthisneworganisationwithintherestructuredFederalMinistryforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(BundesministeriumfürwirtschaftlicheZusammenarbeitundEntwicklung,BMZ),aministrywhichthecurrentofficeholder,HerrNiebel(FreeDemocraticParty,FDP),actuallywantedtoabolish–soheannouncedduringthelastgeneralelectioncampaign.Subsidiarityadvocatesthefollowingpolitical,economicandsocialmaxim:Self‐determinationandpersonalresponsibilitycomefirst.Subsidiarityseekstopromotepeople’sindividualskills.Thisistherealisationoftheconceptrevolvingaround“theresponsiblecitizen”.Theprincipleofsubsidiarityalsoimpliesthatactivitieswhichcanbecarriedoutbywayofself‐determinationareassignedtocivilsocietyinstitutionsortothelowesttierofanorganisation.ThisprincipleofsubsidiarityisanimportantconceptinfederalsystemssuchastheFederalRepublicofGermany.Therefore,thepromotionofcivilsocietynetworks,forexample,includingtheOneWorldnetwork,istheappropriaterealisationofthisgoalandno“gracefromabove”.Ofcourseitislegitimatetoaskwhetherthesecivilsocietystructuresarefunctionallygoodandmoreorlessrepresentative.ForBavariaandMunichtheanswerisyes.Butthecurrentorganisationalstructureswhicharedevelopingwithintheframeworkofdevelopmentpolicyruncountertotheprevailingstate‐maxim.Now,theBMZ,togetherwithitsnewstructuresEngagementGlobalorDeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(SocietyforInternationalCooperationinGermany),tonamebuttwo,praisesthecitiesandthelocalcommunitiesfortheircommitmenttodevelopmentpolicy.However,thereisnomentionofacorrespondingspecifiediteminthegovernmentbudget.Thereismention,though,oftwentylife‐timeemploymentjobswhichwillbecreatedintheServicePointCommunitiesofOneWorld(ServicestelleKommuneninderEinenWelt,SKEW).Here,thequestionarises,whythisisnecessary?Somereal‐lifeexamplesTheOneWorldNetworkinBavaria(EineWeltNetzwerkBayern,EWNB)withmorethan129membergroups,anexcellentknowledgebaseandalotofpracticalexperiencewasstartledwhenEngagementGlobalsetupadecentralisedofficeinStuttgartinordertosupportthedevelopmentpolicyeffortsinthefederalstatesofBaden‐WurttembergandBavaria.Therehavebeenwell‐establishedOneWorldnetworksinbothfederalstatesforquitesometime.Sowhatdoesthishavetodowiththeprincipleofsubsidiarity?OneWorldNetworkBavariavoicedunequivocalcriticism:“ContrarytoseveralannouncementsbytheBMZ,theregisteredassociationEWNBhasnotreceivedanyinformationonjobadvertisements,theintroductionofanewstructureorajobdescriptionapplyingtothedecentralisedstructureofEngagementGlobalinStuttgartwhichisalsoresponsibleforBavaria.OpeningadecentralisedofficeinStuttgarton8October2012isbeyondourcomprehensionastowhattheultimatepurposeofthenewdecentralisedstructurecouldpossiblybe.Then,morethaneightmonthslater,EngagementGlobalwasnotabletogiveanyinformationaboutitsfuturestrategieseither.TheEWNBputsalotofemphasisonthefactthatthisnewstate‐structureisinlinewiththeprincipleofsubsidiarity.Oneisstillundertheimpressionthatatwo‐tierstatestructureisbeingcreatedbeforeourveryeyes.ItiswithasenseofamazementthatwetakenoteofthecontinuednationalisationoftheworkofOneWorld.”Ifthisissupposedtobethereal‐lifescenario,itwouldhavebeenunnecessarytoputsomucheffortandmoneyintohangingupposters.

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AdifferentsituationinMunichMunich,forexample,showsthatitcanbedoneinadifferentway.Here,municipalinstitutionshaveconsciouslypromotedtheOneWorldcommitmentincivilsociety.Someexamplesbasedonthemotto–Thinkgloballyandactlocally–demonstratethis.TheCityofMunich(DepartmentofCulture)promotesOneWorld’slocalumbrellaorganizationinMunich,theregisteredassociationNordSüdForumMünchen(65membergroups)Thereisthecooperationbetweenthemunicipalauthoritiesandcivilsocietyregardingthetwin‐townagreementbetweenMunichandHarare(i.e.betweentheMunichOfficeoftheThirdMayorandtheHarare‐basedOfficeofInternationalAffairs);theClimateAlliancePartnershipbetweenMunichandtheindigenousAsháninkapeoplelivinginthePeruvianrainforest(supportedbytheOneWorldofficeintheDepartmentofHealthandEnvironment)promotingtheirlocalFair‐Traderetaillocationswithinvariouscommunitiesortheorganisationofbigevents;ortheadvisorycommitteewithrepresentativesfromallstrataofthecivilsocietyconsultingtheCityCouncilCommitteeforLocalDevelopmentCooperation,andsoforth.Itisclearthat,providedthepowersthatbeshowpoliticalandstructuralgoodwill,theOneWorldnetwork,too,iswell‐suitedtoimplementtheprincipleofsubsidiarity.Anotherpointworthmentioningisthefactthatgrantsforpeoplewhoactivelyparticipateincivilsocietyandfundsforinitiativesworkingeffectively,aswellasthefundingforlifelongemploymentjobsandparallelstructurescreatedbystateauthoritiesarefinancedfromthetaxpayers’money–themoneydoesnotcomefromtheministry’scoffers.HeinzSchulze,ChairmanNordSüdForumMünchene.V.Translation:EmilyPickerill,StephanieWintergerst,OlgaZakharovaIllustrationby

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Subsidiarity–amatterofpoliticsHistoricallyspeaking,FranceisacentralizedstatewherepoliticaldecisionsaremadeinandbyParis.In1981and1982,thenewsocialistgovernmentinitiateddecentralizationbymeansofaseriesoflaws.Differentterritoriallevelsweregivensomeauthority:22regionaladministrativeauthorities(Conseilsrégionaux),100generalcouncils–theassembliesoftheFrenchdépartements–(Conseilsgénéraux)andmorethan36,000municipalities(Municipalités).Concerningformaleducationforinstance,regionsareinchargeofgrammarschools,départementsofsecondaryschoolsandmunicipalcouncilsofprimaryschools.Atthesametime,thestatekeepsthesovereigntyofthesyllabustoitself.But–andthisdemonstratesthestate’smistrustregardingdecentralization–thestatehasinstalledadministrativebodiesineveryregionandforeverypolicyinordertomonitortheproperimplementationofdecentralizationbytheregionaladministrations.Thestateevenhasthepowertocensurethedecisionsmadebyregionaladministrationsortoshiftthedecision‐makingauthorityfromtheregionstothestate.Infact,thiscentralist“top‐down”principledominatestheentiresphereofpublicadministrationandisfirmlyestablishedonalllevelsoflocalpolitics.Thistrendisreflectedinthedevelopmentofnewadministrativestructures,forexampleinmetropolitanregionswhichincludeseveralcities,wherethereisnointeractionwithexistingadministrations.Inthiscontext,thecivilsociety,primarilyrepresentedbyhundredsofthousandsoforganizations,hasinfactnolegalrepresentativewithasayinpoliticalandpublicdecisions.Sometimesthecivilsocietyisintegratedintodecision‐makingprocesses,butmostlyitonlyservesasanadvisor.Tocontinuewiththeexampleofeducation,onecannothelpnoticingthattherearenumerousassociationsofteachers,parents,principalsandevenpupilswhoareonlyaskedfortheiropinionandlistenedtowhentheytaketothestreets.Onlypoliticalbodiesmakedecisionsandareresponsibleforthem.PeopleinFrancerelyontheprincipleofdelegationasaresultofdemocraticelections.Everycitizenvotesperiodicallyandtherebydelegateshisorherdecision‐makingpowertotheelectedrepresentatives.Withtheexceptionofpublicservices(whenanadministrationdelegatesitsdutiestoanyotherpublicorprivateorganization),theprincipleofsubsidiarityisseverelyrestrictedbylawenforcementandwillneverreachthecivilsociety.Concerningculturalaffairs,thesituationinFranceisevenworse.Exceptforafewculturalinstitutions–e.g.speciallibrarieswhichlocalauthoritiesareresponsiblefor–nopowerofdecision‐makinginculturalmatterswasgiventoregionaladministrationsordépartements.Nevertheless,départementsdosupporttheartsandcultureintheirrespectivesovereignterritories.Yet,theydosovoluntarilyandwithoutanylegalobligation.Nowadays,50percentofculturalcostsarecoveredbylocalauthorities.(InGermanygovernmentspendingoncultureonlycovers7percentofthetotalcosts.)Thesevoluntarysubsidiescanbestoppedanytime,whichmeansthatthissupportiscompletelyuptothediscretionoflocalpoliticians.Theycanchoosetosupportoneorganization,ratherthananother.Theycanwithdrawtheirsupportovernight,nomatterforwhatgoodorbadreason,withnoonecontradictingthem.Thatiswhythestateisholdingontoitspoweroverculturalmatters,albeitwithsteadilydecliningfundsoveraperiodofmorethantwentyyears.Regionalandlocalauthoritieshavegraduallyreplacedthestateinordertopreservetheartisticandculturalenvironment,buttheyarealsotakingthetypesofrisksdescribedabove.Whilepoliticianshaveabsolutepoweroverthe“lifeanddeath”ofculturalorganizations,theyarenotalwayscompetentenoughtoassesstheircreativityandtoforeseetheconsequencesofdecisions.Thisisoneexplanationforthedifficultiesinsupportingexperimentalandinnovativeartisticpractices.Indeed,thedirectanddailycontactwiththeirvoterscansometimesbeachallengeforlocalpoliticianswhentheyareaskedtoexplainunpopulardecisionstothelocalpublic.

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CulturalassociationsinFranceaccountfor20percentofatotalof1.1millionNGOs,buttheyhavenorealpowerwhatsoever.Theyaremereinstrumentsusedtojustifythecontinuityoftheculturalandeducationalpoliciesprescribedbydecision‐makers.Theonlytimetheymanagedtomakethemselvesheard,wasin2003.Thegovernmentintendedtocarryoutathoroughreviewofthestatusof“intermittentsduspectacle”(i.e.artistsandtechniciansemployedintheentertainmentindustrywithoutsteadyemployment)asbeneficiariesofsocialsecurityinsuranceschemes(editor'snote:comparabletotheKünstlersozialversicherunginGermany).Asaresult,theartistsdecidedtocallageneralstrikewhichledtothecancellingofsomefamousfestivals–suchastheFestivald’AvignonorthefestivalofliteratureinAix‐en‐Provence.Thepoliticiansinpowersuddenlybecameawareoftheeconomicimpactoftheseeventsandofthepowerofthissocialmovement.Consequently,thegovernmentwithdrewitsplans.Butthisisaone‐offexampleandhascertainlynotbroughtaboutanychangesofthestatutoryframeworkofdecision‐makingprocesses.InFrance,theprincipleofsubsidiarity–withregardtotheworldofculture–doesnotenthrallthepowersthatbe.FrédéricJambuhasbeenworkingfortheFrenchMinistryofForeignAffairsforseveralyearsaswellasfortheMinistryofCultureandCommunicationwherehewasentrustedwithEuropeanandEuro‐Mediterraneanrelations(includingafive‐yearassignmentinBrussels).HeisafoundingmemberandthemanagerofADCEI(AssociationforInternational,EuropeanandCulturalDevelopment).In2004,hefoundedtheEuromedinculture(s)network(with29memberorganizationsfrom21states)andhasrunitsincethen.FrédéricJambuorganizesevents,worksasatechnicaladviserforseveraluniversitiesandtakespartininternationalprojects.Translation:KeithKelly,MartinaSchorIllustrationby

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SomethoughtsoninclusionandtheprincipleofsubsidiaritywithintheeducationaldebateWhenstartingastructuraldiscussionaboutformaleducation,theprincipleofsubsidiarityisimmediatelyseenasapreconditionforinclusion,especiallyinthefieldofspecialeducation.Theprincipleofsubsidiarityimpliesthatataskshouldbecarriedoutbythesmallest“responsible”unitandthatthesuperordinateunitsshouldonlyinterveneifthelowerunitsarenotcapableofdoingso.Intheestablishedschoolsystemintegration‐basededucationprogrammescannotbetakenforgranted.Whetherornotsuchprogrammesexistseemstobeamatterofchanceandplaceofresidence.Accordingtoexperts,inclusion‐orientedschooleducationrequiresasubsidiaryspecial‐educationalformatbasedonanindependentconceptualplatform,whichemancipatesitselffrominflexibleestablishedspecial‐educationpatterns.Onthepoliticallevel,therehasbeenadiscussionforquitesometimeaboutalegislativeinitiative,referredtoasthe“greatsolution”,whichaimsatintegratingchildrenwithdisabilities.ThisideaisbasedonthepremisethatthesophisticatedsocialincentivesysteminGermanystandsinthewayofinclusion–especiallyduetohistoricalreasons.The“greatsolution”thereforesuggestsbringingallchildrenandadolescentsirrespectiveoftheirdisabilitiesandlearningdifficultiesintotheincentivesystem,withaccesstotheChildandYouthServicesaccordingtoVolumeVIIIoftheGermanSocialSecurityCode.Thisoptionhasbeendiscussedamongexpertsforyears.TheChildren'sCommissionoftheGermanBundestagadvocatesarapidimplementationoftheagreeduponsuggestionsassoonaspossible.Lookingmorecloselyatconcreteexampleswhichexistinpracticethroughoutthiscountry,itappearsthatanewdangerisloomingonthehorizon.However,duetotheenthusiasmsurroundingthebundlingofmeasures,thefactthatthenewsupportcentresareonceagaingoingtobecomeanewkindofspecial‐educationinstitutionisoverlooked.Themesscanperhapsbeuntangledbygettingtothebottomoftwoprincipalterms.Theprincipleofsubsidiarityfocusesonthedevelopmentofindividualskillsaswellasself‐determinationandself‐reliance.TheLatinoriginoftheword“subsidiary”means“supportive”or“alternativelyintervening”.Theprincipleofsubsidiarityalsoaffordsaclearimageofthehumanbeing,especiallywhenthinkingliberally,namelyoftheindependentindividual.Theterminclusion(includere:include,enclose)resultsfromtheopinionthatasocietyconsistsofindividualswho,moreorless,differfromoneother.Inclusionseeksachangeinexistingstructuresandopinionsbasedontheideathatdiversityamongindividualhumanbeingsreflectsthenormalstateofthings.Thediversityofhumanbeingsandtheirpotentialforsocietyandtheindividualisatthecentreoftheresulting“pedagogyofdiversity”.Actingaccordingtotheideasof“pedagogyofdiversity”initiallymeansbecomingsensitivetotheexistenceofdiversityandcallingattentiontoitspotential.Thatautomaticallyimpliesthelegitimateclaimofeveryindividualtobeacceptedasanindependentperson,whereveritispossible,andonlybesupported“alternatively–inasubsidiaryfashion”whenoneactuallycannotprogressfurtheralone.Thus,aninclusiveattitudeallowsforthepossibilitytorecognizeandvaluetheuniquenessofeveryhumanbeing.Ourconsiderationsregardingeducationbringustoanextendededucationalconcept–educationasself‐education.“Nopersonhaseverchangedanotherperson,ratherapersonchangeshimselfasresultofspecificinfluences,inordertosurvive.”(O.Speck)Asaresult,abroadereducationaltermreferstotheworldofthesubjects,thinksofeducationasself‐education,workswithaholisticapproachandencouragespeopletoengageinculturalaction.

