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Stop Motion ProductionRobbie Hickman

+Stop MotionDefinition Stop Motion is defined as an animation technique that is

utilized with the purpose of creating the illusion of movement. The technique has been employed by filmmakers in order to create the impression that objects, puppets etc. (which are unable to move by themselves) are actually moving on their own. To accomplish the illusion of movement, the object or person is moved (or modified in regard to clay animation) incrementally and a series of successive images are captured, each one depicting the object or person in alternating positions between each shot. This series of frames is then played as a continuous, uninterrupted sequence with a smooth flow of action, thus creating the appearance of motion. The amount of frames taken can vary depending on the length of the scene, however the number of frames tends to be fairly high (with over a hundred images needed). The frames are also viewed in a rapid sequence so that the producer can remove the presence of still images, therefore ensuring that the illusion of movement is maintained throughout. In essence, this animation technique enables filmmakers to bring inanimate objects to life.

• The technique can also apply to dolls, puppets, household appliances and even people.

+Early Moving ImageZoopraxiscope The Zoopraxiscope is an early projection device that was utilized with

the primary purpose of projecting sequences of still images in rapid succession, thus creating the appearance of a moving image. First shown in 1879, the Zoopraxiscope functioned by projecting multiple photographs of a specific subject, which were painted onto rotating glass disks with a certain degree of precision to ensure that the subject appeared as convincing as possible. The stop-motion images usually took the form of silhouettes; the possible reason behind this might have been to avoid any visible differences in regard to the images shown on the glass; it may have been difficult to create a series of detailed and nearly identical images at the time and if any significant differences were present, the sense of continuity regarding the moving image would be broken. The Zoopraxiscope was invented by British photographer Eadweard Muybridge in the same year it was shown for the first time (1879) and was initially devised with the sole purpose of proving Muybridge’s theory regarding pictures of a galloping horse. Muybridge intended to show that, within a brief moment in time, all four of the horse’s hooves left the ground during its gallop. As of the present day, the Zoopraxiscope is considered by many to be the world’s first motion picture projector, therefore it is a highly influential device. Sequences of rapid movement could be projected onto a screen for the first time. As such, the device represents a pivotal moment in the history of moving image, primarily because it laid the foundation for the development of motion picture throughout the following century. With the Zoopraxiscope, Muybridge was able to conduct experiments using images depicting a wide range of animals in motion, particularly horses, birds, antelopes, elephants etc.

+Early Moving ImagePhenakistoscope The Phenakistoscope was an early animation device that utilized the ‘Persistence of

Vision’ principle in order to establish an eloquent illusion of motion. Invented by Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau in 1832, the Phenakistoscope was structured in a somewhat unique manner; it consisted of two spinning cardboard disks, both of which were vertically attached to a handle and mounted on the same axis. A series of equally spaced slots were placed on the edges of the first disk, whereas the second disk consisted mainly of images depicting sequences of action. These images were accurately sketched onto the disk. In order to view the single moving image (which was generated by spinning the disks so that the images became distorted), a person will have been required to peer into the moving slits in the first disk. As opposed to spinning in two different directions at once, both disks spun in the same direction and at the same time, thus creating the successful appearance of movement via the synchronization of the slots and the pictures on the device. Although the images presented on the device were discrete, they were still closely related and many animators were not required to produce anything which gave a realistic representation at the time.

The Phenakistoscope is described as an animation device, and is also considered one of the earliest forms of entertainment in relation to moving image as a whole. It essentially paved the way for the development of motion picture, as well as the film industry throughout the years. The device only enables one person at a time to view the moving image; the reason for this is the structure of the Phenakistoscope. The user is required to peer into a viewing mirror, through which the images are shown in rapid succession (as shown in the image in the top right-hand corner). The Phenakistoscope was clearly unique at the time, primarily because it enabled artists to create illusions and achieve a comedic effect depending on the nature of the subject which could have been a human face, an animal, a dancing couple or an individual playing a particular sport e.g. football.

+Early Moving Image Zoetrope A Zoetrope is described as one of three optical devices (with the other two devices

being the Phenakistoscope and the Thaumatrope) which displays a series of pictures or drawings in order to create a moving image that represents specific phases of motion in a simple manner. It consists solely of a spinning cylinder with vertical slits in its sides, all of which are spaced evenly around the device. The cylinder’s inner surface consists of a series of sequential images that are shown in rapid succession when the cylinder spins, producing the illusion of motion. In order to view the moving image on the inner surface, the user peers through the slits and at the interior of the device as it spins. If the cylinder is spun faster, the progression of the moving image appears smoother as opposed to the image becoming blurred (this is the case with the Phenakistoscope)

The Zoetrope was invented by William Horner in 1834, who referred to the device as a ‘wheel of the devil’. Like its predecessor, the Phenakistoscope, the Zoetrope also employs the ‘Persistence of Vision’ principle to establish motion. This clearly shows that Horner was influenced by the Phenakistoscope and sought to create a device that would not only go on to become a successor to the Phenakistoscope, but also play an important role in regard to the gradual development of the motion picture over time. However, despite being similar to the Phenakistoscope, the Zoetrope seemed to build upon the aspects of the latter device i.e. offering a few improvements. For example, it has been stated that more than one individual can use the Zoetrope i.e. peer through the slits to see the moving image as opposed to the Phenakistoscope which only enabled one person to use it at a time. This shows that the Zoetrope has a unique design. In addition to this, the Zoetrope features pictures, sketches etc. on a paper strip rather than a disc. This is quite beneficial as it enables the artist to create images which are highly visible and not just mere silhouettes (this was the case with the Zoopraxiscope). Also, the Zoetrope did not require a viewing mirror for one person to peer into.

