state of nature - 2013

7/30/2019 State of Nature - 2013

1/92


2/92


3/92

The islands that make up theUnited Kingdom are home to a

wonderful range of wildlife thatis dear to us all. From the hill-walkermarvelling at an eagle soaring overhead,to a child enthralled by a ladybird ontheir fingertip, we can all wonder atthe variety of life around us.

However, even the most casual ofobservers may have noticed that all isnot well. They may have noticed theloss of butterflies from a favourite

walk, the disappearance of sparrowsfrom their garden, or the absence ofthe colourful wildflower meadows oftheir youth. To gain a true picture ofthe balance of our nature, we requirea broad and objective assessment ofthe best available evidence, and that is

what we have in this groundbreakingState of Nature report.

This important document provides astark warning: far more species are

declining than increasing in the UK,including many of our most treasuredspecies. Alarmingly, a large number ofthem are threatened with extinction.

The causes are varied, but most areultimately due to the way we are usingour land and seas and their naturalresources, often with little regard forthe wildlife with which we share them.The impact on plants and animals hasbeen profound.

Although this report highlights whatwe have lost, and what we are stilllosing, it also gives examples of how

we as individuals, organisations,governments can work together

to stop this loss, and bring back naturewhere it has been lost. These examplesshould give us hope and inspiration.

We should also take encouragementfrom the report itself; it is hearteningto see so many organisationscoming together to provide a single

voice, stating loud and clear whatis happening to our wildlife. Thispartnership, backed by a combinedmembership of millions and enabled

by the heroic efforts of thousandsof volunteer recorders, provides apowerful force to bring the UKsnature back to its former glory.

Foreword by Sir David Attenborough

HelenAtkinson(ButterflyConservation)

STATE OF NATURE 2013 3

STATE OF NATURE


4/92

Round-leaved sundew

LaurieCa

mpbell

4 STATE OF NATURE 2013

CONTENTS


5/92

&RQWHQWV

+HDGOLQHV

,QWURGXFWLRQ

7KHIDFWVEHKLQGWKHKHDGOLQHV

0HDVXULQJWKHVWDWHRIQDWXUH

6HWWLQJWKHVFHQH

)DUPODQG

/RZODQGVHPLQDWXUDOJUDVVODQGDQGKHDWKODQG

8SODQG

:RRGODQG

&RDVWDO

)UHVKZDWHUDQGZHWODQGV

8UEDQ

0DULQH

8.2YHUVHDV7HUULWRULHV

([WLQFWLRQVDQGFRORQLVDWLRQV

8QVXQJKHURHVRIFRQVHUYDWLRQ

:K\LVWKH8.VQDWXUHFKDQJLQJ"

0HWKRGV

5HIHUHQFHV

$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV

7KH6WDWHRI1DWXUHSDUWQHUVKLS

This carnivorous plant catches

unsuspecting insects with its sticky

hairs, before digesting them with acid.

7heUKs uplands arethehills,valleys,moors andmountains thatform adistinctiveandbeloved partof ourcountryside.Habitats rangefrom pastures

andhay meadows in valley bottoms,to moreextensiveareas of roughgrass,heathermoor,blanket bog,

woodlandandmountain summits.Nearly all of theworlds heathermoorlandis foundin theUK.Despitetheirwild appearance,thesehabitats,shapedbyaltitude,aspect,soils andclimate,havebeen influencedby man forthousands of years,throughgrazing,burningandforestclearance. Today,they areused,in placesintensively,forpastoral farming,gameshooting,forestry,drinkingwatercollection,energy generation andnatureconservation.Largeareas aredesignatedas protectedsites,suchas SSSIs,National Parks andAreas of OutstandingNatural Beauty (AONBs).

Theuplands arehometo avariety of specialistfloraandfauna,includingthe mountain hare,golden eagle,goldenplover,alpine saxifrage,mountain ringletbutterfly andbilberry bumblebee,alongsidea wealthof rarebryophytesandlichens.Some of theseareendemics,found nowhereelsein theworld,such as thenorthern prongwort,aliverwort

whichoccurs only on BeinneEigheNational NatureReservein Scotland.Thenatural andcultural importanceof uplandscannotbeoverestimated,but amidstthis richness,landmanagers seekto makealivinghere, whilstremainingsensitiveto theneeds of wildlifeandtheenvironment.

8SODQG

WKHSOHDVDQWHVWPDQQHURIVSHQGLQJDKRW-XO\GD\ZDVO\LQJIURPPRUQLQJWLOOHYHQLQJRQDEDQNRIKHDWKLQWKHPLGGOHRIWKHPRRUVZLWKWKHEHHVKXPPLQJGUHDPLO\DERXWDPRQJWKHEORRPDQGWKHODUNVVLQJLQJKLJKXSRYHUKHDG

(PLO\%URQWsIURP:XWKHULQJ+HLJKWV

2XUNQRZOHGJHRIWKHVWDWXVDQGWUHQGVRIPDQ\SODQWVDQGDQLPDOVLQWKH

XSODQGVLVSRRUODUJHO\EHFDXVHRIDODFNRIV\VWHPDWLFDQGORQJWHUPPRQLWRULQJ

2IXSODQGVSHFLHVIRUZKLFKZHKDYHLQIRUPDWLRQKDYHGHFOLQHGDQGKDYHGHFOLQHGVWURQJO\

XSODQGSODQWVSHFLHVDUHRQUHFHQWQDWLRQDO5HG/LVWVLQFOXGLQJPRVVDQGOLYHUZRUWVSHFLHV)RXUWHHQXSODQGPRVVDQGOLYHUZRUWVSHFLHVDUHDOUHDG\H[WLQFW

+LVWRULFDQGFRQWLQXLQJFKDQJHVLQODQGXVHDQGPDQDJHPHQWLQFOXGLQJ

ZRRGODQGFOHDUDQFHDQGDWPRVSKHULFSROOXWLRQKDYHUHVXOWHGLQKDELWDWORVVGHJUDGDWLRQDQGIUDJPHQWDWLRQDQGDORVVRIGLYHUVLW\DWDUDQJHRIVFDOHV

$OWKRXJKVRPHVSHFLHVWKULYHIURPLQWHQVLYHJUD]LQJDQGEXUQLQJUHJLPHVPRVW

VSHFLHVDQGKDELWDWVEHQHILWIURPOHVVLQWHQVLYHJUD]LQJDQGKDELWDWPDQDJHPHQW

*ROGHQSORYHU

0DUN+DPEOLQ

$QGUHZ3DUNLQVRQ


UP LAND

'

DYLG2VERUQ

:LOO*HRUJH563%

%HQ+DOO


YL

&RQWHQWV

'


6/92

We have quantitative assessments of the population or distribution trends of3,148 species. Of these, 60% of species have declined over the last 50 yearsand 31% have declined strongly.

Half of the species assessed have shown strong changes in abundance ordistribution, indicating that recent environmental changes are having adramatic impact on the nature of the UKs land and seas. There is alsoevidence to suggest that species with specific habitat requirements arefaring worse than generalist species that are better able to adapt to achanging environment.

A new Watchlist Indicator has been developed to measure how conservationpriority species are faring, based on 155 species for which we have suitabledata. This group contains many of our most threatened and vulnerable species,and the indicator shows that their overall numbers have declined by 77% in

the last 40 years, with little sign of recovery.

Of more than 6,000 species that have been assessed using modern Red Listcriteria, more than one in ten are thought to be under threat of extinction inthe UK. A further 885 species are listed as threatened using older Red Listcriteria or alternative methods to classify threat.

Our assessment looks back over 50 years at most and over a considerablyshorter period of time for many species groups. It is well accepted that therewere considerable (albeit largely unquantified) declines in the UKs wildlifeprior to the last 50 years, linked to habitat loss.

Headlines

For the first time ever,

the UKs wildlife

organisations havejoined forces to

undertake a health

check of nature in the

UK and its Overseas

Territories. This report

presents our findings.

Quiraing mountain range, Skye


HEADLINES


7/92

Although robust data are in short supply, it is clear that the UKs OverseasTerritories (UKOTs) hold a wealth of wildlife of huge international importance.However, over 90 of these species are at high risk of global extinction.

Our ability to monitor the state of nature, and respond with appropriateconservation action, is hampered by a lack of knowledge on the trends ofmost of the UKs plant and animal species. As a result, we can reportquantitative trends for only 5% of the 59,000 or so terrestrial and freshwaterspecies in the UK, and for very few of the 8,500 marine species. Our knowledgeis strongly biased towards vertebrates and we know little about the fortunes ofmany invertebrates and fungi. Much needs to be done to improve our knowledge.

What we do know about the state of the UKs nature is often based upon the effortsof thousands of dedicated volunteer enthusiasts who contribute their time andexpertise to species monitoring and recording schemes.

The threats to the UKs wildlife are many and varied, the most severe acting eitherto destroy valuable habitat or degrade the quality and value of what remains.

Climate change is having an increasing impact on nature in the UK. Rising averagetemperatures are known to be driving range expansion in some species, but evidencefor harmful impacts is also mounting.

We should act to save nature both for its intrinsic value and for the benef its it brings tous that are essential to our well-being and prosperity.

