Structure of LanguageStructure of Language• phonemes:phonemes: basic speech sounds basic speech sounds

• morphemesmorphemes: smallest unit of language that : smallest unit of language that contains meaningcontains meaning

• surface structuresurface structure: the words and phrases : the words and phrases comprising a particular sentencecomprising a particular sentence

• deep structuredeep structure: the underlying meaning of : the underlying meaning of a sentencea sentence

Rules of LanguageRules of Language

• grammargrammar: a system of rules that enable us : a system of rules that enable us to speak and understandto speak and understand

• semanticssemantics: rules we use to derive meaning : rules we use to derive meaning from morphemesfrom morphemes

• syntaxsyntax: rules we use to order words into : rules we use to order words into sentencessentences

Mental ImageryMental Imagery

• An An imageimage is a mental representation of a is a mental representation of a sensory experience.sensory experience.

• We use imagery as an aid in We use imagery as an aid in conceptualizing and solving problems.conceptualizing and solving problems.

• Images allow us to use concrete forms to Images allow us to use concrete forms to represent complex and abstract ideas.represent complex and abstract ideas.

ConceptsConcepts• conceptconcept: A mental category for classifying : A mental category for classifying

objects, people, or experiences.objects, people, or experiences.

• prototypeprototype: A mental model containing the : A mental model containing the most typical features of a concept.most typical features of a concept.

• idealized cognitive model: idealized cognitive model: Our conceptions Our conceptions of events as we expect to typically find of events as we expect to typically find them.them.

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

problem representation: interpreting or problem representation: interpreting or defining the problemdefining the problem

select a solution strategy that best suits the select a solution strategy that best suits the problemproblem

Possible Solution StrategiesPossible Solution Strategies• trial and errortrial and error• information retrievalinformation retrieval: recovery of : recovery of

information from LTM is all that is information from LTM is all that is necessarynecessary

• algorithmalgorithm: systematical evaluation of all : systematical evaluation of all possible solutions to a problempossible solutions to a problem

• heuristicsheuristics: rules of thumb strategies for : rules of thumb strategies for problem solvingproblem solving

HeuristicsHeuristics

• hill climbinghill climbing: each step moves : each step moves progressively toward the final goalprogressively toward the final goal

• subgoalssubgoals: creation of intermediate and : creation of intermediate and more manageable goalsmore manageable goals

• means-end analysismeans-end analysis: reducing discrepancy : reducing discrepancy between current and desired statesbetween current and desired states

HeuristicsHeuristics• working backwardsworking backwards: moving from the : moving from the

desired state to the current statedesired state to the current state• availabilityavailability: basing our judgments on the : basing our judgments on the

availability of information in our memoriesavailability of information in our memories• representativenessrepresentativeness: judging the likelihood : judging the likelihood

of things in terms of how well they seem to of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypesrepresent particular prototypes

Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving

• an individual’s level of motivationan individual’s level of motivation

• set:set: The tendency to perceive and to The tendency to perceive and to approach problems in certain ways.approach problems in certain ways.

• functional fixedness:functional fixedness: The tendency to The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for perceive only a limited number of uses for an object.an object.

Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving

• confirmation bias:confirmation bias: The tendency to look The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a ignore evidence that would disprove a belief.belief.

Improving Problem Solving AbilityImproving Problem Solving Ability

• tacit of elimination:tacit of elimination: Possible solutions are Possible solutions are evaluated according to appropriate criteria evaluated according to appropriate criteria and discarded as they fail to provide a and discarded as they fail to provide a solution.solution.

• visualization:visualization: Concepts are drawn, Concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they can be diagrammed, or charted so that they can be better understood.better understood.