mulinet11.li.mahidol.ac.thmulinet11.li.mahidol.ac.th/e-thesis/scan/16649.pdf · a sre nepnesentsd...

Z g MAY I99I

A sru,y or r*o*of,ffifi1,ffiE IN spo,.EN rAI soNG

SUREE PENGSOMBAT

t

THES I S

THE

SUBMITTED IN PART I AL

RESUIREMENTS FOR THE

MASTER OF ARTS

(LINGUISTICS)

FULF I LLUENT

DEGREE OF

OF

IN

FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUD I ES

MAH I DOL UNIVERS ITY

1990

"in*Ary*i, r.dqf^

16641)

Copyright by Mahidol University

The.6 i s

ent it led

A STUDY OF PRONOMINAL USAGE IN SPOKEN TAI SOX6

Suree PengfsombaL

Cand i dete

. /*::sv..Q+b'ilnZ-.Sun i ya RaLenakul ' Ph.D.

Iila jor Adv i sor

Sujsn i t Iak

Co-edvisor

e.::/{.S omsonEle

Co-advisorBurusphat r Ph. D.

/q. AJ^"^^Chulasemaya' M. D. tMonthree

Ph.D.

De an LanEfuagle Bnd

Rural D€ve I opmeDt

Institute ofculture fon

Poonp itD i rector

FacuIt y of Gr s duat e Stud i es


Thes i s

entitled

A STUDY OF PRONOIT{INAL USAGE rN SPOXEN TAI SONG

wBs submitted to the Facult,y of Gneduate Studiesl Mahidol

llniversiLy f or the deElree of Master of Arts ( LinEluist'ics)

on

27 June' 1990

Auo* Pon*orlol. i.... .n,...Sunee Peng:sombat

Cand i date

trRuenEldet

Membe r.

llont hree

Ph.D.

De en

Pankhuenkhat t

Memb e r

<^.)tn)t-u,t,......,/.

S omsongie

Memb e r

Poonpit AmataYaku l 'D i r.ectorI nst I tuLe of Langiuag:e and

cu l t,ur e fon Rural DeveloPment

Chu I es arnaya ,

Faculty of Graduete Stud i es


o

t

NAI,tE

DATE OF BIRTH

PLACE OF BIRTH

INSTITUTIONS ATTENDED

RESEARCH GRANT

POSITION HELD & OFF I CE

B I OGRAPHY

Mi ss suree PenEsombBt

JuIy B. E. 250g (1960)

An8fLhongf ' Tha I Iand

Pnince of Songkhle University' 19?9-1982s

Bache l or of Educatlon (PsycholoEfy

end Gui dancs )

lrahidol Univensityr 1987-199O3

Masten of Ant s (LinEl'uistics)

Peculf,y of Greduate Stud i es r

Mahidol University

Secondany School Teaeher

Pamok Withayaphum School ' AnBfthonEl

,

JCopyright by Mahidol University

a

a

ACTNOWL E DGEMENTS

For the successful completetion of this suudyr I

Etreat dept of gnstitude to many people.

I 6m extnemely grat,eful to Associate ProfeEsor Dr.

Khunyingl SuniyE Betanakul, my principal sdvisonr for her helpful

sugEfestions Bnd for her patience in cornectin8l the drsft.

I em a I so deep ly indepted t,o my conmiLtee membens I

AssistBnt Professor Dr.Sujaritlak DaepadunElr Assistant Pnofessor

Dr.Somsonge Bunusphet, and Associete Pnofesson Dr.Ruengdet,

Pankhuenkhat! who Sfeve useful advice end cornectin€l errors Lo

impnove Lhi s work .

Uy speciel thanks are Eliven to the Tai Song speakers who

were my informants snd to friends fon iheir encouraEiement and

paiient assistancer especially, Miss Pornpen Kitpanich end Miss

NittBya Tien8ltronElpinyo who solve.some problems in typinEl this

thesis. I wish t,o ihenk Mr.seree sri jannElEmr the educat'ion

officer of Amphoe Bangf Len who guided me to Ban Phai Hu ChanEl and

to the ThongkhonEfharns who Eave me the nesiden!.

In eddition, I wish t,o express my sincene appneciation to

Miss Maresri Sornman, t,he librsrian of the lnstitutB of Langfuage

and Culture for Rural Developmentr who helped me in f indingl books

and theses.

a

,


oLastly, my Elratituda is due to my family, especlally, my

panents, for thein cont lnual encounag:emen! througfhout, the sLudy et

Mahidol UnivensiLy.

Sunee PenEsombBt

u

?

I


:ltruur

j- ^ I

ia?mg'luuu6

a20g

anaBunlt n'l?n? llnll?7l8'lul,tuo

ll

nr:fi nurri r a::uu'r u'luarurl nslri 'r

-t d --d?g I u ndrJlrn

Bailnranrlurfinrfin < nrurRran{r

n?ar inuna. pr,.o.!i

l-dernanrflr n'.,n \t ' Ph. D .!l

-tdXXT {l lltltl,,0lu ' Ph. D .itt

27 xnu1flLr l,t.fl. 2533

rnoS a

- ..1 " a -?uYtd'l r aan'.lr6ftr..}

daauu.lllI d;n r rluia

d 'l11tll61 r 7flnrll1n

o',nn',rAnrarrld',u {e

'a nnrJ tolln I utl

riluulsaod, dztrurlarurlflstrir arlr:nuriulcirfiu z nail 6a 6ru:ut i l|.l

" J o o, , o i..r ,

uaun 1u'[rd \, nnulI'r I ioa't Ern 1!7867?l,ru'lr d{ tnun n1r7flnlll1n n1i-

..9 - n ..rn'r glr n1z{tulrJ1 [i tun1l

riruloiudr.r,^J o d ,i i I etmift a uav s) uaurj'rurfllurdn (ilrift ?) n.lojuirr a.u1\rrau a.un:ilgnatr

inarfiuudqfiuii r fiunrzfi nurriraz:uurl'lunryrlnsT?i.:

.a-,cn run {nra !n1?flnulu ria {nrraBura:iluurta lrirdlilru'un'}u'}1xa}i n noaRot d u { / o J , - -OUUdA \t l1,l t lrt[AflE0lu7l1 \t ! ?t .1nt$?la nn 1dr?UU1t tlAUAnlr0luYll id {nI{,rd \rangUanA

o, 2 - ^ L e - Jn1t lidrtl,lu.) t uafil ?a {?nfl1ul,luf ttlliaant' 11 6 x na n 1

- .1 .e. Jnairrfii:rsavrEeofir1il lnfi 2 naillfirnrrld'rn'rusarnrz6nur

rfiarrial ilnfi s rfiunr:urirdnuilcdrd:zuurrr'luarurlmald.r rtnr,,rafr trr lfl 'rts'lra \r61f, ??1,ru1rJ

ri a n r r'l fi a: ruur l'l un tr l m a Jri.r

llnn 5

a""lI lluxYrul zit

-- iuou aa !'tu? QtJY!

nfi 4 a6x'lgI - .|, - -fla1?nnatn 7unaufl1{d{n d ! afl6-}ra

4r iiun'tru' 7n?1 1,tx1BuaudTuauu7l7t 6

" ioo o ^Jn 1uafln'l ul,tu { uau a'l i}l o'111 [i t ifln Iuau)

a1 nn{nd 7d?la\tnUl A!uaus0! tUaU. J . o ral

uaun'r r nulu{nu1r,1 ti Iufl1rdunu1nu]l7uo o rn JV 'q ] d

d'rrJ'r7ou1rl'l li [un1f ! lflnrx'r9rcT \: ? uau r T8nnun lil tn r iluqln

n1?'tfiarrflull'luarurlnatrirnndruuntnaflcderir{ I r'l{t

a 18 01i1,r dT uurio'luudrfinr: rru Fr1du1 ntrldrfiudnr.r


d ^ o u d ^r n-arx'rnuayn'tr r ludrr'rin lunra'unt? i? {r1 !tul,l2'l 'l a'l9 na t iailn uau

n?1il r fiurfiau uan"lndn'r7'lfidzzrurld.rareurl: r rldsulilnrilfledflnr.rdonrdu i- - lqr r a A6a n17di1 itn?'lltdxliud lnuuuuilu nl?asnauulrnn n?.]r I uuYt'l nn'17 n?'tl,

t

aflnaul naaoeun'rludn {a1?ildniafiduofi ra r siaunur


N6me

Degf ree

Thes i s Superv i sory

(tt

Thes i s TiL le A Study of Pronominel UEeEle in Spoken

Te i S ongl

Suree Penglsombat

Mast,er of Ants (Linguist,ics)

Conm i tt ee

Suriya Ratanskul t Ph. D.

Sujarit lak Deepadungfr Ph. D.

SomsonEle Burusphat r Ph. D.

27 June B. E. 2533 ( 199O)Dste of Gneduet i on

ABSTRACT

This thesis is an sttenpt to present, t,hs pronominal usB8le

in spoken Tai SonEl which is spoken at Ban Phal Hu ChanEl (the

fourth and fifth villaEles) and Ban Xo Lek (the seventh villaEle)r

Tambon Phsi Hu Changlr Amphoe BanEl Lenr Nakhon Pathom province.

The puppose of this study is io describe lhe pronominal forms in

Tai SonEf includinEt the t inEiuisLic struciure of pronouns and social

and cultural factors influencinEl pnonominal usagie in Tai SonEl.

This thesis iE divided into 6 chapters. The first is the

int,roduct ion which consists of the Eieneral infonmaLion. The

second descnibes the importence of this sLudy and surveys of

nelevant I iterature. The third is the classification of pronouns

in Tai S on8f . The fourth is the deseription the I inEluistic

struciure of Tai Songf pronouns. The fifth is Lhe analysis of t,he

social and cultural factors underlying ths pronomirral usaEle in Tai

son8l. The last one is the irnpl icBt,ion and conclusion.


lv

Pronouns in Tei Songf are divided into 2 Efroupsr i.e.,

propen pronounsr and pronomine l ly used nouns which consist of

' k inship t erms 'per6onel nemesr t,i!lest occupet ion terms,

friendship termsr loan wordst words used to refer to spouse and

speciBl vocabulary enployed

l(inship Lenms ean be used in

convarsat ions fo aDd f rorn monks.

I inEl acf,ual kins and non-kins. It

1n

ca 1

is found that the use of pronouns in Tei SonEf er'e conditioned by

sociel and culturel factons which consist of sex; eE:er occupstionr

!ltle, religtion, kinship and fauri 1y relBtionship, Efenegloglcal

dist,encer ef,hnic Efroup snd friendship. Furthermoner Lhe

difference of the pronominal usBEfe may vany eccordinEi to other

social and cultural factorsr e.El.r solidarityr presence of child,

formal ityt int imecy end emotional manifest,etion of interlocutors.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

AB S TRACT

TABLE OF

LIST OF

LIST OF

L I ST OF

CHAPTER

1.1

CONTENTS

TABLES

li,tAP ' DIAGRAIi{

ABBREVIATIONS

AND F I GURES

AND SYMBOLS

Pag:e

i

ix

x

xi

1.2

1.3

1.4

I s I NTRODUCT I ON

G6nanal I nfonmat i on

1.l.I Ident ificat,ion

1.1.2 Historical Background

1.1.3 GeoEfrephical Location

l.1.4 Lingfulstlc AffiliaLlon

I . 1 .5 Some Intenest inBf Trad it ions

Object i ve of the Study

Scope of the SLudy

Methodo I oEty

1.4.1 lnformaL ion CollectinEf

1

I

I

3

7.

