WELCOME ADDRESS:

“He who controls the past, controls the future”– George Orwell.

In retrospect, we often wonder “why couldn’t”: Why couldn’t have Japan surrender before Hiroshima and Nagasaki? Why couldn’t the International Community prevent the Cold War? Why couldn’t the UN prevent the atrocities in Syria? The UN has been often accused of being inefficient at handling crises. Were the framers of the UN myopic or was it simply impossible for them to know the changes in the world that would happen? You are aware of what has ensued. You know the flaws of the UN and the problems the world faces in the future. Can you change the world for the better? Can you prevent the future generations from asking “why couldn’t”?

San Francisco, April 1945

Welcome delegates to the United Nations Conference on International Organization.

: The most macabre and devastating war on the face of the earth is about to come to an end. The world, which in a span of less than half a century has faced two World Wars, yearns, nay pines for peace. All eyes are set on you delegates as you assemble to lay the foundation of the soon to be United Nations. The Calcutta Boys’ School Assembly of Nations takes you back in time to the most significant conference in the history of the world and rests on you the responsibility of ensuring international cooperation, peace, and security for humanity’s future.

AGENDA:

1) Creation of the Security Council: The Executive wing of the United Nations.

2)Setting up The Charter of the International Military Tribunal

“I regard every Social Democrat as an enemy of the Empire and Fatherland. You [recruits] have sworn loyalty to me. You have only one enemy and that is my enemy. In the present social confusion it may come about that I order you to shoot down your own relatives, brothers or parents but even then you must follow my orders without a murmur. For those who didn’t know, Germany soon is going to be the leader of the world.” – Kaiser Wilhelm II, Emperor of Prussia.

World War – 1

A global war of such severe magnitude fought for the first time which changed the course of mankind forever. A war fought to end all wars. More than 9 million combatants were killed; a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents' technological and industrial sophistication, and tactical stalemate. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, paving the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. A global war, first of its kind which drew in all major economic powers of the world into 2 major alliances –

• Allies(Triple Entente)

•

– Russian Empire, French Republic and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Later Italy, Japan and United States joined with the course of war. Central Powers(Triple Alliance)Later Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined in.

- Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Italy.

Sarajevo Crisis - Immediate Cause - Although a resurgence of imperialism was an underlying cause, the immediate trigger for war was the 28 June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. This set off a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia and international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked. Within weeks, the major powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. This ultimatum was part of a coercive program meant to weaken the Kingdom of Serbia as a threat to Austria-Hungary's control of the northern Balkans which had a significant southern Slavic population, including a Serbian community in Bosnia. This was intended to be achieved either through diplomacy or by a localized war if the ultimatum were rejected. Austria-Hungary preferred war, though István Tisza, the prime minister of the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, hoped that the ultimatum would be reasonable enough that it would not be rejected outright. One month after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, thus initiating the First World War.

Main Causes of the War

French-German rivalry - The situation in France was quite different from that in Germany as going to war appeared to the majority of political and military leaders to be a potentially costly gamble. It is undeniable that forty years after the loss of Alsace-Lorraine in Franco-Prussian war a vast number of

French were still angered by the territorial loss, as well as by the humiliation of being compelled to pay a large reparation to Germany in 1871. The diplomatic alienation of France orchestrated by Germany prior to World War I caused further resentment in France. Nevertheless, the leaders of France recognized Germany's strong military advantage against them, as Germany had nearly twice as much population and a better equipped army. At the same time, the episodes of the Tangier Crisis in 1905 and the Agadir Crisis in 1911 had given France a strong indication that war with Germany could be inevitable if if Germany continued to oppose French colonial expansionism. Germany continued to oppose French colonial expansionism. The leadership in France was prepared to fight Germany and attempt to gain back the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine lost in 1871.

Anglo-German rivalry – England had potentially become one of the biggest steel producing and exporting nations in the world, standing unopposed in this area. But by 1910 Germany threw in competition with massive capital flow and started challenging England in domination of export of steel in European regions. The United Kingdom had the biggest navy in the world and so in accord with Wilhelm II’s enthusiasm for an expanded German navy, and his own strong desires, Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, Secretary of State of the German Imperial Naval Office, championed four Fleet Acts between 1898 and 1912 to greatly expand the German High Seas Fleet. The German aim was to build a fleet that would be 2/3 the size of the British navy. This plan was sparked by the threat of the British Foreign Office in March 1897, after the British invasion of Transvaal that started the Boer War, to blockade the German coast and thereby cripple the German economy, if Germany would intervene in the conflict in Transvaal. From 1905 on the British navy developed plans for such a blockade that was a central part of British strategy. Germany dug up the Kiev Canal even deeper in spite of several warnings and requests from United Kingdom thus bringing danger to the very doors of United Kingdom and sparking off a naval race.

Balkan Wars - In 1867, the Austrian Empire fundamentally changed its governmental structure, becoming the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. For hundreds of years, the empire had been run in an essentially feudal manner with a German-speaking aristocracy at its head. However, with the threat represented by an emergence of nationalism within the empire's many component ethnicities, some elements, including Emperor Franz Joseph, decided that a compromise was required to preserve the power of the German aristocracy. In 1867, the Ausgleich was agreed on, which made the Hungarian elite in Hungary almost equal partners in the government of Austria-Hungary. The major powers got involved in the Balkan wars which evolved as direct consequence of German-Slav rivalry. In 1908 Germany annexed the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These provinces were coveted by Serbia who were supported by Russia in establishing an United Slav State in the Balkans. Two wars followed:-

• First Balkan War (1912) - Four Balkan countries – Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece – started a war against the Turks. Turkey subsequently lost most of her possessions in Europe with Russia taking Serbia’s side.

• Second Balkan War (1913) – Serbia and Greece supported by Russia defeated Bulgaria, an ally of the Austrian empire.

South Slavs, primarily under the leadership of Serbia, were organizing for a war against Austria-Hungary, and even all of Germanic civilization. Some leaders of Austria, such as Conrad von Hötzendorf, argued that Serbia must be dealt with before it became too powerful to defeat militarily. So Austria decided to put an end to Serbian power. Kaiser confirmed Germany’s willingness to support any action taken against Serbia.

Colonial Rivalry - After 1870, the European nations began to acquire colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Their imperialistic activities accelerated from 1880 onwards. Between 1895 and 1905 imperialistic expansion reached its climax. In Africa, all the European powers except Austria and Russia had colonies there. Thus there were many clashes among France, Britain, Germany and Italy. Britain had made a secret agreement with France in 1904 wherein Britain would have full political control over Egypt and France was to take over Morocco. Germany entered the scene at this juncture. The German Emperor proclaimed that he would uphold the independence of Morocco and her Sultan and that every nation should have equal rights of trading with Morocco. The war between these two nations was just averted by American mediation.

• Austria-Hungary, unsatisfied with Serbia's response to her ultimatum (which in the event was almost entirely placatory: however her jibbing over a couple of minor clauses gave Austria-Hungary her sought-after cue) declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914.

Chain of Events relating Countries to the War

• Russia, bound by treaty to Serbia, announced mobilisation of its vast army in her defense, a slow process that would take around six weeks to complete.

• Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary by treaty, viewed the Russian mobilisation as an act of war against Austria-Hungary, and after scant warning declared war on Russia on 1 August.

