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STRAINED BEGINNINGS AND FRIENDLYFAREWELLS: THE GAMES OF THEXVI OLYMPIAD MELBOURNE 1956

BY

IAN JOBLING

Melbourne's Bid

Since the inaugural Olympic Games of the modem era several Australian citieshave proposed hosting the Olympics. Soon after the 1896 Athens Games, theArgus newspaper stated that these new Games "may even in due course offerthemselves to the delighted gaze of Melbourne". I The IOC member in Australa­sia, Richard Coombes wrote in a letter in 1906 to Baron Pierre de Coubertin that"it is certainly hoped and expected that in due course the Olympic Games will beallotted to this part of the world".2 There were suggestions that Perth host theOlympics of 1916, then 1920. Sydney was proposed for 1930, the expected yearof completion of the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Of course, the celebration of theOlympiad did not fall in that year; it is a pity that it could not have been foreseenthat the completion of the bridge was to be delayed until 1932.3 It was sixty yearsafter those inaugural Athens Olympics that the Games came to Melbourne, Vic­toria, Australia - the first to be held in the southern hemisphere.

Frank Beaurepaire, the great swimmer who won three silver and three bronzemedals in three Olympic Games (1908. 1920 and 1924), was reported as statingin February 1946 that Melbourne should have a sporting stadium with ''all facili­ties for holding the Olympic Games in Australia".4 Later that year the VictorianOlympic Council (VOe) was called together for its first meeting in seven years5

and a motion was put to host the 1956 Olympic Games in Melbourne. The mo­tion was accepted unanimously despite the fact the VOC's assets at the time weremerely six pounds, seven shillings and 10 pence (less than 13 Australian dol­lars).6

When the VOC's proposal was forwarded to the Australian Olympic Falera­lion (AOF) in July 1946 it had the support of the then Lord Mayor of Melbourne,Sir James Connelly, and Frank Beaurepaire, a former Lord Mayor (1940-42).Beaurepaire's public profile in Australia and in the international Olympic Move­ment was a key factor in the success of Melboume's bid. Beaurepaire assumed

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the presidency of the voe in May 1947 and was instrumental in urging the Me/·bOl/me City Council to establish an Invitatio/l Commitlee comprising influcntialmedia- and businessmen. Friction arose because, apart from Beaurepaire, nomember of the VOC, nor any sports organisation, was represented on thiscommittee.

The reasons why Melbourne should beCome an Olympic Games host city wereset out in an extravagant Invitation Booe and sent to all International OlympicCommirtee (IOC) members and other intemational sports administrators andpublic figures: Australia was only one of four nations to be at every summerOlympics, therefore it was more senior in the Olympic Movement than any othercompetitor in the southern hemisphere; if there really was a concept of theOlympics being a "world" games, it was time for them to be in the southernhemisphere; and, with the development of pressurised aircraft by 1956, it wouldtake no more than thirty-six hours flying time to reach Melbourne.s

Australians lobbied extensively for the 1956 Olympics during the 1948 Lon­don Games, when it was expected the IOC would announce the successful city.The decision was postponed until the following year. Beaurepaire and Connellylobbied in London and Europe for almost three months before going to Rome inApril 1949, where the Melbourne contingent were last to present their city's caseto the IOC. There were ten bidding cities, six from the USA,9 Buenos Aires,Mexico City and London. Forty-one IOC members voted in the fourth roundwhen Melbourne was chosen ahead of Buenos Aires by one vote. IO

The Olympic Stadium

Most Melboumians and Australians thought that the Melbourne CricketGround (MeG) would be the Olympic Stadium but the Melbourne OrganisingCommittee (MOC), fanned in October 1949, vacillated over several other sitesprior to final selection. In the document, "Melboume's Plan", which was submit­ted to the IOC in 1949, it was stated that Royal Agricultural Society's sixty acresof showgrounds would be transfonned as the Olympic site with the erection ofthree stadia, including the Olympic Stadium with a minimum seating capacity ofseventy thousand. ll The MOC and the trustees of the MCG had negotiated fromlate 1949 to early 1952, but a major point of contention was whether this cricketand football arena should be remodelled and resurfaced for an Olympic Gameswhich would last only seventeen days and cause disruption to, and a significantlack of income from one Australian Rules football and two cricket seasons.

There was great concem in 1951 about the expense of redevelopment of theRAS in a period of inflation and shortage of building materials. The VictorianState government indicated that it may have to withdraw its support for theGames unless the Commonwealth Government made a substantial financial con~

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tTibUlion. Whereas there had been a nOlion thnt the Games would booster growththroughout the State of Victoria, they were now seen as a burden on the econ­omy. The IOC member in Australia, Hugh Richard Weir, reported ambiguouslyabout progress to the IOC meeting in Vienna in May 1951, because not only hadthe site of the Olympic Stadium not been dedded, there was a feeling that Mel­bourne should forgo the right to stage the Garnes.