10

13

16

16

16

t7

77

l7

18

1B

20

zo

20

2l

zt

Informants Forma I ly lntenviewed

- The Non-Monk I nformant s

- The monks

1.4.1.2 lnformants Informel ly Intenviewed

1.4.2 Field Technigues

1,4,2.1 Forma I I nterv i ew6

1.4.2.2 Informal I nterv i ews

1.4,2.3 Persona 1 0bservat i on

1.5 The Benefits of the Study

1.4.1.1

ICopyright by Mahidol University

vla

CHAPTER I I T THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

OF RELEVANT L I TERATURE

Z. f I nport ance

2.2 Previous Studies of Pronouns in

AND SURVEYS

Tha i

III i CLASSIPICATION OF PBONOUNS IN TAI SONG

Propsn Persone I Pronouns

3. 1. 1 First Penson

9.7.2 Second Person

3. 1 .3 Thind Person

Pronominal ly Used Nouns

3.2.1 I(inship Terms as Pronouns

3.2.2 Pseudo Kinship TerrDS as Pronouns

9,2.3 Teknonymy as Pnonoun

5.2.4 Tit les as Pronouns

e.2.5 Personal Names as Pronouns

3.2.6 Friendship Tenms as Pronouns

3.2.7 OccupBtion Terms as Pronouns

8,2.8 Loan Words as Pnonouns

3.2,9 Wonds Used to Refen to Spouse

A.2.lO Special Vocabulary Employed in ConversaLions

to and from Monks

page

30

30

3Z

CHAP TE R

9.1

3.2

50

54

54

55

56

57

57

69

7S

76

.44

a7

8B

90

92

96

)

a

4Copyright by Mahidol University

CHAPTER IV ! THE LIN6UISTIC STRUCTURE OF TAI SONG

PRONOUNS

4.1

pege

102

tzz

123

vl l

t25

125

4.

4, 3

Semsntic Featunes of PPonouns IOZ

4.1.1 Sementic Featurbs of Proper Psnsonal Pronouns IOZ

4.1.2 Semantlc Featunes of Pronomlnal ly Us€d Nouns 108

Syntact ic Struct,ure of Pronouns 1OB

Gnamnatical Pnocesses of Pronouns 1O9

4.3.1 Pronominalization 1O9

4.3.2 RestricLion of Pronominalizstion fog

4.3.3 Pluralization of Pronouns 111

4,A,4 Pronominal Apposition 115

4.3.5 Genitivization of Pronouns ll7

4.3.6 Reflexivization of Pronouns 12O

4,3.7 Positions of Pronouns in Inf,erroglative 721

4.

4.

3.8

3.9

ConsLruct i ons

Pnonoun I nvens i on

Pronoun Deletion

CHAPTER V ! SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FEATURES UNDERLYING

PRONO}dINAL USAGE IN TAI SONG

5.1 Social end Cultunal Features Underlyingf Social

Roles in Tai Songf

5. 1. I Sex

5. 1. ? Ade

5.1.3 Kinship and Fami ly RelaLionship

5. 1.4 GeneBlogical Distence

125

126

127

127


5.1.5 TiLles

5.1.6 ReliEion

5.1.7 Occupation

5. 1.8 Ethnic Groups

5. 1.9 Friendship

Social and Cultunal Features Underlyingl

Relat,ionship in Tai Son8f

5.2.1 SolidariLy

5.2,2 Pnesence of Chi ld

5.2.3 Forma 1 i ty

5.2.4 I nt imacy

5,2.5 Ernot,lonal Menife6t,ations

Rules of Pnonominal Usagle

5, 3. 1 Base Rules

5.4.2 Var i Bnt Rules

Ro 1e

vi i i

pa ge

128

tza.

t29

t29

130

1flz5,2

5.3

CHAPTER Vt T IMPLICATION

6.1 tnpl icaiion

6,2 Conc lus i on

BIBLIOGRAPHY

132

t B3

133

134

134

ta7

ta7

139

AND CONCLUS ION 156

156

160

162


a

LIST OF TABLES

page

Teble 1 ! DisLribuLion of Informations InLeFviewed 19

Accord ing to Sex and AEfs RanEle

Teble 2 s Distribution of Informants lnterviewed 19

Aceord in€l to occupat i on

. Table 3 s Phonemic Repnesentatlon of Tai SonElt

t-̂ UonsonanLs

Table 4 r Phonemic Representet ion of Tai SonElr

5l

52

Vowe I s

Teble 5 t List of Ninghip Terms Employed as Pronouns

Table 6 3 Feat,uresr Symbols and siElnif ication of

57

104

Propen Personal Pnonouns in Tai Son8i

Table 7 ! Distinctive Features 'of Propen Personel 106

Pronouns in Tai sonE

4

aCopyright by Mahidol University

Mep I

Disg'ram I !

F i Sfure

F i Etune

F i Eture 3

F i gune

F I gfur. e

FiEure 6

F i gfure 7

F i Eiure

FiEiure

l:

2t

4t

5!

8!

9:

LIST OF MAP, DIAGRAM AND FIGURES

Msp of the native land of the Tei SonEf

people in the Sip SonEl Chu Tai aFea

The classification of Lhe Tal I anEfuagfe

fan i ly

The Ta i .SonEl' hou6es in the present.