• France, bound by treaty to Russia, found itself at war against Germany and, by extension, on Austria-Hungary following a German declaration on 3 August. Germany was swift in invading neutral Belgium so as to reach Paris by the shortest possible route.

• Britain already in an armament race with Germany and allied to France by a more loosely worded treaty which placed a "moral obligation" upon her to defend France, declared war against Germany on 4 August. Her reason for entering the conflict lay in another direction: she was obligated to defend neutral Belgium by the terms of a 75-year old treaty. With Germany's invasion of Belgium on 4 August, and the Belgian King's appeal to Britain for assistance, Britain committed herself to Belgium's defence later that day. Like France, she was by extension also at war with Austria-Hungary.

• With Britain's entry into the war, her colonies and dominions abroad variously offered military and financial assistance, and included Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa.

• United States President Woodrow Wilson declared a U.S. policy of absolute neutrality, an official stance that would last until 1917 when Germany's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare - which

seriously threatened America's commercial shipping (which was in any event almost entirely directed towards the Allies led by Britain and France) - forced the U.S. to finally enter the war on 6 April 1917.

• Japan, honouring a military agreement with Britain, declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914. Two days later Austria-Hungary responded by declaring war on Japan.

• Italy, although allied to both Germany and Austria-Hungary, was able to avoid entering the fray by citing a clause enabling it to evade its obligations to both. In short, Italy was committed to defend Germany and Austria-Hungary only in the event of a 'defensive' war; arguing that their actions were 'offensive' she declared instead a policy of neutrality. The following year, in May 1915, she finally joined the conflict by siding with the Allies against her two former allies.

At 11 o'clock in the morning of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, the First World War--known at the time as the Great War--comes to an end.

End of the Great War

By the end of autumn 1918, the alliance of the Central Powers was unraveling in its war effort against the better supplied and coordinated Allied powers. Facing exhausted resources on the battlefield, turmoil on the home front and the surrender of its weaker allies, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, Germany was finally forced to seek an armistice with the Allies in the early days of November 1918. On November 7, the German chancellor, Prince Max von Baden, sent delegates to Compiegne, France, to negotiate the agreement; it was signed at 5:10 a.m. on the morning of November 11.

The Great War took the life of some 9 million soldiers; 21 million more were wounded. Civilian casualties caused indirectly by the war numbered close to 10 million. At the peace conference in Paris in 1919, Allied leaders would state their desire to build a post-war world that would safeguard itself against future conflicts of such devastating scale. The Versailles Treaty, signed on June 28, 1919, would not achieve this objective. Saddled with war guilt and heavy reparations and denied entrance into the League of Nations, Germany complained it had signed the armistice under false pretenses, having believed any peace would be a "peace without victory" as put forward by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his famous Fourteen Points speech of January 1918. As the years passed, hatred of the treaty and its authors settled into a smoldering resentment in Germany that would, two decades later, be counted--to an arguable extent--among the causes of the Second World War.

The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the

PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE:

Allied victors, following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The major decisions were the creation of the League of Nations; the five peace treaties with defeated enemies, including the Treaty of Versailles with Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as"mandates," chiefly to Britain and France; reparations imposed on Germany, and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect the forces of nationalism.

The treaty can be divided into a number of sections; territorial, military, financial and general.

The Treaty of Versailles

Territorial

The following land was taken away from Germany :

• Alsace-Lorraine (given to France) • Eupen and Malmedy (given to Belgium) • Northern Schleswig (given to Denmark) • Hultschin (given to Czechoslovakia) • West Prussia, Posen and Upper Silesia (given to Poland) • The Saar, Danzig and Memel were put under the control of the League of Nations and the

people of these regions would be allowed to vote to stay in Germany or not in a future referendum.

• The League of Nations also took control of Germany's overseas colonies. Germany had to return to Russia land taken in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Some of this land was made into new states : Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. An enlarged Poland also received some of this land.

Military

• Germany’s army was reduced to 100,000 men and tanks were not allowed in the army. • Germany was not allowed an airforce. • Germany was allowed only 6 capital naval ships and no submarines. • The west of the Rhineland and 50 kms east of the River Rhine was made into a demilitarised

zone (DMZ). No German soldier or weapon was allowed into this zone. The Allies were to keep an army of occupation on the west bank of the Rhine for 15 years.

Financial

• Germany had to pay a huge War Indemnity of 33 billion marks which left her bankrupt. • The loss of vital industrial territory would be a severe blow to any attempts by Germany to

rebuild her economy. • Coal from the Saar and Upper Silesia in particular was a vital economic loss. Germany was also

forbidden to unite with Austria to form one superstate, in an attempt to keep her economic potential to a minimum.

General

There are three vital clauses here:

1. Germany had to admit full responsibility for starting the war. This was Clause 231 - the infamous "War Guilt Clause"

2. Germany, as she was responsible for starting the war as stated in clause 231, was, therefore responsible for all the war damage caused by the First World War. Therefore, she had to pay reparations, the bulk of which would go to France and Belgium to pay for the damage done to the infrastructure of both countries by the war. Quite literally, reparations would be used to pay for the damage to be repaired. Payment could be in kind or cash. The figure was not set at Versailles - it was to be determined later. The Germans were told to write a blank cheque which the Allies would cash when it suited them. The figure was eventually put at £6,600 million - a huge sum of money well beyond Germany’s ability to pay.

3. A League of Nations was set up to keep world peace.

The inception of the League of Nations was also done in the Paris Peace Conference. The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. It was first proposed by President Woodrow Wilson as part of his Fourteen Points plan for an equitable peace in Europe, but the United States was never a member. The League of Nation's task was simple - to ensure that war never broke out again. After the turmoil caused by the

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Versailles Treaty, many looked to the League to bring stability to the world.

The Covenant of the League of Nations

ARTICLE 3

was the first document to establish a International Organization for the purpose restoring sustaining peace in the world. Some of the important Articles of the Covenant are:

The Assembly shall consist of Representatives of the Members of the League.

The Assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to time as occasion may require at the Seat of the League or at such other place as may be decided upon.

The Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world.

At meetings of the Assembly each Member of the League shall have one vote, and may have not more than three Representatives.

ARTICLE 4

The Council shall consist of Representatives of the Principal allied and Associated Powers, together with Representatives of four other Members of the League. These four Members of the League shall be selected by the Assembly from time to time in its discretion. Until the appointment of theRepresentatives of the four Members of the League first selected by the Assembly, Representatives of Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Greece shall be members of the Council.

ARTICLE 11.

Any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting any of the Members of the League or

not, is hereby declared a matter of concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations. In case any such emergency should arise the Secretary General shall on the request of any Member of the League forthwith summon a meeting of the Council.

It is also declared to be the friendly right of each Member of the League to bring to the attention of the Assembly or of the Council any circumstance whatever affecting international relations which threaten to disturb international peace or the good understanding between nations upon which peace depends.

ARTICLE 13.

The Members of the League agree that whenever any dispute shall arise between them which

they recognise to be suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-matter to arbitration or judicial settlement.

Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any fact which if established would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement.

