(studies in the history of christian traditions 178) robert aleksander maryks - jesuit survival and...

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Jesuit Survival and Restoration


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Studies in the History of ChristianTraditions

General Editor

Robert J. Bast (University of Tennessee, Knoxville)

In cooperation with

Paul C.H. Lim ( Nashville, Tennessee)Brad C. Pardue ( Point Lookout, Missouri )

Eric Saak ( Liverpool )Christine Shepardson ( Knoxville, Tennessee)

Brian Tierney ( Ithaca, New York ) Arjo Vanderjagt (Groningen)

John Van Engen ( Notre Dame, Indiana)

Founding Editor

Heiko A. Oberman†

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/shct

http://brill.com/shcthttp://brill.com/shcthttp://brill.com/shct


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Jesuit Survival and Restoration

A Global History, 1773–1900

Edited by

Robert A. Maryks Jonathan Wright

|


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Cover illustration: Ocial stamp of the General Order of Jesuits.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jesuit survival and restoration : a global history, 1773-1900 / edited by Robert Aleksander Maryks, Jonathan Wright. pages cm. -- (Studies in the history of Christian traditions, ISSN 1573-5664 ; VOLUME 178) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-28238-4 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Jesuits--History--19th century. 2. Jesuits--History--18thcentury. I. Maryks, Robert A., editor. BX3706.3.J46 2014 271’.53--dc23 2014035816

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Contents

List of Illustrations Abbreviations

Introduction Robert A. Maryks and Jonathan Wright

The Historical Context

1 A Restored Society or a New Society of Jesus? 13Thomas Worcester, ..

2 Some Remarks on Jesuit Historiography 1773–1814 34 Robert Danieluk, ..

The Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania and theRussian Empire

3 Before and After Suppression

Jesuits and Former Jesuits in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,

c. 1750–1795 51 Richard Butterwick-Pawlikowski

4 The Society of Jesus in the Russian Empire (1772–1820) and the

Restoration of the Order 67 Marek Inglot, . .

5 The Połock Academy (1812–1820)

An Example of the Society of Jesus’s Endurance 83 Irena Kadulska

6 Sebastian Sierakowski, .. and the Language of Architecture

A Jesuit Life during the Era of Suppression and Restoration 99Carolyn C. Guile


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Central and Western Europe

7 The Jesuit Artistic Diaspora in Germany after 1773 129 Jefrey Chipps Smith

8 Enduring the Deluge

Hungarian Jesuit Astronomers from Suppression

to Restoration 148 Paul Shore

9 “Est et Non Est” Jesuit Corporate Survival in England after the Suppression 162Thomas M. McCoog, ..

10 The Exiled Spanish Jesuits and the Restoration of the Society of

Jesus 178 Inmaculada Fernández Arrillaga and Niccolò Guasti

11 The Society of Jesus Under Another Name

The Paccanarists in the Restored Society of Jesus 197 Eva Fontana Castelli

12 Jesuit at Heart

Luigi Mozzi de’ Capitani (1746-1813) between Suppression and

Restoration 212 Emanuele Colombo

13 The Romantic Historian under Charles X

Evaluating Jesuit Restoration in Charles Laumier’s

Résumé de l’Histoire des Jésuites 229 Frédéric Conrod

China and Beyond

14 Jesuit Survival and Restoration in China 245 R. Po-chia Hsia


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15 Restoration or New Creation?

The Return of the Society of Jesus to China 261 Paul Rule

16 Rising from the Ashes

The Gothic Revival and the Architecture of the “New” Society

of Jesus in China and Macao 278César Guillen-Nuñez

17 The Phoenix Rises from its Ashes

The Restoration of the Jesuit Shanghai Mission 299

Paul Mariani, . .

18 The Chinese Rites Controversy’s Long Shadow over the Restored

Society of Jesus 315 Jeremy Clarke, ..

19 The Province of Madurai Between the Old and New Society

of Jesus 331Sabina Pavone

The Americas

20 The “Russian” Society and the American Jesuits

Giovanni Grassi’s Crucial Role 353 Daniel Schlaly

21 John Carroll, the Catholic Church, and the Society of Jesus in Early

Republican America 368Catherine O’Donnell

22 The Restoration in Canada

An Enduring Patrimony 386 John Meehan, .. and Jacques Monet, . .

23 Jesuit Tradition and the Rise of South American Nationalism 399 Andrés I. Prieto


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24 The First Return of the Jesuits to Paraguay 415 Ignacio Telesca

25 Jesuit Restoration in Mexico 433 Perla Chinchilla Pawling

Africa

26 Early Departure, Late Return

An Overview of the Jesuits in Africa during the Suppression and afterthe Restoration 453 Festo Mkenda, ..

27 Hoping Against All Hope

The Survival of the Jesuits in Southern Africa (1875–1900) 467 Aquinata N. Agonga

28 The Jesuits in Fernando Po (1858–1872)

An Incomplete Mission 482 Jean Luc Enyegue, ..

Index 503


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List of Illustrations

1.1 Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Exterior, Dome. June 2012 161.2 Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Interior. June 2012 17

1.3 Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Façade under restoration.

June 2012 19

1.4 Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Restored. June 2014 20

1.5 Church of Saint-Ignace, Paris. Exterior, Apse. June 2012 21

1.6 Church of Saint-Ignace, Paris, Interior. June 2012 22

6.1 Project for the renovation of the façade of Wawel Cathedral. Elevation and

plan. Sebastian Sierakowski, 1788 1036.2 Project for a church with a single nave and two rows of chapels. Elevation.

Sebastian Sierakowski 105

6.3 Jesuit church of SS. Peter and Paul, Cracow. Giovanni de Rossis, Józef Britius,

Giovanni Trevano. 1597–1619, consecrated 1635 106

6.4 Southeast bell tower, Collegiate Church of St. Anne, Cracow. Sebastian

Sierakowski. 1775 108

6.5 Clock Tower “Over the Chapter House” (r; dome 1715) and Sigismund Tower

(l; dome 1899), Wawel Cathedral. Cracow 109

6.6 Elevation of the short side and transverse elevation of the Cloth Hall

(Sukiennice). Sebastian Sierakowski 110

6.7 Octagonal wooden chapel; plan, section, elevation. Sebastian Sierakowski. n.d.

Watercolor and ink on paper, 22.4 × 52.7 cm 111

6.8 Piarist church of the Transguration, façade. Cracow. Francesco Placidi.

1759–61 113

6.9 Piarist church of the Transguration, nave. Cracow. Franz Eckstein, 1733 114

6.10 Studies for capitals, plate XIII, Architektura obeymuiąca wszelki gatunek

murowania i budowania, Vol. 2. Sebastian Sierakowski. 1810 124

6.11 Frontispiece. Architektura obeymuiąca wszelki gatunek murowania i budowania,

Vol. 2. Sebastian Sierakowski. 1812 125

7.1 Johann Leonhard Öxlein, Commemorative Medal for the Suppression of the

Society of Jesus, silver, 1774. Staatliche Münzsammlung, Munich 130

7.2 Christoph Schwarz, Glorication of the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child , center

of the Mary Altarpiece, 1580–1581. Germanisches Nationalmuseum,

Nuremberg 135

7.3 Johann Smissek, The Church of St. Michael’s and the Jesuit College in Munich,engraving, c. 1644–1650 141

7.4 The Facades of the Church of Mariä Himmelfahrt and the former Jesuit College

in Munich 144


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6.11 Frontispiece. Architektura obeymuiąca wszelki gatunek murowania i budowania,

Vol. 2. Sebastian Sierakowski. 1812 125

7.1 Johann Leonhard Öxlein, Commemorative Medal for the Suppression of the

Society of Jesus, silver, 1774. Staatliche Münzsammlung, Munich 1307.2 Christoph Schwarz, Glorication of the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child , center

of the Mary Altarpiece, 1580–1581. Germanisches Nationalmuseum,

Nuremberg 135

7.3 Johann Smissek, The Church of St. Michael’s and the Jesuit College in Munich,

engraving, c. 1644–1650 141

7.4 The Facades of the Church of Mariä Himmelfahrt and the former Jesuit College

in Munich 144


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Abbreviations

I Reference Works

In citing works in the notes, short titles have generally been used. Reference works

frequently cited have been identied by the following abbreviations:

Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu

Acta Romana Societatis Iesu

Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu (to be distingueshed

from ) Astrain 1902–1925a-b Antonio Astrain, Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en la

Asistencia de España. Madrid: Est. Tip. Sucesores de

Rivadeneyra/Razón y Fe, 1902–1925, 7 vols:

I:San Ignacio de Loyola 1540–1556 [Astrain 1902]; 2nd ed.