This report carries a message of hope: targeted conservation has produced a legacyof inspiring success stories and, with sufficient determination, resources and publicsupport, we can, and will, turn the fortunes of our wildlife around. It also serves toillustrate that with shared resolve we can save nature.

GuyRogers



8/92

by focusing on the building blocks ofour ecosystems species. We havelooked across the UKs major habitat

types and taxonomic groups, andattempted to reflect the situationacross the UKs four constituentcountries. We have also tried to shinea light upon the immense wealth ofglobally important wildlife found in theUKOTs, scattered across the globe fromthe Antarctic to the Caribbean.

Working together

Produced by an exciting newcoalition of conservation and research

organisations, this report draws onthe very latest information available.A wide range of people and partnerorganisations have contributed, eachbringing with them special expertise onparticular groups of animals and plants.

Never before has information beenbrought together in this way to providea powerful and unique insight into thestate of nature, and how it is changing.Our synthesis is both revealing andconcerning at the same time.

There is much to be proud of interms of conservation success stories.

We have a fantastic range of volunteerand professional expertise covering anarray of species, and some of the mostimpressive citizen science projectsin the world producing high-qualitydata to inform conservation. We have

our wonder and joy at this abundanceof nature is tempered by concern aboutthe changes it is experiencing and the

threats it faces.

Our countryside has lost millions ofthe skylarks that herald the springdawn, Duke of Burgundy butterflieshave disappeared from our woodlandglades, and even hedgehogs strugglein our gardens. But there is good newstoo; otters can be seen in our riversonce again, red kites and sea eaglessoar where they have been absent forcenturies and new species are pushing

north from continental Europe.

Our aim

So what is the overall state of nature inthe UK? Here, we attempt to summarisethe best available information in orderto come to a conclusion. We weighup the pluses and minuses to give anobjective overview of how wildlife isdoing in the UK. We have, however,found ourselves constrained by theavailability of reliable data and as aresult we must accept the limitationsof the conclusions we draw from thisoverview. We hope that this is a stepin the right direction, towards a morecomplete understanding of the stateof our nature.

The aim of this report is to producean authoritative assessment of thechanging fortunes of nature in the UK,

T

his, the inaugural State of Naturereport, is the first of its kindto document the status and

population trends of animals andplants in the United Kingdom andits Overseas Territories.

The wildlife here is special and diverse;many rare and threatened habitatssupport endemic species foundnowhere else on Earth. Our shoresare home to huge, internationallyimportant seabird colonies andbeautiful species of mosses andlichens that clothe the surface of

trees and rocks. The diverselandscape is made up of a patchworkof different habitats, from themagnificent Caledonian pine forestsof Scotland to the purple-huedheathlands of Dorset, each onespecial and irreplaceable.

Wherever you are in the UK, an excitingencounter with nature is never far away;be it the sight of an azure hawkerdragonfly skimming over a Scottishbog pool, a pod of common bottlenosedolphins frolicking in the waters ofCardigan Bay, or the worlds fastest bird,the peregrine falcon, stooping to catchprey above the Tate Modern in London.

There has always been a specialconnection between people and natureand it continues to enrich our lives andinspire each new generation. However,

Introduction

Large scabious bee Building on other reportsThis report does not stand in isolation,but on the shoulders of many othersthat have reported on particularelements of our natural heritage.There are a number ofState of...reports, which in recent years havefocused on trends in the UKs nature:

The state of Britains larger moths(2013) reported that the total numberof larger moths had fallen by 28%

between 1968 and 2007, and two-thirds of the 337 species monitoredhad declined, 37% by over half.

StevenF

alk

(Buglife)


INTRODUCTION


9/92

brought species back from the brinkof extinction through far-sightedprotection and conservation measures,

including bold re-introductions, novelpartnerships, legislative protection ofspecial sites and by building a deepunderstanding of species ecologyand needs. Corncrakes, large bluebutterflies and otters are just someof those thriving through targetedconservation efforts. However,despite these successes, there iscause for concern over the stateof much of our nature.

The knowledge gapWe hope that this report will inspiregreater interest, curiosity andadmiration of nature. A recurring themeis that, despite a rich resource of datacollected over recent decades, and theexistence of databases holding millionsof wildlife records, we are unable toassess population trends for more thana small percentage of species. Birds,butterflies and mammals often stealthe limelight, while the many thousandsof invertebrates, fungi, lichens andmosses that make up so much of theUKs biodiversity receive less attention.

Work is currently underway to improvethe situation by increasing the qualityand quantity of species monitoring andrecording schemes, however currentinitiatives are not sufficient to fullyredress these imbalances.

How you can help

This report serves as a reminder thatnature needs our help and each of us

can do our bit to save it. We all havea role to play, from decision makersand land managers, to businessesand individuals. We encourageyou to get involved in some way,by supporting the organisationsresponsible for bringing this reporttogether, or taking practical actionsto help wildlife. Perhaps you couldprovide space for nature in yourgarden, reduce your carbon footprintor volunteer at a local nature reserve?

Why not develop your identificationskills and take part in surveys tocontribute to our collective knowledge,or speak out about issues affectingthe UKs nature?

We aim to produce more State of Naturereports in the future, and with yourhelp, we hope to bring better news

with each one. Together we can makea real difference to wildlife, and inturn safeguard a sustainable futurefor ourselves.

Never before have so many wildlife organisations come

together to undertake a health check of nature in the UK.

Otter

What you need to know

This report reviews the state of

nature in eight major habitat typesin the UK. We also give brief overviewsof the major reasons for change in ourwildlife, weigh up the gains and lossesof species over the last few decades,and highlight the role of volunteers inproviding the monitoring that underpinsthis report, and conservation in the UKas a whole.

Short case studies throughout thereport give extra insight into individual

species, sites, conservation issues andrecovery projects.

You can find more information ondata and further reading on thestate of the UKs nature atwww.rspb.org.uk/stateofnatureandon partner organisations websites.

The state of the UKs butterflies(2011) concluded that 72% of specieshad decreased over the previous tenyears, including common gardenbutterflies that had declined by 24%.

The state of the UKs birds (2012)reported that the UK has lost in theregion of 44 million breeding birdssince the late 1960s.

In 2012, Our Vanishing Floralooked at the extinction of plants fromcounties across the UK in the 20th

century, and found widespread losses.In 16 counties, one plant species wentextinct every other year.

The state of Britains mammals(2011) highlighted the decline ofhedgehogs, the ongoing loss of redsquirrels and the recovery of otters.

In 2010, Norman Macleans bookSilent Summer summarised dramatic

declines in the UKs insect populations,and concluded that our wildlife isclearly in for a bumpy ride.

DannyGreen



10/92

In this report, we present the results of three analyses

which, together with existing indicators of biodiversity inthe UK, case studies and additional information, form the

basis of our assessment of the state of the UKs nature.They are:

the Watchlist Indicator a brand new biodiversityindicator charting the changing status of our mostthreatened species

a summary of trends in UK species population andrange changes, covering all species for which dataare available

a summary of national Red Lists of threatened species

in the UK.

You will find more information about how these measureswere produced, and their limitations, in summary on page13 and in detail on pages 7881.

It is worth remembering that assessments of trends andthreats are available for only a small proportion of theUKs wildlife, and we cannot be certain that those wedo know about are representative of the overall picture.

The Watchlist Indicator

Figure 1

Watchlist Indicator showing the average population trend for 77

moths, 19 butterflies, 8 mammals and 51 birds listed as UK BAP

priorities. Species are weighted equally. The indicator starts at 100;a rise to 200 would show that, on average, the populations of

indicator species have doubled, whereas if it dropped to 50 they

would have halved. Dotted lines show the 95% confidence limits.

Between 1995 and 1999, 577 species were identified aspriorities for conservation in the UK under the UK BiodiversityAction Plan (BAP). The list was reviewed in 2007, and doubledin length to 1,150 species. Since then, national biodiversitystrategies have been developed so that each of the UKsfour nations now have their own list of priority species.

We have developed a new Watchlist Indicator, showingthe overall trends in populations of 155 species that werelisted as UK BAP priorities, and present it here for thefirst time. Lack of comparable data meant that we wereunable to include trends for any species of plants or fungi,despite these making up 48% of the UK BAP list, nor anyinvertebrates other than butterflies and moths.

Since 1970, the indicator has dropped by 77%, representinga massive decline in the abundance of priority species.There was a steep decline in the early years of the indicator,but this is to be expected because it was these declines thatled many species to be included in priority lists in the first

place. What is important is whether the decline has stoppedin response to conservation action: worryingly, it has not.The indicator declined by 18% between 2000 and 2010,suggesting ongoing declines in priority species. It maynow be stabilising, but more years of data are needed toconfirm this.

As with all composite indicators, the Watchlist Indicatorhides considerable variation in individual species.Some priority species, such as the bittern and Adonisblue butterfly, have shown substantial recoveries sincethey were added to the first priority species list in 1995

thanks to creative and concerted conservation efforts.However, many species are showing continuing, and insome cases severe, or even accelerating, declines.