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Accordingtothemaxim“Itisnormaltobedifferent”(R.v.Weizäcker),theinclusiveidealofeducationisasysteminwhichallmembersexperienceandperceiveasharedprocess,everyindividualhasasecureplaceandthusparticipationforeveryoneisguaranteed.Theresultofthisscenarioisautopiawhichwedeliberatelydescribeinaprovocativemanner:Sinceourformaleducationalsystemobviouslystillhasalongwaytogoinordertoachieverealinclusion,non‐formaleducation–forexampleculturaleducationwhichclaimstoenableeveryhumanbeingtoparticipateintheculturallifeofsociety–isgainingsignificance.Onecanseeculturaleducationasalifelong,individuallearningprocesswhichaccompanieshumanbeingseverywhere,youngandold,bothwithinandoutsideofeducationalinstitutions,inprivateaswellasinpublic.Culturaleducationdoesnotonlytakeplaceininstitutionsandisnotonlypartofprojectswhicharespecializedinculturalpedagogy.Importantparadigmsarevoluntariness,“error‐friendliness”andsubjectorientation.Freedfromthepressureofmeasurablesuccessandeducationalchoice,theexperienceswhicharegainedinsmallsubsidiaryanddifferentiatedworking‐environmentscanbere‐transferredbycross‐linkingwiththeformaleducationalprogrammes–whichevolvemoreandmorethesedays–andcanhavealastingeffectfortheentiresystemtowardsrealinclusion.Sources:ECHOe.V.–SpielregelwerkInstitutfürQualitätsentwicklunginSchleswigHolsteinGablerWirtschaftslexikonGanztagsbildunggemeinsamgestalten–2.GanztagsbildungskongressderLHMKarl‐MichaelBrandisanarteducator(M.A.),theatreeducatorandmemberoftheFederalAssociationofTheatreEducators.HeisafoundingmemberofECHO,VereinfürintegrativeSpiel‐undKulturpädagogike.V.(associationpromotingintegratededucationalplayandculturaleducation)establishedin1990andhasbeenworkingasitsfull‐timemanagersince2000.Beforethat,hegainedprofessionalexperienceinculturaleducationinPädagogischeAktionundPA/Spielkultur(associationforyouthculture)andinworkingwithpeoplewithdisabilitiesatFranziskuswerkSchönbrunn.Translation:MelinaNieß,EmilyPickerillIllustrationbyKarl‐MichaelBrand:Elephants

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GovernmentsandassociationsAftermorethanthirtyyearsofwitnessingthedevelopmentofFrance’sculturalsector,Iamconvincedthatthemainproblemhasalwaysbeenthelackofaccessoftheworking‐classtoculturalopportunities.Ialwaystriedtoinvolvemarginalizedcitizens,whetherthatbethefactoryworkersinMontbillard,theminersinthecoalbasinsofLorraine,ortheinhabitantsofworking‐classareasinStrasbourg,inordertoshowthemawaywhichfollowsanew,differentconceptionofculturalaction.Forfiftyyearsnow,France’sculturalsectorhasbeenbasedonatriptychsystem:production,advertising,andpresentation.Productionandadvertisinghaveexperiencedanexponentialperiodofgrowth,whilemostlyonlyuniversitygraduates,theeducatedmiddle‐class,havebenefitedfrompresentation.Intheearlyyears,culturewassupportedbytheMinistryofCultureinParis;thencities,localauthoritiesandregionaladministrationstookoverthefundingofproductionandadvertisingwitha2.5timeslargersupportbudgetthantheMinistryofCulture.InFrance,mostculturalinstitutionsareorganizedasassociationswithrepresentativesofthepublicadministrationaschairmen.Overthepasttenyears,wehaveobservedanewphenomenon.Cities,localauthoritiesandregionshaveinterveneddirectlyintheculturalsectorbyorganizingtheirownartisticactivities,financedbyculturalassociations.Marketing,imageadvertising,rivalrywithothercitiesandregionsarethemainreasons.Butthisinterferenceislimitedtomega‐projects,suchasmuseums,importantexhibitionsandfestivalswhichpromiseopportunitiesforimageadvertising.Inanycase,whetherthroughsupportofculturalassociationsorthroughdirectintervention,thepowersthatbecontroltheculturalsectorbasedontheage‐oldmotto“Hewhopaysthepipercallsthetune”.JeanHurstel:manofthetheater,author,socialphilosopher,“enfantterribledel’administrationculturel”,DirectoroftheCulturalCentreinBechamen(Brussels),founderoftheEuropeanCultureNetwork“Banlieuesd’Europe”anditspresidentfortwentyyears.Translation:Sara‐MarieCarstens,EmilyPickerillIllustrationby:Paris

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Self‐helpinitiatives–fromgroup‐basedactivitiestolegalstandardizationWhenpeopleformagroupandorganisethemselvesonanylevelofsociety,theirself‐organisationisaproductiveandcontent‐relatedexpressionofintention.Thisprocessalwaysrepresentsaspecificconceptofgrassrootsdemocracywhichmayopenupnewvistas.Asarule,self‐helpinitiativesconveytwomessages.Theylayclaimtotherighttoself‐determinationandparticipation,andtheypresentfactualcontent‐relatedgoals.Themanyvarietiesofself‐helpinitiativesarealldifferentformsofgrassroots‐democracywhichemergedinthehealth‐careandsocialsectors.Overthepastsixdecades,theymadeavaluablecontributiontowardsfirmlyestablishingtheconceptsofdemocracyandinnovativequalificationinthehealth‐careandsocialsectors.DuringtheperiodofNationalSocialism,self‐organisedgroupsororganisationswereeitherabolishedorfellvictimtoGleichschaltung,i.e.theenforcedconformityoforganisationsinlinewithNaziideology.Post‐warGermanysawthecomebackofadiversifiedspectrumofself‐organisedgroups.From1947onwardsthefirstself‐helpgroupswerefoundedtoprovidehealth‐careservices.Theirmemberswereinitiallypeopleinneedoftheseservices.Theyexchangedtheirviewsincommunicationforumsandworkedoutcategoriesofself‐helpservicesandservicesthatwouldnotfitanyprofessionalizablepattern.Theseservicesincludedpsychicalstabilization,customizedassistanceforpeoplesufferingfromchronicdiseasesordisabilitiesandadvicewhendealingwithprofessionals.Indication‐orientedself‐helporganisationswerecontinuouslyimprovingthelegalentitlementsofbenefitsandthereforealsothequalityoflifeoftherecipientsofbenefits.Thiswasachievedwiththehelpoflobbyingpracticeswhichhadbecomesociallyacceptable.ThatiswhyIconsiderthesegroupstobetraditionalself‐helpinitiatives.From1970onwards,asaresultofthestudentmovementnumerousalternativeself‐helpgroupsandalternativeself‐organisedprojects(altogetherfarmorethan5,000)emergedinthehealth‐careandespeciallyinthesocialsector.Iamreferringtothesegroupsasalternativebecausetheyfrontallyattackedtheprofessionalworkintheoryandpracticeandtriedtofundamentallychangeit.Theycriticizedthehierarchicalstructures,the(legallyprotected)almightinessofprofessionalsanddepersonalizationofthepeopleaffected(patients/clients).Theyadopted–likeallothersocialmovements–theobjectivesofthestudentmovementanddemandedself‐determination,co‐determinationandparticipationforpatients/clients.Thesealternativeself‐helpgroupssucceededinimplementingtheirguidingprinciplesinrealprojects,andtheydidsowithremarkableenthusiasmandexemplarycommitment.Evenatthattimethenumerouscasesofcertaininstitutionsabusingthesystemwerecriticized,buttheywereneverdiscussedinpublic.Boththetraditionalandeventhealternativeself‐helpinitiativesdidnotstayintheirprescribedgroupghettos.Likeanyothersocialmovementintheirrespectivelinesofactivities,self‐helpinitiativeshavetransformedthehealth‐careandsocialsectorsintermsofworkprocessesbyintroducingspecificcontentandfield‐relatedinnovationsandintermsofsocio‐politicalacceptancebyimplementingtherightstoself‐determination,co‐determinationandparticipation(since1991whentheChildandYouthWelfareActcameintoeffect).Inotherwords–theworkperformedbythevarioustypesofgroupshasgainedmomentumfarbeyondtheactualgroupenvironmentandbecomeadynamicsocialforcewhichtriggeredfundamentalreformsthataffectworkprocessesandthelegalstatusofservices.Themajorityofprofessionalsandassociationsinthehealth‐careandsocialsectorsdidnotwanttohaveanythingtodowithalternativeself‐organisedgroups,the‘muckypups’inhealthcareandsocialservices,whichtheyconsideredarestrictionandthreat.Mosttraininginstitutionsignored–andtosomeextentstillignore–themulti‐facetededucationalfieldofself‐organisation.ManyscientistsaswellaspublicinstitutionsandespeciallytheFederalGovernment,however,sawpotentialinself‐helpinitiativesandtheirinnovations.Eventually,theFederalGovernmentdecidedtolaythelegalfoundationsbypassingtheChildandYouthWelfareActonthe

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basisofthe8thYouthReport1991andbyaddingfurthersectionstotheGermansocialsecuritycode.Therefore,essentialpartsofthegroups’workunderwenttransformationalprocessesandnowtheyformanintegralpartofsocialstructures.Theresultoftheworkofself‐helpinitiativescanbesummarizedasfollows:• Self‐helpassociationsfocusonthegeneralprinciplesofself‐determination,co‐determinationas

wellasparticipationandontheabilitiesofthoseaffectedbyhealthand/orsocialproblems;theyhaveimprovedthelivingconditionsoftheirgroupmembers;duetotheirexperienceandknow‐howinthisfield,theywereabletogivegoodadviceormakereliablerecommendationsavailableforotherpersonsaffected.Especiallyinthesocialsector,theydevelopedfield‐specificoracross‐theboardapproacheswhichnow–duetofundamentalconsiderationsandbecauseoftheirproveneffectiveness–belongtothestate‐of‐theartmethodologicalrepertoire.

• Theseachievementsclearlyshowthatself‐helpassociationsactedasthemaindrivingforceandhavecontributedsignificantlytothedemocratizationandmodernizationofthesocialandhealth‐caresectors.Legislationadoptedthedemandsofself‐helpassociations–self‐determination,co‐determinationandparticipationinsocialandhealth‐carematters;specializedliteratureonthesubjectalsoencouragedlegislatorstodoso.Supportingself‐helpassociationshasbecomeamandatoryrequirement;self‐determination,co‐determinationandparticipationarenowtheprinciplesgoverningtherightsofthepatients/usersaswellasstatutoryguidelinesforprofessionalstaffasstipulatedintheGermansocialsecuritycode.Initially,professionalsworkingintheseinstitutionswerenotinagreementandputuppassiveresistance.

• TherebyanewparadigmislaiddowninthelegalnormsoftheGermansocialsecuritycodefor

applyingforjobsinthesocialandhealth‐caresectors.Itcanbedescribedasabalancebetweenknowhow‐basedprofessionalauthorityontheonehandandtherighttoindividualself‐determination,co‐determinationandparticipationofthepatient/userontheotherhand.

(From:Engelhardt:LeitbildMenschenwürde–wieSelbsthilfeinitiativendenGesundheits‐undSozialbereichdemokratisieren,CampusVerlag,Frankfurt2011,p.15;unofficialtranslation).