(1912) [Astrain 1912]

II: Laínez – Borja 1556–1572 [Astrain 1905]

III: Mercurian – Aquaviva (primera parte) 1573–1615

[Astrain 1909]; 2nd ed. (1925) [Astrain 1925a]

IV: Aquaviva (segunda parte) 1581–1615 [Astrain 1913]

V:Vitelleschi, Carafa, Piccolomini, 1615–1652 [Astrain 1916]

VI: Nickel, Oliva, Noyelle, González 1652–1705 [Astrain

1920]

VII: Tamburini, Retz, Visconti, Centurione 1705–1758

[Astrain 1925b].

Bangert 1986 William V. Bangert, A History of the Society of Jesus. St.

Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1986 (2nd ed).

Burnichon 1914–1922 Joseph Burnichon, La Compagnie de Jésus en France. Histoire d’un siècle 1814–1914. Paris: Beauchesne, 1914–

1922, 4 vols:

I:1815 –1830 [Burnichon 1914]

II:1830–1845 [Burnichon 1916]

III:1846 –1860 [Burnichon 1919]

IV:1860–1880 [Burnichon 1922].

Carrez 1900 Ludovicus Carrez, Atlas geographicus Societatis Jesu. In

quo delineantur quinque ejus modernae assistentiae, provinciae tres et viginti singularumque in toto orbe missio-

nes, necnon et veteres ejusdem Societatis provinciae


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quadraginta tres cum earum domiciliis, quantum eri

licuit. Paris: Georges Colombier, 1900.

Cordara 1750 Julius Cesar Cordara, Historiae Societatis Jesu pars sexta

complectens res gestas sub Mutio Vitellescho, vol. 1: Abanno Christi . Societatis . Rome: Ex

Typographia Antonii de Rubeis, 1750.

Cordara 1859 Julius Cesar Cordara, Historiae Societatis Jesu pars sexta

complectens res gestas sub Mutio Vitellescho, vol. 2: Ab

anno Christi ad annum MDCXXXIII . Rome:

Civilitatis Catholicae, 1859.

Diccionario Histórico de la Compañía de Jesús. Biográco-

temático, 4 vols. Rome/Madrid: /UniversidadPonticia Comillas, 2001.

Duhr 1907–1928a-b Bernhard Duhr, Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern

deutscher Zunge. Freiburg, Herdersche Verlagshandlung/

München-Regensburg, Verlagsanstalt vorm. G.J. Manz,

1907–1928, 6 vols:

I:Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher Zunge

im XVI. Jahrhundert [Duhr 1907]

II/1: Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher

Zunge in der ersten hälfte des XVII. Jahrhunderts, erster

Teil [Duhr 1913a]

II/2:Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher

Zunge in der ersten hälfte des XVII. Jahrhunderts, zweiter

Teil [Duhr 1913b]

III: Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher

Zunge in der zweiten hälfte des XVII. Jahrhunderts [Duhr

1921]

IV/1:Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher Zunge im 18. Jahrhundert, erster Teil [Duhr 1928a]

IV/2:Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher

Zunge im 18. Jahrhundert , zweiter Teil [Duhr 1928b].

Fouqueray 1910–1925a-b Henri Fouqueray, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus en

France des origines à la suppression (1528–1762). Paris:

Picard/Bureaux des Études, 1910–1925, 5 vols:

I: Les origines et les premières luttes (1528–1575)

[Fouqueray 1910] II: La Ligue et le bannissement (1575–1604) [Fouqueray

1913]


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III: Époque de progrès (1604–1623) [Fouqueray 1922]

IV:Sous le ministère de Richelieu. Première partie (1624–

1634) [Fouqueray 1925a]

V:Sous le ministère de Richelieu. Seconde partie (1634–1645) [Fouqueray 1925b].

Frías 1923–1944 Lesmes Frías, Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en su

Asistencia Moderna de España. Madrid: Administración

de Razón y Fe, 1923–1944, 2 vols:

I:(1815–1835) [Frías 1923]

II:(1835–1868) [Frías 1944].

Hughes 1907–1917 Thomas Hughes, History of the Society of Jesus in North

America Colonial and Federal. London/New York/Bombay/Calcutta: Longmans, Green and Co., 1907–1917, 4 vols:

I:Text , vol. I: From the rst Colonization till 1645 [Hughes

1907]

II: Documents (1605–1838), vol. I, part I: N.os 1–140 [Hughes

1908]

III: Documents (1605–1838), vol. I, part II: N.os 141–224

[Hughes 1910]

IV:Text , vol. II: From 1645 till 1773 [Hughes 1917].

Inglot 1997 Marek Inglot, La Compagnia di Gesù nell’impero Russo

(1772–1820) et la sua parte nella restaurazione generale

della Compagnia. Rome: Editrice Ponticia Università

Gregoriana, 1997.

Institutum I–III Institutum Societatis Iesu, Florence: Ex Typographia A.

SS. Conceptione, 1892–1893, 3 vols:

I: Bullarium et compendium privilegiorum.

II: Examen et Constitutiones. Decreta Congregationum

Generalium. Formulae Congregationum. III: Regulae, Ratio studiorum, Ordinationes, Instructiones,

Industriae, Exercitia, Directorium.

Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu

Jap. Sin. I–IV Albert Chan,Chinese Books and Documents in the Jesuit

Archives in Rome. A Descriptive Catalogue Japonica-

Sinica I–IV . Armonk/New York/London: An East Gate

Book, 2002.

Jouvancy 1710 Josephus de Jouvancy, Historiae Societatis Jesu parsquinta sive Claudius, vol. 2: Ab anno Christi ad

. Rome: Ex Typographia Georgi Plachi, 1710.


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Kröss 1910–1938 Ludwig Kröss [Kroess], Geschichte der bömischen Provinz

der Gesellschaft Jesu. Vienna: Verlag der Buchhandlung

Ambr. Opitz Nachfolger/Verlag Mayer & Comp., 1910–

1938, 2 vols: I:Geschichte der ersten Kollegien in Böhmen, Mähren und

Glatz von ihrer Gründung bis zu ihrer Aulösung durch die

böhmischen Stände, 1556–1619 [Kröss 1910]

II/1–2: Beginn der Provinz, des Universitätsstreites und

der katholischen Generalreformation bis zum Frieden von

Prag 1635 / Die böhmische Provinz der Gesellschaft Jesu

unter Ferdinand III. (1637–1657) [Kröss 1927–1938].

Leite 1938a–1950 Seram Leite, História da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil .Lisbon: Livraria Portugália/Rio de Janeiro, Civilização

Brasileira, 1938–1950, 10 vols:

I:Século XVI – O estabelecimento [Leite 1938a]

II:Século XVI – A obra [Leite 1938b]

III: Norte (1) Fundações e entradas. Séculos XVII–XVIII

[Leite 1943a]

IV: Norte (2) Obra e assuntos gerais. Séculos XVII–XVIII

[Leite 1943b]

V: Da Baía ao Nordeste. Estabelecimentos e assuntos

locais. Séculos XVII–XVIII [Leite 1945a]

VI: Do Rio de Janeiro ao Prata e ao Guaporé.

Estabelecimentos e assuntos locais. Séculos XVII–XVIII

[Leite 1945b]

VII:Séculos XVII–XVIII. Assuntos Gerais [Leite 1949a]

VIII: Escritores: de A a M (Suplemento bibliográco I)

[Leite 1949b]

IX: Escritores: de M a Z (Suplemento bibliográco II) [Leite 1949c]

X: Índice Geral [Leite 1950].

Lukács 1987–1988b Ladislaus Lukács, Catalogus Generalis seu Nomenclator

biographicus personarum Provinciae Austriae Societatis

Iesu (1551–1773). Rome: Institutum Historicum S.I., 1987.

Pars I: A-H [Lukács 1987]

Pars II: I-Q. [Lukács 1988a]

Pars III: R-Z . [Lukács 1988b].Lukács 1990a–1995b Ladislaus Lukács, Catalogi personarum et ociorum

Provinciae Austriae S.I. Rome: Institutum Historicum S.I.

III:(1641–1665) [Lukács 1990a]


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IV:(1666–1683) [Lukács 1990b]

V:(1684–1699) [Lukács 1990c]

VI:(1700–1717) [Lukács 1993a]

VII:(1718–1733) [Lukács 1993b] VIII:(1734–1747) [Lukács 1994a]

IX:(1748–1760) [Lukács 1994b]

X:(1761–1769) [Lukács 1995a]

XI:(1770–1773) [Lukács 1995b]

Martina 2003 Giacomo Martina, Storia della Compagnia di Gesù in

Italia (1814–1983). Brescia: Morcelliana, 2003.

Mendizábal 1972 Rufo Mendizábal, Catalogus defunctorum in renata

Societate Iesu ab a. 1814 ad a. 1970. Rome: Curiam P. Gen.,1972.

Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (series)

Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (publisher)

Monumenta Missionum Societatis Iesu (sub-series of

)

Nadal 1976 Jerónimo Nadal, Scholia in Constitutiones S.I., ed. Manuel

Ruiz Jurado. Granada: Facultad de Teologia, 1976.