By the time the lOC reconvened in Helsinki in July 1952, Princes Park inCarlton was proposed as the main venue. By the following year, the VictorianPremier John Cain, again alarmed at renovation costs of two mi.tlion pounds for asecond major stadium and personally in favour of utilising the MCG, disallowedthe proposal. In one of the most significant political and sporting meetings everheld in Australia, held over three days and comprising the Prime Minister ofRobert Menzies and other leading Federal and State politicians, it W,lS finallyresolved that the Commonwealth Government would pay half the costs of con­struction for the Games, which included modifications to the MCG, the swim­ming pool and velodrome, and for administration and promotion. 12

The Equestrian Events

As if these concerns were not enough, another issue which was of concern tothe MOC and the IOC related to Australia's stIict quarantine laws which pre­vented foreign horses from entering the country. When the delegation from Mel­bourne made its presentation in 1949 in Rome to the IOC to host the Olympics, itseems there was little or no reference to Australia's strict quarantine laws. Al­though elaborately presented, the bid document contained little detail about spe­cific sports; there was an illustration of showjumpers with the caption "keen andexperienced riders and their horses from all over Australia converging on Mel­bourne for its grand Royal Agricultural Show".13 There was no reference tohorses from overseas.

Clearly, members of the Organising Committee were made aware that eques­trian events "must" be on the Olympic programme when a document prepared byFrank Beaure_paire, President of the Victorian Olympic Council and leader of thebid, was tabled at a meeting in November 1949.14 Harold Luxton, IOC memberin Australia, referred specifically to equestrian events being hetd in "the MainStadium and excellent picturesque hunting country" at an IOC meeting in May1950,15 There was \10 reference to Australian quarantine regulations in the tabledreport.

Indeed, it was probably initial concems pertaining to the expense of transport­ing horses which brought about the question of Australia's quarantine laws. Ex-

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pense became an issue as early as October 1952, with a Swiss-German sportspaper running. the following article:

THE \956 EQUESTRIAN EVENTS IN DUBLIN?"[... ] the costs for Melboume arc too high. Most countries which got Olympic medalsin Helsinki are European (Sweden, Gennany, France, Great Britain, Switzerland andDenmark) "nd only two are overseas (Chile and USA.). [ ...] The idea of haying theOlympic equestri:ln events in Dublin has also found the agreement in American cir­Cks:'16

But it was the issue of Australia's strict and implausible quarantine laws whichprovided another reaSOn to "take the Games from Melbourne". Subsequently,this led to the equestrian events being held in Stockholm, the only time in thehistory of the modem Olympic Games, both summer and winter, that all eventswere not held in the same state or region.

Kent Hughes, the Chairman of the Organising Committee for tne OlympicGames and a Minister in the Commonwealth Government, claimed ignorance asto whether the bid or the Organising Committees referred to equestrian events inRome in 1949. When confronted with the problem, Hughes wrote to HaroldAlderson, President of the Australian Olympic Federation, stating:

"Australia is keen to hold the events and will make the best arrangements we can in or­der to facilitate these competitions. AJ; set out in the Report, certain proposals na\'ebeen submitted to Health authorities, after long consultation with the veterinary andscientific eKperts. These proposals wo\\ld considerably modify the existing quarantineregulations as regards horses for these particular competitions.On the other hand, I think it would be only fair to point out that no country in theworld, including America, would be prepared to break down their quarantine regula­tions and endanger their own stocks and herds merely for the sake of a competition ofthis nature. Australia is one of the lucky countries which has been peculiarly free fromcertain horse and cattle diseases. The equestrian evenrs can be held under the existingquarantine regulations, although it is realised that they wO\.\\d enta1\ considerable ex­pense to the people concerned. Australia has never been able to compete in theseey<.mts for the same reason. If the Intemational equestrian authorities, with the approvalof the IQe, wish to hold equestrian events in another country, we would be very sorry,but at the same time we could llardly raise any objection as Australia, better than anyother CQUntlY, except perhaps New Zealand, know what is involved in transport coststo the Games."17

Chancellor Mayer checked the IOC archives and slated that "the very first timethat we were made aware of this [quarantinellaw must have been in July 1952 inHelsinki".}!> Sigfrid Edstrom, President of the IOC at the time of Melbourne'sbid, wrote that "the first time I heard about the horses from Melbourne" was atthe Helsinki Olympic Games in 1952. In December 1953 he stated that the IOCcould make "a temporary authorisation of the rules and permit the Games with­out the horses" adding that an "Equestrian otympic Games may not be held at allin 1956."19 He added information was given "verbally"; the first correspondenceon the matter was contained in a letter in February 1953 from Lewis Luxton to

Brundage.

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A great critic of Melbourne staging the Olympics was lac member, AngeloBolanaki, who wrote frequently and vehemently (handwritten in French211 ) to theChancellor of the roc, Otto Mayer, in late 1953. BoJanaki stated, "There is nolonger <loy doubt that if th~ quarantine is not eliminated the Games cannot takeplace in Melbourne under any pretext."21 Baron de Trannoy, President of theInternational Equestrian Federation (FEr), wrote that "if Melbourne does notgIve satisfaction the Congress of the FEr in December next the federation wi]]send a strong protest to the IOC warning us to respect our rules and therefore toask us to take back the Games from MeJboume".22