A Tai songt couple in the traditionel

cost,ume for auspicious ceremony.

The Tai Songf woman is weaving unden

her house.

A socerer in lhe /setn'h+en"/ ceremony.

The bridegfnoom and his friends ane payinEl

respect to the brideg'room's relaf,ives.

The bride end her friends Bre paying:

respect to relatives of the bride.

The bridegroom is weenin8f a Elold neeklace

to his bride in the weddingf ceremony.

A soceren in the weddinEl cepetnoDyr

Men and women Bre in process of caprying:

s corpse to the temple.

pe ge

25

26

t2,

22

2e

z4

26

27

2A

29


J

ABBREVIATIONS AND S YMBO LS

t

edv.

CRR

e.gf.

etc.

Ex

i.a.

Ibid

inter.

N.

p.

pBrt.

plu.

adverb

cond it i on of role

example

et c€terB

examp I €,

thet i s

Ibiden (in Lhe sema plBce)

i nten j ecL i on

noun

pa ge

particle

plural

prop. pron. proper personal pronoun

C

quss.

R

RT

s i nE:.

--------->

t]

quesL i on

receiver

referent

s i ngiu I sr

cons i sL of

phonemic transcription

the element within the iraces

must be chosen

occurrence

nonoccurr.ence


CHAPTER I

I NTRODUCT I ON

1.1 Genena I I nformat i on

1.1.1 ldentificetion

,'The Tai SonEl,. or t,Leo SonEl,. people are en et,hnic

Efroup of the Bleck TBi people (n1QeU1 l,tUoh1: Z5ZA) thst

beEfan a senie6 of miElrations into Thsi lend fnom Nont"her.n

Viet,nam and Leos end set,t, led initlelly ln ietchbuni. The Tai

Songf people, according to the Thai Dictionery (2493)r ap€ B

g:noup of Phu Tai people who llke to we6r black trousers.

Some!imes, people cal I them Song' Dem (1.t5'1) .

We heve often heard sevenal names referningf to these

peopler such as, Lao SonEi, LBo SonEl Darn, Phu Tai Dam! Phu Tei

Songi Dam, Tai Song, TBI SonEi Dam on Tai Dam. etc.

Sathienkoset, ( r dig1tn t 66 stated the

derivation of the different name6,

2509 r 48 )

as fol lowst

The words /son/ (n7\r, 6Ol, ZslnZ (,ti.t),) "-- J

l +, A/sotl/ ( li{) or / swarl/ (u?r il-a d?i) in Tai

Songf have the sems meening: siElnifyinEi

'ftrousen" and /dam/ meaningi riblack,' so the

naDes mentioned abovs signifvtn6 the persons

who wesr black trousens or clothes.

Furt hermore r rrrost peop I e I i ke to use LheCopyright by Mahidol University

ebbreviated name' droppinEl the last part.

At present r theae fBmous people are known by

2 d i f f erent names t Lao Song or Ta i SonEl'.

The laiterl wlih t,he gfeneric "Tsi" statingi

thst f,hey er€, al I Thai people. is t,he

off icial name.

Simi lEnlyr Oednoy ( 1964)

stated that the name "Bleck Tal"

with black blouses or costumes.

explained t,haL someUimes they ane

they came from the Black River.

and Leban ( 1964) also

i6 used to refer to women

ln Bdditione Gedney aEla i n

called Black . Tei beceuse

wicilweihekann tianttffnftt 2504 ! 76-?8) who

intenesfed in the lan$uegs snd people of t,he Tai fBni

stated in his study thatt

As matter of fect ' the Bleck Tsi

people are the seme lfnoup of encient Tal as

the White Tei and the Red Tei. Sone of these

people ane mennied to Chlneseg thus, t,hey look

I i ke Chinese who hsve ryhite comp lex i ons so

they ane celled the White Tai. Generslly' the

Black Tei people usual ly wean dark blue

c I oUhes but, somg may wear red costumes I

therefoner people call t hen the Red Tai.

is

ly


. Niphon Senaphithsk tfluud raurfiiait zszttthat, the name I'Leo SonEl" is only enployed to refer

bel I ved

to the

Bleck Tei who miBret,ed to Peuehburl provincer Thailand. The

locEl p€ople who hev€ been in this aneE ang the Lewa on Lua

es well as ot,hen groups of Lsosl so. th6 Black Tai uho jusL

annived sr.e slso called "LBo SonEf" or,Lso Song Dam', in stead

of,Tai Dam" on,Tei SonEl Dam,. as in forrner times. Besides,

the wond "Lao SonElo may ba employed to nefen to the Black Tei

who live in other provinceg of Thailand, such BBr Lopbur.i;

Nakhonsawanr Nekhon Pathoml Batchbunl or Samuthsakhon. The

Black Tsi who llve in Leoi are still called Tsi Dsm (U.lninr

2521t as ln Laos and Viet,nam.

. Even thouEfh the BlBck Tal people hBve different

names' they ane often cal led 'rlao SonEf, or 'rlao SonEl DEm.'

which refers to their miElnetion fnom Leo. At, present, Lhe

offieial name of g:roup of people is "Tai SonEt" <1nldtl. The

reeson for this termlnolo8iy is to create solidanity among

every ethnlc group in Thai land iden!ifyinEf al1 of then as

Tha i s.

l, L.Z Hi stor i ca I Backgiround

It is belived that the home of tha Tai SonEl is in the

cheo KinEtdom ( o1$1{n1d'lutd1 )r once the cradle of sevepal

ethnic Elroups. AfLer the Mon8lol invasionl the Tei SonEi

Nan

Tai


mi Enat ed to live neer

( ll,a{un\t) r the capital^ I ^- I

( u1,ru6 rdu1l{ nrt 252I).( tOgUttlgut) ln Nonthern Vletnam. Hevin8f enJoyed a peaceful

t

independ€nc€ in the Sip Songl Chu Tai snee untl I 1920 B.E, th€

Black Tel anee wes occupied by the Leotlan anmy from Lu6ng

Phn6 bangf ( dll7ll0 [tltiflfi: 2524, .l!