+Muybridge Eadweard Muybridge (9 April 1830 – 8 May 1904) was an English

photographer and a pioneer in the studies of motion, as well as the development of motion picture projection in the 1880s decade. Born at Kingston Upon Thames, England, he immigrated to the United States and became a successful bookseller. Later on, he established himself as a full-time photographer and captured landscape photographs. His reputation as a photographer eventually grew until he began employing techniques which had never been utilized before in photography. One of his techniques involved capturing multiple images of galloping horses to show motion. This was accomplished through the use of the zoogyroscope (which later became known as the zoopraxiscope), a fast camera shutter which Muybridge developed. The techniques employed by Muybridge mostly involved depicting sequences of movement within multiple photographs; this was accomplished through usage of multiple cameras which projected a series of images, each one depicting alternating phases of movement. A good example of how this technique was used is the manner in which Muybridge captured a dozen photographs of a galloping horse. Muybridge was then able to produce the illusion of motion in these images by utilizing a fast-shutter speed and an alternate photographic process. As a result, Muybridge was able to drastically reduce the exposure time of his images and create the appearance of a trotting horse which astonished those who saw it; the most likely reason for this is because the public had not yet seen a moving image before due to the fact that they were living in a time period where technology was not as enhanced as it is in the present day and that people could not yet make sense of the details regarding fast-motion. It has been stated that the human eye is unable to resolve the specific details of fast-motion unaided. The techniques Muybridge employed were quite difficult to accomplish at the time, primarily because of the nature of old-fashioned cameras. He could only produce indistinct photographs, however he was able to prove his own theory that all of the horse’s hooves leave the ground at once during its gallop.

+Muybridge (part 2) Throughout his career, Muybridge developed this technique and produced a series of influential

images depicting not only horses, but also a wide range of other animals (most notably birds) in motion. This project, titled ‘the 781 Plates of Animal Locomotion’ utilized an innovative gelatin dry-plate process and would also go on to contribute to research in medicine, sport, anthropology etc. Of the 781 photographs produced by Muybridge, only 200 depicted animals in motion. The other 581 pictures depicted humans in motion; Muybridge would photograph a variety of movements in order to create motion within his images. Muybridge was also required to direct his subjects, most of whom were males. This explains why Muybridge’s images contributed to research regarding things like anthropology, which is the study of humankind (most notably their cultures and development). The majority of his images depicted people in motion and also sparked a great deal of controversy because most of his subjects were nude as well as clothed. Overall, Muybridge clearly had a keen interest in photography, as well as its positive impact on society, technological innovation and ongoing research into medicine and anthropology. He was intrigued with the thought of capturing motion within his images.

Known as the ‘Father of the Motion Picture’, Muybridge is widely recognized as one of the most important individuals in the history of moving image. He is described as ‘the bridge between still photography and recorded movement’. The motion-sequence still photographic experiments he conducted essentially laid the foundation for cinema as a whole; the ‘Horse In Motion’ which was produced in 1882 is regarded as the first moving picture in history. Muybridge’s work would later inspire other inventors later on, most notably Etienne-Jules Marey, a physiologist who dedicated his own life mainly to monitor the external motions of the human body as well as the laws that governed actions such as these. The camera used by Marey throughout his career (which was modified by one of his assistants) was the forerunner of the motion picture camera invented by Muybridge. The fast-shutter speed in Marey’s camera enabled him to photograph projectiles e.g. bullets or flying birds. Muybridge is also considered highly important in regard to the motion picture industry as cinematography as shown in the present day has developed from the experiments he conducted throughout his career.

+Persistence of VisionDefinition ‘Persistence of Vision’ is a common theory that concerns the

complex abilities of the human mind and eye, specifically in regard to viewing a moving image, whether it be a film in the present day or a series of images on a traditional device such as the Zoopraxiscope, amongst a variety of other factors involving motion. Referred to as an optical phenomenon, the ‘Persistence of Vision’ theory states that the naked eye possesses the unique ability to retain an image (or a set of images) even after a fraction of a second (0.04 of a second) has passed after the image disappears and/or a new image takes its place. As a result, multiple individually distinct images appear to blend into one single image and, as our minds form a mental bridge in order to comprehend the gaps between the frames that make up a moving image on a subconscious level (whilst we are seeing it), an illusion of continuity is established. In essence, the viewer automatically interprets a rapid sequence of alternating images as a single, continuous moving image.