Orlandini 1615 Nicolaus Orlandini, Historiae Societatis Iesu prima pars.

Rome: Apud Bartholomaeum Zanettum, 1615.

Padberg 1994 John W. Padberg, Martin D. O’Keefe, and John L.

McCarthy, For matters of greater moment. The rst thirty

Jesuit General Congregations. A brief history and a trans-

lation of the decrees. St. Louis, Missouri: Institute of

Jesuit Sources, 1994.

Pastells/Mateos 1912–1949b Pablo Pastells, Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en la

Provincia del Paraguay (Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay,

Perú, Bolivia y Brasil) segun los documentos originales del Archivo General de Indias. Madrid: Librería General de

Victoriano Suárez/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones

Cienticas/Instituto Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo, 1912–

1949, 9 vols:

I: [Pastells 1912]

II: [Pastells 1915]

III: [Pastells 1918]

IV: [Pastells 1923] V: [Pastells 1933]

VI:1715 –1731 [Pastells/Mateos 1946]

VII:1731–1751 [Pastells/Mateos 1948]


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VIII/1:1751–1760 [Pastells/Mateos 1949a]

VIII/2:1760–1768 [Pastells/Mateos 1949b].

Pérez 1896–1898 Rafael Pérez, La Compañía de Jesús en Colombia y Centro-

América después de su Restauración. Valladolid: Imp.,Lib., Heliografía y Taller de Grabados De Luis N. de

Gaviria/ Imprenta Castellana, 1896–1898, 3 vols:

I: Desde el llamamiento de los . de la Compañía de Jesús

á la Nueva Granada en 1842, hasta su expulsión y disper-

sión en 1850 [Pérez 1896]

II: Desde el restablecimiento de la Compañía de Jesús en

Guatemala en 1851, hasta su segunda expulsión de la

Nueva Granada en 1861 [Pérez 1897] III–IV: Desde la segunda expulsión de la Nueva Granada

en 1861, hasta la de Guatemala en 1871/Desde la expulsión

de Guatemala en 1871, hasta la de Nicaragua en 1881, con

los tres últimos años de existencia en Costa Rica [Pérez

1898].

Pérez 1901 Rafael Pérez, La Compañía de Jesús restaurada en la

República Argentina y Chile, el Uruguay y el Brasil .

Barcelona: Imprenta de Henricii y C.a en comandita,

1901.

Polgár I–III László Polgár, Bibliographie sur l’histoire de la Compagnie

de Jésus, 1901–1980, 6 vols. Rome: , 1981–1990:

I:Toute la Compagnie [Polgár I]

II/1: Les pays. Europe [Polgár II/1]

II/2: Les pays. Amérique, Asie, Afrique, Océanie [Polgár

II/2]

III/1: Les personnes: Dictionnaires. A-F [Polgár III/1]

III/2: Les personnes: G-Q [Polgár III/2] III/3: Les personnes: R-Z [Polgár III/3].

Poncelet 1927a-b Alfred Poncelet, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus dans

les anciens Pays-Bas. Établissement de la Compagnie de

Jésus en Belgique et ses développements jusqu’à la n du

règne d’Albert et d’Isabelle. Brussels: Marcel Hayez,

Imprimeur de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 1927, 2

vols:

I: Histoire générale [Poncelet 1927a] II: Les œuvres [Poncelet 1927b].

Poussines 1661 Petrus Poussines and Franciscus Sacchini, Historiae

Societatis Jesu pars quinta sive Claudius, vol. 1: Res extra


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Europam gestas, et alia quaedam supplevit Petrus

Possinus. Rome: Ex Typographia Varesij, 1661.

Revuelta 1984–2008 Manuel Revuelta González, La Compañía de Jesús en la

España contemporánea. Madrid: Universidad PonticiaComillas, 1984–2008, 3 vols:

I:Supresión y reinstalación (1868–1883) [Revuelta 1984]

II: Expansión en tiempos recios (1884–1906) [Revuelta

1991]

III: Palabras y fermentos (1868–1912) [Revuelta 2008].

Rodrigues 1931–1950 Francisco Rodrigues, História da Companhia de Jesus

na Assistência de Portugal . Oporto: “Apostolado da

Imprensa” – Emprensa Editora, 1931–1950, 7 vols: I: vol. 1: A Fundação da Provincia Portugesa 1540–1560,

vol. I: Origens-Formação-Ministérios [Rodrigues 1931a]

II: vol. 1: A Fundação da Provincia Portugesa 1540–1560,

vol. II: Tribulação–Colégios– Missões [Rodrigues 1931b]

III: vol. 2: Acção crescente da Provincia Portugesa

1560–1615 , vol. I: Expansão–Vida interna– Ministérios

[Rodrigues 1938a]

IV: vol. 2: Acção crescente da Provincia Portugesa 1560–

1615 , vol. II: Nas Letras– Na Côrte– Além-mar [Rodrigues

1938b]

V: vol. 3: A Provincia Portugesa no Século XVII, 1615–1700,

vol. I: Nos Colégios– Nas Ciências e Letras– Na Côrte

[Rodrigues 1944a]

VI: vol. 3: A Provincia Portugesa no Século XVII, 1615–1700,

vol. II: Lutas na Metrópole– Apostolado nas Conquistas

[Rodrigues 1944b]

VII: vol. 4: A Provincia Portugesa no século XVIII, 1700–1760, vol. I: Virtude– Letras–Ciências [Rodrigues 1950].

Sacchini 1620 Franciscus Sacchini, Historiae Societatis Jesu pars

secunda sive Lainius. Antwerp: Typis Martini Nutii, 1620.

Sacchini 1649 Franciscus Sacchini, Historiae Societatis Jesu pars tertia

sive Borgia. Rome: Typis Manel Manelj, 1649.

Sacchini 1652 Franciscus Sacchini, Historiae Societatis Jesu pars quarta

sive Everardus. Rome: Typis Dominici Manelphij, 1652.

Scaduto 1964–1992 Mario Scaduto, Storia della Compagnia di Gesù in Italia.Rome: Edizioni “La Civiltà Cattolica,” 1964–1992, 3 vols:

I: L’epoca di Giacomo Laínez. Il governo, 1556–1565

[Scaduto 1964]


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II: L’epoca di Giacomo Laínez. L’azione, 1556–1565 [Scaduto

1974]

III: L’opera di Francesco Borgia, 1565–1572 [Scaduto 1992].

Sommervogel I–XII Carlos Sommervogel, Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus, vols 12. Brussels: Schepens/Paris, Picard/Toulouse,

Chez l’Auteur, 1890–1932.

Synopsis 1950 Synopsis Historiae Societatis Jesu. Leuven: ad Sancti

Alphonsi, 1950.

Synopsis actorum 1887 Synopsis actorum S. Sedis in causa Societatis Iesu 1540–

1605 . Florentiae, Ex Typographia a . Conceptione, 1887.

[L. Delplace]

Synopsis actorum 1895 Synopsis actorum S. Sedis in causa Societatis Iesu 1605–1773. Lovanii, Ex Typographia J.-B. Istas, 1895. [L.

Delplace]

Tacchi Venturi 1910–1951 Pietro Tacchi Venturi, Storia della Compagnia di Gesù in

Italia, narrata col sussidio di fonti inedite. Rome/Milan:

Società Editrice Dante Alighieri/Civiltà Cattolica, 1910–

1951, 4 vols:

I: La vita religiosa in Italia durante la prima età della

Compagnia di Gesù. Con appendice di fonti inediti [Tacchi

Venturi 1910]; second ed. in two parts [Tacchi Venturi

1930–1931]

II/1: Dalla nascita del Fondatore alla solenne approvazi-

one dell’ordine (1491–1540) [Tacchi Venturi 1922]; second

ed. [Tacchi Venturi 1950]

II/2: Dalla solenne approvazione dell’ordine alla morte del

Fondatore (1540–1556) [Tacchi Venturi 1951].

Zubillaga 1971 Félix Zubillaga, Walter Hanisch, Guía manual de los doc-

umentos históricos de la Compañía de Jesús de los cien primeros volúmenes, que tratan de los orígenes de la

Compañía, de san Ignacio, sus compañeros y colabora-

dores, legislación, pedagogía y misiones de Asia y América.

Rome: , 1971.

II Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu ()

Aquit. Provincia Aquitaniae

Angl . Provincia Angliae

Arag. Provincia Aragoniae


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Austr . Provincia Austriae

Baet . Provincia Baetica

Boh. Provincia Bohemiae

Bras. Provincia Brasiliae et MaragnonensisCamp. Provincia Campaniae

Cast . Provincia Castellana

Chil . Provincia Chilensis

Congr . Congregationes

Epp. Ext. Epistolae Externorum

Epp. . Epistolae Generalium ad Nostros

Exerc. Exercitia Spiritualia

Franc. Provincia Franciae Fl. Belg. Provincia Flandro-Belgica

Gall. Belg. Provincia Gallo-Belgica

Germ. Assistentia Germaniae

Germ. Sup. Provincia Germaniae Superioris

Goan. Provincia Goana et Malabarica

Gall . Assistentia Galliae

Hisp. Assistentia Hispaniae

Hist. Soc. Historia Societatis

Inst . Institutum

Ital . Assistentia Italiae

Jap. Sin. Provincia Iaponiae et Vice-Provincia Sinensis

Lith. Provincia Lithuaniae

Lugd . Provincia Lugdunensis

Lus. Assistentia et Provincia Lusitaniae

Mediol . Provincia Mediolanensis

Mex. Provincia Mexicana

Miscell . Miscellanea Neap. Provincia Neapolitana

Opp. . Opera Nostrorum

Paraq. Provincia Paraquariae

Per . Provincia Peruana

Philipp. Provincia Philippinarum

Pol . Provincia Poloniae

Polem. Polemica

Quit . Provincia Novi Regni et Quitensis Rhen. Inf. Provincia Rheni et Rheni Inferioris

Rhen. Sup. Provincia Rheni et Rheni Superioris

Rom. Provincia Romana


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Sard . Provincia Sardiniae

Sic. Provincia Sicula

Tolet . Provincia Toletana

Tolos. Provincia TolosanaVenet . Provincia Veneta

Vitae Vitae

III Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu ( [selected frequenly

cited volumes])

For the corresponding number of the series, see the list of the volumes in theappendix.

Bobadilla 46

Borgia I 2

Borgia II 23

Borgia III 35

Borgia IV 38

Borgia V 41

Borgia VI 156

Borgia VII 157

Broët 24

Chron. I 1

Chron. II 3

Chron. III 5

Chron. IV 7

Chron. V 9

Chron. VI 11Const. I 63

Const. II 64

Const. III 65

Direct. 76

Epp. ign. I 22

Epp. ign. II 26

Epp. ign. III 28

Epp. ign. IV 29 Epp. ign. V 31

Epp. ign. VI 33

Epp. ign. VII 34


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Epp. ign. VIII 36

Epp. ign. IX 37

Epp. ign. X 39

Epp. ign. XI 40 Epp. ign. XII 42

Epp. mix. I 12

Epp. mix. II 14

Epp. mix. III 17

Epp. mix. IV 18

Epp. mix. V 20

Exerc. Spir. 1919 57

Exerc. Spir. 1969 100 Favre 48

Font. doc. 115

Font. narr . I 66

Font. narr . II 73

Font. narr . III 85

Font. narr . IV 93

Laínez I 44

Laínez II 45

Laínez III 47

Laínez IV 49

Laínez V 50

Laínez VI 51

Laínez VII 53

Laínez VIII 55

Litt. quad. I 4

Litt. quad. II 6

Litt. quad. III 8 Litt. quad. IV 10

Litt. quad. V 59

Litt. quad. VI 61

Litt. quad. VII 62

Mon. paed. 1901 19

Mon. paed. I 92

Mon. paed. II 107

Mon. paed. III 108 Mon. paed. IV 124

Mon. paed. V 129

Mon. paed. VI 140


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Mon. paed. VII 141

Mon. Xavier I 16

Mon. Xavier II 43

Nadal I 13 Nadal II 15

Nadal III 21

Nadal IV 27

Nadal V 90

Pol. compl. I 52

Pol. compl. II 54

Reg. 71

Ribadeneira I 58 Ribadeneira II 60

Salmerón I 30

Salmerón II 32

Scripta de s. Ignatio I 25

Scripta de s. Ignatio II 56

Xavier I 67

Xavier II 68


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© , , | ./_

Introduction

Robert A. Maryks and Jonathan Wright

Long before the chaotic events of the mid-eighteenth century, the Society of

Jesus had grown accustomed to local banishments and the cycles of exile and

return. The process that culminated in the 1773 suppression was of a diferent

magnitude, however. The Jesuits’ corporate existence had now, at least on

paper, been blotted out by papal command. There was no guarantee and, for

some time, little realistic hope that the Roman Catholic Church’s most prodi-

gious religious order would ever be fully restored.

The situation was bleak, but all was not lost. For one thing, the Society of Jesus never entirely disappeared. In many places, the removal of the Jesuits

was abrupt, but in others there was a slow and lingering death. This was the

case, for example, in China, the subject of Ronnie Hsia’s chapter, and in Canada,

discussed by John Meehan and Jacques Monet, where the last Jesuit from the

pre-suppression era, Jean-Joseph Casot, breathed his last in 1800. More impor-

tantly, genuine, lasting, and vibrant survival was achieved in the Russian

Empire (discussed in the chapters by Marek Inglot, Irena Kadulska, and

Richard Butterwick): the Bourbon rulers of Europe may have attempted to

expunge the Society of Jesus, but their aspirations counted for little in the

empire of Catherine the Great and her immediate successors. Crucially, events

in Russia were a source of much needed solace and direct inuence for Jesuits,

or ex-Jesuits, in other parts of the world. Daniel Schlay looks at this phenom-

enon in the edgling United States through a study of Giovanni Grassi: he

reached American soil in 1810, became the superior of the Maryland mission

and president of Georgetown College, and his Russian formation was always a

wellspring of “guidance and inspiration.”

Even when legal corporate existence was not possible, former members of

the Society worked hard to sustain the Jesuit spirit and cling to some measure

of communal identity. Thomas McCoog takes us to England, where “a type of

union” was possible, and Emanuele Colombo charts the career of Luigi Mozzi

de’ Capitani, whose books, travels, and correspondence did a great deal to

cheer ex-Jesuit spirits during the suppression years. One of the most impres-

sive achievements of the suppressed Society was its ability to maintain solidar-

ity in even the most straitened circumstances. A great deal of work remains to

be done on Jesuit exile communities, but Niccolò Guasti and InmaculadaFernández Arrillaga set a useful example: the Spanish branch of the Society

had been utterly broken and sent into exile. However, in their new Italian


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2

home many ex-Jesuits managed to make a signicant, if conicted, contribu-

tion to the peninsula’s intellectual and cultural life.

The key point is that the experience of suppression was multifaceted. Many

Jesuits faced nancial diculties and mental anguish, but others carved outsuccessful new careers or continued, relatively untroubled, with their existing

intellectual endeavors. In this latter category, we might include the Hungarian

Jesuit astronomers discussed by Paul Shore, or the Polish architect Sebastian

Sierakowski studied by Carolyn Guile.

The devastation of suppression should not be underestimated: one need

only read Jeffrey Chipps Smith’s chapter on the fate of German Jesuit

churches, colleges, libraries, and artistic possessions to gain a sense of this.

Nor should we imagine that there was always concord within ex-Jesuitranks: debates about survival strategies raged. But survival there was and

also, as the years rolled by, a growing belief that restoration might be fea-

sible. Tellingly, both processes were as closely related to political happen-

stance as the order’s suppression had been. Events in the Russian Empire

are a case in point.

The survival of the Jesuits in Belarus resulted from the first partition of

the commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania, which took place just a few

months before the papal brief of suppression was issued. The promulga-

tion of the document was prohibited in Russian territories, including the

eastern part of Poland-Lithuania. The survival of the Jesuits in White Russia

presented serious canonical problems, yet it was surreptitiously supported

by Pope Pius VI (r. 1775–99) who allowed the opening of novitiates in

Połock, Parma, and Colorno, and the election of a Jesuit vicar general in

Belarus. Unsurprisingly, the same forces at the Bourbon courts which had

campaigned for the Jesuit suppression strongly opposed Pius VI’s backing

of the Society. They relented, however, when Catherine the Great (r. 1762–

96), who had declared her neutrality in the conflicts resulting from the

American Revolution, threatened to incorporate all Catholics within her

territory into the Orthodox Church.

There was progress elsewhere. Louis XVI went under the guillotine in 1793

and France was consequently declared a republic. Ferdinand of Parma (1751–

1802), perhaps alarmed by the fate of the French monarch, began a campaign

for the restoration of the Society in 1793 and invited three Jesuits from Połock

to form a novitiate. Contrariwise, Charles IV of Spain, who began his reign in

1788, remained immune to pressure from Ferdinand and Pius VI, especiallyafter the latter’s authority was stymied by his imprisonment by French troops

in 1798: an event followed by the pope’s death a few months later.