For the consideration of any such dispute, the court to which the case is referred shall be the Permanent Court of International Justice, established in accordance with Article 14, or any tribunal agreed on by the parties to the dispute or stipulated in any convention existing between them. The Members of the League agree that they will carry out in full good faith any award or decision that may be rendered, and those they will not resort to war against a Member of the League which compiles therewith. In the event of any failure to carry out such an award or decision, the Council shall propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto.

ARTICLE 15.( Relating to disputes)

ARTICLE 16.

Should any Member of the League resort to war in disregard of its covenants under Articles 12, 13 or 15, it shall ipso facto be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other Members of the League, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial relations, the prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals and the nationals of the covenant-breaking State, and the prevention of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-breaking State and the nationals of any other State, whether a Member of the League or not.

It shall be the duty of the Council in such case to recommend to the several Governments concerned what effective military, naval or air force the Members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League.

The Members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually support one another in the

financial and economic measures which are taken under this Article, in order to minimise the loss and inconvenience resulting from the above measures, and that they will mutually support one another in resisting any special measures aimed at one of their number by the covenant-breaking State, and that they will take the necessary steps to afford passage through their territory to the forces of any of the Members of the League which are co-operating to protect the covenants of the League.

Any Member of the League which has violated any covenant of the League may be declared to be no longer a Member of the League by a vote of the Council concurred in by the Representatives of all the other Members of the League represented thereon.

ARTICLE 21.

Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration or regional understandings like the Monroe doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace

ARTICLE 23.

Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international conventions existing or

hereafter to be agreed upon, the Members of the

League:

a. will endeavour to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour for men, women, and children, both in their own countries and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will establish and maintain the necessary international organisations;

b. undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of territories under their control;

c. will entrust the League with the general supervision over the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women and children, and the traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs;

d. will entrust the League with the general supervision of the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest;

e. will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of communications and of transit and

equitable treatment for the commerce of all Members of the League. In this connection, the special necessities of the regions devastated during the war of 1914-1918 shall be borne in mind;

f. will endeavor to take steps in matters of international concern for the prevention and control of disease.

Although The League fell short of its expectations as a universal guardian it did prove effective in certain crises. The League was successful in the Aaland Islands in 1921. In the same year, 1921, the League was equally successful in Upper Silesia. In 1923, the League was successful in resolving a problem in Memel. One of its biggest triumphs was in1925, when the League helped

SUCCESS OF THE LEAGUE

to resolve a dispute between Greece and Bulgaria. Both these nations have a common border. In 1925, sentries patrolling this border fired on one another and a Greek soldier was killed. The Greek army invaded Bulgaria as a result. The Bulgarians asked the League for help and the League ordered both armies to stop fighting and that the Greeks should pull out of Bulgaria. The League then sent experts to the area and decided that Greece was to blame and fined her £45,000. Both nations accepted the decision.

The League was quite successful when it came to the humanitarian and social aspect. The league ensured the proper administration of those territories which were under the control of other nations as a result of the trusteeship function such as Palestine, Syria, Togoland. In the war in Turkey in 1923 1,400,000 refugees had been created by this war with 80% of them being women and children. Typhoid and cholera were rampant. The League sent doctors from the Health Organisation to check the spread of disease and it spent £10 million on building farms, homes etc for the refugees. Money was also invested in seeds, wells and digging tools and by 1926, work was found for 600,000 people

However The League failed to perform its primary function of mainting International Peace and

security .

The primary problem with the league of nations was it was not of a universal character. It had

only 23 members at its end in 1946. United States of America did not join the very organization they had fostered. The Soviet Union was part of the League for a brief period between 1934-1939. The two most powerful nations in the League ; France and Britain had their resources drained due to World War I and post war recessions. Thus, the League existed without a substantial financial or military foundation of its own; making the functioning of the League like yielding a wooden sword.

CRITISCM OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS:

Another major problem was the inability of the League of Nations to take decisive actions when it came to stronger nations in the world. In the words of Mussolini, “the league is very well when the sparrows shout but no good at all when the eagles fall out?” The league was unable to curb

threats such as when French and Belgian troops invaded the Ruhr Small nations lost their faith in the effectiveness of The League to save them from any aggression.

The principle of collective security was not applied in actual practice. All steps required the backing of France and England which often acted in consort with their own national policies. The League was not able to keep in check the rising dictatorial regimes. The steps taken by The League were completely ignored by such regimes and The League was unable to take any decisive action. The League almost became redundant towards its end. The epitome of this was when the League did nothing when Hitler invaded Sudetenland and The League did nothing. The policy of appeasement which Britain and France were following ipso facto became the League’s policy. This policy emboldened Hitler and when he invaded Poland it sparked the fire which was World War 2.

“Germany must either be a world power or there shall be no more Germany. I speak in the name of the entire German people when I assure the world that we all share the honest wish to eliminate the enmity that brings far more costs than any possible benefits. It would be a wonderful thing for all of humanity if both peoples would renounce force against each other forever. The German people are ready to make such a pledge.” – Adolf Hitler

World War II

2 decades after the last global conflict came a huge defeat of the League of Nations organization in its bid to maintain peaceful relations among nations and save succeeding generations from the scourge of war. It involved the vast majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people, from more than 30 different countries. In a state of "total war", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust, the Three Alls Policy, the strategic bombing of enemy industrial and/or population centers, and the first use of nuclear weapons in combat, it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.

Benito Mussolini's earlier a Socialist launched the Fascist movement which rose to power in the late 1920's as a reactionary force, responding to pervasive popular disillusionment with the ineffective government in place at the time. Devastating economic conditions disillusioned Italian citizens and embittered them towards their leaders, creating prime conditions for a coup in the post World War I scenario. One particular grievance of the Italian people in the 1920's was the Treaty of Versailles, which was the Treaty that ended World War I. The Treaty of Versailles was perceived as unfair by the Italian people because it allotted no war reparation payments to Italy, though Italy had suffered great losses fighting for Allies. The nation was left impoverished by the war effort, the government was perceived as unable to solve any problems, and middle-class fear of the socialist revolution paved the way for extreme right wing factions to rise to power.

The Fascist Movement in Italy

In the midst of widespread economic and social upheaval, Benito Mussolini founded an extreme right-wing movement in 1919 and termed it 'fascism'. On October 28, 1922 Mussolini and his armed squadrons known as the Blackshirts marched on Rome. Mussolini demanded to be made Prime Minister and threatened to take over the government by force if his orders were not followed. The acting Prime Minister attempted to bring Italian troops to resist the fascist militia, but the king refused to sign the order, and, on the following day, asked Mussolini to form his own cabinet. Power was given to him within the precepts set by the Italian constitution, and on October 30th he traveled to Milan ahead of his fascist forces to organize a parade for his followers. By January of 1923 he had outlawed all political parties other than his own Fascist Party. By doing so he eliminated Italy's fragile democratic state and established his own dictatorial rule. As Prime Minister, Mussolini attempted to establish an Italian empire by a brutal invasion of Ethiopia, and responded to the issue of deep social divisions in Italian

society by repressing unrest. He entered the Pact of Steel with Adolf Hitler on May 22, 1939. The consequences of Mussolini's military rule included repression of any sentiment perceived as disloyal to the regime, the persecution of left-wing activists and, ultimately, the deportation of more than 20 per cent of Italy's Jews to Germany for extermination as part of Hitler's Final Solution.