Although this theory is commonly accepted, it is considered highly controversial by some individuals, primarily because the ‘Persistence of Vision’ principal within any moving image could interfere with people on a subconscious level. Nevertheless, the illusion of movement within any film or device tends to be smooth, lifelike and coherent for the viewer(s).

+Willis O’Brien Willis H. O’Brien (March 2, 1886 – November 8, 1962) was an American special effects innovator

who is most famous for his work on animating the 1933 American Pre-Code monster film King Kong, which is considered to be the greatest horror film of all time (according to film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes). The film revolves around a gigantic, prehistoric ape who seeks to possess a young woman. It became well-known due to its ground-breaking special effects, most notably stop-motion animation, rear projection and utilization of miniature models. Created by O’Brien, these models would represent the different phases of movement in regard to the character of King Kong, thus showing that a rapid sequence of images could be used to create the terrifying illusion of gigantic characters which could appear on-screen for the first time thanks to O’Brien. He formerly had a career as a draftsman, as well as a sports cartoonist and a sculptor. The latter two job roles O’Brien had could be the likely reason behind his eventual decision to pursue a career in animation, which eventually led to him creating pioneering special effects for films later on, most notably ‘The Lost World’ (1925) and ‘Mighty Joe Young’ (1949). After producing his first film ‘The Dinosaur and the Missing Link: A Prehistoric Tragedy’, O’Brien was hired by American filmmakers to animate a series of prehistoric short films, all of which utilized similar themes, as well as animation techniques, to O’Brien’s first film. The techniques employed by O’Brien in order to create the appearance of movement primarily involved the construction and animation of miniature models e.g. dinosaurs as opposed to individuals or sketches played in a rapid sequence. In O’Brien’s case, miniature models of dinosaurs, cavemen etc. were used. Over the years, O’Brien contributed to the post-production process of many films, some of which became the first films to combine actors with immense models. Although O’Brien played important roles in the production of various films throughout his lifetime, King Kong is said to be his most remembered film. O’Brien’s technique mainly involved the animation of miniature figures and was highly innovative because it provided American filmmakers with a wide range of new opportunities, mainly the creation of ‘monstrous fantasies’. His pioneering efforts essentially opened up a huge range of possibilities regarding filmmaking as a whole and also had a significant impact on the nature of films, as well as the manner in which directors exploit a variety of unique techniques in order to enhance the visual quality of films.

O’Brien is considered ‘the father of stop-motion animation’ primarily due to the fact that he created some of the best-known images in cinema history, all of which would influence filmmakers in the years to come. However, his techniques and efforts seemingly went unnoticed during his lifetime, although his elaborate ideas and inventions were later realized and to this day, he is considered an inspiration to many, with some even referring to O’Brien as ‘a legend amongst horror, dinosaur and animation fans’.

+Ray Harryhausen Raymond Frederick Harryhausen (better known as Ray Harryhausen) (June 29, 1920 –

May 7, 2013) was an American-British animator and special-effects creator who was a pioneer in stop-motion animation. During the early years of his life, he conducted experiments with animation (particularly stop-motion) and used miniature figures representing the creatures from the 1933 film King Kong. Harryhausen was inspired by King Kong, as well as the animation techniques utilized by the pioneer model animator, Willis O’Brien specifically for the film. This clearly implies that the sole reason why Harryhausen decided to pursue a career in animation was because he saw the works of O’Brien and sought to refine O’Brien’s techniques over time, thus Harryhausen was influential because he attempted to perfect the works of a pioneer before him. Harryhausen eventually met O’Brien, who analysed and assessed the former’s animation techniques, subsequently urging him to improve his skills to a more professional standard. This almost implies that O’Brien acted as a mentor towards Harryhausen, and credence to this is strengthened by the fact that O’Brien also possessed a great deal of enthusiasm prior to beginning his career in animation.

Harryhausen animated a series of short films, which revolved around the technological development and usage of military equipment, whilst he fought for the United States Army during the course of World War II. It is very likely that the content of some of Harryhausen’s films was inspired by the events he witnessed as a soldier, particularly violence, fighting, comradery, lack of mercy and loss of hope. Therefore, Harryhausen applied some of the aspects of real-life events to his films and he will have been able to communicate the nature of the conflict via his animation techniques. Harryhausen’s first major film ‘Mighty Joe Young’ (1949), which was created by the exact same production team responsible for King Kong, had him working in a post-production role alongside O’Brien, who animated King Kong. This time around, O’Brien was the special effects supervisor and Harryhausen was hired as assistant animator to O’Brien in 1947. During his first film assignment, Harryhausen applied a great deal of creative ideas regarding the development of the characters within Mighty Joe Young in order to create dramatic effect. Around six years later in 1953, Harryhausen managed to obtain an important role in the post-production process for the 1953 Sci-Fi monster film ‘The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms’. This was the first film in which Harryhausen was placed in charge of all the stop-motion animation special effects. It was during the production of this film that Harryhausen created an innovative form of stop-motion which he referred to as ‘Dynamation’.