Atlonglast,self‐helpinitiatives–atinyminority–managedtoconvincetheFederalGovernmentasalegislativebodythattheprinciplesgoverningtheiractivitiesshouldbelegallybinding.Witha40‐yeardelay,theFederalGovernmenttranslatedtheindividualclaimstoself‐determinationanchoredintheGermanConstitutionintoapplicablelawforthehealth‐careandsocialsectors.Dr.HansDietrichEngelhardt,retiredprofessorofsociologyandsocialworkfortheSocialWorkDepartmentoftheFachhochschuleMünchen(now:FacultyofAppliedSocialScience,HochschuleMünchen).Hisspecialfields:self‐helpandself‐organisationaswellasorganisationaldevelopment(asof1980)andqualitymanagement–theory,practiceandresearch(from1990onwards);authorofspecialisedpublicationsonthesubjects.Translation:KeithKelly,SebastianMix,UlrikePopfingerIllustrationby

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NGOinEgypt–politics,practiceandlegitimationTheRenaissanceinEgypttookplaceintheeraofMohamedAlybetween1805and1848.MohamedAlybuiltanewEgyptontheruinsoftheOttomanEmpire.Themainpillarsofthisrenewalwereeducation–alsomanifestinsocialreforms–modernschoolsandthefoundingofacentralizedstatethatstillexiststoday.Onthisbasis,EgyptwasestablishedasoneofthemostadvancedcountriesoutsideEurope.PatrioticanddemocraticEgyptianmovementsgainedtheirindependenceandmaintainedit.ThekingresignedandtheArabRepublicofEgyptwasproclaimed.Thefirstnon‐profitNGOofEgyptwasfoundedin1829andmanyothersweretofollow.Someofthempursuedculturalgoalsorwerescience‐related,othershadreligiousbackgroundsandwereguidedbywelfaremotives.Whentheconstitutioncameintoeffectin1923whichofficiallyrecognizedNGOs,theirnumbersmultiplied.TheeraofliberalizationinEgyptbetweentherevolutionof1919andtherevolutionof1952helpedNGOstoprosper,especiallythereligiouslyandIslam‐orientatedhumanitarianNGOs,fromwhichtheMuslimBrotherhoodemerged.Duringtheperiodbetweentherevolutionin1952untilthe1990scivilsocietyactivitiescametoahalt,sincetheregimepushedthecreationofatotalitariansystemthatmonopolizedandcontrolledanymovementsoutsideitsownpowercircuit,especiallyafterthevictoryovertheMuslimBrotherhood,thecommunistsandevenoverthedemocraticwingoftherevolutionarygroups.Itisimportanttohighlightthishistoricbackgroundinordertounderstandthedevelopmentofsubsidiarityunderseveralregimesirrespectiveoftheirideologicalorientation.AnalysisAtthemoment,centralizationpermeatesallareasoflifeinEgypt,andsocietyasawholesuffersineveryrespect.ThisholdstrueforthedictatorialregimewhichhasgovernedEgyptforthepastsixtyyears.DuringtheMubarakeralaw,orderandtheconstitutionwereexploitedbythegovernmenttowieldpower.Between1982and2012Egyptwasgovernedunderemergencylaw,whichallowedforextensivesurveillanceandtheviolationofhumanrightsbytheauthorities.Civilrightswerecurtailedasaresultofsternsupervisionbythepoliceandthejudicialsystem.In2002,NGOshadtoadjusttoathechangingenvironmentafterthefallofSaadEddinIbrahim–hewassentencedtosevenyearsinprisonforimpeachmentandwasaccusedofconspiracyandtakingactionagainstthestateaswellasfraud)andhiscolleaguesfromtheIbn‐Khaldun‐Centerwhowereaccusedoffraudandembezzlement.Butthetruthistheydefendeddemocraticcivilrights,justasNawaiElSaadaouiandothershadpreviouslydefendedhumanrights,whileindividualcivilrightswereignored,forexamplebypersecutinghomosexuals.Therefore,thedifferencebetweenademocraticsystemofgovernmentandothersystemsisthatlegislationisthelegitimizationfortheformer,whilethegoalisrestrictionforthelatter.WhowasgoingtofoundanNGOunderthesecircumstances?Aretheyfoundedbecausepeoplereallythinkthattheyneedthem?Doesthiscorrelatewiththeneedsofsociety?Atthemoment,thereare16,800NGOswiththreemillionmembersfromallstrataofsociety.In2002,35percentofthesewerereligiousNGOswithwelfare‐relatedorotherreligiousmotivations.Thisnumberisquiteremarkableandthequestionariseswhethertheyareallactiveorganizations.ThenumberofactiveNGOsisactuallynomorethanafewhundredwithseveralthousandmembers.DotheseactiveNGOsplayaroleincivillife?SomeNGOsfindawaydespitethefinancialproblemsandtherealorimposedrestraintsbecausetheyaresupportedfromabroad.Othersareprivilegedandfavoredbythetwofactorsfieldofactivityand‘who’runstheNGO.InthisrespecttheformerFirstLadywhowasmuchoffeministalwayssupportedmovementsthatpromotedtherightsofwomenandchildren.And,accidentally,allbiginternationalorganizationssupportexactlythesefieldsofactionandprojects.ItwasnocoincidenceeitherthatMsMubarakbecamepresidentoftheseNGOsthatreceivedstrongfinancialsupportfromabroadandfrombusinesspeople.Between1982and2010,Egyptreceived$1billionfromEuropeandtheUnitedStates.

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Thereisnodenyingthefactthattheseefforts‘fellonfertileground’becauseanumberoflawscameintoforcepromotingtherightsofwomenandchildren.Inthiscontext,theterm‘force’istobetakenliterallyfor,inmanycases,thegovernmentusedforceandputpressureonparliamenttopasstheselaws.Thesechangeswereneededtoimprovetheregime’simageintheworldinordertoreceivemoney.Theyweredecidedupononthelegislativelevel;buttheywereneverimplementedbypoliticiansandfollowedbypreciseandpurposefulaction.Sadly,thisintricatecorruptionschemealsoservedasamodelformanyNGOs.Theworkonthegrassrootslevel–theraisond’êtreofNGOs–hasnotevenbegunyet.Inthepastfewyearsthenumberofstreetchildren,forexample,hasincreaseddramaticallytounprecedentedlevelsAccordingtoestimatesbyUNICEFtherearebetween500,000and1,000,000homelesschildrenlivinginthestreetsofEgypt.Theworkonthegrassrootslevelhasbeenmarginalizedwhereaspoliticaltalkshowsarethriving–andgeneratingmoney.Atthesametime,nostoneisleftunturnedtosecurethecentralizedallocationoffunds.Theprincipleofsubsidiaritydoesnotseemtorepresentabasicvalueforauthorities.Theprimacyofbureaucracyandcentralizationisobviouslymoreimportant.PointofviewIfsubsidiarityasanNGOstrategyisseenasameansfordemocratization,itis,inmyopinion,likeshowingapictureupsidedownorputtingthecartbeforethehorse.Subsidiarityisanexpressionofdemocracy.Therefore,politicalvolunteeringisrequiredtocarryoutcorrespondingreforms.OutlookEgyptischanging.AtthebeginningoftherevolutionthereweresignificantlegislativeproposalswhichwererelevanttotheindependenceofNGOs(especiallytothosecaringabouthumanrights).DuetothecorruptionpracticesduringtheMubarakeranothingcameofit.Now,insteadofthestateinterveninginordertorespecttheserecommendations,thereistalkofamorerestrictivelegislativeprocedure(concerningthefoundingofNGOs,management,financialpractices,activities,members).Thegovernmentwillpresentabilltoparliamentandtheideaistoensuremorecentralization.ConclusionLuckily,therearemovements,institutions,newsmallbusinesses,newgenerations,andanentirenationthatstandforaneweraoforientationtowardsnewideas,enthusiasmandself‐ruleaswellascallsforradicalreforms.Itistheonlywayforus.IwouldnowliketosharemythoughtsontheEuropeanmodel.Europehasfoughtforalongtimeandpaidahighpricetobecomesuchanadvancedregion.Andithascreatedthiscivilization,whichisbuiltondemocracyandparticipation.Whenasocietyhasenjoyedaffluenceandtheblessingsofitscivilizationforalongperiodoftime,itmightstagnateandforgetwhereitisgoing,especiallywithanewgenerationwhichneverhadtopavethisway.Thisisthemomentwhendecadencebeginstoshowitsface.Youneedbeawareofthesocialissuesandabletoaddresstheminordertowakeupyourcitizens.Thecivilsocietyshouldbeinastateofconstantchangetosafeguarditsachievements.ImanNouredinstudiedculturalhistoryandmanagementatSenghorUniversity(1999‐2001).SheworkedforthelibraryofAlexandria;initiallyshewasresponsiblefortheHistoryofScienceMuseum,thenfortheCulturalHistoryInstitute/exhibitionareaandnowsheisafree‐lanceconsultantandprojectmanagerforvariousculturalprojects.

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Duringher‘journey’shesucceededinpairingwithforeigninstitutionsanddevelopingcommonprojects.Besides,sheisanexpertonNGOsinEgypt,andespeciallyoftheworksofculturalartistsinAlexandria.Shealsoengagesvoluntarilyinsocialmovementsthatrebelagainstcorruptionandvestedinterests.Shewantstogettothebottomoftheproblemsandisconcernedaboutthepost‐revolutiondevelopmentsinEgypt.Translation:KeithKelly,NadineWundererIllustrationby

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SubsidiarityasapartofcivilsocietyTherehavebeenfundamentalchangesinthefieldofchildrenandyouthservicesinthelastfewdecades.Thegrowingscarcityoffinancialresources(financialcrisis,nationaldebt)andthewideningsocialgapinoursocietyhaveledtofundamentalchangesintheareaofstatewelfareorganisation.Publicagenciesandvoluntaryorganisationswerejoinedbyprivatewelfareorganisations.Now,abusinessmind‐setdetermineswhichoffersareonhand.Peopleaffectedandindividualsseekinghelphavebecome"customers",whereasyouthwelfareorganisationshavebegunprovidingpredefinedservices.Themostreasonablebidsareawardedthecontract.Theprincipleofsubsidiaritywasforthemostpartcircumventedandisbeingreplacedmoreandmorebythemarketprinciple.Therefore,thefundamentalaspectofthesubsidiarityprinciplehasbeenlost.Thisfundamentalaspectcanbeunderstoodasa"strengtheningofcivilsociety".Itdefinestherelationshipbetweenpublicagenciesandvoluntaryorganisationsinawaythatprivatewelfareagenciesnotonlyhaveinfluenceandflexibilitybutalso(conditional)prioritywhenperformingsocialtasks.Thisdoesnotonlyconcernthesocialwelfaresystembutalsothecoreprinciplesofaworkingdemocracy.Thus,discussingsubsidiarityinvolvesdiscussingtheissueofparticipationandtheroleofcivilsocietytopreserveanddevelopdemocracy.Besidesmajorassociations,thenumeroussmallvoluntaryorganisationsareparticularlyaffected.Thereasonsfornotentirelylettingthesubsidiarityprinciplefallvictimtothemarketprinciple,butinsteadstrivingforamodernreinterpretationandreorientationare:

1. Subsidiaritystrengthenscivilsocietyaswellasdemocracyandallowsparticipation.2. Subsidiaritycreatestheconditionsforgoodandsuccessfulwork.3. Subsidiarityseverstheconnectionbetweenpublicaidandcontrol.4. Voluntaryorganisationsarenotonlyserviceprovidersbutalso(political)stakeholdersand

advocatesofthepeopleconcerned.5. Voluntaryorganisationsprovideaclearerpointofviewonthepeople'sproblemsand

incorporatetheminsolvingthependingtasks.6. Voluntaryorganisationspromotevoluntarycommitmentrelevantforcivilsocietyandutilise

scarceresourcestobesteffect.7. Voluntaryorganisationscontributetofurtherdevelopmentofthesocialsectorbyinnovation

andcreativity.8. Voluntaryorganisationshaveanimportant"earlywarningfunction",whichmeanstheycan

drawearlyattentiontounsolvedproblemsandnewissuesbecauseoftheirproximitytothepopulationandtheirabilitytoopposeandprotest.

9. Voluntaryorganisationshaveanimportantroletoplayincontrollingpublicinstitutions.Thepublicwelfaresystemcannotaffordtoforegothepotentialofvoluntaryorganisations.Inreturn,itistheirresponsibilitytoutilisethispotentialandmakeitvisible.Forthis,however,besidesbeingprovidedwithadequatefunds,itisalsonecessarytocooperateonthesamelevel.Participation,acknowledgementofdifferentopinionsandviews,solidaritywiththeweakermembersofsocietyandtheassumptionofresponsibilityforthecommunityareallpartofaworkingcivilsociety.Subsidiarity,asdescribedabove,ismorethanjustadivisionoflabourbetweenpublicagenciesandvoluntaryorganisationstooptimiseworkingprocesses.Itispartofafunctioningdemocracy,inacountrythatfocusesonhumandignity,noton"reducingcosts".References

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ThomasOlk:FreieTrägerinderSozialenArbeit.In:Hans‐UweOtto/HansThiersch(Hrsg.):HandbuchSozialeArbeit.4.,völligneubearbeiteteAuflage,München2011,S.415‐428.GüntherGugelisaneducator(M.A.).HeworkedfortheGermanInstituteonPeaceEducationArbeitsgemeinschaftFriedenspädagogik(1977‐1980),wastheco‐manageroftheInstitutfürFriedenspädagogikTübingene.V(until2011)andatthemomentheiswiththeBerghofFoundation/PeaceEducationinTübingen.Translation:MarkusHaselmann,EmilyPickerillIllustrationbyHansMayrhofer:TheBremenTown‐Musicians(afolktalerecordedbytheBrothersGrimm)

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Theprincipleofsubsidiarity–theAlbaniancaseThefactalonethattheAlbanianlanguagedoesnothaveaproperdefinitionfor“theprincipleofsubsidiarity”,wherebyallAlbanianscangraspthetruemeaningofsuchprincipalinandofitself,shouldbeenoughtoindicatehowmuchofanewconceptthisprincipalistotheAlbaniansociety.SuchalackinthebasicdictionaryoftheAlbanianlanguage,hasitsrootsinthehistoryofAlbanianpolitics.BuiltandfunctioningontheprinciplesoftheStalinistSystem,thatstoodagainsteverythingsubsidiaritystandsfor,itwasimpossibletoevencomeupwiththemereterminologyforsuchaprincipleupuntilSpringof1991.Eventheword“participation”meantsomethingverydifferentfromthecivil“participation”inademocracy.So,theAlbanianswouldcometoknowoftheprincipalofsubsidiarity,aswithotherdemocraticprinciples,only22yearsago,withthechangeofthepoliticalsystemtoademocracy.DescribingthedifficultiesandobstaclesthatbuildingthedemocracyinAlbaniahasrunintooverthepast22years,ascontinuestostillruninto,wouldbetoolongofastoryandyet,incomplete.Butregardingtheprincipalinthismatter,allowmetobringjustoneexample:ThelawforthecreationoftheAgencyfortheSupportoftheCivilSociety,wasvotedbytheParliamentin2009.ThisisanationalAgencyandbasedonprojectspresentedbyAlbaniannon‐governmentalorganizations,bylawithastodistributefundsonabudgetof1millionUSD.Basedonpublicrecords,thisAgencyhasneverreceivedmorethanhalfofthosefunds.And,asforlocalgovernment,inanytownorcity,includingthecapital,wheremorethanaquarterofthecountry’spopulationresides,suchfundstosupportthecivilsociety,havenotevenbeenincludedinthebudget.DoesvotingtheLawforthecreationoftheAgencyfortheSupportoftheCivilSocietyeighteenyearsintodemocracyspeakforamatureAlbanianpoliticalclassandgovernmentinstitutions?Itwouldbeapositiveanswertothisquestions,hadthelawcometotheparliamentasanorganicneedtorestructurethenewdemocraticAlbaniansociety,wherebyeverycitizenfreelyclaimstheirproperresponsibilities.Butitdid,infact,comeaboutforaverydifferentreason.RightbeforetheMarch2009Elections,theAlbaniangovernmentwasinarushtopresentBrusselswiththerequestforthestatusofacandidatecountryintheBE,sotheycoulduseitinthecampaign.OneoftheconditionsthattheEuropeanCommissionstated,inordertoacceptthisrequest,wasthelawtofinanciallysupportthecivilsociety.Asweallknow,aforcedlaw,hasverylittlechanceofbeingupheldandapplied.However,duringthelast22yearsofdemocracy,aratherrichnetworkofnon‐governmentalorganizationshasbeencreated.AndthishasbeenmainlypossiblethankstothesupportinfinanceandexperienceofAlbania’sfriendsandtheEuropeanCommission.But,Iwouldconciselyaddthat,thisfinancingcompletelyfromtheoutside,despitethebenefits,hasalsobroughtonfrustrationsonallplayers.Attimesthesenon‐governmentalorganizationshavemisinterpreted(abused)theirauthority.Theyhaveactedarrogantlytowardsthelocalgovernments.And,fortheirlackofdemocraticexperience,thelocalgovernmenthasmanytimesseentheNGOsastheenemy.Thus,thecooperation,withoutwhichtheprincipalofsubsidiaritycannotfunction,hasbeendamaged.TheAlbaniancasebringsupthefactthatthisprincipaltouchesontheverycoreofthedemocraticcultureofasociety.ThefactthattheAlbaniandictionarydoesn’tevencontainaproperandcleardefinitionofthisprincipalanditsmeaning,isproofthattheprincipalhasnotbeenassimilatedbytheAlbaniansocietyitself.Yet,theNGOshavenoproblemwhatsoevercommunicatinginEnglishoranyotherlanguageswiththeirforeigndonators.Andthisjustisn’tthewaytoachievethegoalandservethepurposeforwhichtheywerecreatedinthefirstplace.BesnikMustafaj(Albania),Albanianwriter,formerForeignMinisterofAlbania,PresidentoftheAlbanianForumforCivilAllianceandoftheeuromedinculture(s)networkIllustrationbySteffenHaas:AlbanianDictionary