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3

His successor Pius VII (r. 1800–23) rekindled hopes, however, and was even

more determined to restore the Society. Just one year after his election, he

issued the brief Catholicae dei which ocially sanctioned the corporate exis-

tence of the Jesuits in Russia, now stretching beyond the college at Połock.Because of the second and third partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Com-

monwealth, more former Jesuit institutions came under the control of the

Russian monarchy, including the famous University of Vilnius, and the Jesuits

of Połock expanded their activities to Odessa, the Caucasus, Siberia, and

Saratov on the Volga. The successor to Catherine, Paul I (r. 1796–1801), saw in

the Jesuits a force to stem “the ood of impiety, Illuminism and Jacobinism in

[his] empire” and supported the Jesuit superior general Gabriel Gruber in his

petitions to the pope aimed at restoring the Society worldwide. Unfortunatelyfor the Jesuits, the tsar was murdered two weeks after Catholicae dei was pro-

mulgated, but his successor, Alexander I (r. 1801–25) showed, at least at rst,

similar support for the Jesuit cause. In 1812, he raised the college of Połock to

the rank of a university.

Alexander subsequently changed his mind about the Jesuit presence in his

realms, expelling the Society from Moscow and St. Petersburg in 1815 and from

the entire empire in 1820 but, well ahead of that, momentous advances had

been made elsewhere. The papal brief of 1801 had responded positively to the

petitions of aliation with the Russian Society that had been submitted by

groups of former Jesuits in Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Britain,

and the United States. Novitiates in Georgetown, Hodder (near Stonyhurst),

and Orvieto, among others, opened in the rst decade of the nineteenth cen-

tury. Meanwhile, Ferdinand of Naples, driven by the same fears as Ferdinand of

Parma, dramatically changed his position on the Jesuits. His earlier policy of

expulsion was replaced with an invitation to the Society, now sanctioned by

the papal letter Per alias (1804), to take possession of their old church in the

city in 1804. However, the occupation of the kingdom of Naples by the troops

of Joseph Bonaparte in the following year forced the renascent group of Jesuits

to move to Rome where, under the leadership of José Pignatelli (1737–1811) they

formed a new Italian province.

The presence of Napoleonic troops in the Italian peninsula caused other

troubles. Pius VII, who had traveled to France for Napoleon’s coronation eight

years earlier, was captured by French troops in 1812 and sent into exile at

Fontainebleau. This turned out to be only a minor setback in the cause of Jesuit

restoration. Just a few months after his return to Rome and the abdication ofNapoleon in the spring of 1814, Pius VII issued the bull Sollicitudo omnium

ecclesiarum which, following the precedent of the restoration of the Jesuits in


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4

the Russian Empire and in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, expanded the res-

toration of the Society of Jesus to the rest of the world.

***

This was a moment of long-awaited celebration, but many challenges con-

fronted the restored Society of Jesus. The political, social, and intellectual cli-

mate had changed dramatically since the order’s suppression in 1773 and it

would not always be easy for nineteenth-century Jesuits to nd their place in

this new landscape. There were basic organizational and logistical diculties,

too. Stalled missions had to be restarted (a process that sometimes took

decades), a new generation of Jesuits had to be recruited and trained, and tra-ditional elds of endeavor (not least education) had to be re-established,

sometimes in the face of considerable resistance. Into the bargain, the antipa-

thy that had led to the suppression of the Jesuits showed few signs of disap-

pearing. As always, political trends and events would play a crucial role in

dening this latest chapter in Jesuit history and it is to that context that we

now turn.

The universal restoration of the Jesuits coincided with the resurgence of

Europe’s pre-revolutionary political order. This process was initiated in the

aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars by the Congress of Vienna (1814–15) under

the leadership of the foreign minister of the Austrian Empire, Klemens von

Metternich, who had been born in the year of Jesuit suppression, 1773. Europe

and the Americas had experienced events that had changed the political, eco-

nomic, and social order of the world forever: the American Revolution of 1776,

the French Revolution of 1789, the revolutions in Latin America in the early

1800s, and the rst stirrings of the Industrial Revolution.

The radical legacies of this era and how they were either embraced or

denounced, played havoc with the politics of the nineteenth century and the

Jesuits were routinely swept up by ever-shifting tides. Spain provides one of

the more dramatic examples. Ferdinand VII had gladly welcomed the Society

back to his kingdom and empire in 1815, but by 1820, under pressure from Major

Rafael Riego, he was forced to suppress all religious orders. The Jesuits were

back by 1823 following Riego’s overthrow and execution, but suppressed once

more in 1835, with fourteen members of the order having been killed during

the previous year. And so the cycle continued: return from exile in 1848, exile

in 1868, and restoration in 1875. Across the border in France, the situation was only slightly less chaotic.

Modest success under Charles X (r. 1824–30) was followed by the decidedly

anticlerical July Revolution of 1830. Life under Louis Philippe (r. 1830–48) was


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5

tolerable, though the era witnessed an explosion of anti-Jesuit polemic, and

then came the revolution of 1848. The Second Empire (1852–70) was a period of

relative calm and signicant Jesuit advance, not least in the educational

sphere, but then came the Paris Commune of 1871 during which, once again,several French Jesuits lost their lives. In his essay on the historian Charles

Laumier, Frédéric Conrod ofers some intriguing reections on the earlier part

of this period. The remainder of the century was no less turbulent and similar

tales of repeated progress and setback were replicated elsewhere. In some

places the Society sufered decisive blows: it was expelled from Switzerland in

1847 and not granted ocial permission to return until 1973.

The Society also had to contend with the forces of nationalism. Often

inspired by Romantic ideas, several ethnic groups in Europe began to call fornational unity and autonomy. The independence of Greece from the Ottoman

Empire and of Belgium from the Dutch are obvious examples. This, too, had a

telling impact on Jesuit fortunes. One European power that was constantly

preoccupied with emerging nationalism was the leader of the post-Napoleonic

order—the Austrian Empire: a mosaic of ethnic groups with diferent cultural,

linguistic, and religious roots. Among many threats to Viennese political lead-

ership within the German Confederation formed in 1815, was the second larg-

est German-speaking land—Prussia. Otto von Bismarck (1815–98) engineered

the process of German unication by excluding multi-ethnic Austria and pro-

claiming the birth of the Second Reich at Versailles in 1871. In his vision of a

united Germany, Bismarck, unlike the emperors of Austria, attempted to elimi-

nate the inuence of Catholicism as part of his Kulturkampf and, as one result,

the Society of Jesus was suppressed just a year after the German Empire was

created.

Nationalism also drove the imperial expansion of European industrialized

countries, notably Britain, Belgium, France, and Germany, followed by

nations in other parts of the world, including the United States and Japan.

Industrialization caused shifts in the distribution of power, not only in Europe

but also across the world: the mercantile empires of Portugal, Spain, and the

Dutch Republic began to fade during the nineteenth century, whereas coun-

tries that embraced industrial capitalism began to control and exploit vast new

territories, particularly in Asia and Africa. The establishment of the British Raj

in the aftermath of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the expansion of British con-

trol over Chinese port-cities in the wake of the Taiping rebellion (1850–1864),

and the French occupation of Algeria and Indochina are signicant examplesof how the balance of power in the world was dramatically changing. This had

signicant consequences for Christian missionaries, including the Jesuits, in

these parts of the world.


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6

In this section the editors have drawn, with gratitude, on a draft essay by Jefrey Klaiber

whose death prevented the publication of his nished piece in this volume.

These disparate but interlocking political trends had a profound impact on

the global stage. Latin America provides a key example, especially in the con-

text of Jesuit history. Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), educated in France and

inspired by Enlightenment ideas and the revolutions of 1776 and 1789, led suc-cessful wars of independence in several Latin American countries. This was

merely the beginning of a long process, involving a staggering number of

regime changes and shifts between conservative and liberal governance. The

Jesuits were routinely caught up in the turmoil. The Society, for instance, was

fully restored in Mexico by 1853 but, in 1856, a liberal-dominated constitutional

congress once more suppressed the Jesuits. They returned under Emperor

Maximilian (r. 1864–67), then were forced to adopt a clandestine existence or

face expulsion. During the successive periods of rule of Porrio Díaz (begin-ning in 1876) Jesuits were able to minister freely, although anticlerical laws

remained on the statute book. The 1910 revolution and subsequent 1917 consti-

tution spelled disaster for the Jesuits of Mexico.

Such chaos reigned across Latin America, as demonstrated by a partial list

of nineteenth-century Jesuit expulsions. The Society was forced to leave

Argentina in 1848, were expelled from Uruguay in 1859, from Colombia in 1850

and 1861, from Ecuador in 1852, from Guatemala in 1845 and 1872, and from

Peru in 1855. A number of chapters in the volume explore this whirligig. Perla

Chinchilla Pawling takes us to Mexico, which saw no less than nine govern-

ments of varying political complexions between 1814 and 1867, Ignacio Telesca

explains why the Jesuits were able to denitively return to Paraguay only in

1927, and Jean Luc Enyegue looks at the short-lived Jesuit mission on the island

of Fernando Po. Additionally, Andrés Prieto reminds us there was a measure of

irony in how the Jesuits were treated by the self-styled progressive regimes of

nineteenth-century Latin America: after all, certain eighteenth-century Latin

American Jesuits had been architects of the proto-nationalist cause.