The traumatic shock of defeat in World War I, which millions of Germans could not accept; the terms of the Versailles Treaty, universally condemned by Germans; and the economic collapse, involving hyper-inflation by 1923 and the massive depression beginning in 1929 were the conditions which rendered the German people, particularly, the middle class, vulnerable to the appeal of the Nazis who launched a wave of anti-communist and anti-capitalist feeling. The Nazis glorified power with anti-intellectualism and irrational thoughts. After a series of inefficient governments in Germany there was huge level of unemployment in the country. Germany had to pay a huge sum as War Indemnity in World War I and had to borrow recklessly. Adding up to that the humiliation of being forced to cede large chunks of its territories. The situation was apt for setting in of an authoritarian regime.

The Nazi Movement in Germany

The Nazi Party was founded as the pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers' Party in January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler had become its leader and assumed control of the organisation, now renamed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei) in a bid to broaden its appeal. The National Socialist Program, adopted in 1920, called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the nationalisation of some industries. The Nazi propaganda held up the following ideals –

Nationalism and Racialism - German Nazism emphasized German nationalism, including both irredentism and expansionism. Nazism held racial theories based upon the belief of the existence of an Aryan master race that was believed to be superior to all other races. The Nazis emphasized the existence of racial conflict between the Aryan race and others, particularly Jews whom the Nazis viewed as a mixed race that had infiltrated multiple societies, and was responsible for exploitation and

repression of the Aryan race. Jews were deprived of citizenship and were forced to live in Ghettos where Ghetto laws were implemented. The attempt to find a final solution to the German Question meant the large scale murder of Jews. Several thousands of Jews were put in Concentration Camps with Gas Chambers which killed them instantly.

Expansionism and Gospel Of Victorious Sword - The German Nazi Party supported German irredentist claims to Austria, Alsace-Lorraine, the region now known as the Czech Republic, and the territory since 1919 known as the Polish Corridor. A major policy of the German Nazi Party was Lebensraum ("living space") for the German nation based on claims that Germany after World War I was facing an overpopulation crisis and that expansion was needed to end the country's overpopulation within existing confined territory, and provide resources necessary to its people's well-being. Since the 1920s, the Nazi Party publicly promoted the expansion of Germany into territories held by the Soviet Union. Hitler believed in the concept of Pan-German Unity and believed that Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia and a few territories in Eastern Europe should be consolidated into a single unified state.

Violence and Reign of Terror – All political opposition in Germany was crushed and the Nazi party was left as the only legitimate party in the country. Freedom of press was abolished and the schools, the radio and cinemas were used only to serve the Nazi Cause. German women as proclaimed by Hitler was only valuable as a breeder of children.

Appeasement, the policy of making concessions to the dictatorial powers in order to avoid conflict, governed Anglo-French foreign policy during the 1930s. It became indelibly associated with Conservative Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Although the roots of appeasement lay primarily in the weakness of post-World War I collective security arrangements, the policy was motivated by several other factors. Firstly, the legacy of the Great War in France and Britain generated a strong public and political desire to achieve ‘peace at any price’. Secondly, neither country was militarily ready for war. Widespread pacifism and war-weariness (not too mention the economic legacy of the Great Depression) were not conducive to rearmament. Thirdly, many British politicians believed that Germany had genuine grievances resulting from Versailles. Finally, some British politicians admired Hitler and Mussolini, seeing them not as dangerous fascists but as strong, patriotic leaders. In the 1930s, Britain saw its principle threat as Communism rather that fascism, viewing authoritarian right-wing regimes as bulwarks against its spread.

Policy of Appeasement

The League of Nations was intended to resolve international disputes peacefully. Yet the League’s ineffectiveness soon became apparent. In 1931, when Japan invaded Manchuria, the League condemned the action. However, without either the weight of the US or the power of its own army, it was unable to stop Japan. By 1937, Japan had launched a full-scale invasion of China. In October 1935, the League imposed economic sanctions but little more when Mussolini invaded Abyssinia. In March 1936, a cautious Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, forbidden under Versailles. The feared Anglo-French reaction never came. In the League’s council, the USSR was the only country to propose sanctions. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin ruled out the possibility.

Germany and Italy now realized that the democracies were seeking to avoid confrontation, so both countries continued to ‘test the limits’. During the Spanish Civil War, Hitler and Mussolini contravened the ‘Non-Intervention Agreement’, sending troops, equipment and planes to back the rebels. Their

intervention was ignored by the international community. When Chamberlain became Prime Minister in May 1937, the pattern of appeasement had already been set. In March 1938, Hitler’s Anschluss (union) with Austria was once again met with Anglo-French impotence and inaction.

Czechoslovakia had been created under Versailles, and included a large German minority mostly living in the Sudetenland on the border with Germany. In mid-September 1938, Hitler encouraged the leader of the Sudeten Nazis to rebel, demanding union with Germany. When the Czech government declared martial law, Hitler threatened war. On 15 September, Chamberlain met Hitler at Berchtesgaden. Without consulting the Czech authorities, he pledged to give Germany all the areas with a German population of more than 50 per cent. France was persuaded to agree. Hitler then altered his criteria, demanding all the Sudetenland. At the Munich Conference on 30 September, Britain and France agreed to his demands. Chamberlain was confident that he had secured ‘peace for our time’.

Appeasement was not without its critics. Churchill believed in a firm stand against Germany, and in March 1939, when Germany seized the remainder of Czechoslovakia, it was clear that appeasement had failed. Chamberlain now promised British support to Poland in the case of German aggression. A misguided belief in ‘peace in our time’ was replaced by a reluctant acceptance of the inevitability of war.

The imperialist world order died on the battlefields of the Great War. From its ashes arose three forms of socio-political organization that would, in the span of twenty years, initiate an even bloodier war aimed at determining which of the competing ideologies would govern the post-imperial world. Under the banners of democracy, communism and fascism, armies once again marched into battle. Although the Second World War is sometimes seen as a continuation of the First World War, and is implicitly considered a sequel, the issue at the core of World War II was the form and substance of this new world order and that makes it a radically different war from World War I which began with fairly broad, if tacit, agreement about the existing order.

Ideological Differences leading to World War 2

At the start of the twentieth century most of the world was divided up into a small number of great empires competing for power on the world stage. Each had some level of popular representation, but in essence these empires were ruled by a privileged elite of land owners with aristocratic origins, or pretensions. An emerging capitalist class was gaining in influence everywhere. For all of the slight differences between those empires, there was a remarkable level of conformity in form and substance.

Meanwhile ever greater numbers of the masses toiled in the factories that were slowly displacing peasant farms as the backbone of civilization and employment. The new industrial economy thrived on peaceful production, trade and consumption. Warfare seemed to promise nothing but mass destruction. It was at this time that ideas about the end of war first arose.

Within twenty years, three of those great empires disappeared into the dustbin of history and two more were shaken by the experience of world war. A radically new communist model of social organization emerged in place of the shattered Russian Empire and proclaimed a world revolution. Democrats

promised to impose their worldview as well. Britain and the United States were the surviving representatives of the new deal democracies which, while having experienced no governmental overthrow as such, had been transformed during the twenties and thirties. In Italy and later Germany, fascist governments arose and they demonstrated dynamism that also promised a new world order. Of all the great powers, only Japan retained even a semblance of adherence to traditional imperialism.