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Subsidiarity,DecentralisationandParticipationinCulturalPolicy:ViewsfromSpainThenotionof‘subsidiarity’hasmainlyenteredthelanguageinSpainandCataloniainthecontextofEuropeanUnionpolitics–subsidiarityastheprinciplewherebydecisionsshouldbetakenandimplementedbythelevelofgovernmentwhichismorerelevantandeffectiveasregardsthenatureoftheissuebeingaddressed.Assuch,‘subsidiarity’remainsaratherspecialisedword,mainlyusedbyacademicsandprofessionals.Nevertheless,someofthevaluesbehindthistermareindeedfundamentaltoourownviewsofcultureandpublicculturalpolicies–inparticular,decentralisationofresponsibilitiesinthefieldofculturalpolicyandparticipationofeveryoneinculturallife.Asinotherfederalorquasi‐federalstates,andasaresultoftherecognitionofitsinternalculturalandlinguisticdiversity,theevolutionofculturalpoliciesinSpainsincetheendofdictatorshipowesmuchtotheroleplayedbylocalandregionalauthorities.AccordingtodataprovidedbytheCompendiumonCulturalPoliciesandTrendsinEurope,localgovernmentwasthesourceofalmost55%ofallpublicculturalexpenditureinSpainin2008,whereasregionalgovernmentsprovidedanadditional30%.Thefactthatcentralgovernmentwasonlythesourceof15%ofpublicfundingforcultureprovesthedecentralisednatureofdecision‐makinginthisfield.Theimportanceoflocalgovernmentsforculturalpoliciesandtheircontributiontosustainabledevelopmenthasbeenreinforcedinternationallyindocumentssuchas2004’sAgenda21forculture,whicharguesthat‘Citiesandlocalspacesareaprivilegedsettingforculturalinventionwhichisinconstantevolution,andprovidetheenvironmentforcreativediversity,whereencountersamongsteverythingthatisdifferentanddistinct…arewhatmakesfullhumandevelopmentpossible.’TheAgendaprovidesgeneralguidelinesfortheimplementationofsustainableculturalpolicies,whichlocalgovernmentsacrosstheworldareinvitedtoadapttotheircontext.Theseprinciplesalsohighlighttheneedtocreatetheconditionsforcitizenstoparticipateactivelyandequallyinculturallife.Therighttotakepartinculturallifeis,indeed,abasichumanright,asrecognisedin1948’sUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsand1966’sInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,whichshouldinfluencepoliciesandultimatelyinspireallpublicandprivateactorsinterveninginculturallife.Recommendationsforlocalculturalpoliciesfosteringparticipationwereformulatedin2007inthecontextoftheGuidetoCitizenParticipationinLocalCulturalPolicyDevelopmentforEuropeanCities,theresultofaEuropeanprojecttheresultsofwhichremainvalidtothisday.Thelinkbetweenparticipationandsubsidiarityisalsoreinforcedbyconsideringboththeseprinciplesassomeoftheintrinsicvaluesofculture–i.e.thosecoreaspectsofculturewhichservetoaffirmitsfundamentalplacewithinhumandignity,ratherthanseeingcultureasaresourcefortheachievementofeconomicorsocialaims.InthewordsofEduardDelgado,thefounderofInterarts,‘Thereisaspecialqualityinculturalprocesseswhicharefullydeterminedbytheirownprotagonists;whereneithermarketproducernormaecenasnorofficialsdecideoncontentsorstructure….Policieswhichareseentopromoteautonomyratherthandependence…induceresponsibleprojectsfromartspromotersandinviteriskandchallenge…Autonomyisrelatedtosubsidiarityinpublicpoliciesanditleadstodecentralisation,devolutionanddeconcentrationschemes.’(EduardDelgado,‘CulturalPlanningvs.ArtsValues’,2000).ThecurrenteconomicandpoliticalcontextinSpainplacesimportantchallengestodecentralisationandparticipationaswehavecometoknowthem.Ontheonehand,thetrendtowardsthereductioninpublicdeficitisleadinggovernmentstoreducetheirinvolvementinculturallife,withsomeregionalauthoritiesfavouringare‐centralisationofcompetencesatnationallevel.Ontheotherhand,somecivilsocietyactorswhichhadtraditionallyplayedakeyroleinculturalparticipationfinditincreasinglydifficulttoraisepublicorprivateresourcesfortheiractivities.Eventhoughnewformsofparticipationareemerging(e.g.crowdfunding,crowdsourcing,etc.),timesareindeeddifficult‐agoodtimetorethinkourwaysofoperating,whilstretainingtheimportanceofparticipationanddecentralisationinculturallife.

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Barcelona,February2013JordiBaltà,InterartsFoundation,jbalta@interarts.net

JordiBaltàworksasprojectcoordinatorattheInterartsFoundation(www.interarts.net),anorganisationactiveinthefieldsofculturalpolicyandinternationalculturalcooperation,basedinBarcelona.HeiscurrentlytheScientificCoordinatoroftheEuropeanExpertNetworkonCulture(EENC,www.eenc.eu).IllustrationbyPhilipJunk:FromaSpanishpointofview

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Thepromotionofpopandyouthculture:anexamplefromMunichPlayinginaband,DJing,skating,spraying,filming,makingmusiconaPC,developinggraphicsandlayouts–alltheseactivitiesarepartofawiderangeoftoday’syouthculturewherebyyoungactorsdeliberatelyavoidallacademicestablishments,aswellasmostnon‐academicculturaleducationopportunities.Educationalinstitutionsarehavingahardtimeunderstandingyouth,theircodes,rules,andwaysofcommunicationintheirmilieu,and,ingeneral,understandingtheproductionmethodsoftoday’syouthculture.Thatistobeexpected,asyouthculturescomeintobeingbydeliberatelydistancingthemselvesfrominstitutionaleducationandculture.Youngmusiciansandartistsoftendownrightignorepre‐establishedculturalstandardsofqualityandsearchforrolemodelsinpartiallyobscuresub‐culturalniches(accordingtotheparentgeneration).Theydespisethemainstreambutalsooccasionallyflirtwithit.Mostofthetime,youngpeopleacquiretheskillsandinformationtheyneedthroughlearning‐by‐doingorpeer‐learning,whereexpertsand“cracks”ofthescenepassontheirknowledge.Toalargeextentthishappensinformally:theytrytoorganizethemselvesasfaraspossibleandoftendeclineeducationaloffersfromnon‐academiceducationinstitutions,declaringthem“uncool”.Theyoungactorsintheseyouthculture,pop‐affiliatedenvironmentsthereforedevelopaDIY(Do‐it‐yourself)culture,whichhasabsolutelynothingtodowiththepretentiousworldofcastingandtalentshowsmarketedbythemedia.InallitsaspectsthisDIYpopcultureisaheartfeltwishofmostlyyoungactorsandtheiraudience.Onlyanextremelysmallfractionoftheseactorsachieves(orevenwantstoachieve)atransformationoftheirhobbyintoastableandsustainableprofession.Fewevenwishtobecomeastar.Still,fromthestart,thishobby,incontrarytotraditionalhouseconcerts,aimstoreachandinspireanaudience.Interactingwithitandestablishingafanbaserepresentsatouchoffame,anegoboostandeuphoriainthespotlightofsceneclubs.Thisculturalacknowledgmentneedsroom,ifitwantstodevelopproductively.Itneedssensitive,non‐normativesupport.Encouragementmustbecloseenoughtotheactorsandtheirneedstostaycredibleintheireyesandtobeacceptedbythem.Ontheotherhand,theyhavetokeepenoughdistancetopreventtheabuseoftheartisticoutcomeinamanipulativeordemandingway.Asupportinginstitutionlikethespecialistunit"FachstellePop"inMunichseesitselfasacounselingandserviceunitfortheyoungpop(musician)scene.Financedbytheurbancultureadministration,ithasthetaskofsupportingyoungpopculturewithoutbeingboundbyspecificoperativegoals.Itisbasedonthenotionthatpopandyouthculturethrivesonfastandcreativechangesandthussuccessfulsupportofthisculturehastobeprocess‐orientedandopen‐ended.Thespecialistunitusesitsuniquemandatetoofferflexible,demandanduser‐orientedsupportandnetworkingtasks.Itmaintainsconstantdialoguewiththeyoungandcreative;itoffersroomforrehearsing,developing,tryingandpresenting,supportsnetworkingstructuresamongactorsandofferslow‐thresholdandaffordablecounselingandservices.Embeddingthemselvesintothecontextofahugeyouthculturalinstitutionwithdistinctiveeventorganization("Feierwerk")affordsittherequiredcredibilitywithintheyouthculturescenes.Assuch,theworriesexpressedbymusiciansandartistsofbeingdevouredbyculturalbureaucracy(akindof"officeofpopculture")areinvalidated.Instead,thespecialistunitworkstogetherwiththesemusiciansandartiststoprovidetheyoungpopculturewiththesocialrecognitiontheydeserveandthereforebringitfurtherthaneverbeforeintothelimelightofculturalsupport.KlausMartensisaveteraneducationalworkeratFeierwerk(associationforculturalactivitiesforchildrenandyouth)inMunich.Since2009hehasworkedatthespecialistunit"FachstellePop"andintheadministrationoftheeventorganizationforyouthandyoungadults.

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Translation:EmilyPickerill,LauraRohrsetzerIllustrationby:Twopeoplesittingatadesk

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SubsidiarityinpublicyouthworkAcontributionfromFrankfurtBetweentheendofWorldWarIIand1967tenpublicyouthcentreswereopenedinFrankfurtundertheauspicesofthemunicipalassociation“HäuserderoffenenTür”(OpenDoorOrganisations).Theiragendaswereparticularlyaimedatthoseteenswhodidnotbelongtoanyyouthorganization,andalsoatassociationswithoutanyclubfacilitiesoftheirown.ThankstodonationsfromAmericanChristianorganisations,centreswerefoundedincertainneighborhoodsinadherencewiththeAnglo‐SaxonCommunityConceptandtargetedatmultiplegenerations.ApartfromtheHalbstarkenkrawalle(awaveofprotestamongtheyoungergenerationinthe1950s)inMunichandBerlinorbikerbrawlsinFrankfurtinthelatefifties,arelativelypeacefulatmosphereintheYouthWelfareAct’ssphereofactionhasreignedinthepost‐warrepublicuntiltheoutbreakoftheyouthprotestsin1967/68.Inretrospect,thepost‐warorderseemstousinthiscontextalwayslikeanextremelypeacefulsocialpartnershipwithmostlytemporarysmall‐scaleconflictsbetweenthecorporationcartel’sparticipants.However,nowadayswereadaboutthedisputesoversubsidiarityinthe1960sbetweenmainlysocialdemocratically‐ledfederalstatesandmunicipalitiesontheonehandandtheGermanstateledbytheconservativepartyontheotherhand.ThisconflictwasnotsolveduntilaConstitutionalCourtrulingwasissuedin1967.Themunicipalitiesarguedagainstrestrictionsoftheirrighttoself‐determinationthroughdenominationalwelfareassociationsinapplicationoftheprincipleofsubsidiarity,whichisnotexplicitlymentionedintheconstitution,andonlyreferencedin2009withregardtothedelimitationofspheresofinfluencebetweentheEuropeanUnionandtheindividualmemberstates.That“subsidiaritydispute”finallyseemedtohavebeensettledintheGermanSocialSecurityCode,VolumeVIII,in1990.InSectionthree,generalwelfareserviceprovidersandothersareplacedonthesamelevel.“Youthwelfareismarkedbythevarietyofwelfareserviceproviderswithdifferentvalueorientationsandavarietyofcontents,methodsandformsofwork.”WhentheCDU(ChristianDemocraticUnion)wonasurprisingvictoryintheFrankfurtmunicipalelectionsin1977aftermanyyearsofsocialdemocraticleadership,moreandmoreemphasiswasputonthesubsidiarityprincipleinyouthpolicies.Initially,itwastheonlyopportunityfortheCDUtoopposethesocial‐democratictraitsintheadministrationoftheYouthWelfareOffice.Atthatpointintime,thefundingenvironmentofpublicyouthworkwasstructuredintothreepillars:pillar1includedtherelativelywell‐equippedMunicipalOpenHouses(stadteigeneHäuserderoffenenTür);pillar2impliedyouthinitiatives,whichwerefoundedaspredominantlyself‐managedyouthcentreswithintheframeworkofattemptsforautonomyduringtheyouthprotests,butbytheendofthe1970shadturnedintobadlyequipped,minorinstitutionsthatwerecompletelydependentonmunicipalsponsorshiporevenendedupbeingruncompletelyonthestaff’sinitiative.Themainlychurch‐basedyouthclubswereunitedintotheWorkingGroup–YouthHousesSupportedbyIndependentOrganisations(ArbeitsgemeinschaftJugendhäuserfreierTräger)ofpillar3.Duetothemanagement’sgoodcounseling,publicorganisationsofleft‐wingyouthassociationssuccessivelyjoinedthisgroup,too.Thisthree‐pillarsystemremainedonarelativelysolidbasisuntiltheendofthe1980s,andthefacilitieshadbeenadaptedgraduallytosomedegree.Bythetimewhenmunicipalindebtednessledtothefirstbudgetcuts,theinitiative“AufschreigegenSozialabbau”(outcryagainstreducingsocialservices)wasformedandliberalculturalinitiativesjoinedtheprotesters.Butbytheendofthe1980s,thefoundationalperiodhadended.Infact,thefirstbudgetcutsdidnotleadtoinstitutionalshutdowns,buttheyirrevocablyclarifiedboundariestogrowth.IdonotwanttorecaptheentirehistoryofyouthworkinFrankfurt,butonlylistafewphenomenathatcanbeconnectedwithapplyingthesubsidiarityprincipletoausteritypolicy.