The facts behind the headlines

0

20

40

60

80

100

1968

1972

1976

1980

1984

1988

1992

1996

2000

2004

2008

Year

Population

index

Stag beetle

StevenFalk

(Buglife)


THE FACTS BEHIND THE HEADLINES


11/92

We have collated trends in abundance, distribution, orboth, for as many species of plants and animals as possible 3,148 in total but this represents only 5% of theestimated 59,000-plus terrestrial and freshwater speciesin the UK. For many species, the available monitoring data,although valuable for a wide variety of purposes, does notallow the calculation of species trends. There were largedifferences between groups: 58% of vertebrates wereassessed compared to only 4% of invertebrates and 6% ofplants and fungi. Even amongst the best known group, the

vertebrates, we have information only for birds and somemammals, and for just one amphibian. However, nationalmonitoring of amphibians and reptiles is now in place and will

soon be able to contribute data. In many cases, we believethat changes in species abundance or range have occurred,but in the absence of quantitative measures at the time ofpublication, we have not been able to include such species inour analyses.

Figure 2 shows that, of the 3,148 species assessed, 1,884(60%) have decreased and 962 (31%) have decreasedstrongly in the last 50 years.

Our thresholds for defining species trends as strong weredeliberately set high, yet 51% of the species assessed have

shown substantial changes in numbers or range since the1960s, or more recently. Whilst fluctuations in numbers arenormal, these changes suggest an environment in flux, andindicate substantial changes in the UKs environment over

our study period. As shown on pages 7677, and referredto throughout the report, the main cause of changes to theUKs nature, good and bad, is human activity. We are having aprofound impact on the UKs nature.

The proportions of species assessed as decreasing orincreasing do not vary markedly between habitat types. Manyspecies use more than one habitat type and some are presentin several of the major habitats in this report. The majortrends in the overall summary, such as the large-scale declinesin moths, tend to be mirrored in the individual habitats.

However, when we look at assessments by taxonomic group,

differences are more obvious. Invertebrate groups havetended to fare worse: 65% of moths and 72% of carabidbeetles have declined, for example. As well as illustratingpotential differences between taxonomic groups, this mayalso be a result of the period over which trends are measured.

For some groups, we have assessments over the full 50 yearsof our study period, but for others, data are only availablefor the last 15 years. Not surprisingly, this can influencefindings, particularly as shorter, more recent periods can missspells in which we suspect there may have been substantialchanges. For example, we know that many species of bats

suffered severe declines before the National Bat MonitoringProgramme began in 1997, but our trends only cover theperiod since that date and we can only report the slightrecovery since then.

All (5%)

Invertebrates (4%)

Plants (6%)

Vertebrates (58%)

0 25 50 75 100

Strong decrease Slight decreaseSlight increase

Percentage of species

Strong increase

Wasps (175)

Moths (676)

Ladybirds (42)

Carabids (68)

Butterflies (56)

Bees (178)

Aquatic invertebrates (145)

Ants (29)

0 25 50 75 100



Strong increase

7UHQGVLQVSHFLHVDEXQGDQFHDQGGLVWULEXWLRQ

)LJXUH

7KHSHUFHQWDJHRIVSHFLHVLQFUHDVLQJRUGHFUHDVLQJDFURVVDOO

VSHFLHVDVVHVVHGDQGE\WKHWKUHHPDLQWD[RQRPLFJURXSV

7KHYDOXHVLQEUDFNHWVUHSUHVHQWWKHSHUFHQWDJHRIVSHFLHVDVVHVVHG

IRUHDFKJURXS

)LJXUH

7KHSHUFHQWDJHRIVSHFLHVLQFUHDVLQJRUGHFUHDVLQJLQHLJKW

LQYHUWHEUDWHJURXSV7KHYDOXHVLQEUDFNHWVUHSUHVHQWWKHQXPEHU

RIVSHFLHVDVVHVVHG



12/92

Figure 4

The number of species Red Listed using various assessment methods.

Red Lists attempt to identify species under threat ofextinction. In recent years, most have been produced usingstandard criteria defined by the World Conservation Union(IUCN), but older assessments, often known as Red DataBooks were made using less stringent, though broadlysimilar approaches. Here we have used numbers of speciesRed Listed by either approach (and a separate system usedfor the UKs birds).

Of the 6,225 species with published assessments of threatusing current IUCN Red List criteria, 755 (12%) are thoughtto be threatened with extinction in the UK. A further 833

species have been listed in Red Data Books or similarassessments, and 52 birds are currently Red Listed asBirds of Conservation Concern.

Of the groups considered, stoneworts have the highestproportion of threatened species about one third of species although the overall number is modest, as this is a relativelysmall group. The highest number of threatened species canbe found within the flowering plants and there are over 200threatened species each within the flies, beetles and mothsand butterflies.

For flowering plants and bryophytes, we were able to comparethe proportion of threatened species in different habitat types.For both taxonomic groups it is the habitat richest in speciesthat contains not just the highest number of threatened species,

but the highest proportion as well. For example, grasslandsand heathlands are very rich in flowering plants and of the472 species found there, around one in four are threatened.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Red List birds (not based on IUCN criteria) pre-1994 Red Data Book categories1994 IUCN criteria 2001 IUCN criteria

Crustaceans

Molluscs

Grasshoppersandcrickets

Dragonflies

Truebugs

Riverflies

Bees,antsandwasps

Beetles

Mothsandbutterflies

Trueflies

Spiders

Stoneworts

Lichens

Bryophytes

Floweringplants

Birds

Numberofspecies

National Red Lists

Small fleabane

StevenFalk

(Buglife)


THE FACTS BEHIND THE HEADLINES


13/92

Trends in abundance and distribution

We were able to collate abundance and distributiondata for about 5% of the UKs species.

These data cover a variety of time periods from the 1960sonwards, and in some cases starting as recently as 1997.

The species included in our measures appear becausewe have sufficient data for them. They have not beenselected as a representative sample of UK species;in fact, there are huge biases in how well differentgroups are represented.

Each species was allocated to one of four categories:strong increase, slight increase, slight decrease and strongdecrease. Thresholds and methods for assigning species aregiven on pages 7881.

In our synthesis we have combined data covering different

time periods, collected using different methods thatmeasure different aspects of species status and analyseddata using different statistical techniques.

National Red Lists

We have brought together all the national Red Lists for theUK, giving precedence to those that have been producedusing the latest IUCN guidelines, but otherwise we haveused older Red Data Book style assessments.

The Watchlist Indicator

The indicator is constructed from trends in abundance for155 of the 1,150 species that were listed as priorities onthe UK BAP.

Each species is weighted equally. Not all species enter theindicator in 1970.

Due to the lack of quantitative trend data, a biased subsetof BAP species are included, with no plants, fungi, lichensor invertebrates, other than butterflies and moths.

Measuring the state of nature

In this report, we have used figures to represent the trends in species abundance and distribution, as well as the numberof species featured on national Red Lists. In addition, we present a new Watchlist Indicator on the fortunes of conservationpriority species. You can find a full description of how we produced these figures on pages 7881, but here we highlight the

key information, limitations and biases that you should bear in mind when reading the rest of the report.

Elephant hawkmoth

KatieFuller(RSPB)


MEASURING THE STATE OF NATURE


14/92

The State of Nature report provides an overview ofthe fortunes of the UKs wildlife over recent decades.This time frame was chosen partly because we wanted

to focus on what is happening to our wildlife now, but itwas also dictated by the fact that the systematic monitoringof wildlife in the UK didnt begin until relatively recently.

Where possible, we have used data stretching back tothe 1960s, but for many species we have had to reporttrends over a much shorter period. Despite this, we knowthat many of the most dramatic changes to the UKslandscape and wildlife occurred before the beginning ofour study period, so it is important to understand recentchanges in the context of historical ones.

Historical changes such as Neolithic woodland clearanceand the 17th century drainage of the East Anglian fens hada huge impact on our wildlife, but we have little informationabout these ancient events. Therefore, we have focused onthe last two centuries, a period for which documentationis better and the reporting of wildlife by enthusiasts beganto flourish. During this period we have much evidence ofthe loss and modification of habitats across the UK, andthe corresponding loss of the wildlife they supported.These are some of the stark statistics:

The area of lowland meadow in England and Wales declinedby 97% between the 1930s and 19841 a total loss of64,000 sq km. A huge number of wildflowers and insectswere affected, including the once widespread scabiouscuckoo bee (Nomada armata), which is now extremely rare.

The area of coppiced woodland fell by at least 90% from1900 to 19702, with dramatic effects on invertebratessuch as fritillary butterflies, the pennywort hoverfly(Cheilosia semifasciata), and the fringe horned masonbee (Osmia pilicornis), as well as the spring wildflowersthat once carpeted woods.

An estimated 80% of all the UKs lowland heathland hasbeen lost since 18003. The ranges of specialist heathlandspecies, such as the nightjar, ladybird spider and marsh

clubmoss, have contracted as a result.

94% of Britains lowland raised mires, home to rareinvertebrates such as the bog bush cricket andwhite-faced darter, were destroyed between 1800 and1978. Most of those remaining have been damaged4.

44% of Scotlands internationally important blanketpeat bog was lost to afforestation and drainage fromthe 1940s to the 1980s5.

The 19th century ended with the extinction of the marsh

fleawort due to drainage of the East Anglian Fens it wasjust one of many species to suffer from the loss of wetlands.An estimated 1,000 sq km of wetlands were drainedannually between 1840 and 18806.

The loss and degradation of localised habitats has hitthe animal communities they support. For example, the lossof soft rock cliffs has led to the range contraction ofspecialist invertebrates such as the impressive clifftiger beetle.