Thus, at the end of the twentieth century, once again, the world powers are united in a relatively uniform worldview. This time, the end of history, as well as war, has been declared. A new and poorly defined technocratic elite is emerging that shows all the signs of supplanting the established capitalist elite in wealth and power -- much as the capitalists had done with aristocrats around the end of the nineteenth century.

• September 8, 1931 – Japan begin takeover of Manchuria(China) which is renamed later as Manchukuo.

Timeline of Events

• January 30, 1933 - Hindenburg appoints Hitler chancellor of Germany. • September 5, 1935 - In Germany, the first Nuremberg Laws are passed revoking citizenship from

Jews and prohibiting them from marrying non-Jews. • October, 1935 – Italy invades Ethiopia. • December 15, 1937 - The Rape of Nanjing. The systematic rape, torture, and murder of more

than 300,00 Chinese civilians by Japanese soldiers. • December 30, 1937 – Germany igns military agreement with Japan. • November 9-19, 1938: Kristallnacht- the Night of the Broken Glass. Nazis violently attack Jews

and destroy Jewish property, 91 Jews are killed and others are beaten.

March - Germany annexes the rest of Czechoslovakia. British Government pledges to aid Poland "at once . . . with all the support in their power" in the event that Poland is attacked by Germany.

1939:

September 1: Germany invades Poland from the west.

September 3: Britain declares war on Germany at 11 am, France declares war on Germany six hours later.

September 5: The United States declares its neutrality.

September 9:The Germans reach Warsaw.

September 10: British troops arrive in France.

September 17: The Soviet Union invades Poland from the east.

October 16: First German air raid on the British Isles.

November 4: The United States Congress amends the Neutrality Acts to favor Britain and France, lifting the embargo and authorizing cash & carry.

November 30: Soviet troops invade Finland.

April 9: German troops invade Denmark and Norway.

1940:

April 14: British forces land in Norway.

May 10: Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg are invaded by Germany. British troops enter Belgium. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain resigns; Winston Churchill becomes new Prime Minister.

May 15: Holland surrenders to Germany.

May 28: Belgium surrenders to Germany.

June 3: Norway surrenders to Germany.

June 10: Italy declares war on Britain and France.

June 14: Germans enter Paris.

August 26: First all night air raid on London.

September 27: British win battle of Britain. Japan joins the Rome-Berlin Axis.

October 28: Italy invades Greece.

April 6: Germany invades Greece and Yugoslavia.

1941

April 13: Germans occupy Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Russo-Japanese neutrality pact signed.

June 22: Germany attacks the Soviet Union.

June - July: Over 62,000 Jews are murdered in western Russia.

July 12: Anglo-Russian treaty signed.

December 7: Britain declares war on Finland, Hungary, and Rumania. Japanese bomb the United States fleet at Pearl Harbor.

December 8: Britain and the United States declare war on Japan. Japan invades Malaya.

1942

January 20: 14 Nazi leaders attend a short meeting to discuss the elimination of the remaining European Jews. The genocidal plan is dubbed "The Final Solution."

April 18: The United States first attacks the Japanese by air.

May 4-8: Battle of Coral Sea.

June 3-6: Battle of Midway Island.

August 5-31: Germans advancing in Russia and start the Leningrad offensive on the 28th.

January 31: 17 German Generals surrender to the Soviets at Stalingrad.

1943

May 13: German surrender in Tunisia.

July 25: Benito Mussolini is dismissed by King Victor Emmanuel in Italy and is arrested. He later attempts to escape to Switzerland with his mistress.

August - December: The United States makes progress in the Pacific Theatre, making landings on the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, New Georgia and the Gilbert Islands.

September 8: Italy surrenders and declares war on Germany.

November 28: Teheran conference between the Big Three: Churchill, FDRand Joseph Stalin, of the Soviet Union.

January 22:

1944

Allied landings south of Rome in Anzio.

February 3: German offensive against Anzio Beachhead.

March 22: Japanese invade India.

April 10-18: Soviet troops experience success against the Germans in the Crimea.

June 4: Allies occupy Rome.

June 6: D-Day, Allied invasion of Normandy.

June 19-20: Battle of the Philippine Sea, Allied victory over Japanese forces.

July 20: Bomb planted by Count von Stafenberg fails to kill Hitler.

August 25: Paris liberated by the Allies from the Germans. Rumania declares war on Germany.

September 3: Brussels liberated by Allied forces from German occupation.

October 18: Russians enter East Prussia.

November 28-29: First American night air attack on Tokyo.

December 16-26: Battle of the Bulge, the last German offensive in the west.

February 4: Americans enter Manila:

1945

Yalta Conference.

February 13: Dresden raid. Allied firebombing kills 135,000 Germans, including civilians, and destroys 80% of the city.

February 19: Americans land on Iwo Jima.

March 7: Americans find intact bridge across Rhine at Remagen, set up bridgehead on east bank.

March 18: Daylight air-raid on Berlin.

March 23: Allies cross the Rhine.

April 1: Germans surrounded in Ruhr valley. In the Pacific theatre, Americans invade Okinawa.

April 20: Americans capture Nuremberg.

The Atlantic Conference & Charter, 1941

MAJOR CONFERENCES DURING WWII

The Atlantic Charter was a joint declaration released by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on August 14, 1941 following a meeting of the two heads of state in Newfoundland. The Atlantic Charter provided a broad statement of U.S. and British war aims.

Although it started out as an bilateral declaration. The principles of the Atlantic soon became the motivating force of the Allies and then eventually then United Nations.

The declaration was as follows:

The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. Churchill, representing His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they base their hopes for a better future for the world.

First, their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other;

Second, they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned;

Third, they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them;

Fourth, they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity;

Fifth, they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labor standards, economic advancement and social security;

Sixth, after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want;

Seventh, such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and oceans without hindrance;

Eighth, they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments.

Declaration by United Nations

On 1 January 1942, representatives of 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers met in Washington, D.C. to pledge their support for the Atlantic Charter by signing the "Declaration by United Nations". This document contained the first official use of the term "United Nations", which was suggested by United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (seated, second from left). This was the first time that

THE TEXT: A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, CHINA, AUSTRALIA, BELGIUM, CANADA, COSTA RICA, CUBA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EL SALVADOR, GREECE, GUATEMALA, HAITI, HONDURAS, INDIA, LUXEMBOURG, NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, PANAMA, POLAND, SOUTH AFRICA, YUGOSLAVIA The Governments signatory hereto, Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14,1941, known as the Atlantic Charter, Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world, DECLARE:

(1) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources, military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war. (2) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies. The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism

Although it did not form any international organization, this declaration was the first collective action taken by nations to bring an end to the war. It was the first effective use of the term United Nations.

Dumbarton Oaks

Dumbarton Oaks Conference, (Aug. 21–Oct. 7, 1944), meeting at Dumbarton Oaks, a mansion

in Georgetown, Washington, D.C., where representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United

States, and the United Kingdom formulated proposals for a world organization that became the

basis for the United Nations.

This conference constituted the first important step taken to carry out paragraph 4 of the Moscow

Declaration of 1943, which recognized the need for a postwar international organization to

succeed the League of Nations. The discussions were completed on October 7, 1944, and a

proposal for the structure of the world organization was submitted by the four powers to all the

United Nations governments and to the peoples of all countries for their study and discussion.