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Hostileacquisition:Anindependentorganisationthatwasoneofthelasttofounditsownminiyouthcentreclosetoamunicipalyouthcentre,disputesthemunicipalyouthcentre’sTrespassandBanPolicy.Intheend,operatingthemunicipalyouthclubisassignedtotheprivateorganisation.Savingseffect:inthecourseofthetakeovernegotiations,theminiyouthclubcostswerecut,andonestaffmemberofthemunicipalyouthcentrewasdismissed.PerformanceCuts:Asmallindependentorganisationhastofinanceallitsoverheadcostswiththeirownprojects.Whereasformersponsorsofyouthwelfareservices–thankstoinstitutionalsupportbytheYouthWelfareOffice–couldspendprojectfundingonpedagogicalprojects,noweconomiesaremadeonfees.Insteadofbeingsupportedbyprofessionalartists,specialinterestgroupsareincreasinglyinstructedbystudents.Cutsinsocialservices:Minorinstitutionscanallowmoreparticipationofvisitorsthanmajormunicipalyouthclubs.In1970,theyouthcentremovementarguedagainsttheestablishmentofmunicipalyouthcentreswiththeslogan:“Daringformoredemocracy!”AfterclosingamajormunicipalyouthcentreinFrankfurtinthelate1990s,aliberal,medium‐sizedsponsorreplaceditwithasmallyouthclubinsideatemporarystorageunit.Aproposedsolutionwastorelocateit,withthehelpofaprivateinvestor,toaformerrailwaydepotforaperiodoftime,andthentransferitintoanewpermanentinstitution.Butwhentheinvestorchangedhismind,theyouthclubwasscrappedaltogether.ThemoretimeIspendonthissubsidiarityprinciple,themoreitseemstomelikeithasbeenincreasinglyabused,invariousways,sinceitisarathermoderntermwithonlyfewdefinitions.IntheEuropeancontext,itissaidtoopenthedoortoeffortsconcerningre‐nationalisation.TheconservativestategovernmentofHesseusedthistermtopromotetheprivatisationoflocalutilityservices.Ifthefinancialcrisiscontinuesonthelocalauthoritylevelitcouldeasilybecomeanexitstrategyforthewelfarestate.Nevertheless,therichcityofFrankfurthasnotcomethatfaryet.Furthermore,publicyouthservicesareprotectedbytheSocialSecurityCodewhichbearstheimprintoftheemancipationmovement(1968seq.)initsyouthsections.Ifinterpretedcorrectly,culturalyouthworkshouldbeincludedasalegallybindingprovision.Across‐partyallianceinFrankfurtstillhelditsprotectivehandoveryouthbudgetsformanyyearswhileexpendituresforculturehadalreadybeenseverelycut(onahigherlevel,however).Apositionpaperregardingreorientationinpublicchildandyouthwelfarewaspassedbyallyouthworkorganisationsafterthreeyearsofdiscussion.Wewillhavetowaitandseewherethisalliancewilltakeusaftertheupcomingbudgetcutsin2014.Frankfurt,July2013DanielRottnerisacertifiedpedagogueinpartialretirement,hasexperienceinyouthassociationwork,publicyouthwork,youthculturalprojectsandinstitutions.HecurrentlyworkswithEuropeanyouthexchanges.Translation:TatjanaBecker,LisaGlaser,EmilyPickerill

IllustrationbySteffenHaas:FrankfurtCalling

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Subsidiarity:acitypolicyperspectiveThehighlydiscussedprincipleofsubsidiarityisessentiallyunderstoodtobetheconceptthatalldecisionsaretobemadeatthelowestpossiblelevel.Thisincludestherequirementforhigherlevelstolikewiseprovidelowerlevelsofauthoritywiththemeanstoact.FormeasMunichCityCouncilor,theprincipleof“subsidiarity”hastwoparticularmeanings.InallareasofthesocialsectorofMunich,weconsistentlyadheretotheguidelineofprovidingsocialservicesbytheCityonlywhenrequiredtodosobasedonourappointedroleasapublicandmunicipalauthority.Theallocationofgrants,forexample,fallsintothiscategory.Tothegreatestpossibleextent,thedeliveryofsocialservicesitselfisplacedinthehandsofindependentprivatewelfareagencies.Whiletherearevaryingopinionsonthistopic,Iamproudtosaythateveninfinanciallydifficulttimes,whenwehavebeenforcedtomakecutswithrespecttoindependentprivatewelfareagencies,wehaveneverthelessbeenabletocontinuetoprovidethemwithsomefunding,suchthatgoodworkcancontinue.Wecanalwaysdomore,butinallsocialsectors,weneednotbeshyaboutexercisingourresponsibilitiesasalocalauthority.Nevertheless,thismeansthattogetherwithprivatewelfareagencies,wemustremainsociallyvigilant.Inparticular,educationalopportunitiesforunderprivilegedchildrenandadolescentsshouldbeanissuethatkeepsusactive.Thistopicbringsmetoasecondaspectofsubsidiarity.Althoughlocalself‐governanceisenshrinedintheGermanBasicLaw,inreality,thesituationappearstobecompletelydifferent.Recently,theMunichCityCouncilhashadlessthan20percentoftheadministrativebudgetatitsdisposal;theresthadalreadybeenallocatedthroughlaws,ordinancesandvariousguidelinesregardingpre‐determinedsocialobligationsandotherrequirements,beforewehavehadthechancetodiscussit.Despitethefactthattherehasbeenquitealotofchangeoverthelastfewyears,forexample,inthefieldofsocialassistance,taskshavecontinuedtobedelegatedtovariouslocalauthoritiesasbefore,butwithoutleavingmuchroomtomaneuver,nottomentionwithalackoffollow‐upfunding.Forexample,localauthoritiesarewarmlyinvitedtoputupschoolbuildings,butwhatgoesoninsidethosebuildingsisdeterminedbytheStateofBavaria.Inasimilarlygenerousfashion,thestateinnowaygrantsthepublicschoolswithsufficientmeanstoprovidelessons.TheCityofMunichis“allowed”tocontributefarandaboveover€100millionperyeartocoverthecosts.Thusonceagain,themeansarelackinginthesocialsector.Correctingthisimbalanceisatallorderfortheyearstocome.NotonlyourstudentsbuttheCitycommunityasawholewillbeappreciative!ChristianMüller,CityCouncilorrepresentingtheSocialDemocraticParty(SPD);speakeroftheSocialCommitteeandtheYouthandChildWelfareCommittee(KJHA);deputyspeakerforSportandHousing;chairmanofthePasing‐ObermenzingMunicipalDistrict(BA21Pasing‐Obermenzing).Translation:EmilyPickerillIllustrationbyDietmarGrosse:

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Thesubsidiaritycampaign:atoppriorityinEuropeandwithinGermanyTheprojectofEuropeanintegrationhasbeenacontinuoussuccessstorywhichstartedwiththeratificationoftheTreatyofRome.PeaceandfriendshipamongEuropeannationshavebeensafeguarded.OtherachievementsoftheEuropeanintegrationprocessincludethefreedomofmovement,theSchengenAgreementand,ofcourse,theSingleEuropeanMarket.Thesegreatsuccessesneedtobeconsolidatedandsecured.Thisimplicatesthevitalstrengtheningofthecommonforeignpolicy,forexample.Here,themotto“moreEurope,notless”isdefinitelyappropriate.However,therearemanyEuropeanpoliciespermeatedwithcentralism.AlthoughtheLisbonTreatypromisedthestrengtheningofsubsidiarity,thispromisewasnotkept.Whatweneedisafundamentalchangeinthinking.WhatweneedisacampaignformoresubsidiarityinEurope.AllpolicieswhicharenotdirectlyconnectedwiththeSingleEuropeanMarkethavetobeputontrial.WithregardtoalltheresponsibilitiesemanatingfromthesepolicieswemustaskourselvesifEuropeanregulationisstillnecessary.Weneedasubsidiaritycommissionerwhohastherightofvetotopreventnewregulationsfromproliferating,regardlessofwhospurstheregulationfrenzy–theEuropeanCommission,theEuropeanParliamentorthememberstates.Thesubsidiaritycommissionershouldalsohavetherighttoscrutinizeexistingregulations.ThereareplentyofnotoriousexamplesofsuperfluousEUregulations:fromthelightbulbdirectiveandtheimminentdirectiveonwater‐savingfittingstorulesinordertopatronizelocalcommunitiesandregions.Wealsoneedmoredecentralizeddecision‐makingbothinGermanyandinBavaria.About80percentofalltasksperformedbyBavarianadministrativedistricts(Bezirke)couldactuallybeexecutedbythemunicipalitiesandlocaldistrictauthorities(Landkreise)themselves,whichareclosertotheircitizens.Thestrengtheningoflocalself‐governmentandthespecificinterdependencebetweenthecostlydecisionstakenbytheFederalGovernmentandtheFederalStatesonthehandandadditionalstateandfree‐statefundingforlocalauthoritiesontheotherhandareurgentlyrequired.Moreresponsibilitiesforlocalauthoritiesalsoallowforanextendedandfacilitateddelegationoftasksfromlocalauthoritiestoprivatenon‐profitagencies.Infact,delegatingtasksfromthestateandthelocalauthoritiestoindependentnon‐profitorganisationsandprivateinitiativesisvitalforathrivingsociety,which,ofcourse,requiresadequatefunding.Thisappliestoalmostallfields,especiallytotheculturalandthesocialsector.ForLiberals,theprinciple“privatetakespriorityovergovernment”isasimportantas“decentralizationtakespriorityovercentralization”.Onlyifthemajorityoftasksareexecutedonthelocallevel,canlocalauthoritiespassthemontolocalinitiatives.Thiswouldsurelystrengthencitizens'activeparticipationinsociety.FormeasamemberoftheLiberalParty,anactivecivilsocietyisatoppriority.Dr.MichaelMattar,parliamentarypartyleaderoftheLiberalParty(FreeDemocraticParty,FDP)intheMunichCityCouncilandtheFDP’sleadingcandidatetheMunichmayoralelectionin2014.Translation:JuliaChitu,IsabelKellermann,KeithKellyIllustrationbyDietmarGrosse:EU“Banana”

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SubsidiarityinchildandyouthservicesSubsidiumistheLatintermforsupportorreserve.InCatholicSocialTeaching,thisnotionwasusedtodeveloptheprincipleofsubsidiaritywhichreferstoself‐determinationandself‐government.Itsuggeststhatupcomingtasksshouldalwaysbeperformedatthelowestpossiblelevel.Forus,workinglocallyatthecommunitylevel,subsidiarityimpliesthatthosetaskswhichdonotcomeundertheofficialresponsibilitiesofthestatearenotassignedtopublicsectorauthorities.ItrustnooneworkinginadministrativeauthoritiesorintheMunichCityCouncilwillfindfaultwiththisprinciple.Butwhatexactlydowemeanbypublicmatters?Whatexactlyisadiscretionaryoramandatoryprovision?Andistheinternaldepartmentofanadministrativeauthorityequivalenttoacharityoranon‐profitorganisation?Thisisamatterfordebate.Municipalauthorities,forexample,havebeeninchargeofalargenumberofchildday‐carefacilitiesforyears,althoughthisisdefinitelyafieldwheresubsidiarityshouldplayarole.Therefore,wedecidedsometimeagotoissueaninvitationtosubmitbidsforeachnewcarefacilityandallocatethemtoorganisations.Herethedecisionwasquitesimple.Butwhenchildprotectionconsiderationscomeintoplay,thepictureisfarmorecomplicated.WhenSection8aoftheGermanChildandYouthServicesAct(Kinder‐undJugendhilfegesetz,KJHG)cameintoeffectstipulatingtheresponsibilitytoprotectthebestinterestsofchildren,therewasanintensivediscussionaboutwhetherthe“fairlyexperiencedstaff”havetobemunicipalemployeesornot,andwithrecentamendmentsofthechildprotectionlaw,thiswillcontinuetobeatopicofdiscussion.AsaCityCouncillor,IactasamediatorbetweentheYouthWelfareOfficewhich,understandably,wouldliketoremaininchargeandhaveasayinmatters,andtheindependentyouthwelfareorganisationsaswellasthecharitieswhichwouldliketobeabletocontinuetheirgoodworkontheirown.Ofcourse,youthwelfareofficesarethefirsttobeheldaccountablewhenchildrenweretakenawayfromtheirfamiliestoolate(ortooearly).Whenteenscommitsuchterribleactsofviolencethattheyevenmakeheadlinesinthenewspapers,itistheYouthWelfareOfficeswhichareheldresponsibleandcomeunderfirepublicly.TheguardianshipoftheYouthWelfareOfficeimpliesresponsibility,evenifanotherorganisationhasalreadyhad“somethingtodo”withaparticularchildorteen.Butthisdoesnotmeanthatmoretasksshouldbehandedbacktothemunicipalauthorities.InMunich,wehaveavarietyofreliableorganizationsdoingaverygoodjobwithwhomwehavebeencooperatingcloselyforyears.Thismutualtrustmustbemaintainedandenhanced.InMunich,theframeworkforcooperationbetweenthepublicsector,charitiesandprivatenon‐profitorganisationsensuresthatweprovideasmuchsecurityandsupportaspossibleforthepeoplelivinginourcity.Butthisstructuralframeworkalsoensuresthatwedonotfollowthebeatentrack,butoffermanyandvariedsolutionsinstead.Avarietyoforganisationsalsomeansavarietyofservices,andinMunich,weareproudofthis.Thisalsomeansthatalongsidetheestablishedorganisationsthereisscopefornewideasandopportunities.Letusgetbacktothenotionofthesubsidiarityprinciple:self‐relianceandpersonalresponsibility.Despiteourquestforsecurityandadesiretoprovideadequateassistance,self‐relianceandpersonalresponsibilitymustnotbesuppressed.Everyonehastherighttomaketheirowndecisions,tochoosetheirwayofliveandtomaketheirownmistakes.We,asmembersoftheAlliance90/TheGreens,believeinthemaxim“Asmuchwelfarestateasnecessary–butalsoaslittleaspossible!”