+Harryhausen (CONT.) Dynamation enabled filmmakers to insert live actors directly into the

action in order to interact with immense models animated by stop-motion for the first time. A three-dimensional effect was provided to the animations shown within the scenes of the film as a direct result, thus enhancing their visual quality. In essence, this new technique involved combining two or more live action plates (one representing an enlarged version of a miniature model and the other representing a sequence of live action) and a as a result, a vast array of opportunities were available in regard to what filmmakers could produce. The primary reason why Harryhausen’s work is memorable his because it enabled filmmakers to bring gargantuan figures e.g. mythical creatures or giants to life. He employed the ‘Dynamation’ technique in his future films; for example, ‘Jason and the Argonauts’ which was made in 1963, is considered famous due to its fight sequences involving skeleton warriors, which are also considered as ‘iconic’ by some.

Harryhausen’s final live-action film was Clash of the Titans (1981), which featured stop-motion special effects much like Harryhausen’s other films in the past. Following the distribution of this film, Harryhausen eventually retired and went to live with his family; he remained with his wife until his death in 2013 at the age of 92. His death was announced via social networking sites e.g. Facebook and Twitter by members of his family. When Harryhausen died, he clearly left behind a memorable legacy as many people consider him as having ‘enormous influence on today’s filmmakers’. Evidently, Harryhausen’s animation techniques inspired a wide range of filmmakers, most notably George Lucas, Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson and Tim Burton.

+Jan Svankmajer Jan Svankmajer (both 4th September 1934) is a Czech filmmaker and

surrealist animator. He was born in Prague, the capital city of Czechoslovakia, in the same year that the Czech Surrealist Group was formed. This is considered ‘coincidental’ by some because Svankmajer would become heavily involved with this newly-formed organization. The work Svankmajer has produced during his career as an animator and filmmaker is thought to be somewhat political in regard to content and narrative. His artistic development is said to have begun when he was only a child, at which point he was given a puppet theatre for Christmas. After graduating, Svankmajer gained a great deal of theatrical experience which he applied to his first film ‘The Last Trick’ (1964). This clearly shows that Svankmajer’s desire to pursue a career in filmmaking was influenced by theatre as a whole. He eventually became famous for his unique usage of animation techniques (particularly stop-motion). The techniques employed by Svankmajer were quite distinctive in comparison to the animation methods utilized by other individuals; Svankmajer clearly had a habit of creating humorous (and yet, also nightmarish) images for the entertainment of his audience. He also placed exaggerated sound effects, sequences of accelerated motion and the illusion of everyday objects coming to life with the obvious purpose of evoking humour (or disorientating the audience). His distinctive use of stop-motion can be seen in some of his works, particularly those involving eating scenes. For example, the 1992 short film ‘Food’ which was directed by Svankmajer consist of a wide range of strange effects. The film appears to examine the relationship people have with food; at the end of the ‘Breakfast’ sequence, a long queue of hungry individuals extending down the corridor is clearly focused on.

+Svankmayer (part 2) A somewhat humorous implication is created; the process of feeding

every single person in the corridor will clearly be very time-consuming. A strong sense of fatigue is also established. During the course of this scene, two men are shown sitting at a table at a time and one of them is forced to transform into a somewhat elaborate and slightly complicated breakfast dispenser after obtaining food from the previous person (who was also forced to turn into a dispenser in order to feed the person after him.) After feeding the next person who enters the room, the aforementioned man is allowed to leave whilst the other man (who obtained breakfast from him) turns into the dispenser and the cycle is implied to repeat itself again and again.

‘Food’ was described as ‘caustically witty but slight’ due to its content. However, there is an apparent lack of negativity in the reviews for the film in spite of the fact that the final segment (Dinner) features severed human organs as food. This shows that Svankmayer’s intentions were to experiment with stop-motion and create films that featured an exaggeration regarding what is possible in real-life, mainly for the entertainment of the audience. It was becoming increasingly obvious that filmmakers could bring whatever ideas they come up with (however warped) onto the screen and depict them via the stop-motion technique. However, his films have been described in the past as ‘surreal, grotesque and censor-baiting’, thus showing that Svankmayer and his works were considered controversial in the past.

+Pixilation Pixilation is a stop-motion animation technique which utilizes live actors as living stop-motion

puppets within animated films. A highly specialized form of animation, it mainly involves a camera being placed in a fixed position in order to prevent camera shake which could potentially result in discontinuity within the final sequence of moving image due to the presence of jarring cuts or ‘jumps’ which would most likely disorientate the viewer(s). A group of people (or a single person) would then proceed to pose in a certain manner with respect to what they intend to produce, changing their position ever-so-slightly between each individual shot whilst stood directly in front of the camera. After repeatedly posing during the capture of individual frames, the filmmakers would play the images (each depicting the actors in various positions) back on a computer in rapid succession, thus creating a sequence which gives the illusion of a moving image. The animation technique has been present for many years, with filmmakers utilizing it as far back as the 1910’s decade. The invention of pixilation is credited to Norman McLaren (April 11, 1914 – January 27, 1987), a Scottish/Canadian animator and filmmaker who pioneered a variety of animation techniques including hand-drawn animation, abstract film, graphical sound and drawn-on-film animation. McLaren’s work was made memorable by the fact that it would provide increased opportunities for combining and synchronizing animation with music and sound effects in the years to come, thus enhancing the quality of future films and ensuring that the overall process of post-production was more simple than it ever had been.