General lyr the Black Tei people l ive in Kwan8: S i .

Yunnanr Tonkin, in t,he upland valleys of northern Vietnam,

and Leos includingl the eres between Lhe Red and Black Rlvens.

The chief center of the Bleck Tsi peoplE is Son La in

Nort,hern VieLnam. This town is called m+-sn' laa' in Blackl

Tal' and the people and lenguage ane called tay'damt or

t ay'l am' ( Gedney: 1 964 ) .

4

,cf,he 0u Biver (UIU1A) Bt Muang ThaenSfI

{of the Sip Songf Chu Tsi (Un?UdUdAne[il9)t

Muant ThBEng' is now Dien Bi€n Phu


j

,

,

leaBl1)

JtuitztXocWltulo)

aMapIt Map of the native land of the Tai SonEf

sip SonEl chu Tai are6

I'Remarks on the OriElins of Thao HunEl

people in the

Source 3 or Cheuangi" by

Janeg R. Chanhenlsln lr'l Papeng Fnonr q Confenence on

Tai Studies in Honor of Wtlliam J. Gedney, 1986, p.80

: .''---'\- : .--'\.- :

JU.2-Sip Song./.(,

tf.o

and €nilironfituzErllyoy,

,


Migretion to Tha i l and

Througlhout hlstoryt the Bleck

sev€n6l inva6ions from t he Chineser

Laoiien and the Thei of BenElkok. These

dnove them from Lheir n6iive lend and

pnesence in the nol.th of VietnEn' in

Thailend.

Tai people suffened

the Vietnanesar t he

pol iticel pres6ures

eccounted for the i r

Leos es wel I as in

About the yea" ZAZL B.E.' kingt Teksin of Thonbuni was

insult,ed by kingf of Vient iene so kin8l' Tak6in of Thonbuni

ordeped Somdej Chao Phraya !.{aha kasat suk to subdue VientianeI(unrt.)gneu U). Leten in the year ZOZZ Somdej Chao Phreyg

Meha l(eset6uk ordened Luan8' PhrebanEf troops to capf,ure [{uangf

Irlus i t rfiaorifgl Bnd li{uangf Than ( rfiatfiul which ere the eiLies

of the Tai SonEf in the Sip Son€t Chu Tsi (as "Sip Song Chau

Tei" by Lebar). The Lroops ceptured many TBi SonEf end also

Leo WienE| (Vientisne Lao). After thetr Lao WienE were sent

to sett le down in Sareburi ' Ratchburi and Chsnthaburi while

Tai SonEl wene ondered to move down to PeLchburi.

In the yesr 2935, in the reigin of kingi Rama Ir MuanEi

ThsenEl Bnd Muangf Phuen denied the sovereiEinty of VienLiane,

so the kinEi of Vientiane sent his lroop to subdue them end

lhen many Lao PhuBn snd Tei SonEl y{ere ordered to move down to

BanElkok. The Tei Songf wepe sent t,o sett, le down in PeLehbuni.


a

. ln the reiEln of kinEi Rana I I I , in the year ZA7 I B,E,

kingf Anuwon8l of Vientiane tried to free hirnself frorr Siamese

sovereigttty. So kinE Rama lll ordered Phreyg RBchsuphEwedi

to subdue hiur. After t,hat rlBny Tei SonEl 6nd other Lao

fani I ies were sent to Thai land end the othen Laos wene

ordered to I ive in many provincss, sueh BSr Sanaburi 1

Lopbunl, Suphanburil Nakhon Chaisni end Phanat Nikhon (Ufldfinl|)

of Chonburi pnovince whilB the Tal SonEl peopla were sent to

I set,t, le down in petehburi t8? $.rrntr zszgr.

About the yeer 2378 8.8.1 Chao Phraye Thamma (Sombun)

wss ondered by king Rama lll to subdu€ Luengi phpabeng' snd

liluenEf Thaen8l. HavinEf been defeated, ths Tai SonEt and other

Laos wene fonced t,o move down !o Tanbon Tha Raengf <fif UiOl ".,aAmphoe Ben Lsem tifUUf|all of Petchbur.i pnovinca (U.a$gtdns

2s t I ) .

1.1.3 Geogirephicel Loeation

Nakhon PaLhom Prov i nce

Nakhon PEthom is Bbout, 56 ki lometres fron BanElkok by

hi Efhvray end 64 ki lometres by railsey. Adjacenb to t,he north

of it i s Amphoe sonEf Phi Non8f (da.lfida{) of Suphenburi

province, the south is bounded by Amphoe l(ra Thum Baen (ntg?il-

lllju), Amphoe Ban Pheew t fjf UUfif l of Samuthsakhon pnovince ..O

Anphoe BenEf Phee (U'lnUU) of Ratchburi province' the east by

C

*


s

Amphoe 5ai Xoi t1n:fiag), Ampho€ Bangt Ysi <Uf ,f'lur!t I Amphoe

BanEl t(ruei ('tl1.fflt2tl) of Nonlhaburl pnovinca and KheL Ta Lingfl-Chen ( t?nna\tiu) I Khet Nongf Kheem ( f ln Ua\f U I) of BanEtkok. In