The issue was still being debated throughout October 1953, as highlighted incorrespondence from Massard who, when writing to Mayer, stated he had beenpushed repeatedly by journal'lsts to express his thoughts and that he was "not theonly one in this with the following thoughts [...] Melbourne with equestriansports or nO more Melbourne".23 Bolanaki was adamant that his "report" on the"equestrian question" be translated and copied "so that we can send off withoutdelay to all IOC members, with no exceptions."24 Mayer's reply expressed regretthat Botanaki' s report was not available for the session in Mexico. He stated that,while sharing Bolanaki's point of view, it was extremely difficult to "take awaythe Games from Melbourne while the organisers have already committed a con­siderable amount of expense". Mayer expected the report would "make a lot ofnoise" ("fera du bruit") and there would be a "strong reaction on the part of theEnglish".25

The IOC member in Great Britain, Lord Burghley, was a staunch and publicsupporter of Melboume hosting the GameS, much to Bolanaki's chagrin. OnNovember 2,1953 Bolanaki wrote to Mayer,

"I can't explain how Lord Burghley, who is a part of the Executive Board, could haveproposed by means of the press that equestrian sports be allocated to another city afterhaving considered Article No 14 of OIlr Statutes of the Executive Board and the strictobservations and execution of these rules must be upheld."26As late as December 1953, Bolanaki referred to a letter from John Jewett Gar­

land, lac member in the United States, stating that "I am happy that my col­league Garland will see that the Games of 1956 will take place in Los Angeleswhich will facilitate the task of the IOC since in any case Melbourne is "off themap" unless the quarantine law is abolished"P President BlUndage acknowl­edged that Bolanaki had made a very strong case for the strict enforcement of therules, and agreed that "if we do not enforce our rules it will lead only to anar­chy", but he also endeavoured to pacify him.28

It was obvious that many IOC members supported Lord Burghley's positionand Brundage anticipated a "bitter battle" at the IOC meeting in Athens in May1954, which he wanted to 3void.29 Bnmdage planned a special meeting of theExecutive Committee in Lausanne the following month in the "hope we can finda solution to this difftcult problem that will be satisfactory for all concerned."30

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Lord Burghley was clearly the greatest supporter for Melbourne. He had beenkept informed of issues and developments in Melbourne through Billy Holt,Technical Organiser for the [948 London Olympics and subsequently appointedTechnical Adviser to the Melbourne Organising Committee. During earlier de­liberations about Melbourne's abilit)' to organise the Games, Burghley had writ­ten to Brundage that "the only grounds [... ] on which they could be expected togive them up, would be if they were unable to carry them through".31

By the early months of 1954, it was apparent that the equestrian events wouldbe held somewhere other than Melbourne. Several European cities had beenmentioned, including Rome. 32 laC Chancellor Mayer wrote in February 1954that Baron de Tranr..oy's response to the equestrian events being given to a cityother than Melbourne, was positive but "we must take into consideration thatthey can be organised only in summer".

Kent Hughes wrote to Brundage in March 1954 stating that he had been"making further investigations about the quarantine with the highest authoritiesin Australia but that he had met with no success and considered that no changewill be made in the law, regardless",33

Eventually, it was decided that the equestrian events would be held in thenorthern hemisphere and in summer - in Stockholm, Sweden from June to-17,1956.34 In summary, the issue of quarantine and the necessary transfer of theequestrian events provided a legal loophole for the lac to take the Games awayfrom Melbourne. Fortunately, the group of lac members most concerned withthis aspect do not appear to have vigorously pursued such general organisationalissues.

Brundage and the Olympic Stadium

Meanwhile, progress on erection of the Olympic sporting facilities in Mel­bourne was slow. JOC President, Avery Brundage finally took what he consid­ered to be a "necessary"35 trip to Australia in May 1955. On the day he visitedthe MeG in April 1955 there were only six workers on site because of an indus­trial dispute. Brundage lamented that since Melbourne had been awarded the1956 Games in Rome six years ago there had been "nothing but squabbling,changes of management and bickering [...]. Melbourne has had a deplorablerecord in its preparations for the Games - promises and promises."}6 Brundageintimated that, even at that late stage, several other cities (he seemed to favourPhiladelphia) would be prepaIed to stage the 1956 Games.

Brundage's lambast (which he later likened to "a mild atomic explosion"37)seemed to work; there was much more cohesion among the indi.viduals, commit­tees and agencies during those final eighteen months of preparation. His"intervention", though, was not without criticism. Chancellor Mayer reported to

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Brundage that he had been treated in the press "in a way I cannot admit".3S

Mayer added:

"Those sauvages Isic] of Austrnlians believe the games are theirs and they forget theyarc still OURS. When I shall receive the protest myself I shall protest myself on theway they have written against you. They forget it is tkmks to you and Lord BurghJeythut they still have the Games. You took the trouble to go there, etc etc. I am furiousbecause you don't deserve it."