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JuttaKoller:CityCouncillor(Alliance90/TheGreens)since1996,memberoftheSocialWelfare,ChildrenandYouthServicesCommittee,memberoftheEducationCommitteeandmemberoftheDistrictCouncilMilbertshofen–AmHart.Translation:KeithKelly,DanilaPotiIllustrationbyDietmarGrosse:Lifebuoy

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ImplementingsubsidiarityisanactofbalanceThetermsubsidiarityhasalongtradition.Inthe17thcenturysocietywasreferredtoasacommunityconsistingofdifferent,interconnectedgroupswhichhavetofulfiltheirowntasksandreachtheirownaimswhiledependingonthesupport(“subsidium“)providedbysuperordinategroupsinspecificareas.Assistancewouldonlybegrantedifshortcomingsbecameapparent;butundernocircumstanceswasthesuperordinategroupsupposedtoperformtheentiretaskofthesubordinategroup.Ourmoderndefinitionofsubsidiarityisalmostidentical.Buttheoryisonething,realityanother.InMunichweareveryproudofourbroadvarietyofservicesprovidedbyindependentwelfareorganisationsaswellascharitableorganisations,especiallyinthefieldsofyouthwelfareandintheeducationalandsocialsector.Nevertheless,thereareendlessdiscussionsaboutwhatthepublicsectorcan,shouldormustdoitself.Itisafactthatpoliticalpressureisrequiredtointroducesuchservices,although,intheend,peoplealwayscongratulatethemselvesonthesmoothfunctioningofthesubsidiaritysystem.Thesectorofdaynurseryisonegoodexample.Peopleareoftenkeentousetheconceptofsubsidiarityasanargumenttojustifythelegitimacyoftheirowndemands.Andwhenthereisashortageoffunds,theprincipleofsubsidiarityisfrequentlysetagainstpublicsupporttoemphasizethatthereisnointentionwhatsoeverofunderminingtheprincipleofsubsidiarity.Itisthenwhenone’sowninitiativeandindependencesuddenlygainimportance.Ofcourse,theoneswhoaresupportedapplythesamerationale:Itisimportanttohaveasmuchfreedomaspossible,aslongasthereisasafetynettocatchthemjustincasetheirquestforindependencedoesnotproducequitetheresulttheyhadhopedfor.Becauseofourwidespectrumofcharitiesandwell‐establishedindependentyouthwelfareorganizations,IthinkMunichsetsanexampleofbestsubsidiaritypractice.But,asissooftenthecase,itamountstoabalancingact.DuringmytermofofficeintheMunichCityCouncilthebalancewasincreasinglyshiftedtowardssubsidiarity–andsoitshouldbe,accordingtotheChildandYouthWelfareAct(Kinder‐undJugendhilfegesetz).Wehadheateddebatesoversomeissues,butintheendtheindependentandnon‐profitwelfareorganizationswerethewinners.Today’sdiscussionsare,onceagain,morecomplicated,whichisonlylogical.Inadditiontoindependentandnon‐profitwelfareorganizationsmanycommercialprovidershaveenteredthefray.Thereareplentyofexamplesinthefieldofdaynursery.Atthesametimelegalregulationsaregettingtighter,thefinancialburdenisincreasingandtheframeworkconditionsarebecomingmorecomplicated.Intheyearstocome,oneofthemostimportanttasksoftheMunichCityCouncilwillbetokeepthisbalanceandmakesurethatthescalesdonottipinfavorofstate‐runwelfareagencies.BeatrixBurkhardt,voluntarymemberoftheMunichCityCouncil,spokespersononchildrenandyouthaffairsfortheparliamentarygroupoftheChristianSocialUnion(CSU).Translation:KeithKelly,StefanieMegeleIllustrationbyDietmarGrosse:Menofdifferentsizes

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TheartofsubsidiarityNakedandunarmed,thisishowPrometheusfoundthehumanspecies.HisbrotherEpimetheushadusedallhispowerinordertoallocatetraitstounreasonableanimals.Sincenophysicaltraitswereleftwhenitcametohumans,Prometheushadtostealimportantsurvivalassetssuchaspracticalcraftskills,prudenceandfirefromHephaestusandAthenatogivethesetohumans–sothestorygoesaccordingtoProtagoras,Plato’seponymousdialogue.Humansobviouslyneedculturalassetstooffsettheirshortcomingscomparedtoanimals.Butthisisnotenoughtosurvive.Weneedfellowhumans.Themomentweenterthisworldwealreadycryoutforhelp.Asdeficientcreatureswedependonhelpfromtheverybeginningofourlives,andmutualsupportisthefoundationofhumanexistence.Thisistheveryreasonwhyweliveandarrangeourlivesincommunities:infamilies,friendships,incultures,institutions,inlegalandgovernmentalsystems.However,wearenotbuildingourcommunitiesforthesolepurposeofhelpingeachother,saysAristotle.Wedoitprimarilyforpersonalself‐fulfillment.This,inturn,isonlypossibleincommunities.Theidealaimofthesecommunitiesistoallowtheirmemberstoliveagoodlife.Andthisiswheretheartofsubsidiaritycomesintoplay.Certainrelationshipsdevelopduetoourdifferences,e.g.thosebetweenamanandawoman,betweenchildrenandparentsorbetweenpeoplewithdifferenttalents.Theyallpursuerelationshipsbecausetheywanttodesigntheirlivestogetherandtosupporteachotherindoingso.Hence,ourjointlydevelopedsystems–e.g.thelegalandgovernmentalsystemswhichhelpandsupportus–mustfirstandforemostserveeachindividual.Manisobviouslyasocial,community‐orientedandcommunity‐buildingcreatureandtheaimofhisactionsisself‐fulfillment.Thusthenecessarymutualsupportrequiresrulesandregulations.Thesourceofthissupporthastobeasclosenearbyaspossibleandasfarawayasnecessary.Ithastorespecttheindependenceofeachindividualandtotakeintoaccountthecommunity’sinterestsofitsequalmembers,andaboveall,ithastosupportself‐sufficiencyandmakeacontributionto(solidary)self‐help.Thisisexactlywhattheartofsubsidiarityisallabout!Itisnotboundbygeneralrules,ithastobeadjustedandmadeavailableoverandoveragain.Thequestionthatremainsishowcanwefindoutwhatbestsuitseachindividual?Itisactuallyquitesimple:Wetalkandlistentoeachother.Wetellourstoriestoeachother.Asaspeciesweliveinandonourstories.Andbecauseourstoriesalwayshaveacorrelationtoourpast,thesestoriesareus.Theyletusrememberthepast,theytouchourhearts,andtheygiveusfoodforthought.Subsidiaritysupportstheparticipatingactorsincontinuingtheirstories.Itencouragestheiractionsandtherebypromotestheinterestinasystemwhichallowstheagentstoco‐designit.Goodgovernmentalactionsrespecttheprincipleofsubsidiarity.Thesmallersocialunitsinchargeareoftenclosertothematterandoughttobesupportedandpromoted.Andbiggerunitsareonlyallowedtointerveneintheirsovereigntyiftheirlimitofperformancecapacityhasbeenreached.Developingsocialdiversityrequiresrespectfortheprincipleofsubsidiarity,whichisasynonymforbothparticipationandpromotingdemocracy.Dr.HelmutvonAhnenisatheatrologist,amemberoftheChildandYouthWelfareCommitteeinMunichandthemanagingdirectorofFestSpielHausgGmbh.Translation:KeithKelly,KatharinaVeriginIllustrationby

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SubsidiarityandeducationforsustainabledevelopmentIndiscussionsaboutenvironmentaleducationoreducationforsustainableenvironmentthetermsubsidiaritydoesnotplayasbigaroleasinsocialcontexts.Nevertheless,viatheconceptof“participationandsupportofnon‐stateactors”,subsidiarityisaconstituentpartofeducationforsustainabledevelopmentnotonlyinnationalbutalsoinglobalcontexts.ThetermeducationforsustainabledevelopmentwascoinedbythemakersofAgenda21,whichaddedecological,socialandculturalaspectstoenvironmentaleducation.Educationforsustainabledevelopmenthasadoptedtheguidingprincipleofsustainabledevelopmentandteacheschildren,adolescentsandadultshowtothinkandactinlinewiththisprinciple.DuetotheincreasinglycomplexchallengeswearefacingonourplanetEarth–climatechange,theenergyturnaroundordecliningbiodiversityetc.–citizensneedtoacquireknowledgeandcompetenciesineducationalcontextswhichenablethemtomeetthesechallengesandtoconsiderpossiblecoursesofaction.Theyaspireawayoflifeinaccordancewiththemotto:Whatwedoheremustnevercomeattheexpenseofsomewhereelse,andwhatwedotodaymustnevercomeattheexpenseoffuturegenerations.Draftinganeducationalprogramwhichrevolvesaroundsubsidiarityandhasglobalreachrequiresmanysmallstepstotrickledowntothelocallevel.ThefinaldocumentoftheUnitedNationsConferenceforEnvironmentandDevelopmentin1992,termedAgenda21,callsfortheparticipationandco‐determinationofthelocalactorsaswellasforinternational,nationalandlocalassistanceforactorsimplementingsustainabledevelopment(Agenda21,Chapters25,28,36).Therefore,Europeanagreementsalsostressthesubsidiaryaspectoftheprogram.TheuniquefeatureofAgenda21isitsfocusontheparticipationofallcitizensandoflocalalliancesinvolvingavarietyofactorsinordertoimplementprocess‐drivensustainabledevelopmentstepbystep.Regardingchildrenandadolescents,Agenda21(Chapter25,25.13b)states:“Governments,accordingtotheirpolicies,shouldtakemeasurestoensurethattheinterestsofchildrenaretakenfullyintoaccountintheparticipatoryprocessforsustainabledevelopmentandenvironmentalimprovement.”Therequiredcombinationofparticipationandsubsidiarityneedstobenegotiatedlocallyinapoliticaldiscussionwiththedifferentactors.Inordertoenhanceandencouragethinkingandactingaccordingtotheprincipleofsustainabledevelopmentandtoprepareandcementeducationalprocessesonaglobalscale,theUnitedNationslaunchedtheUNDecadeofEducationforSustainableDevelopment(2005‐14)(http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001486/148654e.pdf).TheGermanparliamentpassedaresolution(April14,2012)committingitselftoUNDecade:“Educationforsustainabledevelopmentisincreasinglyconsideredanimportantcontributiontowardshigh‐qualityeducationandembracingsustainabledevelopment.OfficialeducationpolicystatementsoneducationforsustainabledevelopmentmadebythetheKultusministerkonferenz(assemblyofsecretariesofeducationoftheGermanstates),theHochschulrektorenkonferenz(associationofstateandstate‐recognizeduniversitiesandotherinstitutionsforhighereducationinGermany)andbyhundredsofinstitutionswhichparticipateintheimplementationoftheUNDecadegoalsinGermany(...)supportthisview.(…)PoliticiansandcivilsocietiesarecooperatingcloselyontheimplementationofUNDecade.”(GermanBundestag,printedmatter17/9186,17thparliamentaryterm,April27,2012).Thisiswherethepoliticalunderstandingofsubsidiaritybegins.Thegovernmentshouldcountonthesupportcomingfrominitiatives,associationsandorganisationsandusetheircompetenciesinordertoseethesocialprojectofeducationforsustainabledevelopmentthrough.TheBayerischeLandesamtfürUmwelt(BavarianStateAgencyfortheEnvironment)confirmsthis:“Localcommunitiescanjoinin.Werecommendanetworkofdifferentactors–fromchurchcommunitiesand(environmental)associationstoeducationalinstitutions–whichissupportedbylocal

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authorities;suchanetworkisconsistentwiththeprincipleofsubsidiarityanditpromotescivilsocietycommitment.”(unofficialtranslation;http://www.lfu.bayern.de/umweltkommunal/umweltberatung/index.htm;June23,2013).Puttingthisintopracticesometimesprovesdifficult.Educationforsustainabledevelopmentasapartofinformaleducationreliesonpublicsupport;lobbyingworkisrequiredtobuildaself‐sustainingplatformandsecureappropriatefundingfortheimplementationofthisgoal.Governmentproposalstoimplementsustainabledevelopmentoftencollidewiththeplanspresentedbyenvironmentalassociationsandenvironmentaleducationinstitutions.ThiswasthecaseinApril2013whentheBavarianSustainabilityStrategywasintroducedbytheBavarianMinistryfortheEnvironmentandPublicHealth.OfficialsinBavariaputblindersonanddecidedtoignoretheprincipleofsubsidiarityaltogether.ApositiveexampleonthelocallevelistheCityofMunich,whichcloselycooperateswithlocalactorsindifferentareasandactuallysucceedsinimplementingtheAgenda21targets.MunichhasjoinedtheinternationalClimateAllianceofEuropeanCities.Incooperationwithbusinessesandcivilsocietyactors,italsopublisheditsownprogramfortheAllianceofClimateProtectionCovenantClub(BündnisfürKlimaschutzClub).TheCityofMunichsupportsandpromotestheassociationBenEMünchene.V,aregionaleducationcentreforsustainabledevelopment,wherecivilsocietyactorsandsustainabilitynetworkshavejoinedforcesinordertoimplementmulti‐facettededucation‐forsustainable‐developmentprojectsonlocalandinternationallevels.Theprincipleofsubsidiarityisabalancingactanddependsonaconsensusviewofpoliticsandeducationaswellasmutualtrust.However,itcanonlyworkiftheactorshaveroomformanoeuvreandprovidedthisscopeforactionisgrantedandfinancedbythesuperordinatedinstitutions.Andasfaraseducationforsustainabledevelopmentisconcerned,thereisalotofpotentialforfurtherdevelopment.MarionLoewenfeldworksastheprojectmanagerforMobilSpiel,anindependentorganisationforchildandyouthworkwithafocusonenvironmentaleducationandeducationforsustainabledevelopment.SheisalsotheseniorchairpersonofNatureandEnvironmentalEducation,aworkgroupsetupbytheBavarianassociationANUBayerne.V.,anumbrellaorganisationfocusingonenvironmentaleducationinBavaria.Translation:SasilakDöring,KeithKelly,LenaZilbauerIllustrationbySteffenHaas:Subsidiarityandeducation

