staar review 2016 - biology by napier...• anatomical homology –structural similarities among...
TRANSCRIPT
STAAR Review 2016This is the power point used in class for review.
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• Cells are the smallest unit of living things• Simple cells are prokaryotic – no nucleus
(bacteria)• Complex cells are eukaryotic – nucleus (protist,
fungus, plant and animal cells)
• Cell membrane (all cells) – Surrounds the cell and controls what enters and leaves
• Ribosomes (all cells) – makes proteins (attached to endoplasmic reticulum)
• Chloroplast (bacteria, some protists, plant cell) – contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis
• Cell wall (bacteria – peptidoglycen, some protists - varies, fungi - chitin, plant cells -cellulose) – surrounds the cell membrane to provide structure
• Nucleus (eukaryotes) – controls the cells activities and contains the cell’s DNA
• Vacuole (large in plant) / Vesicle – holds the material like water
• Mitochondria (eukaryotes) – converts food into energy/ATP (cellular respiration)
Homeostasis
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Homeostasis – describes the equilibrium the cell maintains in response to its environment. They want to maintain balance.
Water moves from a high concentration to low concentration (osmosis)
Cell membrane is responsible for maintaining homeostasis
Molecular Transport
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Homeostasis is achieved by the cell membrane allowing material to flow in or out of the cell depending on the environment.
Types of Transport
ACTIVE TRANSPORT – requires the use of energy to move materials across the cell membrane (Low to High)
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – no energy required due to materials flowing from high concentration to low concentration (diffusion/osmosis/facilitated diffusion)
OSMOSIS in cells in solution:
ISOTONIC HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC(No change) (water enters-cell “BLOWS” up) (water leaves-cell SHRINKS)
Water flows from high % to low %.Water flows toward the higher solute.
Osmotic Pressure – force exerted by osmosisTurgor Pressure – osmotic pressure in plants (plant cells gain water)Plasmolysis – cells lose water
Turgor
PressurePlasmolysis
Vascular TissuesXylem = Water upPhloem = Food down
Energy Conversion Cycle
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MitochondriaSite of cellular respiration
ChloroplastSite of photosynthesis
Glucose and O2
CO2 and H2O
PLANTS & SOME PROTISTSANIMALS, FUNGI,
PROTISTS & PLANTS
REMEMBER: Bacteria do NOT have organelles like chloroplasts even when autotrophic
Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis
C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Reactants Products
glucose, water, oxygen carbon dioxide , water, energy
carbon dioxide , water, energy glucose, water, oxygen
Production of ATP (Energy)
•Systems that work together to produce ATP.
•Respiratory system gathers O2, Digestive system gets glucose and delivers it to the Circulatorysystem which in turn takes it to cells which use both to produce ATP for use.
Muscles use ATP for work. As you run your muscles work harder and require more ATP (energy) thus cellular respiration increases which requires more Oxygen thus increasing your breathing rate to add more oxygen. Anaerobic respiration can result and lead to cramps.
DNA Replication
DNA replication – Where? Why?Base pairing rule?Structure?Mutations - deletion
- substitution/point- insertion
How can mutations be passed to offspring – what type of cells must they occur in?
Protein Synthesis
copyright cmassengale 15
Happens in ribosome
Happens in nucleus
copyright cmassengale 16
Problems with Transcription or Translation
Why do many point mutations go unnoticed?
• 5 T A A G C T G A T A C T A 3
• Make sure you convert DNA and tRNA
back into mRNA!
Transcription:
5 T A A G C T G A T A C T A 33 A U U C G A C U A U G A U 5
3 A U U / C G A / C U A / U G A / U 5
Use the codons to find the amino acids
Viruses
Acellular - non livingHost Cell – must use for reproductionTail Fibers/Receptor Proteins (glycoproteins) – used for anchoringCapsid or Protein Coat Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
VirusesHow can you prevent yourself from getting a virus?
What does your body make to fight viruses?