Brundage replied to this letter, and another one from Mayer in July, 1956, re-ferring to the Australians being "insulting to the 10C and to [him)":

"1 have never had such rude, uncouth and ill-mannered treatment in my life, and theworst of it is there is no way to answer insults of this kind; it must be done by someoneelse. They seem to approve of hitting below the belt. While 1 was there newspapersbacked me almost unanimously. This attack must have been started by someone inauthority, otherwise why should they go out of their way to insult me? On at least threeoccasions one word from me would have cost them the Games, and as you remember,there were many who regretted that word was not spoken. I also remember bitterly, the$ 5000.00 I spent trnvelling down there to help them put their organisation in order."39

It is iinportant to realise that the 1956 Olympics were to be the first underBrnndage's Presidency of the lOC. He was not going to allow them to fail. Heeven found a positive aspect during his visit to Australia; he suggested to Mayerthat he [Mayer1 "might want to prepare a short article Gn the tremendous enthusi­asm for the Olympic Movement which [he] found on [his] trip to Australia andthe far East."40

By mid-1956 there was a positive mood of anticipation and diligence in theMOC - only global war could jeopardise the success of these first OlympicGames to be held in the southern hemisphere.

lntemational Tension

The MOC had expected a record Ultmber of teams in Melbourne but several

countries threatened boycotts. War erupted between Egypt and Israel on October29, 1956 - a mere twenty-four days prior to the Opening Ceremony of theOlympic Garnes on November 22.41 The fracas escalated when Britain andFrance joined in. Egypt, protesting against the "cowardly aggression" of certainnations, was the first country to withdraw from the Games, followed by Iraq andLebanon.

On November 4, following the appointment of Imre Nagy as Prime Minister ofHungary in June 1953, which laid the grounds for the liberalising of this country

as a communist regime, Soviet troops launched an attack on Budapest.42 Severalnations boycotted to protest against the actions of the USSR. The NetherlandsOlympic Committee sent a gift of 100,000 guilders to aid victims in war-10mHungary.43 Dutch athletes, already in Melbourne, were recaIled.44 Spain also

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withdrew because of the Hungarian cril>is.45 The Swiss Olympic Cvmmillee de­cided to send a team only if there was unanimity among the seven participatingSwiss national sports federations; there wasn't.46 Chancellor of the IOC andSwiss citizen, Otto Mayer, was appalled at the decision; he was reported as stat­ing that "it is a disgrace that Switzerland, a neutral nation and the very countrywhere the 10C has its headquarters should set such a shameful example of politi­cal interference with the Olympic ideal".47 The Swiss Olympic Committeechanged its mind and decided to send a team but, unfortunately, their indecisive­ness meant that there was not enough time for the entire team to travel to Mel­bourne, so they withdrew. As late as November 13, five Scandinavian countries(Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden) had not made a firm decisionto compete, despite collectively having more than 200 athletes in Australia. At ameeting of the Scandinadan Federation in Melbourne it was decided that allcountries would compete.J8

These world tensions di.srupted final preparation!> for the 1956 Olympic Game!>in several ways. The traditional Torch Relay bearing the Olympic flame from thealtis at Olympia, Greece, was delayed a day because the conflict in the SuezCanal had affected flight schedules at Athens airport.49 Fortunately, time wasmade up along the route. P & 0 passenger liners from Europe en route to Mel­bourne could not utilise the canal and were forced to sail around the Cape ofGood Hope. The "Hungarian Revolution" caused the Hungarian Olympic teamand officials to arrive in Australia one week later than scheduled. Both the Peo~

pIe's Republic of China and the island nation of Taiwan (Formosa) had beenrecognised by the IOC in 1954 but tension between these two China's was sogreat that mainland China withdrew from the Games.50

Throughout these conflicts Australian Olympic officials implored nations andathletes to come to Melbourne to ensure the real spirit of the Olympic Gameswould triumph. Intemationally, Otto Mayer and Avery Brundage also exhortedathletes and governments to keep politics out of the Olympic Games, and not todeny the Olympic Movement fulfilling its humanitarian role in the interests ofworld peace and international goodwilL

Withdrawals by nations in October and early November caused some organ~

isational problems. The number of athletes was reduced considerably: onlyeighty of the ninety-one National Olympic Committees sent invitations to par~

ticipate were accepted; eleven of those countries subsequently withdrew(People's Republic of China, Egypt, Gold Coast, Guatemala, the Netherlands,Iraq, Lebanon, Malta, Panama, Spain and Switzerland). Ultimately, Melbournehosted 67 nations with 2,813 male and 371 female competitors - a total of 3184athletes.51

The USA and the USSR emerged from the Second World War as duelling su~

perpowers and, for many, the supremacy of their ideologies would be tested onthe international sporting arenas. Although there is much more known now about

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the "Cold War", those present at the Olympic Games in Melbourne seemed \0

embody the spirit of an "Olympic truce", especially in relation to the athletesfrom the USSR. It was clear from the cheer::; and encouragement of Ihe hugecrowds in the main stadium that the efforts of VJadmir Kuts and the many suc­cessful Soviet women athletes in the field events were appreciated. The magnifi­cence of the male and female gymnasts from Russia, who won eight individualand two team gold medals, also enthralled the many spectator" at the West Mel­bourne Stadium.

There was an infamous incident in the semiAinal of the men's waterpolo matchbetween Hungary and the USSR. The Hungarians were leading 4-0 in the secondhalf when two members of the USSR team taunted the Hungarians by repeatedlycalling them "fascists". At one stage the referee had ordered five players out ofthe water for punching, kicking and scratching. Although clearly an exaggera~

tion, a newspaper reported that the pool was like a "bloodbath" after ValentineProkopov swam to Ervin Zador of Hungary and punched him the eye while theball was at the other end of the pool.S2 As Zador clambered from the pool withblood streaming from his eye, the Swedish referee abandoned the match, declar­ing Hungary the winners. The crowd was incensed at the behaviour of the Sovietlearn and only the appearance of police, who had been waiting out of sight, pre­vented a riot from developing.