***

How, then, was the restored Society of Jesus to respond to this turbulent and

greatly altered landscape? There was no doubting the urgency of the question.

After all, by mid-century, the revolutionary impulse had reached the very cen-

ter of the Catholic Church. In 1848, the citizenry of Rome drove Pius IX

(r. 1846–78) out of the city and proclaimed a republic—a harbinger of the


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7

founding of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 under which papal political power was

limited to the walls of the Vatican. The Syllabus of Errors, published just three

years later, and the proclamation of papal infallibility at the First Vatican

Council can sensibly be construed as loud and desperate cries against modernunderstandings of hierarchy and authority that had originated, at least in part,

with the Enlightenment and the French Revolution.

Long before this, the process set in motion at the Congress of Vienna had

taken steps to defend hereditary monarchy against republicanism, tradition

against revolution, and established religion against Enlightenment nostrums.

As soon as possible, three of the powers that had vanquished Napoleon (Russia,

Prussia, and Austria) forged a “holy alliance” with the pope to uphold the new

conservative system, reject the revolutionary spirit, and ensure that Christianity would endure. Religion was to be the foundation of society and a bufer against

the perils of modernity.

In this context, the historical timing of the Jesuit restoration might suggest

it was part of a broader plan to restore both the political structures and philo-

sophical assumptions of the pre-revolutionary ancien régime. The words of the

papal bull of restoration certainly give this impression. “Amidst these dangers

of the Christian republic […] we should deem ourselves guilty of a great crime

towards God if […] we neglected the aids with which the special providence of

God has put at our disposal.” The bark of Peter was “tossed and assaulted” so

there was good sense in turning to the Jesuits, those “rigorous and experienced

rowers who volunteer their services.”

Throughout the nineteenth century, the Society of Jesus was often perceived

as a conservative and ultramontane obstacle by a number of new political

regimes that, as we have seen, persecuted the order and sometimes threat-

ened its existence. Leading Jesuits played key roles in supporting conservative

regimes, asserting papal authority, and championing the spread of specic

devotions (notably the Sacred Heart) and doctrinal positions (notably papal

infallibility). If one were in a position to take a straw poll of nineteenth-cen-

tury Jesuits, a solid majority would be in what might be termed, with a broad

brush stroke, the conservative camp.

There is room for nuance, however. Historians often make generalizations

about the Society of Jesus. Just as it is erroneous to suggest that every early-

modern Jesuit was a probabilist in the realm of moral theology, or that every

Jesuit missionary was an advocate of accommodation, so it is wrong to assume

that every nineteenth-century member of the Society was a bred-in-the-bonesupporter of throne and altar or a sworn opponent of new theological and

philosophical trends. There were, as there always had been, various Jesuit

“ways of proceeding.”


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8

This anniversary year has witnessed many eforts to chart the history of the post-restoration

Society in the United States. At the time of writing it seems likely that the highlight will be

the conference organised at Loyola University, Chicago. See http://blogs.lib.luc.edu/jesuitres-

toration2014/ (website accessed 7 July 14).

The only secure conclusion is that Jesuits struggled to adapt to the nine-

teenth century and nowhere was this more apparent that in the basic task of

establishing a coherent Jesuit identity. Sometimes there was excellent sense in

rejecting new trends and developments but, in a place like the United States,ideas that, theoretically, ought to have been anathema (the separation of

church and state and religious freedom) sometimes served the Society of Jesus

very well. Catherine O’Donnell’s chapter on John Carroll tells us a great deal

about the early stages of this fascinating story. Indeed, the United States would

prove to be one of the most dynamic arenas of Jesuit activity during the post-

restoration period. Under Superior General Jan Philipp Roothaan, for example,

some of the Society’s most important American colleges were established:

including Fordham in the Bronx, Holy Cross in Worcester, Boston College,St. Joseph’s in Philadelphia, and St. Louis University. There were also epic mis-

sionary adventures, perhaps best encapsulated by the travels of the Belgian

Jesuit Peter de Smet, and America would serve as a refuge for Jesuits from other

parts of the world where the Society’s fortunes were troubled: the Italian

Jesuits who arrived from Italy after the Roman turmoil of 1848, recently studied

with great skill by Gerald McKevitt, are a prime example. It was not always

plain sailing, of course. Jesuits sufered greatly because of anti-Catholic senti-

ment in the young republic (one need only bring to mind the tribulations of

John Bapst) but, on balance, the Society did well in the political climate pro-

vided by America’s post-independence leaders. Not, of course, that those lead-

ers had always been great admirers of the Jesuits (men like Thomas Jeferson

held the order in contempt).

The other great challenge faced by Jesuits around the world involved strik-

ing a balance between faithful continuity with the past and lively engagement

with the present.

In his chapter, Thomas Worcester reects on this and asks whether the term

“restoration” is adequate. Were the old foundational documents still sucient?

How was the Society to reect on its past (a theme also developed in Robert

Danieluk’s analysis of post-restoration Jesuit historical writing)? Nineteenth-

century Jesuits struggled with these and other dilemmas and this goes some

way towards explaining the diversity and internal dissensions of the restored

Society.

http://blogs.lib.luc.edu/jesuitres-toration2014/http://blogs.lib.luc.edu/jesuitres-toration2014/http://blogs.lib.luc.edu/jesuitres-toration2014/http://blogs.lib.luc.edu/jesuitres-toration2014/


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9

As always, of course, what happened on the ground, in the revived schools

and mission elds, counted for at least as much as abstract cogitations in the

study. Many of the chapters in this volume look at the revival of the missionary

enterprise and, taken together, they encapsulate the diversity of the Jesuits’nineteenth-century experience: the relationship between the old and the new

Society. In Madurai and Canada, as Sabina Pavone, John Meehan, and Jacques

Monet reveal, continuity was the lodestone: former acres were re-ploughed.

In China, as the chapters by Paul Rule, Jeremy Clarke, César Guillen, and Paul

Mariani reveal, new territories and challenges lay in store. This was also true in

Africa, as explained in the contributions by Festo Mkenda and Aquinata

Agonga.

***

Given this fecund historical terrain, it is a pity that the post-restoration Society

of Jesus has tended to receive notably less scholarly attention than its pre-

suppression forebear. Perhaps the Society’s glory days were over, but its

members continued to play a signicant role in education, mission, the arts,

philosophy, and scientic enquiry. They were also caught up in, and helped to

dene, political developments around the world. They were cast as villains by

some and heroes by others. The age-old conundrums remained entrenched.

How was the Society of Jesus to be conceptualized? What was its role in the

Roman Catholic Church and the wider culture? Above all, how were the Jesuits

to adapt to the brave, or not so brave new world? There is no more fascinating

period in the history of the Society of Jesus.


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The Historical Context

∵


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© , , | ./_

A Restored Society or a New Society of Jesus?

Thomas Worcester, . .

Many Catholic religious orders and congregations have ourished for a time

and then disappeared, have died out, or were formally suppressed by a bishop

or pope. Other orders and congregations have been “reformed” at one time

or another in their history, sometimes resulting in a split between reformed

and un-reformed divisions. The Franciscans are an obvious example, with

Conventuals, Observants, and Capuchins; or the Cistercians, a reformed ver-sion of the Benedictines, and later the Cistercians of the Strict Observance

(Trappists). Yet the Society of Jesus has never been reformed in this sense of

the word, and despite no shortage of internal tensions, it has never split into

two or three orders. But the Society founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540 was

suppressed by Pope Clement XIV in 1773, and was then “restored” by Pope Pius

VII in 1814. The question this essay explores concerns the adequacy or inade-

quacy of the term “restoration” for a description of the post-1814 Society of

Jesus. This is a huge topic, and my approach is thus necessarily selective.

Though I shall give some attention to several parts of the world, my main focus

is France, not merely as a possible case study among others, though it is such,

but also because of its major role in Jesuit history from the origins of the Jesuits

at the University of Paris, to Jesuit battles against Gallicans and Jansenists, to

the Relations published by Jesuit missionaries in Canada, to French Jesuit sci-

entists in China, from hot and cold relationships with the French monarchy, to

the nearly relentless opposition from France’s Third Republic, to the acclaimed

work of Jesuit scholars such as Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955) and

Henri de Lubac (1896–1991). I shall not ignore the fact that the Jesuits were

international from the beginning: Ignatius was not a Frenchman, but a foreign

student in Paris, as were all of the rst Jesuits. One cannot do full justice to the

history of the Jesuits without giving attention to the global reach and multina-

tional, multicultural character of the Society, from its origins to today, even if

some countries play a much larger role than others in Jesuit history.