the west is Amphoe Ben Pong <fjfUtil.:> and Amphoe Pho thB Rsn

tttorrll of Ratchbur.i (ru iagvt6t{ ouro*rr zszzr.t

This pnovinces is divlded

l. Amphoe Muangf

Z, Amphoe Nakhon Cha i

3. Amphoe S arn Phran

4. Amphoe l(am Phaeng

5. Amphoe Don Tum

6. Amphoe BanEi Len

Arnphoe Bengf Len lies in the northeEsL of Nakhon paihom

province. The nort,h of Amphoe BanEl Len is bounded by Amphoe

SonEt Phi Nong of Suphanburi and Amphoe Let Bua LuenEl

(a1of?IA2n) of Ayudhaya, the south is bounded by Amphoe

Nakhon Chai Srir Lhe easf, is connected to Amphoe Sei Noi (1IZ-

fiagl of Nonthaburi and the wes! is boundsd by Amphoe Xem

PhaenEf saen and Amphoe Don Tum cdrtaauftta[. zsgz).

Amphoe Bengf Len eompr i ses

1. Tambon Beng L€n

Z. Tambon Bangl LuanEf

3. Tarnbon Bang Ra l{em

4, Tambon Lam Pha Ya

into 6 Amphoes t

ta'rraarfialt

sni <drrnauarfisii)

t dr r nadrlu:rurSsen ( a1 ! flanlBlt!t!du)

( a'l r flaflaufi! )!

(a'ltta ldtau)

15 Tanbons es follows :

<ciruaurlraul

( n 1ualJ't \tIa? $ )

( n1UaU1\r?un'l )

r eiruadruryr >


a

a

5. Tambon Na Ra Phi Ron

6. Tambon XhlonEt Nok Kra Thung

.7. Tambon BanEf Pls

8. Tambon B6nlf Pha Si

9, Tambon Don Tum

10. Tambon BanEt Saj NEtam

11. Tambon Sai Ng:en

lZ. Tambon Hin Mun

13. Tembon Phai Hu ChBnEl

14. Tanbon Nin Phet

15. Tambon Bue Pak Tha

I( nl aut"lr7l|8 )

t riruaoaa lunnlun it )t

t ciruarr .rilnr I

(n1 a!'t {r1u)(nl aoaun!)

!rt(nl all't{ tYtT{t1 )

( n1 a tn7 \t1ll )

( n luarura )

a {r ,(n1 atGJ1ti1{r)!

(nluauaI i7)(nlua!? lnnl )

Arnphoe BanEf Len. Peop I e

l

A Bnief Infornai,ion ConcernirrEf the Anea in this SLudy

Tambon Pha.i Hu Chsng lies in the western peri of

Amphoe BanEf len, Nekhon Pathom provice. The norLh i s

eonnected to Tambon Bang LuanE: (U1\t a?\f ), the souLh is Tambon

Sem NEIBn (d1l\i1ll) of Anphoe Don Tum; the east is bounded by

Tanbon Hin Mun <fiUlal and ths west by Tambon 56 Si Mun (diud-I

lJlJ ) of Amphoe Xan Phaengi Seen.

Tarnbon

fourf,h' f ifth

thi s study t

villaEfes are

sevsnth is

vi I laEfes 1ie west ern psrt of

Phei Hu Changf comprises 7 villaBf€s of which the

and seventh are Tai Song ehosen as sampl iDEfs in

the others are Thai. The fourth and fifth

ealled BBn PhBi Hu chanEt <tjfu1ciyfi1.r) *hil" Lh€

Ban I(o Lek (ri1u!n'tyr5nl. These thneecalled

in theD


10

at Ben Phai

as f ol low!

Hu Chang: snd Ban Ko Lek eonsist of 224 fsm i I ies

i . e. , 662

i.e.' 854

The fourt h

people.

rnals t

femele 3

The fifth vi

people.

male :

femele I

The seventh

vl l leEie 4) comprise6 89 farni liesl

364

29a.l

I laEte (?tl|fl 5)I

compr i ses 93 families'

474

380

vi I I age

of mainland Southeast AsiE. TEi lanEluagies

vsrious counLries all over t,he wonldr but

( TI1I

( 1'[r7l

.e.1 238

?) compri ses 42 families;

peop 1e .

male r 111

femal.e a 127

Thers is a primary school vtitl: 267 st,udents 3 136

malBs and 131 fenalesr 15 teachers t 5 males and 1O females'

together with a Buddhist, temple that comprises 15 monks of

Tai SonEl end 4 Thei nonks.

1.1.4 Linguistic Affilietion

The TBi

feni ly in the aree

are spoken in the

they er.e ma in ly

Ieng'uaEe Fami ly is e signif icant lengfuaEie

referred t,o as the lan8fuaEles spoken in


a 11

j

countrieEt Indie (msinlyl Assam Stet,e)r Burme (Shsn Stete) r

China (Yunnenr NwBnEl Si, Kwaichour Canton and Hainan lsland),

Vietnanr Laos' Thei land 6nd four st,ates in the norUhern part

of uBlaysia <a?g1 inuna t z5z8r.

Lengfus8fss in the TBi fanily heve been clessified inlo

main subdivi6lons that vary in aceordance wlth geoSlnaphical

loce!ionr I iteracy end nonl itenscy by 6cholans Etudying thg

Tei lanEluaEfes. FanEt' I(uei Li ( 1960) | the f Bmous I inEiuist,

divided the TBi lanEtuaEtes into 3 ma jor Efroups es f ol lowt

1. The Southwest ern Efroup

2, The Centnel Efroup

3. The Northern (or Northeestern) Efroup.

His classification is based on thnee types of evidencet

a 1. The distribut ion of vocabulary

2. The distribut,ion of certain special phonoloEtical

features in the vocabu I ary.