Viral Infections
Viral Infections
Comparison of Viruses and Bacteria Cells
Viruses
• Non-living• No metabolism• Has “capsid” with nucleic acids• Depends on host cell for
reproduction• Do not respond to antibiotics• Can causes diseases like
Influenza and HIV• Injects nucleic acid
Bacteria Cells
• Living• Metabolic processes• Has circular nucleic acid (plasmid DNA)• Reproduction is through mitosis/binary
fission or conjugation• Can be killed with antibiotics• Can causes infections like strep throat
and meningitis • Releases toxins
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Cell Cycle = Interphase + Mitosis
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I – Interphase: Cell grows, develops, and duplicates its DNA
M – Mitosis: Cell division is occurring
G1 – First Gap: Cell growth
S – Synthesis: Cell replicates its DNA
G2 – Second Gap: More cell growth and preparation for division
G0 – “Holding” stage if cell density is too high
Uncontrolled cell division leads to cancer!
The Cell Cycle - Mitosis
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PROPHASE
The nuclear membrane disintegrates. The chromatin is condensing into chromosomes. Centrioles move toward poles
METAPHASE
The chromosomes align at the metaphase plate in the middle of the cell.
ANAPHASE
The chromosomes split and the spindle shortens pulling chromatids to opposite ends of cell.
TELOPHASE
The decondensingchromosomes go back into chromatin and are surrounded by nuclear membranes.
• Cytokinesis occurs at the end of telophase, separating the cytoplasm into two new cells
• Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells
• Asexual reproduction – one cell dividing into two identical
• Mitosis occurs in somatic (body) cells
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The Cell Cycle
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What phases of the cell cycle can you identify in the picture to the left?
Identify a cell in:InterphaseProphaseMetaphaseAnaphaseTelophase
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Crossing over during Prophase I leads to genetic diversity!
Organic Compounds
•Compounds that contain CARBON (with H and O) are called organic.
•Macromolecules are large organic molecules.
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Macromolecules
• POLYMERS made of MONOMERS
• Examples:
1. Carbohydrates made of saccharides
2. Lipids made of fatty acid chains & glycerol
3. Proteins made of amino acids
4. Nucleic acids made of nucleotides
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Dehydration Synthesis
• Removing water to put together
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HO H
HO HO HH
H2O
Hydrolysis
• Add water to break molecule
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HO HO HH
HO H
H2O
Carbohydrates• Functions:
• Short term energy ( -ose)• Structure of plants (cellulose)
Monomers of saccharideMonosaccharide: one sugar unit
Examples: glucose (C6H12O6), cellulose, sucrose, glycogen
disaccharide – two polysaccharide - many
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glucoseglucose
glucoseglucose
glucoseglucose
glucoseglucose
glucoseglucose
cellulose
Lipids
Six functions of lipids:
1. Long term energy storage
2. Protection against heat loss (insulation)
3. Protection against physical shock
4. Protection against water loss
5. Chemical messengers (hormones)
6. Major component of membranes (phospholipids)
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Lipids
Triglycerides:composed of 1 glycerol and 3
fatty acids.
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H
H-C----O
H-C----O
H-C----O
H
glycerol
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
fatty acids
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH
Proteins (Polypeptides)• Monomer = Amino acid • Bonded together by peptide bonds (polypeptides).
• Six functions of proteins:4. Movement (muscles)5. Structural (membranes, hair, nails)6. Enzymes (cellular reactions)7. Transport molecule (hemoglobin)8. Chemical messenger (insulin)9. Structural molecule (collagen)
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Enzyme . . . _____ase
Nucleic acids
• Two types:
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA- double helix)
b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA-single strand)
• Nucleic acids: nucleotide is monomer
• Genetic information storage
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Nucleotide
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O
O=P-O
O
Phosphate
Group
NNitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or T)
CH2
O
C1C4
C3 C2
5
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
DNA - double helix
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P
P
P
O
O
O
1
23
4
5
5
3
3
5
P
P
PO
O
O
1
2 3
4
5
5
3
5
3
G C
T A
Enzyme Stabilizes Transition State
S
P
ES
EST
EP
ST
Reaction direction
Energy change
Energ
y req
uired
(no
catalysis)
Energ
y d
ecreases (un
der cataly
sis)
What’s the difference?T = Transition state
Adapted from Alberts et al (2002) Molecular Biology of the Cell (4e) p.166
Mendelian Genetics
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Genetics is the study of the odds and percentages any given offspring will have a set of traits.