On the other hand, not even the notorious ten feet high barbed-wire fence sepa­rating the men's and women's residences in the segregated Olympic Villagecould prevent the blossoming romance of a Czechoslovakian and an American.Discus thrower Olga Fikoto\la and hammerthrower Harold ConnoUy, gold me­dallists in their respective events, later married in Prague.

Television

The IOC only began to recognise in the mid-19S0s the fmancial opportunitieswhich might flow from the sale of television rights, although Avery Brundageremained cautious and uncertain of its impact on the "spirit" of the OlympicGames. In December 1955, The MOC received tenders from four overseas com­panies for exclusive newsreel and television rights, with one London broadcasteroffering 25,000 pounds sterling.53 However, by April 1956, none of the televi­sion companies were prepared to pay for television rights to cO'ler the Gamesbecause of a conflict over the distinction of what constituted a "news item" andan "entertainment package".s4 During a meeting in New York in July, KentHughes offered newsreel companies coverage of three minutes per day, morethan what had been used at the Helsinki 0lympics.55 However, American televi­sion newsreel interests requested three minutes for each of the three news ses­sions - a total of nine minutes. The MOe ascertained that "no television enter-

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tainment departments and no film entrepreneurs would be interested in Olympiccoverage if more than the three minutes per day were granted to the newsreels".56Subsequently, newsreel comp<:mies and international television networks boy­cotted the Melbourne Olympics. The MOC decided on the production of a 16mm colour plus a black and white film, thereby satisfying the requirements of therOc, and a French film unit also undertook to make a feature-length wide-screencolour film. 57

Television transmission in Australia from stations in Melbourne ;lnd Sydneybegan only weeks before the commencement of the Games. Agreements hadbeen made for local stations to televise from any site where seating hnd beenfully sold~ since the Mai.n Stadium and many other venues fitted this category,the television companies were given the rights to televise daily. The charge forthis live coverage, the first for a host nation, was a "nominal payment" to theMOC because there were only approximately 5,000 television sets in opera­tion.58 It is believed these were the first Olympic Games to have full televisioncoverage to the host community, albeit to a relatively small local audience.59

More than 20 hours of coverage per day for ten of the fifteen days of the Gameswere provided by the three television stations (GTV9, HSV7 and ABV2) toviewers in the State of Victoria. Sydney and parts of New South Wales receivedtelevision coverage each night when the 16 mm films of the day's events wereflown to Sydney each night.

The Opening and Closing Ceremonies,with some highlights in between

Athletes from Greece entered the stadium on the day of the Opening Ceremonyto the cheers of over 100,000 spectators. Australian junior-mile record holder,Ron Clarke, was the last of 3,500 torch bearers; the first relay runner on the hostnation's soil was an Australian-born Greek, the second an Australian aborigine.60

When John Landy, the great sub-four minute miler and then world-record holderfor that distance, pronounced the Olympic Oath, his version was different fromthe one printed in the programs. Landy was advised that the text, in bold print,would be on the lectern. It wasn't; fortunately, he had written a rough copy outon a small card which he pulled from his pocket.61

Overall, thirty-six. Olympic and eleven world records were broken in track andfield events which were dominated by the USA. Bobby Morrow became a triplegold-medaUi.st by winning the sprint double and anchoring the 4 x 100 metrerelay; Ira Murchison, Leamon King, Thane Baker and Morrow broke the worldrecord. In the 110 metreS hurdles both Lee Calhoun and Jack Davis recorded thesame time of 13.5 seconds; Calhoun was awarded the gold and Joel Shankl camethird, giving the USA a triple. Americn gained a double after a great struggle in

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the decathlon between the current world·record holder Rufer Johnson and MiltonCampbell.

Au"tralian athletes won a total of 13 gold medals - their best ever perform­ance. Australia's "golden girl" was Betty Cuthbert, who won three gold medalsIn the lOa and 200 metres and the record-breaking relay. Shirley Strickland, amember of that relay team, also retained the title of Olympic champion from1952 when she won the 80 metres hurdles in Melbourne in the world record timeof 10.7 seconds. Ireland's Ron Delany beat John Landy in the glamour in the1500 metres. Landy, who had become the second person to break the four­minute mile two years earlier, gained n bronze medal. A strategy of varying pacewas successful for USSR distance runner Vladimir Kuts in both the 5,000 and10,000 metres. After coming second to Emil Zatopek in the ma.rathons of 1948and 1952, Algerian Alain Mimoun, wearing number 13 on his French teamsinglet, won in 2 hours 25 minutes.

Dawn Fraser, making her Olympic debut, and other Australians "scooped thepool" in swimming. Murray Rose won three and Jon Henricks two gold medals,respectively. Their race in the 800 metre relay fma!, with John Devitt and KevinO'Halioran as team-mates, against the USA resulted in a world record time of 8minutes 23.6 seconds. American Pat McConnick, performing in an encloseddiving pool for the fust time at an Olympics, became the first diver ever to winconsecutive gold medals in both the springboard and tower events.