Declines in farmland birds, including corncrakes, quailsand corn buntings, were already being recorded during the19th century, well before the advent of the Farmland BirdIndicator. In 1947, the Agriculture Act drove changes in

farming policy that had a significant impact on farmland.Hedgerows were lost as fields became larger, chemicaluse increased and the quality and quantity of farmlandhabitats diminished. Samples of the seed bank in arablesoils suggest the number of weed seeds declined by 1%per year during the 20th century7, a finding paralleledby the loss of farmland wildflowers and the extinctionof some, such as thorow-wax and swines succory.

Setting the scene: historical changes in the UKs nature

Bog bush cricket

GuyRogers


SETTING THE SCENE


15/92

Although the evidence for the widespread and dramaticloss of wildlife before our State of Nature study period isoverwhelming, we should not ignore the gains that have

been made. A number of bird species have prospered overthe last two centuries, including seabirds such as fulmarsand common gulls, as well as farmland generalists suchas jackdaws and woodpigeons8.

Some gains have been particularly dramatic: for examplethe tufted duck was deemed to have shown huge orspectacular increases in three of the four assessmentperiods between 1800 and 1970. Similarly, the collareddove, now one of our most common and widespreadbirds, only arrived in the UK in 1955.

Many other species have made partial recoveriesfrom historical declines: red kites have spread followingprotection and successful reintroductions, silver-spottedskippers have returned to southern downlands,corncrakes are increasing in the Hebrides and ottersare back in many rivers.

Although these recoveries are certainly worthcelebrating, we should remember that they have onlybrought species back to a fraction of their former level.For example, although we have highlighted the recoveryof the cirl bunting on page 20, it is still restricted to justtwo counties (Devon and Cornwall), compared to the38 English and Welsh counties where it could be foundbetween 1875 and 19709. Likewise, although greaterhorseshoe bats have responded well to conservationaction (see page 20), their population is still at just10% of the level it was a hundred years ago10.

Seven-spot ladybird on bluebell flower

It is important to understand recent changesto the UKs landscape and wildlife in the

context of historical ones.

WillGeorge(RSPB)



16/92

Farmland

The earth was green, the sky was blue:I saw and heard one sunny morn

A skylark hang between the two,

A singing speck above the corn...

Cr Re, frA Green Cornfield

ErnieJanes


17/92

Farmland makes up around75% of the UKs landscape.However, in this part of our

analysis we concentrated onenclosed farmland, which covers40% of the UKs land area1 and

includes arable fields, improved andsemi-improved grassland in livestockproduction and associated featuressuch as fallow land, field marginsand hedgerows.

Such enclosed farmland is hometo many much-loved species,from singing skylarks and boxinghares, to chirruping grasshoppersand blood-red poppies that carpetsummer fields. The wildlife here

provides many people with theirclosest connection to nature,as they live in, travel through,or visit farmland.

This natural richness a singlehedgerow alone can support 750species of fly2 is affected by the

way that the land is managed forfood. If farming systems, practicesand policies change, they can have amassive impact on farmland wildlife,and there is extensive evidence of this.

UK indicators show that farmland birds and butterflies have declined

substantially since the 1970s and 1990s respectively.

Of 1,064 farmland species for which we have trends, 60% have decreased

and 34% have decreased strongly.

14% of all farmland flowering plants are on the national Red List: 62 species in all.

Many of the changes in farmland wildlife are linked to shifts in farmland

management, particularly those intended to boost productivity.

Some species groups, such as birds and bats, have benefited from conservation

action, particularly through agri-environment schemes. Despite this, most

farmland species have failed to recover from the declines of recent decades.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Widespread butterflies (25)Widespread bats (6)Farmland birds (19)

Year

Index

(1970

=1

00)

Fgure 5

UK indicators for farmland birds, widespread bats and butterflies3. The numbers in brackets

refer to the number of species in each group. Data from BC, BCT, BTO, CEH, Defra, JNCC

and the RSPB.


FARMLAND


18/92

Trends in farmland birds, together

with those of widespread batsand butterflies, are used as

indicators of the state of biodiversity(see Figure 5)3. Farmland birdpopulations declined rapidly during the1970s and 1980s, and by 2000 theirnumbers were just half what they werein 1970. There has been no subsequentrecovery, and some species, such as theturtle dove, have continued to declinerapidly. The only bat monitored overthe same period was the pipistrelle,

which showed an even steeper decline.However, larger-scale monitoring of

more bats shows that several specieshave increased or remained stable since1997, albeit at lower levels than thoseseen historically. Butterfly populationsshow considerable year-to-year

variation, but the overall trend showsa 32% decline in the last 21 years.

Within the indicator, birds can beclassified as specialists (heavily relianton farmland for food and breeding),or generalists (those able to use otherhabitats). Specialist birds have declinedmore severely, possibly because theyare less able to adapt to their changingenvironment (see Figure 7)46.

It is a similar story for moths, carabidbeetles and plants: 64% of farmlandmoths and 70% of carabid beetlesstudied are declining, with fewspecies increasing.

Arable plants are considered thefastest-declining group of plants inthe UK a quarter are threatened andothers, such as downy hemp-nettle,have already been lost from the UK.

Common farmland mammals suchas brown hares and hedgehogshave also declined, althoughbadgers have increased7. For othergroups, the evidence is less certain8,but it seems that small mammals,such as yellow-necked mice, havedeclined, along with reptiles,

amphibians and bumblebees.

Our assessment of 1,064 speciesfound that more species (60%)had decreased than had increased(40%) over a period of up to 50years (see Figure 6). A slightly largerproportion of invertebrates havedecreased (62%) and this group isunderrepresented in our analysis.

There are 62 threatened farmland

flowering plants on the national RedList, a high proportion (14%) of thespecies assessed. Some of these areconsidered Critically Endangered

and have an extremely high risk ofextinction in the UK, including redhemp-nettle and corn cleavers.But its not all bad news. Some specieshave stabilised after declines duringthe second half of the 20th century,including the brown hare and severalspecies of bat. There is also evidencethat some species, including the greaterhorse-shoe bat and at least four rarefarmland bird species are beginning torecover, although there is a long way togo before they return to earlier levels.

All of these have benefited from specialconservation programmes.

There are also many species whosepopulations are stable, as well as thosethat have increased in recent years.The woodpigeon has increased by 130%since 1970 thanks to modern agriculturalpractices, as have nitrogen-loving plantssuch as black grass. Recent changesto the climate may be benefiting somefarmland butterflies such as the ringlet

and speckled wood, and southernspecies in some other taxonomicgroups such as flies show similarrange increases.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

All farmland birds (19)Generalists (7)Specialists (12)

Year

Index

(1970

=1

00)

Fgure 7

The UK Farmland Bird Indicator, showing differing trends for specialist and generalist

species4. Data from the RSPB, BTO, JNCC and Defra. The numbers in brackets refer to the

number of species in each group.

The state of farmland nature

All (1064)

Invertebrates (511)

Plants (508)

Vertebrates (45)

0 25 50 75 100



Strong increase

Fgure 6

The proportion of farmland species that

are increasing or decreasing in each

taxonomic group, measured by either

population size or range over a period

of up to 50 years. The values in brackets

represent the number of species assessed.


FARMLAND


19/92

Over recent decades, there have been many far-reaching changes to theway the UKs countryside is farmed these are summarised in the figurebelow. While some factors affect a wide range of species, others have more

specific impacts. For example, depending on the time that silage and hay is cut,harvesting machinery can destroy the nests and young of birds, such as skylarks9,and bumblebees, such as carder bees10. The biology of some species makes themparticularly vulnerable to certain threats: for example, adders hibernate communallyat traditional sites, so destruction of a relatively small area of habitat can have ahuge influence on the local population11.

Although there are still some farming systems that are of high value for nature,most of the changes listed below can be attributed to a drive to maximise yields.Modern agriculture tends to simplify the landscape, with larger machinery andmore specialised farming systems taking over from traditional mixed farmingmethods. These changes have increased agricultural yields substantially, but

they have also had unintended consequences for the environment. By identifyingthe harmful impacts of this intensification, it is possible to work with farmers tofind solutions that help them to manage their land for efficient, sustainable foodproduction as well as wildlife. Progress has been made with wildlife-friendly farming,but there are still many challenges that must be addressed, including neonicotinoidinsecticides, which may be reducing the breeding success of bumblebee colonies12.

Why is farmland wildlife changing?Case study

The decline offarmland flowers

Between the 1930s and 1984,the area of lowland meadow in Englandand Wales declined by 97%17, and themajority of remaining meadows areof poor wildlife value. Plants of arablefarmland are also struggling as a resultof the use of herbicides and nitrogenfertilisers, as well as the loss ofnon-cropped areas.

The decline of these important nectarand pollen sources has had aknock-on effect for insect pollinators.Of the 97 food plants that we knowbumblebees prefer, 76% havedeclined over the past 80 years18.As bumblebees are pollinators ofsome commercial crops and manywildflowers, threats to their populationsmay have far-reaching consequencesfor farming, people and other wildlife.

Once a common cornfield wildfloweron calcareous soils throughout

lowland England, the corn cleaver hasundergone one of the most dramaticdeclines of any plant species. Theintensification of arable farming,including improved seed cleaningtechnology and the use of herbicides,is thought to be to blame.