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PavingthewayforinclusionandadoptinganattitudeimbuedwithasenseofsubsidiarityInclusionisaprocessandagoal.Itspurposeistoeliminatehierarchaldifferencesaswellasthediscriminationandmarginalizationthatgohandinhandwiththesedifferences.Thisisanoverridinggoalandachallengeforsocio‐political,economicandaboveallforeducationalactivities.Inclusionisprimarilyaboutdevelopingacertainattitude,treatingpeopleasequalsdespitetheirdifferences,adjustingstructurestopeople’sindividualneedsandrecognizingself‐determinationaswellasco‐determinationasinalienablehumanrights.ThefollowingthoughtsonhowtopavethewayforinclusionandadoptanattitudeimbuedwithasenseofsubsidiarityarebaseduponthenarrowermeaningofinclusionasdefinedintheConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities,wherebythetermreferstoinclusionofpersonswithdisabilities.TheConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesputsthemainemphasisonraisingawarenessthroughoutsociety(Article8).Itfocusesontherightsandparticularlyonthedignityofpersonswithdisabilitieswhomustberespectedandsupportedbysocietyasawhole.Thedevelopmentandexperienceofself‐esteemanddignityasessentialstepstowardssubjectformationarebasedonthesocialprocessesofinteractionandrecognition.Wheninteractingwithothersweformanopinionaboutourselveswhich,inturn,isthemainstayofourself‐evaluation.Asasocialconcept,recognitionisneitheraffectedbynotionsofpowerandrulenorbyaperson’sperformance(seeScherr1997,p.57).Bielefeldtreferstotheconnectionbetweenindependenceandsocialinclusionwhenpostulatingthatwithoutsocialinclusionpeoplebasicallycannotliveanindependentlifeandwithoutindependence,socialinclusionisboundtoleadtopatronization(Bielefeldt2009,p.11).However,patronizationrunscountertotheprincipleofsubsidiarity.Themaximofsubsidiarityistodevelopindividualskills,self‐determinationandpersonalresponsibility,orratherallowthemtodevelopontheirown.Thesenotionsareautomaticallyintertwinedwithquestionsofpoweronsocial,economicandpersonallevels.Whatdoesthisimplyforeducationalpractices?Firstofall,weneedtodifferentiatebetweenvarioustypesofpracticesofsocialeducation.Theydifferintermsofsocialandeconomicenvironment,financingprocedures,organizationalstructures,organizationalsurvivalinstinctsandthedegreeofinstitutionalization.Thesefactorsaswellasintrapersonalaspectsobviouslyhaveanimpactonthepersonalattitudeofpedagogicprofessionalsandlaystaffregardingsubsidiarityandpatronization.Theattitudeimbuedwithasenseofsubsidiarity,orrather,theinclusiveattitudeadoptedbypedagogicprofessionalsandlaystaff,ischaracterizedbythefollowingfeatures: “Helpmetodoitmyself”Thistenet,embeddedinMariaMontessori’seducationphilosophy,istheoppositeofapatronizingattitude.Thechallengesinvolvedare:

• tohavepatiencewithyourselfandotherpeople;• tobeopentothevariousmethodsofproblem‐solving;• tominimizefactorswhichcanputyourselforotherpeopleundertimepressure;• tobuildspaceandtimeforlisteningandobserving;• toestablishnetworksinordertoprovidemutualsupport.

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SpeakingwithapersoninsteadofmerelyspeakingaboutapersonPeoplewithdisabilitiesknowthosequestioningglancesfromotherpeoplewhichneverorveryrarelyleadtoaquestionaddressedatthemdirectly.Theyareoftendirectedatparentsorthepedagogicalprofessionalandlaystaffmemberinstead,whothenanswerthequestions.Thisisalsoaformofexclusion.AdjustingstructurestoindividualneedsInapedagogicalcontext,asopposedtoageneralintegrationcontext,inclusionmeanstailoringstructurestoeveryindividual.Forprofessionalandlaystaffthismeansthattheyhavetobepreparedtogatherinformationaboutthespecificneeds,interests,everydaycompetencesofpeople,etc.andtothenalteroradjusttheexistingorganizationalandpersonnelstructures.Self‐sufficiencyisnotarequirementfortherighttoself‐determinationPeoplewithdisabilitieswhoarenotabletoperformcertaintaskswithoutassistance,i.e.inaself‐sufficientmanner,areoftenconfrontedwithsituationswhichdeprivethemoftherighttodecidewhattodoandhowtodoit.Theyaredegradedtothestatusofpetitionerswhooughttobehappytogethelpinthefirstplace.Iftheyarenothappyandiftheydonotshowgratitude,theyarequicklylabelledasunappreciativecomplainers.Inequalitiesandacknowledgingbeingdifferent“Peoplecanbenormalindifferentways.”AprocessofrethinkingeducationalpracticesisrequiredinordertounderstandthisslightlymodifiedphrasecoinedbyHansWocken(2010)asapedagogicalprinciple.Thecounterparts“normal”and“abnormal”losetheirmeaningsandcanthusnolongerbeusedaspointofreferenceorasanindividualformofassessmentbasedonmajoritybehavior.Thereforethequestionofnormalityandthe(de)valuationinvolvedisnolongeraquestionofmajorityopinion,majoritysocietyandmajority‐orientedpolitics.EnhancingparticipationandsteadilyincreasingthelevelofparticipationPeopleneedtotakepartindecision‐makingprocesses.Thisisanimportantgoalinmanyeducationalfields.Thereare,however,severalobstacleswhichmakeitdifficultforpeoplewithdisabilitiestotakepartinsuchprocesses.Peoplewithcognitiveandintellectualdisabilitiesaretheoneswhohavetofacetheperhapsgreatestchallenge:Theyarenottrustedtomakerationaldecisions.Thisisdiscriminating,exclusive,scientificallycontroversial(seealsoMeier‐Seethaler,2000)andfundamentallyopposedtoarespectforhumandignity.Therefore,pedagogicalprofessionalsandlaystaffmembershavetofrequentlycheckhowheteronomy,alibi‐participationandpseudo‐interactioncanbeeliminatedandhowthelevelofparticipationofallpersonsandespeciallyofpeoplewithcognitiveandintellectualdisabilitiescanbeenhanced.SpecialinterestgroupsPeoplewithdisabilitiesareoftentreatedasvictimsorpetitioners.Phraseslike“Comeon,playwiththatboy(i.e.childwithadisability)”orspecialeventsforpeoplewithdisabilitiestowhichpeoplewithoutdisabilitiesareinvited,too,mayinduceasenseofdegradation.Pedagogicalprofessionalsandlaystaffmembershavetomakesuretofindacommongroundandcreatespacestailoredtotheneedsofspecialinterestgroups–spacesforencounter,exchangeandplay.GeorgStaudacheristheManagerofSpielratze.V.–VereinfürpädagogischeFerien‐undFreizeitaktioneninMünchen.

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ReferencesBielefeldt,Heiner(2009):ZumInnovationspotentialderUN‐Behindertenrechtskonvention.EssayNo.5.3.aktualisierteunderweiterteAuflageJuni2009;abrufbarunterhttp://www.institut‐fuer‐menschenrechte.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationen/Essay/essay_zum_innovationspotenzial_der_un_behindertenrechtskonvention_auflage3.pdf(Stand29.10.2011)Meier‐Seethaler,Carola(2000):GefühlundUrteilskraft.EinPlädoyerfürdieemotionaleVernunft.München:C.H.BeckVerlag.Prengel,Annedore(2006):PädagogikderVielfalt.VerschiedenheitundGleichberechtigunginInterkultureller,FeministischerundIntegrativerPädagogik.3.Auflage.Wiesbaden:VerlagfürSozialwissenschaften.Scherr,Albert(1997):SubjektorientierteJugendarbeit.EineEinführungindieGrundlagenemanzipatorischerJugendpädagogik.Open‐Access‐Ausgabedes1997imJuventa‐Verlagerschienen,seit2010vergriffenenBuches.Translation:AndreaKrauss,EmilyPickerill,DafineRexhajIllustrationbyManuelePein:Skater

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TheprincipleofsubsidiarityaspretenseforneoliberalismandgovernmentdisinvolvementTheprincipleofsubsidiarityisoftenusedasalegitimationastowhygovernmentsshouldnotgetinvolvedorwhytheyshouldleavethesmallerstructuralunitsoftheircountriesaloneandretreatfrominvolvement.However,thisisonlyonepossibleinterpretationofthisprinciplewhich,tomymind,isincorrect.TheprinciplewasfirstintroducedbyPopePiusXIon15May,1931inhissocialencyclicalQuadragesimoAnnotheauthorofwhichisconsideredtobeProf.Dr.OswaldvonNell‐Breuning.Inrelationtothesocialencyclical'sinterpretationoftheprincipleofsubsidiarityseveralhypotheseshavebeenformulated:

1. Theprincipleofsubsidiarityconcedestosmallercommunities–e.g.localauthorities,families,associationsetc.–bothinitiativeandfreedom.

2. Theprincipleofsubsidiarityprotectsthesmallercommunitiesagainsttheintrusivepowersofthestateaswellasfrombeingfullyincorporatedbythestate.

3. Theprincipleofsubsidiarityprovidesspecialinterestgroups,associationsetc.withauthorityandlegitimationasorganisationsintheirownrightwithintheframeworkoftheadministrativesystem.Suchorganisationsarecharacterisedbyadistinctiveautonomytobeabletoshapetheirowninternalstructures.

4. Theprincipleofsubsidiarity,however,doesnotimplythatthesuperordinateentity,i.e.thestate,isprohibitedfromsupportingthesubordinateentity.Ofcourse,difficultiesalwaysarisewhenahigher‐rankingunitwithmorefinancialresourcesatitsdisposalsupportsasmaller,poorerunit.Thereis,however,aseamlesstransitiontowardsassimilatingandsubjugatingthesmallerentity.

5. Theprincipleofsubsidiarityalsodenotesthatinthecaseof(financial)supportofthesmallerentity(families,associations)theirautonomyandsovereigntyhavetobeguaranteed.

6. Accordingtotheprincipleofsubsidiaritythesuperiorentityisobligedtosupportthesubordinateunitinawaythatenablesittoremainviableandtodevelopindependently.Thisnotionoftheprincipleofsubsidiaritytendstobedisregardedbypoliticians,becauseinthepoliticalcontexttheprincipleofsubsidiaritycannotserveasajustificationforcutsinsocialservices.

7. Theprincipleofsubsidiaritydoesnotencourageasystemofhandingoutalms.Infact,itcallsforthereformationofthecurrentstateofaffairs.Societalreformsaresupposedtostrengthenthesmallerunitsandguaranteetheirsurvival.Thesesmallerunitsneedalegalstatusbasedoncertainrightsandtheactualabilitytobeactivelyinvolvedinthedecision‐makingprocesses.

8. Someup‐to‐dateexamplesoftheprincipleofsubsidiarityare:Peopleshouldreceivepensionshighenoughtomakealiving;long‐terminsuranceschemesshouldbearrangedinawaysothatpeopleinneedofcareandtheirfamilieshavearealchoicebetweenhomecare(forfinancialreasons),andoutpatientcareorinpatientcare,e.g.inseniorcitizens’homes.

9. Forassociations,theprincipleofsubsidiarityconsequentlyimpliesthattheybeequippedwithsufficientresourcestobeabletoreallycarryouttheirduties,andtobeindependentfromthesuperordinateentity.

GerhardEndres,theologist,PresidentofNetzwerkGesellschaftsethike.V.andChairmanofKABBildungswerke.V.,Munich(theeducationalinstituteoftheCatholicworkers'movement).Translation:SebastianBartsch,KeithKellyIllustrationby:Stretcher