A feature of the Closing Ceremony has become a symbol of the Olympic phi­losophy of intemationalism and goodwill. At the Opening Ceremony andthroughout the Games, athletes, particularly medallists, were identified by na­tion. The idea for a different Closing Ceremony was outlined in a letter from aseventeen year-old Chinese-Australian, John Ian Wing, which wag recei...'ed bythe Chainnan of the MOe, Kent Hughes, on the Wednesday of the final week ofthe Games. Wing, wrote:

"The march I have in mind is different than the one during the Opening Ceremony andwill make these games even greater, during the march there will only be I NATION.War, politics and nationality will be all forgotten, what more could anybody want, ifthe whole world could be made as one nation. Well, you can do it in a small way. [...]no team is to keep together and there should be no more than 2 team mates together,they must be spread out evenly, THEY MUST NOT MARCH but walk freely and waveto the public, let them walk around twice on the cinder, when they stOp the public willgive them three cheers [...]. It will show the whole world how friendly Australia is.,,62

Arrangements for Wing's modifications were only endorsed by (he MOC andthe IOC on the day before the Closing Ceremony, with permission from the IOCPresident, arrangements were endorsed. The Official Report of the Games de­scribed the occasion:

''Then the climax, with its stunning impact on the imagination of the people, a pro­phetic image of a n.ew futme for mankln.d - the tllhlttes of the world not now sharplydivided, nation by nation, but in this Closing Ceremony of comradeship, marching as

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one in a hotchpotch of sheer humanity, ["j. It was n chaos of friends impacted into anlflSS, a fiesta of friendship[ .. ,j :'63

Wing's vision of Olympism has become a tradition of the Closing Ceremony ofthe Olympic Games,M

For many Australians, as welt a::; visitor'::> to the first Olympic Games in thesouthern hemisphere, the 1956 Melbourne Games were an opportunity to reallycomprehend the dictum, "It's not the winning but the taking part". Despitestrained relationships between the organisers and the IDe, political tensionsthroughout the world in the months leading up to the Olympics, they tfllly de­serve to have become known as the "Friendly Games",

Notes

The Argus, Melbourne, as cited in H. GORDON, Australia and the Olympic Games,

5t Lucia 1994, p. 27.2 The Referee, Sydney, February 21, 1906, p. 8.3 For further information about Australia's efforts to host an Olympic Games, see

1. JOBLlNG, "Olympic Proposals and Bids by Australian Cities", in: Sporting Tradi­tions - Journal of the Australian Society for SportS History 11(1994)1, pp. 37-56.

4 Age, Melbourne, February 7,1946, p. 19.5 The meeting was held on June 21, 1946; the vac did not hold meetings during the

period of the Se,\:()\\d World War. G. LOMAS, The Will 10 Win: the Story oj Sir FrankBeaurepairc, Melbourne 1960; Age, June 24, 1946, p. 5,

6 Minutes of the Victorian Olympic Council, June 21,1946.7 MELBOURNE INVITATION COMMITfEE, Invitation to the International Olympic

Committee, 1949, n.p, The original and additional copies were bound in either suedeor merino lamb's wool. The Invitation Book also claimed that Melbourne's bid hadthe "active interests of all athletic organisations, government and the people",

g Melbourne Invi.tation Committee. Arthur S. Drakeford, Mini.ster for Air amI CivilAviation, was even more optimistic (if not diplomatic) about the reduction in flyingtime. In a letter in the Invitation Book, dated March 22, 1949, he wrote: "[...1 theQantas Empire Airways Constellation Service travel to London from Sydney in 51hours flying time"[...]. There can be no doubt that, by 1956, Australia will be within30 hours or so travel by luxurious airliners from practically any palt of the civilisedworld."

9 The main contenders were Detroit and Los Angeles.10 Correspondence from Otto Mayer, IOC Chancellor, to Australian Olympic Federa­

lion, May 12, 1949. rOC Ardtlves, Lam.anne.II MELBOURNE INVITATION COMMITTEE, XVI Olympiad - 1956 Melbourne's Plan, n.p.

The twO additional stadin were for swimming and diving, with accommodation for10,000 and 12.000 spectators, respectively.

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12 The balance was to be financed by the Victorian government and the MelbourneCity Council. There was an agreement to share proflls and losses, the State SavingsBank 0/ Victoria guaranteed one million pounds to cover staging costs. FinancingHIe Athletes Village w,lS resolved by Yictmi,\ being granted an "rlvance of Com­momveallh Stme Housing Agreeme11l funds to erect a cheap public housing estate inthe suburb of Heidelberg.

13 MELBOURNE INVITATION COMMITTEE, Inviuuion to the International OlympicCommiuee, G. W. Green & Sons Pty Ltd, 1949, p. 41.

14 The Olympic Games/or 1956: a brie/summary for members on the position 10 dme.This document was signed "F.B:' and was dated November 14, 1949. laC Archives,Lausanne.

15 Harold Luxton, Report to the laC, May 1950, p. 3 [Typed, roneoed, dated May 10].IOC Archives, Lausanne.

16 Enclosed newspaper clipping (n.d.) with letter (October 8, 1952) from Mayer toBrundage. laC Archives, Lausanne.

17 Kent Hughes, personal correspondence (March 31, 1953) to Harold Alderson. Na­tiona! Library Canberra - Australia Mss Collection 4856, Sir W. Kent Hughes Series1.