The species has not been recordedas an arable plant for many years.It only survives on experimental plotsat Rothamsted Experimental Station in

Hertfordshire, which have not receivedfertilisers or weed control for morethan 100 years19.

Crflwer

Cecl pu

- Fertilisers

- Pesticides

- Veterinary drugs

Cuulve pc

- Loss of habitat mosaics

- Fragmentation of habitats

L f b

- Hedgerows

- Mature trees

- Ponds

- Uncultivated field margins

Exple

There is evidence that seed-eating

birds have declined because

changes to the timing of sowing

and harvest have led to seasonal

slumps in seed availability13.

Exple

Arable plants have declined

more than any other plant group.

Species such as shepherds needle

and cornflower have suffered

severe declines since the 1950s15.

Exple

For butterflies such as the

marsh fritillary, isolated sites lose

populations far more quickly than

large, better connected sites16.

What FaCtoRs aFFECt

FaRmLand WiLdLiFE?

Exple

The Brighton wainscot moth

was found in cereal field margins.

It has not been seen since 200114.

Cgg frg prcce

- Timing of ploughing,

harvesting, mowing

and grazing

- Less mixed farming

- Less crop rotation

- Improved drainage

Ma

rkGurney(RSPB)



20/92

In the UK, farmers are encouraged to manage their land for nature using subsidiesfrom agri-environment schemes. Many early agri-environment options weresuccessful at countering declines in rare farmland birds, such as corncrakes and

stone-curlews, and also provided benefits beyond the target species. For instance,providing unsown tilled fallow plots for stone-curlews benefits other wildlife,including skylarks, brown hares, arable plants, butterflies and bumblebees22; while

spiders, bugs and harvestmen thrive on the vegetation designed for corncrakes23

.

Research has shown that the number and diversity of bumblebees increases rapidlywhen wildflower, pollen and nectar mixes are provided24, and grasshoppers benefitfrom 6 metre-wide margins25. Uncultivated margins and conservation headlandsbenefit rare arable plants, especially when targeted at areas with light, infertilesoils26. These studies clearly show that some agri-environment options providemultiple benefits, but it is likely that a mosaic of different options, over asufficiently large area, is required to benefit wildlife as a whole. Some speciesgroups would undoubtedly benefit from more targeted agri-environment options.

Agri-environment schemes have helped to increase the population of rare speciesand local populations of more widespread species, and there is evidence that evensimple measures, such as those available in the English Entry Level Scheme, benefitbirds27,28. However, we have not seen the much-hoped for recoveries of farmland

wildlife probably because not enough farmers have taken up the most effectiveagri-environment options, and available funding is limited.

Saving farmland wildlife

Case study

Hope for cirl buntings

Once common across farmland insouthern England, cirl buntings haddeclined to just 118 pairs in South Devon

by 1989. Research by the RSPB revealedthat these birds need mixed farmland,including suitable hedgerows or scrub fornesting, sources of seed throughout thewinter and summer pastures rich in insectsto feed their young. All these habitatswere provided through agri-environmentschemes, and the cirl bunting populationincreased significantly, to 862 pairs in2009. Although these birds still dependon conservation efforts, the outlookis positive and shows that, through a

combination of research, advocacy andmanagement, conservation can bringspecies back from the brink29.

Case study

Bats, flies andcow dung

Avermectins are common veterinarydrugs used to treat worm infections

in cattle, and may have contributedto severe declines in the range ofgreater horseshoe bats20.

Why? Because they reduce the numberof larval insects in cow dung, depletinga key food source for bats, as well asbirds. Populations of the threatenedhornet robber fly are also thought tobe suffering.

To tackle the problem, Natural England

led a project to encourage land ownersto manage land close to greaterhorseshoe bat maternity roosts moresensitively, and to reduce avermectinand insecticide use. Together, theseactions are thought to be responsiblefor a 58% increase in bat numbers overthe course of the project21.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Year

UK

cirlbunting

population

(pairs)

Greer ree b

Voluntary set-aside

RSPB stubbles

Obligatory set-aside

Countryside stewardship

agreements

Fgure 8

Recovery of the UK cirl bunting population, in relation to the timing of conservation actions.

Data from the RSPB and NE.

mew buercup

MikeRead

FranzChristophRobi(Imagebro

ker/FLPA)


FARMLAND


21/92

Brown hares have benefited from habitat provided for

stone-curlews through agri-environment schemes.

Brw reDavidTiplin

g


22/92

Lowland semi-naturalgrassland and heathland

... she looked up the valley of the heath, alive with

butterflies, and with grasshoppers whose husky

noises on every side formed a whispered chorus.

Thas Hay, f The Return of the Native

RayKennedy


23/92

Semi-natural grasslands consist of meadows and pastureunder traditional management, including neutral, acidicand chalk grassland. Together with lowland heathlands,

they provide vital, exceptionally species-rich open spaces forwildlife in our lowland countryside, and are home to manyrare and threatened species. Churring nightjars, all six native

species of reptile, the grey long-eared bat (one of the UKsrarest mammals), thousands of invertebrate species andspectacular displays of orchids and other colourful

wildflowers can all be found in these habitats.

We have a special responsibility to conserve these habitatsdue to their international importance: the UK holds 20% ofthe worlds heathland, whilst Salisbury Plain is the largestremaining area of chalk grassland in north-west Europe.This natural interest, maintained by centuries ofmanagement, can make them important historicalfeatures and popular visitor attractions.

Tragically, the majority of these habitats have beendestroyed or damaged over the last 100 years (see page 14).The transitional nature of the vegetation and the currentlow commercial value of the habitat places it at extreme riskof further loss or degradation through poor managementor neglect. Recreational disturbance is an increasing threat,particularly to heathland birds.

The wider value these habitats have for human wellbeinghas been underestimated, and recent research has shownthat they are also important carbon stores that helpmitigate the negative effects of climate change.

Following decades of widespread habitat destruction and species declines due

to agricultural intensification, afforestation, urban development and neglect,

the rate of this habitat loss has slowed since the late 1990s.

Overall, 65% of the 1,236 species for which we have sufficient data have declined,

and 35% have declined strongly. And yet, a warming climate may be helpingsome species.

One in four species of flowering plant in this habitat is threatened. Nitrogen

deposition, disturbance, inadequate or inappropriate land management, and

habitat loss and fragmentation all pose barriers to recovery.

Targeted conservation action, especially in protected areas and through

agri-environment schemes, has benefited some priority species, including

bats, birds and butterflies.

Sve-ste be

MarkSisson


lOwlANd SEmi-NATURAl gRASSlANd ANd hEAThlANd


24/92

7he amount of lowland

semi-natural grassland hasdeclined by 97% between

the 1930s and 1984, whilst lowlandheathland has shrunk in area by80% since 18001-4, with habitat losscontinuing through the 1980s and1990s4. In Derbyshire, an estimated8091% of semi-natural grassland

was lost between 1984 and 19995.Loss of habitat on this scale led tocorresponding national declines inspecies strongly associated with

heathland, including the Dartfordwarbler, silver-studded blue butterfly,smooth snake, mottled bee-fly, heathlobelia and small red damselfly, whilston grassland there were seriousdeclines in the silver-spotted skipper,marsh fritillary, whinchat, wart-biter (abush cricket), green-winged orchid andfield gentian, amongst many others.

The burnt orchid, a calcareous grasslandspecialist, has been lost from 27 counties6,and many of the special flowers of chalkand limestone maintain a precariousexistence over much of their rangetoday. Several species associated withthese habitats have been lost entirely,including the short-haired bumblebeeand starry breck lichen.

65% of the semi-natural grassland andheathland species for which we havedata have declined (see Figure 9),

a greater proportion than inany other habitat. The same largedeclines in invertebrates seen inother habitats are also found here,but it is the number of declining andendangered plants that is notable.Some 398 species of flowering plantsfound in these habitats 69% of thetotal we have trends for havedeclined since the 1960s. One infour flowering plants found onheathland and semi-natural grasslandare threatened, a higher proportionthan in any other habitat.

Habitat loss has slowedconsiderably since the late 1990s

and is beginning to reverse in someheathland and grassland types,though existing data are poor.However, it is important to rememberthat this is a slight increase froma much reduced level, and newheathlands and grasslands do not yetmatch the wildlife value of centuries-oldhabitat. The condition of semi-naturalgrassland habitat has continued todecline outside of protected sites.Partial habitat recovery has led to a

reversal in the fortunes of a numberof species, including the sand lizardon lowland heathland, and Adonisblue butterfly on grassland.

Species recovery is largely down totargeted conservation efforts, includingsome high-profile re-introductionslike that of the large blue butterfly inSomerset7. In spite of these successes,there are more species in long-termdecline than recovery. The conditionof grasslands and heathlands isgenerally considered poor butimproving8, although species richnessand characteristic species continue todecline in some places.

The status of habitat-specialistbutterflies has been used as anindicator of the state of biodiversityin semi-natural grasslands and

heathlands in England, as thesespecies are largely restricted tohigh-quality habitat9. Althoughfluctuating markedly, the underlyingmeasures of habitat specialistbutterflies show a significant overalldecline of 40% between 1990 and2011 (see Figure 10), with speciesincluding the small blue and northernbrown argus declining. However,a number of others, including thesilver-studded blue and silver-spotted

skipper, are in recovery following longdeclines. Both of these species, aswell as others, may benefit fromwarmer temperatures.