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Subsidiarity–asidestageformigrants?Accordingtoasimpledefinition,subsidiaritydescribesaprincipleaccordingtowhichactivitiesperformedbyprivateorganisationshavepriorityoverstateactivitieswhenitcomestosocialmatters.Itregulatestherelationsbetweenindependentprivatewelfareorganizationsandstate‐runwelfareagencies.Thistechnicaldescriptionofthesubsidiarityconceptgainsimportanceoncethepoliticaldimensionisconsidered.Sothefollowingquestionarises:Whoseinterestsareactuallytakenintoaccountbythesubsidiarityprinciple?LookingatGermanwelfareorganisationsitbecomesclearthatafewspecificfederationsaregrantedpriorityofaction.Accordingtoonesourceofreferencethereareso‐calledleadingstate‐licensedfederations.TheyincludeCaritas,DiakonischesWerk(charitableorganisationofProtestantchurches),DeutscherParitätischerWohlfahrtsverband(charitablenon‐profitorganisationinGermany)andtheGermanRedCross(DeutschesRotesKreuz,DRK),tonamebutafew.Hence,theoriginalideaofthecivilianpopulationorthelocalcommunitytakingcareoftheirownsocialissuesindividuallyandinaself‐determinedandindependentwayismanifestedinafewsocialcorporations.Seenfromthisperspective,manysmallorganisationshardlystandachance,letaloneinitiativesandorganisationswithafocusonmigrantissues.Migrantcommunitiesareaffectedbythissituationintwoways:Ontheonehandasprovidersandasfoundersofassociationsorfederations,andontheotherhandastheclienteleofsocialservices.AlthoughthereareapproximatelyfourmillionMuslimslivinginGermanyanddespitethefactthatfirst‐generationmigrantsandtheirfollowinggenerationsaccountformorethanathirdofthetotalpopulationinmanycities,noindependentself‐managedmigrants’organisationofanysignificancehasemergedyet.Whiletherearesomesmallorganisations,onlyfewprofessionalassociationsandfederationsexist,andatthehigherleveltherearenonewhatsoever.Altogether,theydonotaccountforasignificantshareofthewelfaremarket.Ithastobereferredtoasamarket,ifyoulookatthefigurescompiledfortheChristianwelfaresector.OverthepastfewdecadestheGermanCaritasassociationandtheDiakonischesWerkhavebecomethebiggestprivate‐sectoremployersworldwide.AccordingtoaspecialreportpublishedbyVer.di(Germantradeunionrepresentingemployeesintheservicesector)in2005,theChristianwelfaresectorwithabout1.5millionemployeesgeneratedanannualturnoverofapproximately€45billion.Over90percentoftheworkofwelfareorganisationswasfinancedviagovernmentorsocialsecurityfunds,accordingtothesurvey.Thusthebattleoversubsidiarityprivilegesandtheallocationofpublicresourceswaswonbythelarge,mainlyChristianwelfarefederations,andonlyveryrarely,ifatall,domigrants’organisationsreceiveamerepittance. ForthosewhoclaimsocialservicesitwouldmakeasignificantdifferenceiftherewereMuslimnursingcarecentresnextdoortotheirChristiancounterparts.Welfareorganisationsareconfrontedwithagrowingmigrantclientele,especiallyinthefieldsofchildandyouthservices,integrationandgeriatriccare.Interculturalcompetences,languageskillsandbiographicalunderstandingplayamajorroleherebesidesknow‐howandexpertise.Whatcouldbemorelogicalthanprofessionalizingself‐managedmigrants’organisations,associationsandfederations?Whatcouldbemorelogicalthanmobilizingseniorcitizenswithamigrantbackgroundincertaincitydistrictsandapplyingtheirspecificknow‐howandexpertiselocallytoprovidetheservicesneededandsolveissues?Somecitizensmayshuffleofftheirpersonalresponsibilityforthelackofprofessionallyrunmigrantassociations.Letthemdotheirthing!Nobodyishinderingthemfromdoingso!However,weknowbynowthatthereasonwhysocialbarriersexistisnotbecausetheyweresetuptohinderothers,butbecausenobodyremovedtheminordertopavethewayforothers.Overcomingthesebarrierswouldmeanempoweringcertaingroupstoorganizeandtoprofessionalizethemselvesbygivingthemcustomizedsupportandadviceastohowtoestablishthecontactsdesperatelyneededortobuildupnetworks,andby

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connectingthemwitheachother,notjusthorizontallybutaboveallverticallywithadministrativeandpoliticalbodies.Ifanything,itisthefieldofwelfareservicesprovidedbyandformigrantswhichisinneedofnewimpulsesinoursubsidiarydiscourse.Thefactthatweliveinasocietyofmigrationandthatmigrantsrepresentamajorpartofcivilsocietyhastoplayacentralroleregardingthestructuringandfunctioningofactionsguidedbythesubsidiarityprinciple.Thefactthatthecivilianpopulationishighlycharacterisedbymigrationhastobereflectedinthestructureofsocialorganizations,associationsandfederations.TunayÖnder,sociologistM.A.,isafreelanceratMünchnerInstitutZweiplus|BeratungEntwicklungEvaluation(instituteconsultingcompaniesinprojectmanagement),vice‐chairwomanofTscherkessischerKulturvereinMünchene.V.(culturalassociationofCircassians)andfounderoftheprojectmigrantenstadlblog.(www.dasmigrantenstadl.blogspot.de)Translation:KeithKelly,ChristopherMüller,JasminSchefhold

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SubsidiarityandfreedomNowthatwehavepresentedourpapersandexchangedourpointsofview,itistimeforsomeafterthoughts.Tosumupourideasaboutsubsidiarity,wecanfirstofallnotethatthisprincipleobviouslycommandswidespreadsupport.Mostauthorseitherdirectlyadvocateitoratleastelaborateonthecriteriawhicharemostcloselyconnectedwithit.Theypointoutthatsubsidiarityisnotthekindofprinciplewhichisbendabletofitallsizesandshapes,andultimately,wouldbecompatiblewithanything.Thereisthispowerunderlyingtheprincipleofsubsidiaritytowarnagainststateactionswhicheithergotoofar,ornotfarenough.Subsidiaritycanalsofunctionascorrectivemechanismandasayardstickforone’sownpatternsofbehaviorincivilsocietyorganisations.Onlytwoauthorscastdoubtonthevalidityoftheprincipleassuch–atleastincertaincontexts.Ontheonehand,thereistheargumentthattheprinciplelacksaclearenoughdefinitionandcanthereforebemisusedinmanyways.Itcouldperhapsjustifycutsinsocialbenefitsandservicestolegitimizethegovernment`sausteritypolicy,or,onetheotherhand,openthedoortore‐nationalizationplanswithinEurope.Anobviousresponsetotheseallegationswouldbetopointoutthattruesubsidiaritypreemptssuchabuses.However,thefactthatwedoapplydifferentdefinitions–betheyimplicitorexplicitapplications–isevidenceoftheneedforclarification.Buthowcanweidentifythecorrectdefinitionforwearenotsatisfiedwithchoosingtheeasywayout?Neitherdowesimplyacceptthelegaldefinitionsinlinewithlegalpositivism,nordowebowtothedoctrinalauthorityoftheCatholicChurchagainstthebackdropofourpluralisticcontext.Therefore,tomymind,wehavetoreconsiderthereasoningbehindsubsidiarity,andwhysubsidiarityissuchafundamentalprincipleforanytypeofsocialorganisation.Theauthorsgiveusplentyoffoodforthoughttoanswerthisquestion.Iwouldliketoaddresssomeofthesepointsandpresentalineofargumentationwherebythestartingpointistheconceptoffreedom–or,tobemoreprecise,theclaimthatsocietyshouldserveusallbyallowingforrealfreedom.Forme,realfreedommeansthatallpeoplehavetherealopportunitytochoosefreelyamongvarious(age‐appropriate)lifeplansperceivedasworthwhile.Notonlyshouldtherebeaformalrighttodoso,thenecessarysocial,culturalandeconomicenvironmentmustbeguaranteed,too,tobeabletomakesuchchoices.However,themajorityoftheseconditions(infact,allofthem–toacertainextent)canonlybeguaranteedwithintheframeworkoflargerandsmallersocialgroups.Andsomanymajororminoraspirationsinlifeareintrinsicallysocialbynature.Andyet,inmanywaysthesesocialgroupswhicharesupposedtoensurefreedomortobetheplaceswherefreedomisrealizedcanactuallyrestrictorevendestroyfreedom.Thisiswheretheprincipleofsubsidiaritycomesinsuggestingthatthesmallerthesocialgroup,thesmallertheriskofjeopardizingpersonalfreedom,andthebetterthechancesthattheyarecontrolledbythosewhoactasguardiansandbeneficiariesoffreedoms.Consequently,subsidiarityisaboutpromotingfreedombyensuringthehighestpossibledegreeofpersonalself‐determinationinasocialgroup(–personalself‐determinationtendstobedilutedinagroupcontext).Thisclaimofrealfreedomforeverybodyrequiresthetwofoldapproachunderlyingtheprincipleofsubsidiarity.Thenegativeapproachimpliesthathebiggerunitsmustnotinterfereinmattersaffectingthesmallerunits,whichwouldbearestrictionoftheirfreedoms;andthepositiveapproachreferstosmallerunits’entitlementtosupport,ifnecessary,inorderpromotetheirfreedoms.Resortingtotheoriginalnotionoftheprincipleofsubsidiaritydoesnotautomaticallyturnitintoapanaceawhichassuresaneasyandreadysolutionofproblems.Inourdebateitwaspointedouttomethatapplyingthisprincipleislikeperformingabalancingact.Whatcouldthenhelpustofindtherightbalance?Whatcanguideustowardsthebestpractice?Giventhedistinctinterdependence

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betweensubsidiarityandfreedom,thecorrectquestionwouldbewhichisthebestwayofallocatingresponsibilitiesanddecision‐makingpowerstoexistingoremergingsocialunitsinordertopromoterealfreedomforthepersonsaffected–orrathertheprotagonists,toborrowanexcellenttermusedbyoneauthorinhispresentation.Aproposexamplesofpotentialmisuseoftheprincipleofsubsidiarity:Unfortunately,youcannotfillemptycofferssimplybyapplyingtheprincipleofsubsidiarity.Thereisnoautomaticmechanismwhichensuresthatasmallindependentnon‐profitorganisationsecuresmorefreedomandmoreindependenceforpeoplevisitingayouthclub,forexample,thanalargerorganizationoramunicipalagency.Likewise,thereisnoguaranteethattheprivatizationandcommercialisationofservicesprovidedbylocalauthoritieswillenhancethefreedomofthosepeoplewhodependontheseservices.Adheringtotheprincipleofsubsidiaritydoesnotmeanthatwehavetoturnablindeyetoreality,andtothefactthatthewell‐intentioneddelegationofresponsibilitiestoasmallerorganizationmayleadtoitsdownfall.Privateisnotnecessarilybetterthatstate,smallisnotpreferabletolarge,decentralizedisnotsuperiortocentralized.Italwaysdependsonwhatismoreconducivetothepersonalfreedomofeachandeveryone.Itiswisetotakeacriticallookatthenon‐statecollectivesocialactors.Controversyhasarisenespeciallyovernon‐stateorganisations,whicharenotself‐organisedbythepersonsaffectedorbytheprotagonists,butrepresentthevarioustypesofcharitableactiongroups,suchasNGOslookingafterstreetchildren,registeredassociationswhichengageinOne‐Worldprojectsoryouthwelfareorganizations.Theysethighstandardsforthemselvesanddevotethemselvestothecauseofpromotingthefreedomofthepeopletheyarecommittedtoserve.Asecondobjectiontotheprincipleofsubsidiarity–atleasttoitsclaimofuniversalvalidity–originatesinLebanon.Inthisrespect,theconsiderationoftheaimofsubsidiarity,thesafeguardingofrealfreedomforall,isalsohelpful.Thewell‐illustratedsituationoftransferringtheregulationof“statusquestions”(i.e.questionsofimmediateconcerntoourstatusascitizenstotheeffectthattheycanchangeourrightsanddutiesincivilsociety)toreligiouscommunitiesthenbecomesaproblemconcerningfreedomforall(namelythedamagetothenegativefreedomofreligion),iftheoptiontosolvethesequestionswithouttheinvolvementofanyreligiouscommunitiesisnotopentoeverybody.Asimilarsituationcomesaboutwhenkeyareasofeducationandhealthforalargeswathofthepopulationareonlyavailablefromideologicallybiasedproviders.AfinaltopicIwouldliketotakeupistheall‐importantissueofmoney.Thesynopsisofthedifferentnationsandthevariousdifferentfieldsofsocialcommitmentsrepresentedheremakecleartowhatextenttheexistenceofmanyindividualinitiativesandinstitutionsandconsequentlythevariation,pluralityandvitalityofthecivilsectorofsocialandculturalcommitmentdependonstatefinancialsupport.Anexplicitorimplicitcallforsuchsupportisevidentinmanyofthecontributions,whileatthesametimedemandingthehighestpossibledegreeofautonomy.Concerningthelatter,thisclaimisbeyonddoubtcoveredbythesubsidiarityprincipleinthesensethattherule“Hewhopays,decides”isincompatiblewiththisprinciple.Regardingthefirstclaim,themereexistenceofanNGO,ofaculturalcluborofyouthwelfareservicescertainlyisnotasufficientreasonforaclaimonfinancialsupport.Onlyif,byreasonsindependentfromthesubsidiarityprinciple,thecorrespondingserviceorperceivedtaskcanberegardedassoimportantthatitshouldbeperformednomatterwhat(e.g.becausewithoutitfreedomwouldremainillusory),ademandassuchcanbejustified.Dr.AndreasGöseleisamemberoftheJesuitOrderandworksasalecturerinsocialethicsattheMunichSchoolofPhilosophy(HochschulefürPhilosophie)Translation:DilaBarlas,EmilyPickerill,VerenaGeisler,KatharinaLindner

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ListofillustratorsKarl‐MichaelBrandisanarteducator(M.A.),theatreeducatorandmemberoftheFederalAssociationofTheatreEducators.HeisafoundingmemberofECHO,VereinfürintegrativeSpiel‐undKulturpädagogike.V.(associationforintegratededucationalplayandculturaleducation)establishedin1990andhasbeenworkingasitsfull‐timemanagersince2000.Beforethat,hegainedprofessionalexperienceinculturaleducationinPädagogischeAktionundPA/Spielkultur(associationforyouthculture)andinworkingwithpeoplewithdisabilitiesatFranziskuswerkSchönbrunn.SamarErtseyisacomic‐stripartistandfounderofMICS,thefirstproactiveschoolforcomicartinMunichwhichiscelebratingits10thanniversarythisyear(www.worldofcartoons.de).HewasanactivememberoftheorganizingteamoftheComicfestivalMunichfrom2003until2011.In2007heandhisteamreceivedthespecialprizeawardedbyICOM(InternationalCouncilofMuseums)fortheircomicadaptionofMozart’s“MagicFlute“.HeisconsideredtheseniorcomicartteacherinGermany.DietmarGrossehasbeenlivinginMunichsince1973.Hiscomicsaremainlypublishedinmagazinesfocusingonhealth,economicsandaviationincludingDieWirtschaftsWoche,DieZeitandSüddeutscheZeitung.Hepublishedthirteenbooksandworkedasanillustratoronmanyotherbooks.VeronikaGruhlisafreelanceillustratorandcomic‐stripartistfromMunich.In2013shegraduatedincommunicationsdesign(B.A).GruhlhasworkedwithpublishinghousessuchasarsEditionandBennyBlu.SteffenHaasstudiedgraphicsattheAcademyofAppliedArtsinViennaandpaintingattheAcademyofFineArtsinMunich.Heisanartistandillustrator.Hedoesmotionlessmovieperformances,hashisownexhibitionsandparticipatesinexhibitionsbothathomeandabroad.Muchofhisworkispublishedinnewspapers,magazinesandanthologiesaswellasinbooks.JohannesMayrhoferwasborninImmenstadt(Allgäu)in1942.HelivesinMunichandisanarteducatorandformerCulturalManageroftheCityofMunich.Mayrhoferisafreelanceartist,regularlypresentinghisworkinexhibitionsandcontributingtovariouspublications.PhilipJunkManuelePeinTranslation:KeithKelly,BarbaraSchatz

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