Pixilation is interesting because it enables a wide range of animators to create an almost surreal interpretation of real-life. The animation technique creates visual effects which exaggerate what is possible in the real world, essentially breaking the laws of physics on-screen and offering viewers a sense of escapism as a result. Meanwhile, the environment and live actors which are also depicted on the screen are real, therefore allowing the audience to associate the animation technique with the setting on a subconscious level. This increases the level of enjoyment for the viewer. Pixilation is also ideal for combining live actors with animated models, thus creating juxtaposition within a movie which employs pixilation to create animation. This helps the animator to establish an effect which does well to provide more for the audience to interact with. It is assumed that the majority of people will barely notice any significant differences between a film which features stop-motion and a film which employs pixilation. The main reason for this is because in regard to pixilation, people are used as opposed to puppets, clay or found objects. Many people consider pixilation to be far more difficult to pull off because it requires live actors to maintain a specific position for an extended period of time whilst pictures are taken of them incrementally. Therefore, the process of capturing the images necessary for the overall sequence is quite time-consuming, as well as tiring for the subject(s). A great deal of patience is required unlike stop-motion, thus putting the former animation technique at a slight disadvantage.

+Pixilation (part 2) Over the years, pixilation has managed to established itself as a style of

animation in its own right, having become well-known; for example, numerous movies, animated shorts, television shows, music videos and advertisements utilize pixilation for a wide range of purposes, whether it be to evoke humour or enhance the quality of a work. A good example of how pixilation has been used in relation to humour is the British animated short stop-motion adult comedy television series ‘Angry Kid’ which was created, written and directed by Darren Walsh who also voices the protagonist of the series. The series was produced by Aardman Animations and employed a combination of pixilation and stop-motion puppetry in order to animate the main character. The series was not animated through use of clay animation or ‘Claymation’, although it appears as though ‘Angry Kid’ is a model constructed out of clay (with an almost similar appearance to the characters Wallace and Gromit). This shows that filmmakers are also able to employ their own creative techniques in order to expand the wide range of possibilities which are available in regard to pixilation to enhance the appearance of their films. What makes this animation technique even more interesting is the fact that has also been used by well-established filmmakers and animators, particularly Jan Svankmajer. Svankmajer apparently utilized the technique in almost all of his films (including Food in 1992), however he had a tendency to create animations which appeared somewhat warped in nature, thus Svankmajer was thought to be a controversial individual. In spite of this, however, pixilation was able to retain its significance as a popular animation technique i.e. if people saw controversial films which featured a specific technique, they may refuse to view a film which clearly utilizes the same technique.

+Aardman Animations Aardman Animations Ltd. Is a pre-eminent British animation studio headquartered in Bristol, England. It

was founded 44 years ago in 1972 by Peter Lord and David Sproxton and is widely known for being responsible for the creation of animated films via a wide range of stop-motion animation techniques, particularly clay animation or ‘Claymation’, and has won four Oscars over the years. The studio initially took the form of a low-budget project; its two founders (Lord and Sproxton) intended to produce an animated motion picture so that they could ‘fulfil their dream’. This partnership helped to provide the BBC series with content to utilize within their programmes by creating a series of animated segments as well as a simple clay character called ‘Morph’. The creation of this character via Claymation is considered to be the duo’s first success because it became famous through its distribution on television, thus ensuring that a large group of people would realize the existence of the character. Although this character mainly appealed to younger audiences i.e. children, Lord and Sproxton mainly desired to create animations that would appeal to an adult audience. Over the years, the pair were able to expand on their techniques and make their way into the industry by applying animation segments to music videos and creating title sequences for films. As a result, the two of them were able to gain experience in the field of animation; they would later apply this to their work within television. It was at this point that Lord and Sproxton began employing additional animators whilst producing animated shorts for programmes on Channel 4.

Park and David eventually met English director and animator Nick Park, who joined Aardman in 1985 and helped them create the stop-motion Claymation short film ‘Creature Comforts’ which was initially intended as a segment for Channel 4. The development of ‘Creature Comforts’ proved to be a breakthrough for the newly-formed animation company because it managed to win an Oscar. Over the years, Aardman animations managed to gain a great deal of reputation worldwide, mainly due to the nature of the short films they produced with the help of Park. These short films utilized clay animation as a stop-motion technique to create scenes of action. This specific technique mainly involves the capture of individual images, each one depicting a miniature figure constructed out of a malleable substance in alternating positions e.g. different stages of walking or speaking. The use of a malleable substance can be considered beneficial for an animated film due to the fact that it is easy to shape the characters and live actors are generally not required to pose between shots as this would take a great deal of effort. The technique is also beneficial because it allows for a strong sense of freedom in regard to production; because the models and made out of a malleable material, the animators can stretch and squash them, altering their posture and facial expressions in the process. This technique was employed by Aardman Animations to create the British clay animation comedy series ‘Wallace and Gromit’ which was written and directed by Nick Park, who collaborated with Aardman Animations to produce the series. Therefore, Aardman Animations were the production studio responsible for bringing Park’s ideas to the big screen. Alongside DreamWorks Animations, they also created Wallace and Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit, a 2005 full-length feature film which utilized the same stop-motion technique which was used in the original series. The series focuses on the misadventures of Wallace, an eccentric inventor, and his pet dog/companion Gromit.