Three Laws of Mendelian Genetics:
1. Alleles (form of a gene) segregate and recombine, and one allele is inherited from each parent.
2. Traits are independent of one another (hair color does not affect height).
3. One trait may mask another trait for the same thing (dominant over recessive).
Genetics
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Green Dog (male) and Yellow Dog (female) meet, fall in love, and get married. Green and Yellow have four puppies.
If yellow coats (Y) in dogs are dominant to green coats (y), and both parents are homozygous, what are the likely colors of their four puppies?
Genetics
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Y Y
y
y
Yy Yy
Yy Yy
This is an example of a monohybrid cross (one trait).
Each of the puppies will be yellow, but heterozygous.
The phenotype of each puppy is yellow.
The genotype of each puppy is Yy, meaning that each puppy carries a recessive green allele.
Genetics
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Example of dihybrid cross (two traits): Yellow Dog has a short tail (recessive), and Green Dog has a long tail (dominant). Green Dog is heterozygous for a long tail.
What are the possible colors and tail lengths of their four puppies?
Color – yyTail - Tt
Color – YyTail - tt
Genetics
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Yt Yt yt yt
yT
yT
yt
yt
Complete the dihybrid cross.
What are the odds a puppy will be:
yellow, long tailyellow, short tailgreen, long tailgreen, short tail
Yytt x yyTt
Non-Mendelian Genetics
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Non-Mendelian genetics do not follow the traditional laws of genetics. Non-Mendelian examples include:
• Incomplete dominance – a white rose and a red rose produce a pink rose.
Common Ancestry
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Common ancestry is the theory that all organisms descended from a single ancestor. Support for this idea is found in:
• Fossil record – shows the variety of organisms that have existed over time, going from very simple to more complex organisms over billions of years
• Biogeography – indicates that organisms that live geographically closer are more likely to be genetically similar
• Anatomical homology – structural similarities among different species that serve different purposes (i.e., a bird’s wing and a human’s arm)
• Molecular homol0gy – DNA and other molecular similarities between different species
• Developmental homology – embryonic and early developmental similarities
Common Ancestry
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The bone comparison between a human, dog, bird, and whale is an example of _____________________.
Common Ancestry
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Homologous – same structure, different function-Common ancestor
Analogous structuresDifferent structure, same function
No common ancestor
Vestigial structuresNo longer serve a purpose but there because of a common ancestor
Common Ancestry
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The proximity of like fossils that supports continental drift is an example of common ancestry ___________________________.
University of California - Berkley
Common Ancestry
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Biogeography and Fossil Record
University of California - Berkley
Common Ancestry
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Chimps and humans share 99% of DNA coding, an example of molecular homology – compare DNA and amino acids.
99% Identical
DNA
Common Ancestry
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Embryology (developmental homology) suggests that embryos of many organisms share similar characteristics.
Tortoise Embryo
Rabbit Embryo
• Natural Selection is a process that selects for those organisms that are the best fit in their environment to survive and reproduce.
• Adaptations allow populations to evolve.
• Gene flow – new alleles brought into population (migration may cause this)
• Genetic drift (one type of allele begins to dominate)
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Hierarchical Classification
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Hierarchical classification is a method of assigning organisms into groups and subgroups
based on similar characteristics.
Species
Domain
Hierarchical Classification
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3 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
8,700,000 non-bacterial Species
Increasing similarity in DNA within the group or taxon
Hierarchical Classification
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Phylogeny – an organism’s evolutionary history which can be used to classify it.