3. Specific phonoloEficel development, charecterisfics

of a centa in Elroup.

The Black Tai or Tai Dam' accopding to Li's

clessificationr is in the southwBstern Elroup of Lhe Tai

I anElua Ele f ami ly which wi I I be shown in t,he fol lowinEl diaErams

,Copyright by Mahidol University

a12

I Southpesteraa

II Central

a

ffl Northern

DiaEnam I : The Classification of the Tai LanEfuaEte Fauri ly,


t3

1. 1.5 Some lnt eresfinE Tradition6

Hou6 i nE

General lyr the Tal SonEl people Iike to liva near ons

anothen. Today' it, is difficult to find tpaditional Tal Son,

houses becEuse they hav€ chenged into the locEl Thai housingf

style made of wood vit,h coppuElBtad zinc or cersmic roofing.

one of the neeSons fon chanlte is thsL the speciel kind of

bamboo fop naking roofE i6 very rane. Every house must have

e noom for spirit,B of Lhe ancestors which is called "/ka4.fnlf,: ht1 / st the uestern cornen of the hou66. ln this

room' there is s lit,tle hole in the well for EandinEl food Bnd

watBr to the Eplr.lts of the ancest,ons in t,he "/setnt hiEn'/"

cenemony. When TBi Sonf p€ople giet nanniedr thgy must eome

to pey nsBpect to ths €piritst after the weddinEl cenemony' a

bnidegfroom aill take his br.ide to introduce hen to the

spirits of his ancestors in this room.

Dres s i n8l

In the tnedltionBl Tsi Song dressinSlr e men wearE

black short s t,hat ane cal led /suaq" k ) m" / ( / suaq" / meBns)-)"t,rousers"r and /klm'/ means "short,'i) and e black blouse with

buttons alonE| the fnont side. A woman wegrs /sint,/r which is

a narrow skint' end a bl6ck closef it,t ingf blouEe wit,h tight

long sleeves and lO-2O silver butlons Blong the frorrt side.


14

This blouee is called /eie" k2m

Sometlmes; she does not w€Er e

pert of her body in B lonEr piece

of a BlnE|le womBn is Eathergd Bt

-/ (/s*d/ mesns "a blouse").

merrisd womsn has hen top-knot st

h6in is called / Dan" kev" /,

blouse but wrEps the upper

of eolouned cloth. Th6 hein

the top of the head while a

the nepe. The top-knot ted

DuninEl ceremonial occasionsr both men and [omen weal'

black closefi!tingf blou6e wiLh lonEl sleeves cal led /s*e'

hi t' / < /hi 12 / means ,t lon$tt ) . This blouse is long about the

lower hip level end has 2O-3O silven buttons with sh6rp tops

on the front side. The I ininEl of the blouse is decorat€d

with coloun various threads end smEll mirror6. This blouse

can be worn on the 2 sldest the plain side for auspicious

cenemonles and the decorBted side for unfEvoursble

cenemonles. The mBn weans it wit,h the bleck nanr.ow-legfs

tnousens cBlled /suan" hitt/ and the woman with /sin6/ and a)

long piece of cloth around her neck.

AL pnesent, the old people at Tambon Phai Hu ChBnEl

still have their tradition style elof,hinEt but the younEl Tei

Song: peopl,6 dress like local Thai people and some. will dne6s

in the treditionsl Etyls whsn they Elo t,o B cep€lnoDV.


15

Fo od

In dai ly life, moEt

ChanEf is liks local Thai

speclel kinds of food, such

B 6euc€ of presenved fish

n i ce t f i sh or veElst,ab I es .

Tai SonEl food Bt Tambon Phsi Hu

food but t hey 6ti l l hava thein

as, "/c€u! ?+et t latn"/" which ts

and ehi l i r 6aten with Ellut inous

Occupet i on

MosL of the Tai Song p€ople et Tambon Phei Hu ChanEf

eann thein livingf in egnlcultune. Rice farminE ls their

majon occupation. 0ther occupat ions ers ElerdeninEli smBll

t r.ader pork rsisinEf snd rsisinEf En6ll animels. Some Tai SonE|

ara minor civi I senvent,s. Aft,er finlshinEi thein big jobs,

some may heve side jobs to earn extra mon€y. The prefenred

slde jobs are wBavingi (for the women) end ferm lebor and

Eeneral lBbor (for the men).

The occupat ion of the TEi SonEl

2531r g)can be shown ss followsr

f6rming rice

Elarden i nEf

prawn f6rn i nEl

commer c e

an ima I ra i s inEl

D {i ,( ll.lU t Al i'l \t,

7t z

?%

20

4X

3%

vduauulutn'lutan


16

1.2 Objective of th€ Study

The object lve of th€ study iE to descrlbe the u6aSfe

of pronominal form6 in Epoksn TEi Sonf. This study pt'€6ent6

grarnrnaiical end 6ociel f €at,ures lncludinEl 6ocial and cultunal

espect,s that gfovsrn t he pronornine I usagles.

1.3 Scope of the Study

I . Thi s study i s an at,tempt t,o present t,he use of

pnonominal forms in Spoken TBi SonSf aL Ban Phai Hu Chsn$ and

Ban Ko Lek in Tanbon Phai Hu Ch6ng. Amphoe BanEllenr Nekhon

Pethom 3

2. In uhi6 t,hesisr pronouns are defined as pePsonal

pronouns that, are used t,o refer to the salfr to persons

spoken to end to pgrsons spoken ofr togeLher with various

iypes of nouns which are employed as pensonel pronouns.