+Aardman Animations (part 2) The latter character is described as ‘silent, loyal and intelligent’ and does

not speak throughout the course of the series and the film, instead communicating via body language and facial expression. The series garnered approval from critics, becoming hugely successful and well-known, especially in Britain. Both Wallace and Gromit have become ‘positive icons of modern British culture’, thus allowing audiences to establish an emotional connection with them even though they are animated figures as opposed to real people on the screen. Another good example of the work accomplished by the studio is the 2000 stop-motion comedy film ‘Chicken Run’ which became Aardman’s first feature-length film, as well as the highest-grossing stop-motion animated film of all time (it grossed over $224 million). The film revolves around a band of chickens who make an attempt to escape the farm they are being kept at in order to avoid certain death at the hands of the owners. The film was directed by Nick Park and Peter Lord. Aardman Animations are also well-known for the unique manner in which they create stop-motion animation; the studio tends to utilize a style of stop-motion which is referred to as ‘painstakingly slow’, with just a few seconds of footage considered a good day’s work. This creates the impression that the process of constructing a film for this specific company is very time-consuming, with a great deal of patience being required to achieve a better end result. The studio clearly assume that the more time and effort they put into the production process of their films, the better the films will look upon completion.

+Visual style – Tim Burton Timothy Walter Burton (better known as Tim Burton) (Born: August 25, 1958)

is an American film director, writer and producer. He was born in Burbank, California to parents who had somewhat contrasting backgrounds; his mother was the owner of a gift shop and his father initially pursued a career in baseball. Burton apparently possessed a keen interest in film during his early years; as a teenager, he spent much of his spare time creating short films which employed various animation techniques and were sometimes silent i.e. no dialogue. Burton may have had a difficult upbringing as he was always an introspective person when he was younger. In other words, he was a broody individual who spent a fair amount of time examining his own thoughts and emotions. This implies that Burton was lonely during his education. His hobbies included painting, drawing and watching and making films. Later on, Burton would go on to pursue a career in character animation, which initially landed him a job role as an assistant animator. Burton also worked as a concept artist. In 1982, Burton produced his first animated short, ‘Vincent’ which was a black-and-white stop motion film. His next animated short film ‘Frankenweenie’ was released two years later in 1984. The latter film was also captured in black and white. Burton’s choice of tone and colour within his initial films resulted in a dark and menacing appearance in regard to the settings and characters, thus enabling him to establish the emotions of the characters and/or the nature of the locations depicted within the films. However, both ‘Vincent’ and ‘Frankenweenie’ have a grim feel to them, thus the overall experience for the viewer would not be entertaining. It is possible that Burton intended to communicate the darker aspects of life via his films, and credence to this statement is strengthened by the fact that Burton was a lonely individual and was miserable during his early years.

+Tim Burton (part 2) Burton is best known for creating films which appeared somewhat gothic in

regard to tone. The majority of the films he has created feature narratives which tend to employ core themes such as loss, obsession, desire and hope. These themes tend to be represented in a manner which can be considered slightly disturbing in his films, thus the films Burton created were thought to be ‘too dark and scary’ for younger audiences. As a direct result, Burton was fired by Disney, after which he pursued an opportunity to produce his own full-length film. In the years since, Burton has interacted with multiple film companies such as Warner Bros. and produced a wide range of films. Some of Burton’s most famous movies include Beetlejuice (1988), Batman (1989), Batman Returns (1992), Edward Scissorhands (1990) and Mars Attacks! (1996). Burton has stated that he was influenced by Dr. Seuss and Roald Dahl, both of whom were best known for writing and publishing children’s books which became highly popular upon publication. It is implied that Burton looked up to these authors and that the primary reason why he decided to create animations which appealed to young audiences is due to him being intrigued by children’s books when he was younger. Burton tends to utilize clay animation within his animated films, much like Nick Park employs the same technique in order to animate characters like Wallace and Gromit. In addition to this, Burton generally attempts to represent different time periods, particularly the mid 20th Century, through usage of lighting and colour (black and white) as well as different styles of clothing for characters (most notably clothes designed with black and white stripes).