(Note the entire proposal is mentioned but emphasis must be laid on the proposal related to the

Security Council and Maintenance of Peace)

PROPOSALS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A GENERAL INTERNATIONAL

ORGANIZATION [1]

There should be established an international organization under the title of The United Nations, the Charter of which should contain provisions necessary to give effect to the proposals which follow.

CHAPTER I. PURPOSES

The purposes of the Organization should be:

1. To maintain international peace and security; and to that end to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace and the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means adjustment or settlement of international disputes which may lead to a breach of the peace;

2. To develop friendly relations among nations and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace;

3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social and other humanitarian problems; and

4. To afford a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the achievement of these common ends.

CHAPTER II. PRINCIPLES

In pursuit of the purposes mentioned in Chapter I the Organization and its members should act in accordance with the following principles:

1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace-loving states.

2. All members of the Organization undertake, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership in the Organization, to fulfill the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the Charter.

3. All members of the Organization shall settle their disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security are not endangered.

4. All members of the Organization shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the Organization.

5. All members of the Organization shall give every assistance to the Organization in any action undertaken by it in accordance with the provisions of the Charter.

6. All members of the Organization shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which preventive or enforcement action is being undertaken by the Organization.

The Organization should ensure that states not members of the Organization act in accordance with these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.

CHAPTER III. MEMBERSHIP

1. Membership of the Organization should be open to all peace-loving states.

CHAPTER IV. PRINCIPAL ORGANS

1. The Organization should have as its principle organs:

a. A General Assembly;

b. A Security Council;

c. An international court of justice; and

d. A Secretariat.

2. The Organization should have such subsidiary agencies as may be found necessary.

CHAPTER V. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

Section A. Composition. All members of the Organization should be members of the General Assembly and should have a number of representatives to be specified in the Charter.

Section B. Functions and Powers. 1. The General Assembly should have the right to consider the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments; to discuss any questions relating to the maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any member or members of the Organization or by the Security Council; and to make recommendations with regard to any such principles or questions. Any such questions on which action is necessary should be referred to the Security Council by the General Assembly either before or after discussion. The General

Assembly should not on its own initiative make recommendations on any matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security which is being dealt with by the Security Council.

2. The General Assembly should be empowered to admit new members to the Organization upon recommendation of the Security Council.

3. The General Assembly should, upon recommendation of the Security Council, be empowered to suspend from the exercise of any rights or privileges of membership any member of the Organization against which preventive or enforcement actions have been taken by the Security Council. The exercise of the rights and privileges thus suspended may be restored by decision of the Security Council. The General Assembly should be empowered, upon recommendation of the Security Council, to expel from the Organization any member of the Organization which persistently violates the principles contained in the Charter.

4. The General Assembly should elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council and the members of the Economic and Social Council provided for in Chapter IX. It should be empowered to elect, upon recommendation of the Security Council, the Secretary-General of the Organization. It should perform such functions in relation to the election of the judges of the international court of justice as may be conferred upon it by the statute of the court.

5. The General Assembly should apportion the expenses among the members of the Organization and should be empowered to approve the budgets of the Organization.

6. The General Assembly should initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of promoting international cooperation in political, economic and social fields and of adjusting situations likely to impair the general welfare.

7. The General Assembly should make recommendations for the coordination of the policies of international economic, social, and other specialized agencies brought into relation with the Organization in accordance with agreements between such agencies and the Organization.

8. The General Assembly should receive and consider annual special reports from the Security Council and reports from other bodies of the Organization.

Section C. Voting. 1. Each member of the Organization should have one vote in the General Assembly.

2. Important decisions of the General Assembly, including recommendations with respect to the maintenance of international peace and security; election of members of the Security Council; election of members of the Economic and Social Council; admission of members, suspension of the exercise of the rights and privileges of members, and expulsion of members; and budgetary questions, should be made by a two-thirds majority of those present and voting. On other questions, including the determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, the decisions of the General Assembly should be made by a simple majority vote.

Section D. Procedure. 1. The General Assembly should meet in regular annual sessions and in such special sessions as occasion may require.

2. The General Assembly should adopt its own rules of procedure and elect its President for each session.

3. The General Assembly should be empowered to set up such bodies and agencies as it may deem necessary for the performance of its functions.

CHAPTER VI. THE SECURITY COUNCIL

Section A. Composition. The Security Council should consist of one representative of each of eleven members of the Organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Republic of China, and, in due course, France, should have permanent seats. The General Assembly should elect six states to fill the non-permanent seats. These six states should be elected for a term of two years, three retiring each year. They should not be immediately eligible for reelection. In the first election of the non-permanent members three should be chosen by the General Assembly for one-year terms and three for two-year terms.

Section B. Principle Functions and Powers. 1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the Organization, members of the Organization should by the Charter confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security and should agree that in carrying out these duties under this responsibility it should act on their behalf.

2. In discharging these duties the Security Council should act in accordance with the purposes and principles of the Organization.

3. The specific powers conferred on the Security Council in order to carry out these duties are laid down in Chapter VIII.

4. All members of the Organization should obligate themselves to accept the decisions of the Security Council and to carry them out in accordance with the provisions of the Charter.

5. In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the least diversion of the world's human and economic resources for armaments, the

Security Council, with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in Chapter VIII, Section B, paragraph 9, should have the responsibility for formulating plans for the establishment of a system of regulation of armaments for submission to the members of the Organization.

[Section C. Voting. 1. Each member of the Security Council should have one vote.

2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters should be made by an affirmative vote of seven members.

3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters should be made by an affirmative vote of seven members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VIII, Section A, and under the second sentence of Paragraph 1 of Chapter VIII, Section C, a party to a dispute should abstain from voting.]

Section D. Procedure. 1. The Security Council should be so organized as to be able to function continuously and each state member of the Security Council should be permanently represented at the headquarters of the Organization. It may hold meetings at such other places as in its judgment may best facilitate its work. There should be periodic meetings at which each state member of the Security Council could if it so desired be represented by a member of the government or some other special representative.

2. The Security Council should be empowered to set up such bodies or agencies as it may deem necessary for the performance of its functions including regional subcommittees of the Military Staff Committee.

3. The Security Council should adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President.

4. Any member of the Organization should participate in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council whenever the Security Council considers that the interests of that member of the Organization are specially affected.

5. Any member of the Organization not having a seat on the Security Council and any state not a member of the Organization, if it is a party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council, should be invited to participate in the discussion relating to the dispute.

CHAPTER VII. AN INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

1. There should be an international court of justice which should constitute the principal judicial organ of the Organization.

2. The court should be constituted and should function in accordance with a statute which should be annexed to and be a part of the Charter of the Organization.

3. The statute of the court of international justice should be either (a) the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, continued in force with such modifications as may be desirable or (b) a new statute in the preparation of which the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice should be used as a basis.

4. All members of the Organization should ipso facto be parties to the statute of the international court of justice.

5. Conditions under which states not members of the Organization may become parties to the statute of the international court of justice should be determined in each case by the General Assembly upon recommendation of the Security Council.