Restoration is a term used by political historians to describe the period 1814–

1830 in Europe, particularly France. With Napoleon’s defeat at the hands of the

Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the Bourbons wererestored to the French throne, and the Congress of Vienna met to redraw the

map of Europe and largely restored pre-1789 borders. Under Napoleon, Pope

Pius VII had been held as a prisoner in France; in spring 1814 he returned to


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See Thomas Worcester, “Pius VII: Moderation in an Age of Revolution and Reaction,” in The

Papacy since 1500: From Italian Prince to Universal Pastor , eds. James Corkery and Thomas

Worcester (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 107–124.

Eamon Dufy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (New Haven: Yale University Press,

1997), 193–194. For an example of an excellent and concise account of French history, see Pierre Goubert,

The Course of French History, trans. Maarten Ultee (London and New York: Routledge, 1991),

on the early decades after Napoleon, 233–246.

Worcester, “Pius VII,” 119.

Rome and within a few months he issued a decree restoring, or re-establishing

the Society of Jesus throughout the world. And yet, if this suggests restoration

of monarchy and restoration of the Jesuits went hand-in-hand, at least chrono-

logically, this fact remains ironic in that it was not the National Assemblyor other instances of power in the French Revolution that had suppressed

the Jesuits, but rather the pre-Revolutionary papacy, indeed a weak papacy

under intense pressure from the Catholic monarchs of Spain, Portugal, and

France. Two younger brothers of the guillotined Louis XVI served as king after

Napoleon’s defeat, Louis XVIII, 1814–1824, and Charles X, 1824–1830. But even if

the period of their reigns is commonly referred to as one of restoration, or as

the Restoration, it was not the case that the Bourbons could restore everything

to the way it was before 1789. For example, Louis XVIII agreed to a constitu-tional charter, hardly something Old Regime “absolute” monarchs would have

considered. And in 1830, another revolution toppled the Bourbons in favor of

the house of Orléans and a more bourgeois style of monarchy.

If restoration of monarchy did not mean restoration of, or reaction against,

everything pre-Revolutionary, is it likely that restoration of the Society of Jesus

meant restoration of everything Jesuit that had existed pre-1773? The obstacles

standing in the way of this seem to be many. The world had changed, and

whether Catholics liked it or not, the Church had as well. Indeed, Pope Pius VII,

in his long and eventful reign from 1800 to 1823, was no mere traditionalist,

hell-bent, as it were, on turning the clock back wherever possible. For example,

a few years before his election as pope, the future Pius VII had argued that

republican forms of secular government, such as that created by the French

Revolution, could be compatible with Christianity. As pope, he proved to be

adaptable in his views on Latin American independence from the Spanish and

Portuguese monarchies. Thus the pope who restored the Society of Jesus was

not a staunch reactionary, opposed to any and everything associated with the

French Revolution and its ideals, though some later popes may well have

abhorred everything even remotely related to the Revolution.


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For anti-Jesuits up to 1773, see Les Antijésuites: Discours, gures et lieux de l‘antijésuitisme

à l’époque moderne, eds. Pierre-Antoine Fabre and Catherine Maire (Rennnes: Presses

Universitaires de Rennes, 2010); for examples of post-1814 anti-Jesuit polemic, see Geofry

Cubitt, The Jesuit Myth: Conspiracy Theory and Politics in Nineteenth-Century France (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1993).

Pierre Moisy, Les Eglises des Jésuites de l’ancienne assistance de France, 2 vols. (Rome: Jesuit

Historical Institute, 1958), 1:248–251; see also Saint-Paul—Saint-Louis: Les Jésuites à Paris

(Paris: Musée Carnavalet, 1985).

The actions of Pius VII in favor of the Jesuits were not necessarily well-

received by everyone, and the history of anti-Jesuit polemics and actions

reveal a good deal of continuity pre-1773 to post-1814, perhaps especially in

Europe. Restoration, or re-admittance or re-establishment, of the Jesuits was not always permanent, and in the two centuries since 1814 Jesuits have

been expelled, at least for a time, from places such as France, Switzerland,

Mexico, and Spain. Thus, careful study of the history of opposition to the

Jesuits, from 1540 to today, could reveal some signicant continuity, though

not without discontinuity as well. If opposition to the Jesuits has faded in

more recent times in places such as France or Switzerland, why is that?

Because the Jesuits have changed, or because their enemies have changed?

Or is it perhaps because the Jesuits are no longer perceived as mattering verymuch, in which case why bother trying to expel them or even curtail their

activities?

Restoration in parts of the world where the Society had enjoyed a major

institutional presence with many school and church buildings, could have

meant recovery of such institutional property. In reality, there was not a lot of

material recovery. The history of two Jesuit churches in Paris, one built in the

seventeenth century and one in the nineteenth century, ofers an interesting

example of a kind of discontinuity and continuity between the pre-1773 and

post-1814 Society. The seventeenth-century Jesuit church was dedicated to

Saint Louis, that is, the canonized saint and thirteenth-century French king

Louis IX, ancestor of the Bourbon monarchs. In choosing this name the French

Jesuits promoted their alignment with the monarchy; Louis XIII himself laid

the cornerstone in 1627, and Cardinal Richelieu presided at the rst Mass in the

completed church in 1642 with the king, queen, and their court present.

Designed in a style that echoed both what was then contemporary Italian

Baroque, as well as an emerging French classicism, the church was built on the

right bank of the Seine, in the Marais section of Paris, at that time a neighbor-

hood rapidly rising in economic and social status. The church (Figures 1.1 and

1.2) soon drew large crowds attracted by famous Jesuit preachers, such as Louis


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. Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Exterior, Dome. June 2012


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. Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Interior. June 2012


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18

On Bourdaloue, see Thomas Worcester, “The Classical Sermon,” in Preaching, Sermon and

Cultural Change in the Long Eighteenth Century, ed. Joris van Eijnatten (Leiden: Brill, 2009),

especially 153–167; on Charpentier, see C. Jane Lowe, “Charpentier and the Jesuits at

St. Louis,” Seventeenth-Century French Studies 15 (1993), 297–314.

Saint-Paul—Saint-Louis: Les Jésuites à Paris, 11–12. In 1990, the 450th anniversary of the

founding of the Society of Jesus, the French Jesuits were permitted to use the church for thepriestly ordination of several of their men; I attended this exceptional event.

Pierre Delattre, Les Etablissements des Jésuites en France depuis quatre siècles, 5 vols. (Enghien:

Institut Supérieur de Théologie, 1949–57), 3:1337–1339. On Jesuits and the rue de Sèvres in the

nineteenth century, see also Burnichon, 3:92, 139, 171, 575.

Bourdaloue, and by music commissioned from prominent composers includ-

ing Marc-Antoine Charpentier.

Closed in the 1760s after the expulsion of the Jesuits, the church was the site

for celebration of the cult of Reason during the Revolution. In 1802, Saint-Louisbecame the parish church of Saint-Paul—Saint-Louis, thus adding the name of

a nearby parish that had been destroyed in the Revolution. The former Jesuit

church remains a parish church today, while an adjacent building, previously

the Jesuit residence, is a state school, the Lycée Charlemagne. Quite recently

(in 2011–12), the Ministry of Culture and the city of Paris sponsored a cleaning

and restoration of the façade of Saint-Paul—Saint-Louis, thus helping to pre-

serve and draw attention to an important piece of pre-1773 Jesuit history in

Paris (Figures 1.3 and 1.4).In the mid-nineteenth century, with no prospect of recovering their earlier

church, the French Jesuits commissioned a new church, this time on the rue de

Sèvres, at the junction of the sixth and seventh arrondissements (districts), on

the left bank of the Seine. Neither in name, architectural style, nor location in

Paris was continuity with the church of Saint-Louis an obvious priority.

Dedicated to the founder of the Jesuits, Saint-Ignace (Figures 1.5 and 1.6) was

built between 1855 and 1858 and was modeled after the thirteenth-century

Gothic cathedral of Le Mans. Though connections with French heads of state

were not as strong as they had been at Saint-Louis in the seventeenth century,

Saint-Ignace did count among its benefactors Napoleon III, French emperor

1852–1870. And Saint-Ignace resembles Saint-Louis in that its architectural

style (neo-Gothic) was as much in vogue in its time as the architecture

of Saint-Louis was up-to-date, perhaps even avant-garde, in its era. Like

Saint-Louis, Saint-Ignace was not built to be a parish, and it still is not. Both

churches were built to serve a rapidly growing urban population, each church

in what was an increasingly fashionable Parisian neighborhood. Saint-Louis

was built not far from the elegant Place Royale (today the Place des Vosges),

commissioned by Henri IV at the beginning of the seventeenth century; in


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. Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Façade under restoration. June 2012


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. Church of Saint-Paul–Saint-Louis, Paris. Restored. June 2014.