18 Otto Mayer, correspondence (December 3, 1953) to Angelo Bolanaki.19 Sigfrid Edstrom - correspondence (Decembe-r 7, 1953) to OUo Mayer. IOC Archi­

ves, Lausanne.20 I am grateful to several members of the Cenlre for Olympic Siudies at the Olympic

Museum, Lausanne, for their assistance with the tronslation of the Bolanaki lettersand other correspondence written in French.

21 Letter from Angelo Bolanaki to Edstrom, October 1J, 1953. Bolanaki was preparingbackground material to be circulated to members of the roc; he concluded, "I findmyself abhorred where 1 am in the middle of completing my report on the GameS inMelbourne. Up until today I have been unable to find any point which would permitthe lac to maintain the Games in Melbourne." laC Archives, Lausanne.

22 Letter from Mayer to Brundage, October 2, 1953. roc Archives. Lausanne.23 Letter from Massard to :Mayer, October 23, 1953. IOC Archives, Lausanne.24 Letter from Bolanaki to Mayer, October 24, 1953. roc Archives, Lausanne.25 Mayer's reply to Bolanaki, October 27, 1953. laC Archives, Lausanne. Mayer's

comment regarding the English pertains to the support given to the Australians byLord Burghley. Mayer wrote: "1 read yesterday in a newspaper that Lord Burghleyhad made a statement to the press - in response to Mr .Massard's statement whichshared your opinion -proposing that equestrian sports be allocated to another city inEurope. No more, no less and in contradiction to our rules!! Why do we have rules ifwe continue to violate like we do so frequently?"

26 Letter from Bolanaki to Mayer, November 2, 1953. JOe Archives, Lausanne.27 Lener from Bolanaki to Mayer, December 23, 1953. laC Archives, Lausanne. In a

postscript to this letter, Bolanaki wrote: "Please note that no other city in Europecould organise the Games of \956. I found out the City of LA will lodge its candida-

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lUre for these Games at the session in Athens. I also found out that no work has beenundertaken by Melbourne concerning the prepnriltions of these Gnmes and this isfundamentnlly good news."

28 Lelter from Brundage to Balanaki, December 28.1953. roc Archives, Lausnnne.Bnmdage was grateful far Bolannki's efforts; he concluded: ''Thank you for hnvingassemb\e(\ all the :mpporting data \0 supplement your well documented arguments,which are logical and convincing."

29 At the 39th IOC Session io Athens, May 11-15, Bolanaki argued that if the JCCdecided to give the equestrian events to another city, two laC rules would be viola­ted. After much discussion Lord Burghley proposed that the Olympics should re­main in Melbourne but that the Australialls forgo the equestrian ever1ts. ThO' votewas in favour of Burghley's motion (30 - 12, with 1 abstention). See W. LYBERG,The JOe Sessions, 1894~J955, Vol. 1, p. 306.

30 The special meeting of the Executive Committee was scheduled for JanllaJY 16,1954.

31 Letter from Burghley to Brundage, February 26, 1953. IOC Archives, Lausanne.Burghley wrote: "Fut'ther to my cable last week on the subject of Melbourne, theview that the four International Olympic Committee members take is that the questi­ons of the time of year, inconvenience, and expense of going to Melbourne were allfully discussed when they were given the Gnmes [."J. In the circumstances, we natu­rally feel that full support should be given to them by the International OlympicCommittee."

32 Correspondence from Mayer to Brundage, February I, 1954, IOC Archives, Lau­sanne. Mayer wrote: "(...1 received tltis morning a letter from the IEF signed by Ba­ron de Trannoy, I wrote to him after our meeting <lsking his opinion aboul the eque­strian events being eventuaHy organised in Rome during the 1956 Games. I told Ba­ron de Trnnnoy it was not official at all for the moment, but that it would be goodfor the IOC 10 know his opinion in advance before any decision being taken. I amglad that 1 did so. as the letter of the FEI says clearly that it is absolutely out of thequestion 10 organise those events at any time in winter. Horses need, like any athle­te, at least 3 months training, sho\.lld it be only for the 35 km race which take5 place5on the second day, including a steeple of 4000 metres and a crOSS country of 8000metres. Therefore, if in Athens we give the equestrian events 10 another city thanMelbourne, we must take into consideration that they can be organised only insummer".

33 As reported in a letter from Brundage to Mayer, March 19, 1954, JOC Archives,Lausanne.

34 Australia sent its first-ever equestrian team to Stockholm.35 Brundage wrote "1 kJlOW now how necessary my trip to Australia was". Correspon­

dence from Brundage to Mayer, May 21,1955. IOC Archives, Lausanne.36 Correspondence from Brundage to Mayer, May 21, 1955. laC Archives, Lausanne.37 A. GUTIMAN, The Games Must Go 011. AvelY Brundage alld rhe Olympic Move·

ment, New York 1984, p. 159,

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38 COlTespondence from Mayer to Brundage, July 18, 1956. IOC Archives, Lausanne.39 Correspondence from Brundage to Mayer, August 3, 1956. IOC Archi'les, Lnu­

sanne. On August 6, 1956 BnlllJage wrote again to Mayer in the same vein: "TIlank

you for your batch of letters and newspaper clippings which arrived this morning.So much aJo about nothing. What it waste of time and energy. Your 4.-page reply toKent Hughes is a m1\sterpiece. BT<ivo! [...J." The following p:lragraph is tnken from alclter to Lewis Luxton: "Ouo Mayer should not be criticised for his Press release. Ifyou had seen the stories appearing in newspapers all over the world, you would haverealised the necessity for it. I approved it in advance, and I must say it would havebeen even sharper in had released it. The attacks on the committee were scandalousand I have never been subjected to such rude, uncouth and iJl-m:mnered abuse."