7KHVWDWHRIORZODQGVHPLQDWXUDOJUDVVODQG

DQGKHDWKODQGQDWXUH

All (1236)

Invertebrates (647)

Plants (573)

Vertebrates (16)

0 25 50 75 100



Strong increase

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Year

Index

(1990

=1

00)

)LJXUH

7KHSURSRUWLRQRIORZODQGVHPLQDWXUDO

JUDVVODQGDQGKHDWKODQGVSHFLHVWKDW

DUHLQFUHDVLQJRUGHFUHDVLQJLQHDFK

WD[RQRPLFJURXSPHDVXUHGE\HLWKHU

SRSXODWLRQVL]HRUUDQJHRYHUDSHULRG

RIXSWR\HDUV7KHYDOXHVLQEUDFNHWV

UHSUHVHQWWKHQXPEHURIVSHFLHVDVVHVVHG

)LJXUH

(QJOLVKLQGLFDWRUIRUVSHFLDOLVWEXWWHUIOLHVLQIDUPODQG'DWDIURP%&&(+-1&&DQG'HIUD


LOWLAND SEMI-NATURAL GRASSLAND AND HEATHLAND


25/92

Agricultural improvement,

including ploughing, draining,re-seeding and fertilising,

was the major cause of habitat andspecies loss on grassland until the1990s4. Heathland was also affectedby urban development, mineralextraction and afforestation1,10.Recent declines in the majority of

species are a result of other factors,

including inadequate or inappropriateland management, atmosphericpollution, habitat fragmentation and,to a lesser extent, human disturbanceand the spread of invasive species4.

Some species have recovered thanks totargeted conservation efforts, including

the creation of nature reserves and the

improvement of protected areas, as wellas the application of agri-environmentand other land management schemes.

Climate change has allowed somespecies to move north, possiblymasking some of the impacts of habitatloss, fragmentation and deterioration.

Why is lowland semi-natural grassland

and heathland wildlife changing?

Habtat ss

Csevat wk

Ha stbace

Habtat

faetat

a sat

Cate chae

Atsphec pt

Exape

Both under- and over-grazing

lead to less structural and

habitat variety, as well as the

loss of associated invertebrate

and plant species, such as

ground-living lichens.

Exape

Heathland birds are less

successful where human

disturbance, especially dog

walking, is high, and in close

proximity to urban areas.

Exape

The warming climate is thought

to be partly responsible for the

recent range expansion of the

silver-spotted skipper15.

Exape

97% of semi-natural grasslands

were lost from England and Wales

between the 1930s and 198411.

WHAT FACTorS

AFFECT loWlAnd

SEmi-nATurAl

grASSlAnd And

HEATHlAnd WildliFE?

Exape

Heathland restoration has helped

Dartford warblers, nightjars and

woodlarks, although continued

management and care is needed13,14.

Exape

Fast-growing species that respond

well to nitrogen have become

more abundant, while species of

less fertile habitats have declined12.

Exape

Various species

of cotoneaster

are a problem

on limestone

sites, such as the

Isle of Portland

in Dorset and the

Great Orme in

North Wales.

Exape

Small, isolated

sites lose

populations far

more quickly than

large, connected

sites. Sand lizards

and other reptiles

are declining

in the Wealden

Heaths because

the sites are

fragmented.

Habtat eteat

ivasve

-atve

speces



26/92

Enhanced management of Sites ofSpecial Scientific Interest (SSSIs)and other statutory protected areas.

Entry into, and enhancedmanagement of, land in higher-tier

agri-environment schemes.

Co-ordinated effort and partnershipworking locally and nationally,through the UK BAP and subsequentnational biodiversity strategies.

Landscape-scale conservationprojects, established to restorespecies populations across anetwork of sites.

Designation and appropriate

management of nature reservesand other land, as well asprotection of sites in the planningsystem, including tackling thecumulative impacts of multipleproposed developments.

6DYLQJORZODQGVHPLQDWXUDO

JUDVVODQGDQGKHDWKODQGZLOGOLIH

&DVHVWXG\

0DUVKIULWLOODU\EXWWHUIO\

The recovery of the marsh fritillary in Dorset is a good example of a threatenedspecies responding positively at a landscape scale to targeted land management.Butterfly Conservation has worked closely with Natural England (and its predecessors)since the 1980s to tailor management on Wessex downland sites for the butterfly.This has been achieved largely through payments to farmers under agri-environmentagreements in the South Wessex Downs Environmentally Sensitive Area (and itssuccessor Higher Level Stewardship). The butterfly has responded positively at 33 of34 sites, and Dorset is now outperforming the rest of the UK, with a 278% increasenoted from 1990 to 2010, compared to a 50% decline elsewhere16.

)LJXUH

7UHQGVLQPDUVKIULWLOODU\QXPEHUVLQ'RUVHWDQGWKH8.'DWDIURP%&

&DVHVWXG\

5HVWRULQJORZODQGKHDWKODQG

The Tomorrows Heathland Heritageprogramme was led by Natural

England and involved 140 differentorganisations across the UK. Supportedby the Heritage Lottery Fund, it ranfrom 1997 to 2010, and covered anarea of 46,000 hectares. In that time,the project helped to restore habitatand create nearly 2,500 hectares ofnew habitat, aiding the recovery ofthreatened species including thewoodlark, nightjar, silver-studdedblue butterfly and sand lizard.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Dorset

UK

Year

Index

(1990

=1

00)

/owland semi-natural grasslands and heathlands have been the focus of

conservation efforts in recent decades, due to their special importancefor biodiversity. Much of this land is now designated as protected areas,

including 70% of lowland calcareous grassland and 74% of lowland heathland.The recovery of some species has been a result of targeted conservation efforts,assisted by mechanisms such as the following:

$GRQLVEOXHRQKRUVHVKRHYHWFK

-LP$

VKH

U%XWWHUIO\&RQVHUYDWLRQ


LOWLAND SEMI-NATURAL GRASSLAND AND HEATHLAND


27/92

All six of the UKs reptile species, including thecommon lizard, can be found on heathlands.

C za

SteveKnell


28/92

Upland

...the pleasantest manner of spending a hot Julyday was lying from morning till evening on a bank

of heath in the middle of the moors, with the bees

humming dreamily about among the bloom, and

the larks singing high up overhead...

Emily Bront, from Wuthering Heights

MarkHamblin


29/92

The UKs uplands are the hills, valleys, moors andmountains that form a distinctive and beloved partof our countryside. Habitats range from pastures

and hay meadows in valley bottoms, to more extensiveareas of rough grass, heather moor, blanket bog,

woodland and mountain summits. Nearly all of the

worlds heather moorland is found in the UK.

Despite their wild appearance, these habitats, shaped byaltitude, aspect, soils and climate, have been influencedby man for thousands of years, through grazing, burningand forest clearance. Today, they are used, in placesintensively, for pastoral farming, game shooting, forestry,drinking water collection, energy generation and natureconservation. Large areas are designated as protected sites,such as SSSIs, National Parks and Areas of OutstandingNatural Beauty (AONBs).

The uplands are home to a variety of specialist flora andfauna, including the mountain hare, golden eagle, goldenplover, alpine saxifrage, mountain ringlet butterfly andbilberry bumblebee, alongside a wealth of rare bryophytesand lichens. Some of these are endemics, found nowhereelse in the world, such as the northern prongwort, a liverwort

which occurs only on Beinne Eighe National Nature Reservein Scotland. The natural and cultural importance of uplandscannot be overestimated, but amidst this richness, landmanagers seek to make a living here, whilst remainingsensitive to the needs of wildlife and the environment.

Our knowledge of the status and trends of many plants and animals in the

uplands is poor, largely because of a lack of systematic and long-term monitoring.

Of 877 upland species for which we have information, 65% have declined and

35% have declined strongly.

118 upland plant species are on recent national Red Lists, including 85 moss and

liverwort species. Fourteen upland moss and liverwort species are already extinct.

Historic and continuing changes in land use and management, including

woodland clearance and atmospheric pollution, have resulted in habitat loss,

degradation and fragmentation, and a loss of diversity at a range of scales.

Although some species thrive from intensive grazing and burning regimes, most

species and habitats benefit from less intensive grazing and habitat management.

Golden plover

AndrewParkinson


UPLAND


30/92

By their very nature, uplandsare challenging places to workin. Their climate, terrain and

remoteness combine to make studyingalready elusive wildlife even moredifficult. As a result, few long-termmonitoring data exist. However, of the877 upland species assessed, we knowthat 65% have decreased, and 35%have decreased strongly (see Figure 12).

Birds are particularly well studiedcompared to other groups, and wesee some worrying trends. Manyformerly widespread species, including

the lapwing, curlew and whinchat, aresuffering major declines1, and severalbirds of prey are missing from partsof their natural ranges2, althoughsome birds, such as the raven, haveincreased. The charismatic mountainhare is declining too.

Worryingly, 66% of the uplandinvertebrates monitored are decreasing.Populations of 65% of uplandbutterflies, including the high brownand pearl-bordered fritillaries, havefallen largely due to habitat loss,change and fragmentation.