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. Church of Saint-Ignace, Paris. Exterior, Apse. June 2012


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22

. Church of Saint-Ignace, Paris, Interior. June 2012


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23 ?

See Hilary Ballon, The Paris of Henri IV: Architecture and Urbanism (Cambridge: Press,

1991), 57–113; Michael Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store,

1869–1920 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

On how the Constitutions reect rhetorical traditions, see J. Carlos Coupeau, From Inspiration to Invention: Rhetoric in the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus (St. Louis:

Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2010).

See The Constitutions of the Society of Jesus and their Complementary Norms, ed. John

Padberg (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1996).

1869, Au Bon Marché, an enormous department store that was for a time the

largest such store in the world, was erected across the rue de Sèvres from Saint-

Ignace, and the store remains a major shopping destination today.

Comparison of these two Jesuit churches in Paris elicits a broader questionof what Jesuit continuity or discontinuity might mean between the pre-1773

and post-1814 eras. If the post-1814 Jesuits had an agenda of restoration, what

was to be restored? Recovery of property was largely out of the question, so it

did not mean that. But perhaps re-establishment of certain Jesuit works or

ministries? Yet what model from the old Society was to be followed? From

what era? From 1540 to 1773 much had changed in the world, in the Church and

in the Society of Jesus, and thus such decisions were complex. Was the goal to

re-establish a Society of Jesus that was as similar as possible to the one thatexisted at the time of the suppression? In other words, was it a matter, as it

were, of picking up where things left of in the 1770s? Or would reaching back

as far as possible be the goal, to the Society at its foundation in 1540? Was there

a golden age to recover, and if so, when was it? Was it within the lifetimes of

Ignatius and his rst companions, such as Francis Xavier? From a handful of

companions in 1540, the Society had grown to about a thousand members by

the time Ignatius died in 1556—obviously, quite a diferent organization sim-

ply by its size, but also one that had by the latter date not only papal approval,

but elaborate Constitutions.

Would those sixteenth-century documents provide the blueprint or the

construction (or re-construction) manual, for the post-1814 era? Even if some

Jesuits and others piously believed that Ignatius and other early Jesuits who

had a hand in composing the Constitutions were divinely inspired or guided,

these texts were nevertheless framed by, or limited by, the time and place in

which they were produced. Through the legislation adopted by its occasional

general congregations, both before and after the suppression, the Society has

at times abrogated parts of the Constitutions and/or added new rules or norms

for its governance and way of proceeding. Comparison with the late eigh-

teenth-century Constitution of the United States may be apt, as it may be


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24

Ibid., 3–16. Philip Endean, “Who do You Say Ignatius Is? Jesuit Fundamentalism and Beyond,” Studies

in the Spirituality of Jesuits 19/5 (November 1987): 1–53.

C.J. Lighthart, The Return of the Jesuits: The Life of Jan Philip Roothaan, trans. Jan Slijkerman

(London: Shand Publications, 1978).

amended in various ways, but it is never altogether replaced by a new constitu-

tion. In both cases the continuing validity and normative value of the original

document is armed even as a way of changing parts of it is made available.

Thus new Jesuit Constitutions were not created post-1814, though the sixteenth-century text did continue to be supplemented and superseded in parts, as had

been the case pre-1773.

The Jesuit Constitutions are not the only early documents that have been

considered normative for the Society in any era. Paul III’s 1540 apostolic letter

Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, approving the Formula of the Institute, and Julius

III’s 1550 Exposcit debitum, conrming approval of a somewhat revised Formula

of the Institute, may be particularly signicant. Yet the fact that in just ten years

from 1540 to 1550 changes were already seen as necessary raises the question of what changes or adaptations Jesuits saw as necessary post-1814 in relation to pre-

1773. And even if the normative golden age was presumed to be the time of

Ignatius, what, exactly, from that time was thought to matter most, and to be

within reach of re-establishment, recovery, or restoration? Might it be the life of

Ignatius, as known in his so-called Autobiography? Or his writings in addition

to the Constitutions, such as the Spiritual Exercises, or his thousands of letters?

Or something else, such as the lives of other Jesuit saints, Francis Xavier among

them? Some twenty-ve years ago Philip Endean cautioned against what he

called Jesuit fundamentalism, that is, a naïve reading of Ignatius and the early

Jesuits that presumes that what they did is immediately accessible to later gen-

erations and quite directly imitable by them, all without any concern for chang-

ing historical contexts. How extensive has such naiveté been in the Society of

Jesus post-1814?

Sometimes Jesuit history is imagined in terms of superiors general, their

eras and their governance of the Society. Such studies may be principally

biographical, such as C.J. Lighthart’s life of Jan Roothaan, general from 1829 to

1853, a period in which the post-1814 Society of Jesus grew dramatically, but was

also challenged from various quarters. Roothaan, rather obviously, is a good

focus for a case study of continuity or discontinuity across the divide of the

suppression; so too was Pedro Arrupe, general from 1965–1983, a prophet and a

hero for many Jesuits and others precisely for the changes he made after

Vatican II, but a villain according to some, for those same changes. But was


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25 ?

For very positive assessments of Arrupe, see Pedro Arrupe, General de la Compañia de

Jesús, Nuevas Aportaciones a su biograá, ed. Gianni Bella (Bilbao: Mensajero; Santander:

Editorial Sal Terrae, 2007).

The New Jesuits, ed. George Riemer (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1971).

The Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture 1573–1580, ed. Thomas McCoog (Rome: Jesuit

Historical Institute; St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2004).

For more on Acquaviva, see William Bangert, A History of the Society of Jesus, revised ed.(St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1986), 97–107.

For further discussion of Ignatius imagined variously, see J. Carlos Coupeau, “Five

personae of Ignatius of Loyola,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits, ed. Thomas

Worcester (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 32–51.

Arrupe, like Ignatius a Basque, perhaps in greater continuity with Ignatius in

various ways than were many of the generals of the intervening centuries?

Did Arrupe help the Society of Jesus return to its Ignatian roots and put aside

various accretions of the intervening centuries? Or did he create a new Societyof Jesus, perhaps new and better, or perhaps new and irresponsibly discon-

tinuous with what had gone before? The New Jesuits, edited by ex-Jesuit George

Riemer, was published in 1971; it consists of essays by various American Jesuits

(Daniel Berrigan and John Padberg among them) reecting on how they

thought the Society was changing at that time. It now seems dated, but it can

shed light on how, in the years of Fr. Arrupe’s generalate, Jesuits thought

about continuity and discontinuity in their own Jesuit lives and in Jesuit his-

tory since 1540.Or a study may focus more broadly on the issues at stake for the Society of

Jesus during the period of a generalate; an example is the volume edited by

Thomas McCoog entitled The Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture 1573–

1580. Claudio Acquaviva’s relatively long generalate, 1581–1615, is often cited

as a period of, among other things, consolidation or standardization, such as

with adoption of the Ratio Studiorum, and with Acquaviva’s publication of a

directory of the Spiritual Exercises. This raises a large and complex question:

does close examination of generalates from that of Ignatius of Loyola to that of

Adolfo Nicolás reveal more continuity or discontinuity, especially across the

1773–1814 divide? To what extent have superiors general before or after the sup-

pression looked back to Ignatius, or to some other predecessor as model? And

who are the most signicant generals in the Society’s history, and for what rea-

sons? In the case of Ignatius, further questions to ask include which Ignatius

has been taken as model for imitation: The Roman administrator of the 1540s

and 1550s? Or an earlier Ignatius, such as the pilgrim of the 1520s, or the giver

of the Spiritual Exercises?


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Jean Lacouture, Jesuits: A Multibiography, trans. Jeremy Leggatt (Washington, ..:

Counterpoint, 1995).

Of the many recent studies of Matteo Ricci, see, e.g., R. Po-chia Hsia, A Jesuit in the

Forbidden City, 1552–1610 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

Ronald Modras, in his book Ignatian Humanism: A Dynamic Spirituality for the 21st Century

(Chicago: Loyola Press, 2004), identies an optimistic view of human nature and humanpotential as characteristic of several Jesuits from various centuries and countries. These

Jesuits include Ricci and Teilhard, as well as Arrupe and others.

Athansius Kircher: The Last Man Who Knew Everything, ed. Paul Findlen (New York and

London: Routledge, 2004).

But a superior general is not necessarily representative or typical of Jesuits

of his era. The degree to which individual Jesuits since 1814 have or have not

resembled those of the Old Society is a question that can only be answered

through a great many cases studies of both famous and relatively obscure Jesuits. The French biographer Jean Lacouture published in 1991 and 1992 a

two-volume work entitled Jésuites: Une multibiographie, with volume one enti-

tled Les conquérants (The Conquerors) and volume two Les revenants (The

Returning); a condensed one-volume English translation was published in 1995

as Jesuits: A Multibiography. A large number of the Jesuits Lacouture studies

are French; his division of “conquerors” and “retur