40 Brundage to Mayer, May 30, 1955. roc Archives, Lausanne. Although not comple­tely accurate in acknowledging titles to his hosts, Brundage was clearly enthusiastic:"The US-Ambassador Peasle arranged a special dinner with Prime Minister Menziesin Canberra. I saw Governor General Field Marshall Sir William Joseph Slim ofAustralia, His Excellency General [sic - Governor] Sir Dallas-Brookes and Gover­

nor [sic - Premier] Cain of Victoria".41 P. HARPER, The Suez Crisis, London 1986, pp. 10-12.42 Sydney Morrling Herald, November 5,1956.43 This was the amount of money saved by not competing in Melbourne.44 Sydney Morning Herald, N01/ember 8, t 956.45 Sydney Morning Herald, November 8, 1956. Although there was no specific reason

sti.pulated in the official notice of withdrawal by Spain, it was hinted fuat Spaniardswould not wish to fraternise in Melbourne with participants from communist nati­onS.

46 Telegram (November 7, 1956) Mayer to Jean Weymann, Secretary-General, SwissOlympic Committee; letter (November 9,1956) to Henninger, Geneva from Mayer;letter (November 26, 1956) from Antoine Hafner to Otto Mayer; letter (November27,1956) from Mayer to Hafner. IOC Archives, L8usanne.

47 Sydney Morning Herald, November 10, 1956, p. 5,43 Sydney Moming Herald, November 13,1956, p. 1.49 HARPER, The Suez Crisis, pp. 10-12.50 In a letter (October 28, 1956) from Otto Mayer to Kent Hughes he advised: "We

have received a protest from Peking China against the participation of Fonnose [sic]China in the Games [...]. Mind that the two Chinese teams are nol too near eachother in the Olympic Village." See also M. WELTER, Die Frage der VertretuIIg Chi­nas im imernationalen Sport \Ion 1949 bis zur Gegenwart Unler besonderer Be­riicksichtigullg der Olympischen Spiele, Staatsarbeit KOln, 1980.

51 TI-IE ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Of THE XYJ OLYMPIAD, Iv1ELBOIJRNE, 1956 (ed.), TheOfficial Report of the Organizing Committee of the XV! Oiympiad Melbourne 1956,Melboume 1958, p. 261 .

52 Sydney Morning Herald, December 7,1956.53 Sydney Morning Herald, December 9, 1955, p. 15.

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54 Sydney Morning Herald, April 5, 1956, p. J.55 Hughes was aware Ihm an average of two minutes of newsreel per day had been

used during the 1952 Helsinki Olympics. 1'1-IE ORGANIZING COMMITTEe OF THE XVIOLYMPIAD, MELBOURNE, 1956 (ed.), Ojjiciu! Report, p. \56.

56 THE ORGANIZING COMMtTrEE OF THE XVI OLYMPIAD, MELBOURNE, 1956 (cd.), Offi­cial Report, p. 156; Letter (December 19, 1956) fmm Kent Hughes ,0 Otto M"yer,Chancellor, IOC.

57 Minutes of the Organising Committee for the XVlth Olympiad, August 31, 1956 pp.I -2. For funher discussion about television and film rights, see TI-IE ORGANlZING

COMMITTEE or THE XVI OLYMPIAD, MELBOURNE, 1956 (ed.), Official Report, pp.156-158; St. WENN, "Lights! Camera! LillIe Action: Television, Avery Brund.,ge,and the 1956 Melbourne Olympics", in: Sporting TraditiOl/s - Journal of theAU$lr(lJian Society for Sports HhlOry, 10( \993)1, pp. 38-53.

58 THE ORGANIZING COMMITTEE OF THE XV! OLYMPIAD, MELBOURNE, 1956 (cd.), Offi­cial Report, p. 160. III a unique arrangement, GTV9 and Ampol PetroLeum joinedforces to turn Ampol petrol stations into "television theatres" for people who did nothave access to television sets in family homes. Community hnUs were nlso utjjisedand many charity organisations contacted GTV9 and Ampol for permission to char­ge admission fees. Age, MeLbourne, October 19, 1956, p. 1.

59 Age, Melbourne, November 19,1956, p. 3.60 MOC Olympic Newsletter No. 18., OClober 24,1956. p. I. The aeroplane carrying

the Olympic Flame landed in Darwin, then flew on to Cairns, wheIe the Torch Relayrun commenced.

61 Personal interview with John Landy, July, 1988.62 The 3-page hand-written letter, owned by the National Library, is displayed in the

A.ustralian Gallcry of Sport and Olympic Museum, which is located in the 1956Olympic Stadium, now better known as the MeG - the Melboume Cricket Ground.

63 THE ORGANIZING COMMITrEE OF THE XVI OLYMPIAD, MELBOURNE, 1956 (ed.), Offi-cial Report. p. 26.

64 In the ]960 Rome Olympics athletes again entered the stadium in national teams; atthe conclusion of all Olympic Games since then has been a mingling of athletesfrom all nations.

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