+Audiences - Adult audience Family Guy is an American adult animated comedy television series that airs on the FOX television

network. The series was created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company in the year 1998, with the first appearance of the protagonists taking place on May 15 of the same year. The series is based within ‘Quahog’, a fictional city situated on Rhode Island. It mainly revolves around the adventures of a dysfunctional family called the Griffins (consisting of parents Peter and Lois, their three children Meg, Chris and Stewie, and their pet dog Brian, who is able to speak along with Stewie, even though the latter is only a baby). The sitcom primarily uses ‘cutaways’, a filmmaking technique which is the insertion of a shot into a continuous sequence of action, essentially ‘interrupting’ the flow of action in order to achieve comedic effect. This technique is present in almost every Family Guy episode. The series makes use of humorous visuals, as well as self-referential humour, in order to entertain the audience and keep them intrigued throughout the majority of each episode. The primary target audience for Family Guy is adults due to the presence of adult themes, profanity and graphic, sometimes over-the-top, violence and gore. The secondary audience for the series would most likely be young children because this age group is not the intended audience. The main reason for this is because children are more likely to be offended by the content of the series or become influenced in a negative manner; for example, children might assume that the use of profanity is okay.

The series has apparently gained controversy over the years, with some referring to it as ‘sick, twisted and politically incorrect’. Likewise, the series is highly indecent and tends to rely on ‘recycled humour’. The storytelling has been described as ‘thin with a loose plot’ and the repeated usage of the same editing technique (cutaway shot) has drawn criticism. However, the series has been ranked as one of the greatest cartoons of all time, with review aggregators referring to it as ‘breathtakingly smart, extremely funny and a pop culture-heavy masterpiece’. In order to obtain humorous visuals, a wide range of animation techniques are used, particularly Cel-Shading. This animation technique primarily revolves around the creation of 3D models which are edited via computer rather than been drawn by hand. This style of animation is beneficial because it results in a highly satisfying appearance in regard to the characters, as well as the location they are in. Therefore, the overall experience for the audience would be enhanced. This shows that the major reason why MacFarlane decided to animate Family Guy rather than film live action was aesthetics i.e. the look and visual style of the series. Three of the main characters of Family Guy (Peter, Brian and Stewie) are voiced by MacFarlane. The main reason behind MacFarlane’s decision to voice the characters himself is because he had a strong vision for them and he believed that only he could communicate the nature of his characters rather than someone else. MacFarlane tends to use his regular voice whilst voicing Brian, and puts on two different voices whilst playing Peter and Stewie. As a result, a strong sense of variety is established within the series. Additional voice actors (most notably Mila Kunis and Seth Green) were employed to voice other characters, particularly Lois and Meg who are female characters.

+Audiences - Children’s audience The Flintstones (1960 – 1966) is an animated television series which takes place in a

‘fantasy version’ of the Stone Age and depicts the lifestyles of cavemen characters who co-exist with long-extinct animals, particularly dinosaurs and sabre-tooth tigers in a time period which apparently features aspects of the mid-20th century e.g. restaurants, music and cars (albeit the fact that the vehicles depicted within the series are constructed out of stone and wood. In essence, the creators of the series have created ‘a 20th Century society within prehistory’. This clearly shows that the primary purpose of utilizing animation techniques rather than filming live actors was to achieve effects which could only be produced through animation, most notably the movement of the characters during a certain ordeal. The resulting effects could be quite entertaining for young children, therefore the planned, main target audience for ‘the Flintstones’ is young children aged 5-11 years. Another reason for the employment of animation techniques in this series was most likely to achieve things which cannot be achieved in real-life.

The Flintstones is best known as ‘the first animated primetime American TV series’, as well as its combination of two different time periods: the Stone Age and modern civilization. This helps the animators to create juxtaposition within each episode; the effect created could be highly entertaining for young children. In order to create the series, the animators utilized a specific technique; rather than animating 3D computer-generated models, the animators drew the characters by hand and will have played each image in rapid succession so that they could create movement, as well as facial expressions. This animation technique clearly results in characters that are two-dimensional, therefore the series should be appropriate for children because there isn’t too much present on the screen; the presence of multiple aspects e.g. people, buildings and vehicles in large numbers could easily disorientate younger audiences as opposed to adult audiences. The animations depicted within ‘the Flintstones’ are shown to be simple.

+Audiences - Universal audience The Simpsons is a long-running American animated television series created by Matt

Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series is based at the fictional town of Springfield and acts as a somewhat satirical representation of American culture and society, as well as the lives of working-class individuals. The protagonists of the series are the Simpson family, which consists of parents Homer and Marge, and their three children Bart, Lisa and Maggie. The series has received widespread critical acclaim over the years and is considered the ‘best television series of the 20th century’, although the quality of the series has begun to decrease in recent years.

The Simpsons clearly has universal appeal i.e. it is suitable for adults and younger children to watch and is, essentially, aimed at everyone. As opposed to Family Guy (which also airs on FOX), the Simpsons rarely features profanity (although only milder forms of swearing are present) and there is little focus on violence. The Simpsons clearly appeals to families as a whole, mainly due to the fact that the main characters are a family, with each member receiving their own character development, and that the series focuses on the concept of growing up, as well as parenting i.e. the upbringing of a child. Similar to Family Guy, the Simpsons appears to use 3D animation techniques such as Cel-Shading, which involves creating 3D models and enhancing their appearance so that they look highly convincing to the viewer. Unlike Family Guy, there is a strong sense of tranquility within the Simpsons; the town of Springfield is clearly represented as a peaceful environment with little going on i.e. there aren’t a lot of aspects to interact with and this increases the chances of younger viewers not becoming confused by the content of the series.