The UKs uplands contain vast areas ofwetland (blanket peat bogs, flushes,seepages and springs, marshes andswamps), dwarf shrub heath (wet anddry) and upland hay meadows.There are also habitats that are

now more localised, such as nativepinewoods, and rare habitats such asoceanic heath, alpine heaths, inlandrock habitats and late-lying snowbeds.

Many of these upland habitats supportrare and localised species of floweringplants, bryophytes and lichens, such asthe rigid buckler-fern and ladys slipperorchid found on limestone pavements,alongside unusual invertebrates suchas the bog ant hoverfly (Microdonmutabilis) and the western masonbee (Osmia parietina).

Many upland flowering plants areat risk, with 178 species declining(67%), and 33 species (9%) RedListed, including tufted saxifrage,oblong woodsia and Waless iconicSnowdon lily (Iilir Wyddfa), all plantsleft behind after the last ice age.

Although many mosses and liverwortsappear to be expanding their range,85 upland moss species are classifiedas Threatened and 14 species areextinct, including the white-mouthedextinguisher moss (Encalypta brevicollis).

Although we lack quantitative data onflies, spiders, amphibians, reptiles andbats in the uplands, we do know thata large number of midge and craneflyspecies can be found there. As in manyother habitats, flies make up a highproportion of species diversity, with

many specialists that exploit uplandhabitats and microhabitats such asflushes, blanket bogs and the marginsof upland water bodies.

The state of upland nature

All (877)

Invertebrates (356)

Plants (486)

Vertebrates (35)

0 25 50 75 100



Strong increase

Figure 12

The proportion of upland species thatare increasing or decreasing in each

taxonomic group, measured by either

population size or range over a period

of up to 50 years. The values in brackets

represent the number of species assessed.

65% of upland butterflies have declined, largely becausetheir habitat is being destroyed, changed and fragmented.

Snowdon lily

MarkG

urney(RSPB)


UPLAND


31/92

1o single factor is responsible forthe changes we have seen to ourupland nature. A combination

of historic impacts and ongoing issues,including agricultural intensification,abandonment, afforestation andintensive grouse moor management,have played a part3.

Following the outbreak of Foot andMouth Disease in 2001, sheep numbersfell in the uplands. This reduced grazingpressure and a remarkable blooming

was recorded across English uplandssuch as Cross Fell4. Rare plants such

as yellow marsh saxifrage and alpine

foxtail were recorded in previouslyunseen profusion, and the sheathedsedge was discovered in England for the

first time an indication of how ouruplands could appear if managed moreappropriately. Recent policy changes,including nature conservation measuressuch as agri-environment schemesand changes to farming systems, havefurther reduced numbers of sheep andother livestock in our uplands.

Upland land managers, particularly hillfarmers, face economic pressure tochange and intensify their management

of enclosed land to increase

productivity, as well as to abandonunenclosed rough grazing land. Yetmany upland species need the varied

vegetation associated with traditionallivestock grazing. Agri-environmentschemes can provide a lifeline forfarmers wishing to maintain extensivecattle and sheep grazing an oftenunprofitable farming system, but onethat is vital to maintaining habitats likedwarf shrub heath and rough pasture.These habitats are important for arange of species, including the curlew,adder, bilberry bumblebee, tormentilmining bee (Andrena tarsata) and

many butterflies.

:K\LVXSODQGZLOGOLIHFKDQJLQJ"

([DPSOH

,QDSSURSULDWHWUHHSODQWLQJLQ

XSODQGDUHDVKDVUHVXOWHGLQWKH

GLUHFWORVVRIKDELWDWVLQFOXGLQJ

EODQNHWERJVDQGKHDWKODQGDV

ZHOODVWKHVSHFLHVWKDWGHSHQG

RQWKHP)RUHVWU\FDQDIIHFWWKH

K\GURORJ\RIVXUURXQGLQJKDELWDWV

DQGVXSSRUWJHQHUDOLVWSUHGDWRUV

WKDWYHQWXUHLQWRPRRUODQGWRKXQW

([DPSOH

6SHFLHVZLWKVRXWKHUQUDQJH

PDUJLQVLQWKH8.XSODQGVKDYH

VWDUWHGWRUHYHDOWKHLPSDFWVRI

FOLPDWHFKDQJH$PRQJRXUIRXU

PRQWDQHEXWWHUIO\VSHFLHVWZR

KDYHUHWUHDWHGQRUWKDQGRQH

WRKLJKHUDOWLWXGHV

([DPSOH

+HDWKHUEXUQLQJLVXVHG

WRPDQDJHODUJHWUDFWVRI

XSODQGKDELWDWIRUUHGJURXVH

$OWKRXJKDSSURSULDWHEXUQLQJ

DQGJUD]LQJFDQEHQHILWVRPH

VSHFLHVVXFKDVWKHELOEHUU\

EXPEOHEHHLQWHQVLYHEXUQLQJ

GDPDJHVLPSRUWDQWKDELWDWV

([DPSOH

7KHSRVWZDUGULYHWRZDUGV

LQFUHDVHGSURGXFWLYLW\UHVXOWHG

LQWKHGUDLQDJHRIXSODQG

ZHWODQGVUHVHHGLQJODUJH

LQFUHDVHVLQVKHHSQXPEHUV

DQGWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIOLPHDQG

IHUWLOLVHUWRHQFORVHGJUDVVODQG

%RWKVSHFLHVULFKQHVVDQGKDELWDW

H[WHQWGHFUHDVHGDVDUHVXOW

([DPSOH

7KLVLVDFRQWLQXLQJLVVXHLQ

XSODQGDUHDV7KHZRROO\IULQJH

PRVVLVDNH\PRQWDQHVSHFLHV

+RZHYHULWFDQQRWVXUYLYHXQGHU

H[FHVVLYHQLWURJHQOHYHOV

)RUHVWU\

&OLPDWHFKDQJH

)DUPLQJ

0DQDJHPHQWDVVRFLDWHG

ZLWKJURXVHVKRRWLQJ

:+$7)$&7256$))(&7

83/$1':,/'/,)("

$WPRVSKHULFSROOXWLRQ



32/92

A

number of projects aim totackle the issues threateningupland species and habitats;

however, many of these projects aresmall in comparison to the vast areaof our uplands.

Several collaborative projects arefocusing on blanket bog, which hasbeen lost to forestry in many places.Much of what remains is in poorcondition, as a result of drainage,overgrazing, intensive burning and,in places such as the Peak District,historic atmospheric pollution. To

tackle this, teams are blocking drains,removing trees, and restoring plantsto areas of bare peat. Pioneering workis also underway to try to re-establishSphagnum moss in areas where it hasbeen missing for years10. We hope tosee the return of golden plovers, dunlinsand other upland wildlife to restoredblanket bogs across the country.

In 2008, a project was launched inEngland to help combat the declinein twites. These small finches breed

on open heather moors and uplandpastures where they nest, beforemoving to coastal areas in winter.A lack of seed food across their rangeis a major factor in twite declines11.Thats why the project team is workingclosely with farmers and landownersto help them secure grants to restorespecies-rich hay meadows, a vital,food-filled habitat for twites.

Birds arent the only animals to benefit

from targeted projects. The TwoMoors Threatened Butterfly Project,a partnership between ButterflyConservation and governmentalorganisations, aims to help marsh,high brown and heath fritillaries.The project encourages farmers toenter into agri-environment schemeson Dartmoor and Exmoor, and provides

advice so that habitats can be restoredand managed to meet the butterfliesneeds. Between 2005 and 2011, the

team provided advice on managingnearly 1,800 hectares of butterflyhabitat. In one key site, the marshfritillary population increased by over1,000% and the number of occupiedhabitat patches tripled in five years12,clear evidence that targeted projectscan have a huge positive impact.

Saving upland wildlife

hig brown fritillary

Case study

Upland grazing striking the right balance

Many upland land managers are concerned by the spread of bracken, but severalrare species rely on moorland edge habitats dominated by it. For instance, thepearl-bordered fritillary and high brown fritillary, two rapidly declining butterflies,both rely on bracken to survive. Their larvae feed on violets, which appear in abundancewhere bracken is found, and shelter in the warm microclimate created by bracken litter.When grazing, particularly by heavy-footed animals such as cattle and ponies, is stopped,bracken litter starts to build up, preventing violets from growing. Unless traditional lowintensity grazing continues, the future of these two butterfly species is in doubt.

higland cows in moorland

JeroenStel

RichardRevels


UPLAND


33/92

Golden eagles and other animals are under

threat from illegal killing, disturbance and

intensive management practices.

Golden eagleChrisOReilly


34/92

Woodland

It is not so much for its beauty that the forest canmake a claim upon mens hearts, as for that subtle

something, that quality of air, that emanation from

old trees, that so wonderfully changes and renews

a weary spirit.

Robert Louis Stevenson, fromEssays of Travel

DavidJSlater


35/92

Much of Britain was once covered by woodland, butnow it covers just 12% of the land1. Neverthelessit is home to a spectacular variety of wildlife, and

is cherished by people as a beautiful and important partof our countryside. In this report we take a broad view of

woodlands, and include scrub, coppice, carr, copse, wood

pasture and parkland, as well as plantation and semi-naturalwoodland, both coniferous and broadleaved.