CHAPTER VIII. ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY INCLUDING PREVENTION AND

SUPPRESSION OF AGGRESSION

Section A. Pacific Settlement of Disputes. 1. The Security Council should be empowered to investigate any dispute, or any situation which may lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to determine whether its continuance is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security.

2. Any state, whether member of the Organization or not, may bring any such dispute or situation to the attention of the General Assembly or of the Security Council.

3. The parties to any dispute the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security should obligate themselves, first of all, to seek a solution by negotiation, meditation, conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement, or other peaceful means of their own choice. The Security Council should call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.

4. If, nevertheless, parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in paragraph 3 above fail to settle it by means indicated in that paragraph, they should obligate themselves to refer it to the Security Council. The Security Council should in each case decide whether or not the continuance of the particular dispute is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, and, accordingly, whether the Security Council should deal with the dispute, and, if so, whether it should take action under paragraph 5.

5. The Security Council should be empowered, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred to in paragraph 3 above, to recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment.

6. Justifiable disputes should normally be referred to the international court of justice. The Security Council should be empowered to refer to the court, for advice, legal questions connected with other disputes.

7. The provisions of paragraph 1 to 6 of Section A should not apply to situations or disputes arising out of matters which by international law are solely within the domestic jurisdiction of the state concerned.

Section B. Determination of Threats to the Peace or Acts of Aggression and Action With Respect Thereto. 1. Should the Security Council deem that a failure to settle a dispute in accordance with procedures indicated in paragraph 3 of Section A, or in accordance with its recommendations made under paragraph 5 of Section A, constitutes a threat to the maintenance of international peace and security, it should take any measures necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security in accordance with the purposes and principles of the Organization.

2. In general the Security Council should determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression and should make recommendations or decide upon the measures to be taken to maintain or restore peace and security.

3. The Security Council should be empowered to determine what diplomatic, economic, or other measures not involving the use of armed force should be employed to give effect to its decisions, and to call upon members of the Organization to apply such measures. Such measures may include complete or partial

interruption of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio and other means of communication and the severance of diplomatic and economic relations.

4. Should the Security Council consider such measures to be inadequate, it should be empowered to take such action by air, naval or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade and other operations by air, sea or land forces of members of the Organization.

5. In order that all members of the Organization should contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, they should undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements concluded among themselves, armed forces, facilities and assistance necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. Such agreement or agreements should govern the numbers and types of forces and the nature of the facilities and assistance to be provided. The special agreement or agreements should be negotiated as soon as possible and should in each case be subject to approval by the Security Council and to ratification by the signatory states in accordance with their constitutional processes.

6. In order to enable urgent military measures to be taken by the Organization there should be held immediately available by the members of the Organization national air force contingents for combined international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for their combined action should be determined by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee within the limits laid down in the special agreement or agreements referred to in paragraph 5 above.

7. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security should be taken by all the members of the Organization in cooperation or by some of them as the Security Council may determine. This undertaking should be carried out by the members of the Organization by their own action and through action of the appropriate specialized organizations and agencies of which they are members.

8. Plans for the application of armed force should be made by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in paragraph 9 below.

9. There should be established a Military Staff Committee the functions of which should be to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, to the employment and command of forces at its disposal, to the regulation of armaments, and to possible disarmament. It should be responsible under the Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security Council. The Committee should be composed of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives. Any member of the Organization not permanently represented on the Committee should be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires that such a state should participate in its work. Questions of command of forces should be worked out subsequently.

10. The members of the Organization should join in affording mutual assistance in carrying out the measures decided upon by the Security Council.

11. Any state, whether a member of the Organization or not, which finds itself confronted with special economic problems arising from the carrying out of measures which have been decided upon by the Security Council should have the right to consult the Security Council in regard to a solution of those problems.

Section C. Regional Arrangements. 1. Nothing in the Charter should preclude the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action, provided such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the purposes and principles of the Organization. The Security Council should encourage settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies, either on the initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the Security Council.

2. The Security Council should, where appropriate, utilize such arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under its authority, but no enforcement action should be taken under regional arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council.

3. The Security Council should at all times be kept fully informed of activities undertaken or in contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of international peace and security.

CHAPTER IX. ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COOPERATION

Section A. Purpose and Relationships. 1. With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations, the Organization should facilitate solutions of international economic, social and other humanitarian problems and promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Responsibility for the discharge of this function should be vested in the General Assembly and, under the authority of the General Assembly, in an Economic and Social Council.

2. The various specialized economic, social and other organizations and agencies would have responsibilities in their respective fields as defined in their statutes. Each such organization or agency should be brought into relationship with the Organization on terms to be determined by agreement between the Economic and Social Council and the appropriate authorities of the specialized organization or agency, subject to approval by the General Assembly.

Section B. Composition and Voting. The Economic and Social Council should consist of representatives of eighteen members of the Organization. The states to be represented for this purpose should be elected by the General Assembly for terms of three years. Each such state should have one representative, who should have one vote. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council should be taken by simple majority vote of those present and voting.

Section C. Functions and Powers of the Economic and Social Council. 1. The Economic and Social Council should be empowered:

a. to carry out, within the scope of its functions, recommendations of the General Assembly;

b. to make recommendations, on its own initiative, with respect to international economic, social and other humanitarian matters;

c. to receive and consider reports from the economic, social and other organizations or agencies brought into relationship with the Organization, and to coordinate their activities through

consultations with, and recommendations to, such organizations or agencies;

d. to examine the administrative budgets of such specialized organizations or agencies with a view to making recommendations to the organizations or agencies concerned;

e. to enable the Secretary-General to provide information to the Security Council;

f. to assist the Security Council upon its request; and

g. to perform such other functions within the general scope of its competence as may be assigned to it by the General Assembly.

Section D. Organization and Procedure. 1. The Economic and Social Council should set up an economic commission, a social commission, and such other commissions as may be required. These commissions should consist of experts. There should be a permanent staff which should constitute a part of the Secretariat of the Organization.

2. The Economic and Social Council should make suitable arrangements for representatives of the specialized organizations or agencies to participate without vote in its deliberations and in those of the commissions established by it.

3. The Economic and Social Council should adopt its own rules of procedure and the method of selecting its President.

CHAPTER X. THE SECRETARIAT

1. There should be a Secretariat comprising a Secretary-General and such staff as may be required. The Secretary-General should be the chief administrative officer of the Organization. He should be elected by the General Assembly, on recommendation of the Security Council, for such term and under conditions as are specified in the Charter.

2. The Secretary-General should act in that capacity in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the Security Council, and of the Economic and Social Council and should make an annual report to the General Assembly on the work of the Organization.

3. The Secretary-General should have the right to bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten international peace and security.

CHAPTER XI. AMENDMENTS

Amendments should come into force for all members of the Organization, when they have been adopted by a vote of two-thirds of the members of the General Assembly and ratified in

accordance with their respective constitutional processes by the members of the Organization having permanent membership on the Security Council and by a majority of the other members of the Organization.

CHAPTER XII. TRANSITIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

1. Pending the coming into force of the special agreement or agreements referred to in Chapter VIII, Section B, paragraph 5, and in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5 of the Four-Nation Declaration, signed at Moscow, October 30, 1943, the states parties to that Declaration should consult with one another and as occasion arises with other members of the Organization with a view to such joint action on behalf of the Organization as may be necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security.