+Production considerations - FPS Shooting on Twos ‘Shooting on Twos’ is a technique within stop-motion which involves capturing

two images for every movement the subject makes whilst images are being captured of him/her. In essence, this process doubles the frames within stop-motion, and a single image is shown within two separate frames. Therefore, if a film runs at 24 frames per second (or 24 FPS), 12 different movements are required in regard to the subject for each second of the film. This technique is important because it offers a strong sense of fluidity i.e. smooth movement is created in regard to the characters and this enhances the overall experience for the viewer whilst watching the completed animation, and the eye is tricked into thinking that the rapid succession of images are actually a single moving image. This clearly shows that ‘Shooting on Twos’ is vital for ensuring that an animation maintains fluidity and that the audience is kept intrigued throughout the course of the animation. The technique is somewhat common in anime, which is a Japanese hand-drawn two-dimensional computer animation. Anime requires a certain degree of complexity in regard to the design of the characters depicted. Therefore, the characters appear quite ‘vibrant’ and this enhances the visual quality of animations in this specific style. In addition to this, the presence of ‘fantastical themes and graphics’ adds to the overall appearance of anime.

+Genres and Forms - TV advert Dolmio Dolmio is a brand name given to a range of pasta sauces which consist of a wide

range of ingredients e.g. basil, salt, sunflower oil and spices and are used with the purpose of enhancing the flavor of various types of food. An advertisement for Dolmio’s products was produced with the intention of promoting the brand; the people who created the advert clearly desired to attract a great deal of attention from huge numbers of people and they have been able to accomplish this due to the fact that millions of people watch television as of recent times, thus television advertising is considered the ideal way to promote a certain product, whether it be a new brand of food, deodorant, clothing etc. The advertisement for Dolmio takes the form of a 3D animation which crudely represents a family in Italy whilst providing focus on the aspects of Dolmio pasta sauce.

The primary audience for this advertisement is most likely adults because they tend to be responsible for cooking food for their children, friends etc. and it can be stated that young children would have no clue whatsoever regarding how to cook food safely. Although the advert does well to advertise the Dolmio brand, the style of animation employed creates a strange effect in regard to the family members who are clearly puppets positioned in a large set rather than miniature figures made out of a malleable material that is altered between shots. The mouths of the characters appear huge and their faces appear bloated. Also, the representation of Italian individuals created by characters with Italian accents can be considered quite negative because the characters appear naïve in terms of attitude. It is thought that the advert ‘plays viciously’ to the stereotypes of Italians and what they look/act like and this isn’t a good impression.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GtrALGLbhI

+Genres and Forms - TV show

Family Guy The animated sitcom ‘Family Guy’ relies on Cel-Shading, a 3D

animation technique which is utilized with the purpose of enhancing the appearance of a model which is animated via computer as opposed to being drawn as a two-dimensional image. In my opinion, this animation technique is quite influential because it drastically enhances the visual quality of a character and makes the character appear far more convincing than if it was sketched onto paper. In essence, the character appears more life-like and this could potentially enable the audience to associate with them, primarily because the characters appear and act almost identical to people in real-life. These animated images are created with the purpose of evoking humour; Family Guy features elements of the genre of comedy within its episodes and the series somewhat reflects the aspects of American culture and society. The creation of 3D images via computer tends to result in an overall sequence that mirrors professional standards, thus implying a great deal of patience in regard to the animators.

+Genres and Forms - Online/viral video

The Paper Kites – Young The music video for the 2013 neo-folk song ‘Young’ by Australian indie rock-

folk band ‘The Paper Kites’ clearly utilizes stop-motion as an animation technique in order to create the illusion of countless random individuals lip-syncing to the lyrics of the song as they each appear on-screen one after the other very briefly. As the music video progresses, it becomes increasingly difficult to count every single person who appears on-screen, and the effect created by each person lip-syncing can be quite disorientating for some because it is hard to focus on the facial features of all the individuals as they are shown in rapid succession throughout the length of the video. In my opinion, the use of stop-motion animation is quite clever. A great deal of patience is implied and it is obvious that the video took a while to make and required extreme precision to avoid discontinuity within the video. In order to create the desired effect, each individual will have been required to make a certain facial expression so that an illusion is created of every person singing all at the same time. Effectively, this ensures that the music video reflects a professional standard and is therefore quite successful.

The intended audience for the music video is likely to be fans of the indie-rock folk genre, as well as people aged 17 or below. The main reason why the video would appeal to this age group is because of the manner of the lyrics, which refer to the characteristics of being a teenager, particularly leaving school and beginning to think about the future.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CF8PSGl-aIY