Since 1945, the area of woodland has doubled in the UK1,mainly as a result of trees planted for timber production.This has led to the dominance of coniferous species,particularly in Scotland, where they make up 81% of

woodlands. In Wales, the figure is less, at 55%, and just35% in England. More recently, from 1998 to 2007, thearea of broadleaved woodland has increased by 7% in theUK2, and existing broadleaved woodland has matured.

People have had a profound influence on woodland inthe UK, and no truly pristine woods remain untouchedby our activities. However, ancient woodlands are oftenhome to special communities of plants and invertebratesthat reflect the age of the wood and the long history ofhuman management through activities such as coppicing.Irrespective of age, woodlands are highly valued; there arean estimated 250300 million day visits to woodlands eachyear2 and people feel passionately about the protection of

woods and the wildlife they support.

The area of UK woodland has increased, mainly due to conifer planting,

but woodland birds have been declining since the 1970s and woodland butterflies

since the 1990s.

Of the 1,256 woodland species studied, 60% have decreased and 34% have

decreased strongly.

11% of woodland flowering plants are on the national Red List: 30 species in all.

The declines of most woodland species are linked to changes in the structure of

woodlands, due to increased grazing pressure by deer, changes to management

practices and woodland ageing.

Some conservation action is focused on priority species, while other projects are

designed to benefit a wider range of wildlife through sympathetic management.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

All woodland birds (38)Generalists (12)Specialists (26)

Year

Index

(1970

=1

00)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Year

Index(

1990

=1

00)

Figure 13

English woodland butterfly indicator3. Data from BC, CEH, Defra

and JNCC.

Figure 14

UK woodland bird indicator4. Data from the RSPB, BTO JNCC and

Defra. Numbers in brackets are the number of species in each group.


WO OD LAND


36/92

7he indicator for butterfliesin English woodlands showsthat woodland butterflies

are declining (see Figure 13).Wider countryside butterflies withinwoodlands have declined by 43%since 19903 (a UK equivalentindicator has yet to be calculated).

The loss has been particularlysevere for wood white and Dukeof Burgundy butterflies, amongstothers. Most declining species arenow restricted to actively managed

woodlands and habitats such as

rides, glades and clearings.

There is also cause for concern aboutour woodland birds, which have declinedby 17% overall since 19704 (see Figure

14). Woodland specialists have faredparticularly badly, while more adaptablegeneralist species have increased.Since the declining species are found ina range of different woodland habitats,it is unlikely that the same change in

woodland management or habitatis affecting them all. However, six ofthe declining species, including thenightingale and willow tit, all rely onyounger woodland growth stages, sothe reduction in coppicing and other

active management in lowland woodsis likely to have affected them. Mostof the birds that have increased orremained stable, such as great spotted

woodpeckers, are associated withmature woodland and may be benefitingfrom an increase in woodland coverageand the reduction in woodlandmanagement during the 20th century.

Our analysis shows that, of the 1,256species assessed, more are decreasing(60%) than increasing, and 34% havedecreased strongly (see Figure 15).Nearly two-thirds of the invertebratespecies we have monitored are declining,as are 58% of flowering plants. Newsfor vertebrates is better as they areevenly spread between the decreasingand increasing categories. Both of our

native deer species, the red and roe,have increased substantially, leading toexcessive grazing that damages woods.

The increasing number of non-nativedeer is making matters worse.

Woodlands provide important habitatfor many threatened mammals. Theseinclude the hazel dormouse, red squirrel,pine marten and all 17 species of batresident in the UK5. Woodland featuressuch as woodpecker holes and loosebark provide roosting sites for bats.

Of 262 woodland flowering plants

assessed, 30 (11%) are on thenational Red List. Some are consideredCritically Endangered, including greenhounds-tongue, which prefers openglades and rides in woodland. Thesefeatures are gradually disappearing as

woodland management has decreased.

We know little about how invertebratesare doing, but it is clear that woodlandsare important for them. Humid leaf litterand deadwood support a great range ofspecies, including centipedes, woodliceand millipedes. Flies make up a hugeproportion of the biodiversity in woods,both in terms of the number of speciesand their relative biomass. Beech woodsare particularly important for rare fliesand beetles, but other special speciesoccur in Caledonian pine forest, Scottishaspen woods, old alder woods andnorthern birch woods. Many widespreadmoths that use woodland are declining.

We know that 236 species have declinedstrongly over the last 40 years, and

some rare and localised speciessuch as the drab looper moth havedeclined severely.

Internationally important pasturewoodland and veteran trees can befound in the UK, which provide habitatfor scarce invertebrates and fungi thatdepend on dead and decaying wood.Several UK woodland types are alsoof high international importancefor lichens, particularly those along

the Atlantic fringe, the lowlandwood-pasture and parklands ofthe New Forest, and the nativeCaledonian pinewoods of Scotland.

7KHVWDWHRIZRRGODQGQDWXUH

All (1256)

Invertebrates (771)

Plants (422)

Vertebrates (63)

0 25 50 75 100



Strong increase

)LJXUH

7KHSURSRUWLRQRIZRRGODQGVSHFLHV

WKDWDUHLQFUHDVLQJRUGHFUHDVLQJLQHDFK

WD[RQRPLFJURXSPHDVXUHGE\HLWKHU

SRSXODWLRQVL]HRUUDQJHRYHUDSHULRG

RIXSWR\HDUV7KHYDOXHVLQEUDFNHWV

UHSUHVHQWWKHQXPEHURIVSHFLHVDVVHVVHG

&DVHVWXG\

%HFKVWHLQVEDW

Bechsteins bat is one of the UKs rarestbats, and is found almost exclusively inwoodland. It relies heavily on maturedeciduous semi-natural and ancientwoodland, making it very sensitive tohabitat fragmentation and intensivewoodland management.

The first systematic survey of the batsdistribution, from 2008 to 2011,revealed Bechsteins bats in new woodland sites in Buckinghamshire, Dorset, Kent,Gloucestershire, Somerset, and Worcestershire. This range extends much further north

than previously thought, and includes the most northerly breeding population known inEurope6. Work is currently underway to help understand the needs of this species andensure that woods are managed appropriately.

%HFKVWHLQVEDW

+XJK&ODUN%&7


WOODLAND


37/92

While the changes we have seen in woodlands are many and varied (see below), their effects are often similar, in thatthey change woodland structure, and it is often that change in structure that is bad for wildlife. Although recentclimate change has had little effect on woodland structure and composition, mobile species, such as insects and

birds, have moved with the conditions, and increasing temperatures have led to faster tree growth, changes in germinationsuccess and altered phenology in some areas. Despite recent reductions in emissions, nitrogen deposition and ozone levelsare still above critical loads for habitats such as UK Atlantic oakwoods7.

Why is woodland wildlife changing?

More invasive species

Air pollution

Disease

Overgrazing

Climate change

Example

Reptiles such as adders need

open areas for basking, so if

woods become too shaded they

are unsuitable8. However, other

species, such as woodland bats,

rely on mature woodland.

Example

The white-letter hairstreak

butterfly declined by 70%14 as

a result of Dutch elm disease.

Example

Many species, such as the

speckled wood and silver-washed

fritillary butterflies are responding

positively to increases in average

temperatures15.

Example

Lack of management and the

corresponding loss of structural

diversity have led to declines in

many priority species, including

the hazel dormouse9, nightingale10

and heath fritillary butterfly.

WHAT FACTORS AFFECT

WOODLAND WILDLIFE?

Example

Improved air quality has

benefited many epiphytic

mosses and liverworts, but acid

rain remains a problem in Wales,

and nitrogen deposition may be

a growing problem.

Example

The non-native grey squirrel

outcompetes the native red

squirrel, and also carries disease11,12.

Example

In many pasture

woodlands when

veteran trees

die, they are not

being replaced

because there

simply arent

enough older

trees. This affects

the invertebrates,

fungi and lichens

that rely on

deadwood.

Example

Deer selectively

browse on herbs,

shrubs and young

trees, affecting

both plants and

animals, such as

the nightingale,

that rely on

the woodland

understorey13.

Maturation of woodlands leading

to less open areas and more shade

Loss of

veteran trees

and

deadwood

Less or no woodland management



38/92

:oodlands and the species they support are conserved for a numberof different reasons, including commercial timber, pulp and woodfuel production and game bird shooting, as well as for aesthetic

reasons, recreation, and of course for wildlife. High priority species, such as thehazel dormouse, spreading bellflower and capercaillie, are often the focus ofconservation efforts, but other programmes exist that aim to benefit a wider rangeof woodland wildlife via sympathetic management. Woodland Grant Schemes inEngland, Wales and Scotland provide financial incentives to encourage woodlandmanagers to consider the needs of wildlife and manage woodlands accordingly.Statutory designations also help to ensure that woodlands are managedsympathetically, although the number of sites that hold such designations is low.

6DYLQJZRRGODQGZLOGOLIH&DVHVWXG\

8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKHSRWHQWLDOLPSDFWRIDVKGLHEDFN

Chalara dieback is a serious disease ofash trees caused by the fungus Chalarafraxinea (more correctly known as

Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus)which has caused widespread damageto European ash tree populations. Thedisease was unknown in Great Britainuntil the first cases were confirmed ina t

state of nature - 2013

Documents