2. No provision of the Charter should preclude action taken or authorized in relation to enemy states as a result of the present war by the Governments having responsibility for such action.

Although the Dumbarton Oaks conference laid most of the ground work for the UN Charter It left pertinent issues of the voting of the Security Council. The most important fact that they delegates must note is that this was the draft made by 4 nations. The Dumbarton Oaks proposals were fully discussed throughout the Allied countries. The British Government issued a detailed commentary, and in the United States, the Department of State distributed 1,900,000 copies of the text and arranged for speakers, radio programs and motion picture films to explain the proposals. Comments and constructive criticisms came from several governments, e.g., Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, the Union of South Africa, the USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States.

Setting up The Charter of the International Military Tribunal World War II witnessed some of the most appalling crimes committed. The holocaust and other Nazi atrocities shook the very fabric humanity. The Allies are on the verge of victory but it is now up to the UNCIO to bring justice to those souls who have suffered during the war.

The desire for peace was sparked by the Inter-Allied Resolution on German War Crimes

London, January 12, 1942

which was signed by 9 nations which were occupied by Germany. This statement was:

Whereas Germany since the beginning of the present conflict, which arose out of her policy of aggression, has instituted in occupied countries a regime of terror characterized in particular by imprisonments, mass expulsions, execution of hostages and massacres,

And whereas these acts of violence are being similarly perpetrated by Allies and associates of the Reich and in certain countries by accomplices of the occupying power,

And whereas international solidarity is necessary in order to avoid repression of these acts of violence simply by acts of vengeance on the part of the general public and in order to satisfy the sense of justice of the civilized world.

Recalling that international law and, in particular, the convention signed at The Hague in 1907 regarding laws and customs of land warfare do not permit belligerents in occupied countries to perpetrate acts of violence against civilians, to bring into disrepute laws in force or to overthrow national institutions,

The undersigned representatives of the government of Belgium, the government of Czecho-Slovakia, the Free French National Committee, the government of Greece, the government of

Luxembourg, the government of The Netherlands, the government of Norway, the government of Poland and the government of Yugoslavia

1. Affirm that acts of violence thus perpetrated against civilian populations are at variance with accepted ideas concerning acts of war and political offenses as these are understood by civilized nations;

2. Take note of the declaration made in this respect on October 25, 1941, by the President of the United States of America and the British Prime Minister;

3. Place amongst their principal war aims punishment through the channel of organized justice of those guilty and responsible for these crimes, whether they have ordered them, perpetrated them or in any way participated in them;

4. Determine in the spirit of international solidarity to see to it that (A) those guilty and responsible, whatever their nationality, are sought for, handed over to justice and judged; (B) that sentences pronounced are carried out.

In faith whereof the signatories duly authorized have signed the present declaration.

Similarly throughout the years of the War the allies condemned the Axis’ heinous acts and showed a desire for peace.

However a legal basis is required for the trials. An arbitrary action without a well defined mandate would make this trial as unjust and cruel as the people who were being tried.

NUREMBERG LONDON AGREEMENT

The hammer finally fell as the 4 major allies entered into an agreement to set up the Charter. This agreement was as follows:

NUREMBERG WAR CRIMES TRIAL

AGREEMENT by the Government of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, the Provisional Government of the FRENCH REPUBLIC, the Government of the UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND and the Government of the UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS for the Prosecution and Punishment of the MAJOR WAR CRIMINALS of the EUROPEAN AXIS

WHEREAS the United Nations have from time to time made declarations of their intention that War Criminals shall be brought to justice;

AND WHEREAS the Moscow Declaration of the 30th October 1943 on German atrocities in Occupied Europe stated that those German Officers and men and members of the Nazi Party who have been responsible for or have taken a consenting part in atrocities and crimes will be sent back to the countries in which their abominable deeds were done in order that they may be judged and punished according to the laws of these liberated countries and of the free Governments that will be created therein;

AND WHEREAS this Declaration was stated to be without prejudice to the case of major criminals whose offenses have no particular geographical location and who will be punished by the joint decision of the Governments of the Allies;

NOW THEREFORE the Government of the United States of America, the Provisional Government of the French Republic, the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (hereinafter called "the Signatories") acting in the interests of all the United Nations and by their representatives duly authorized thereto have concluded this Agreement.

Article 1. There shall be established after consultation with the Control Council for Germany an International Military Tribunal for the trial of war criminals whose offenses have no particular geographical location whether they be accused individually or in their capacity as members of the organizations or groups or in both capacities.

Article 2. The constitution, jurisdiction and functions of the International Military Tribunal shall be those set in the Charter annexed to this Agreement, which Charter shall form an integral part of this Agreement.

Article 3. Each of the Signatories shall take the necessary steps to make available for the investigation of the charges and trial the major war criminals detained by them who are to be tried by the International Military Tribunal. The Signatories shall also use their best endeavors to make available for investigation of the charges against and the trial before the International Military Tribunal such of the major war criminals as are not in the territories of any of the Signatories.

Article 4. Nothing in this Agreement shall prejudice the provisions established by the Moscow Declaration concerning the return of war criminals to the countries where they committed their crimes.

Article 5. Any Government of the United Nations may adhere to this Agreement by notice given through the diplomatic channel to the Government of the United Kingdom, who shall inform the other signatory and adhering Governments of each such adherence.

Article 6. Nothing in this Agreement shall prejudice the jurisdiction or the powers of any national or occupation court established or to be established in any allied territory or in Germany for the trial of war criminals.

Article 7. This Agreement shall come into force on the day of signature and shall remain in force for the period of one year and shall continue thereafter, subject to the right of any Signatory to give, through the diplomatic channel, one month's notice of intention to terminate it. Such termination shall not prejudice any proceedings already taken or any findings already made in pursuance of this Agreement.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the Undersigned have signed the present Agreement.

TYPE OF CRIMES This tribunal is to try crimes majorly related to:

:

1. Participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of a crime against

peace

2. Planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace

3. War crimes

4. Crimes against humanity

It is the task of committee to set up the constitution of the tribunals. Enlist its powers and jurisdiction. Set up procedures for swift albeit fair trails of the afore mentioned crimes. The committee must place the scales in the hands of the blind lady.

CLOSING NOTE The Executive Board through the study guide has tried to provide a comprehensive idea of the framework of International Law prevalent at time. We have provided all the data which is quintessential for delegates to know. We have also given a background to the situation and the events which have transpired. Delegates should not confine their research to the study guide only and we would appreciate well researched delegates who can provide innovative solutions.

The Executive Board would like the delegates to note a few points. Firstly, we would expect delegates to use the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals as a foundation only. The proposals had been prepared by only four nation and we expect that each nations will express its views and come up with changes so as to benefit the International Community. We would also delegates to remember that they have witnessed the functioning of the UN Charter for over 60 years now and are well aware of its flaws. Although, during committee you will be transported back in time and will not know whether these events have occurred or not, we expect delegates to have the foresight required.

Similarly efforts should be taken to ensure that trials occur expeditiously and before major criminals have a chance to evade of commit suicide.

Delegate I promise you will have an enthralling experience which will change your perspective of United Nations altogether. Please feel free to contact the board members for further details or any queries.

I hope to see you all on the 22rd of July and till then bid adieu.