Present Day Organisms
Evolutionary Past
Hierarchical Classification
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Organism A
Organism B
Organism C
Organism D
Organism E
Organism F
Organism G
Organism C is most closely related to which other organism?
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Food is chewed, swallowed, and passed into the stomach where it is broken down into nutrients. The nutrients are then absorbed into the blood in the small intestine and distributed.
• Muscular – chewing and swallowing food• Digestive – breaking down food into nutrients in the
stomach and small intestine• Circulatory – distribution of nutrients by the blood
Interaction Between Systemsin Animals
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A virus is inhaled from the nearby air and enters the lungs. Mucus is secreted and traps the virus. T-cells then destroy the virus. A cough is triggered by the brain to remove the virus and mucus.
• Respiratory – breathing in and trapping the virus• Immune – T-cells destroy the virus• Nervous – brain sends signal to cough
Interaction Between Systemsin Animals
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A hormones in a female possum are produced that initiate ovulation.
• Endocrine – excreting hormones• Reproductive – ovulation for sexual reproduction
Interaction Between Systemsin Animals
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A drop in calcium in the blood triggers the release of a hormone called PTH from the parathyroid gland. PTH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more calcium from urine and the release of calcium from bones. The kidneys also produce Vitamin D, triggering the small intestine to absorb more calcium.
What body systems interact in this example?
Interaction Between Systemsin Animals
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• Circulatory – blood has less calcium• Endocrine – parathyroid gland produces PTH• Excretory – kidneys reabsorb more calcium from urine• Skeletal – release of calcium from bones• Digestive – more calcium is absorbed from food
This is an example of homeostasis and regulation
Interaction Between Systemsin Animals – Body needs more calcium
Interaction Between Systemsin Plants
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Water and nutrients are absorbed and transported from the soil to the fruit.
Root system uptakes water.
Xylem vessels transport water and nutrients upward through the shoot system to the fruit.
Root System
Shoot System
Xylem Vessels
Interaction Between Systemsin Plants
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Sugars are produced in the leaves and transported to the roots.
Phloem vessels transport sugars from the leaves throughout the plant.
Root System
Shoot System
Phloem Vessels
Leaves
Ecological Succession
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Ecological succession is the process of building (primary) or rebuilding (secondary) an ecosystem over time.
Primary Succession Opportunities• New volcano lava covering a landscape• Retreat of a glacier uncovering bare ground• Mining in side of mountain
Secondary Succession Opportunities• Wild fire• Harvesting of trees for lumber production• Hurricanes, landslides, or tornadoes
Primary Ecological Succession
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Lichens are called pioneer organisms and are the first organisms to appear in primary succession. At first, the species diversity is low, but eventually mosses, grasses, shrubs, and trees appear. The lichens cannot compete and disappear.
Lichens Mosses Ferns/Grasses Shrubs Trees
Low Diversity High Diversity
TIME
Relationships Among Organisms
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TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPSPredation One species captures and feeds on other type of species.
Competition Two species struggle for the same limited resources.
Parasitism One species benefits at the expense of another species.
Commensalism One species benefits from one another, but does no harm.
Mutualism Two species mutually benefit from one another.
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
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Roles of Organisms in an Ecosystem
PRODUCER – Makes own food from sun’s energy
CONSUMER – Gets food from other organisms
• Primary – Eats plants • (HERBIVORES eating PRODUCERS)
• Secondary – Eats animals that eat plants • (CARNIVORES eating HERBIVORES)
• Tertiary – Eats animals that eat other animals • (CARNIVORES eating CARNIVORES)
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
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.1% of Energy
Producers – Largest amount of energy, number of organisms, and biomass
10% of Energy
1% of Energy
Primary Consumers
Secondary Consumers
Tertiary Consumers
Solar Energy
100% of Energy
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
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In the food web, identify:
• Herbivores, carnivores, and producers
• Organisms at the second trophic level
• Organism with the highest concentration of toxins
• Which organism represents the highest amount of energy and biomass