1 .4 Uethodo I oEty

It ls t,rue that e speaker wiII not, use the satrle

pnonoun with his different conver6atlonal penuner6. The

choice of pronominel useEle tYi1l vany accondinSl to socislr

economlc end educstionel beckEfnound of communicators. So Lhe

daf,a gst,herinEl on pronouns employed by speakers in Tei Songl

must be mads frotrl various sociel Elnoups and differenL age

ranEles.


t'la

1.4.1

Tho

Epeskers as

Informat i on Collect inEl

daLa for this study were courpiled fnom t,he Tsi SonEf

folloYsr

I

1.4. l. I Informsnis FormBI ly Interviewed

The informents fonm6l ly interviewed compnised two

soclel Sfroups of Tai Song speakers in Tambon Phei Hu Chang,

Anphoe Ban6f lene Nakhon Pabhon provincer non-monks and monks.

- The Non-Monk I nfontrlents

lfe axpect t hat occupBtlon snd education may Eiovern

the choice of pronominal u6aEe in Tai SonEl. Therefor€r the

inforrnants were chosen as nepr3sent atlves of different

occupations and educational backgir.ounds. The infonmants vere

clessified into 3 gfpoupsr the non-professionaI, semi-pnofes-

sional end t,he professionel. The non-professionel Elpoup

consist,ed of uneducated people end people who hBve hed fornel

educat,ion in school up to grade 6 on ?. They wars menchBnts,

farmensr monksq Seneral workersl end people wonkingf on ponk

farrrsr duck ferm6 6nd pnewn ferms.

The semi-professionel Elroup was comprised of

studentsS the high-school student,s were fnom Karl Pheengf Saen

school' while other.B were sf,udylngi fop diplomes ln thee

a


18a

technical and comDeFciBl college on for bach€lonr6 de$r.ees in

Nakhon Pethon Teachers' Col leEle. Th6 profeeslonal Etroup

con6isted of +,eache!.st thein educaf,ional bEekgnound wes in B.A.

- The Monks

wet Phai Hu changt <in'ldrafirl> r a Buddhist t,ernpr6 inTambon Phai Hu Changf , has bean l,ritt, fo.86 ye6r.s. There are

19 pnlests in the tenplet only TBi Song monksr who erej low-rankingf Donks, uere choBen as samplindfE for t,hi8 study.

1.4,1.2 Informants Inforrnal ly Int,et.viewed

At Tambon Phai Hu ChBnE ther.E ene vsnious ethnic-

rsl iEfious gfroups. They ere thB Chinese. /b)tt cako/ and ths

Thei, /b)t" koz.i'/. Bot,h Tai SonEl and non-Tai SonEf people

were informal ly interviewed for their usagie of pponouns in

convsnsation with the speakers of Tai SonE.

a

tCopyright by Mahidol University

a

+Teble I ! Di€t,ribution of

Lo Sex and Ag:e

Informat ion6 lntervieved Accord i n!,

RanBa

Profess i ona I

OccupEt ion

Tesch€r

Number

3

t9

Sex \ AEte 10 - 20 2t-30 31 - 4() 4l 50 over 50 tote I

Male

Fena 1e

6

3

I

t2

5

3

3

4

17

t4

39

36

Sem i -Profess i ona I St ud ent

a Non-Profess i ons I

Pork ReisinEf

Duck RaiEinB

PPawn FBrm i nEf

Fsrmer

GenerBl WoPksr

Mer c hant

Monk

2

3

I

43

I

7

I

Distribulion of

to 0ccupat i on

a

Table 2 : Informant,s Interviewed Accond i ngf


20

1,4.2 Field Techniques

The rnet,hods thBt v6r.e employed for dete collect inlf

wsret formel end informsl int€rviewB Bnd dlrect recondirrgg

of ect ua I useges.

1.4.2.1 Fonmel I ntErv i ess

An inforrnEnt who wes lnterviewed ues ssksd in Th6i

which pnonouns he or she enployed in 6pe6kingt with his on her

conve'rEational pBrtner6 on dlffenent, occesions. A malB

wonkapr for example, wes finst asked t,o Eiive self-inf or.metion

of eElet plece of birth, soclo-€conomtc back8fround, I ingiulstic

beckgiround t oElBther vith fanl ly beckEtnound. Aft,en that, he

wBs asked which pronouns he gtenenElly used in speskinEf with

the membens of his family, frlends, teachers, non-sc quB i nt6nc6s

and monk6. His fnlends included Bcqu6int ancesr intimaLe and

very int, imat,e fr i end6.

1.4.2.2 Infonme I I nLerv i ews

lnfonmal lntervlews were uith non-Tel SonElt Chinese

and Thei people. They were EskEd in a cBsuel style about

some pnonominal usege ihat, they used to speek to TEi SonEf .

To examine some daia thBt came from t,hese non-Tsi SonEl

informsnt sl t,hus, inf,erviewingt Tai Songt informant,s elso ar€t

i nterv i ewed .oCopyright by Mahidol University

2t

1,4,2,3 Persona I Observat i on

Personal obsenvelion wes a cu€ to verify the data

thet occured in formal and informel interview6, dlrect tape

necordinEi of convenseLions was employed.

1.5 The Ben€fits of the Study

The i nve st i Elat, i on of pronouns

di6cuss the pnonominsl refepence in

deseription in this study eonsist,s oft

this thesis is toSonE. The date

in

Tai

1. A description of the charect€ristic6 and use of thepnonominal fonms, includinEl the t infuistlc slructune ofSpoken Tai SonE.

. Z, A El'uide for. further studies of pronomi.nal usBEles

the other dialects of Tai or the other minority lengluagtes

the provinces to manifest soclBl and culturel backEfnound

the people in thet society.

in

in

of

3.

bring out

Songi I i f e

forms.

It is hoped that Lhe anBlyEes in this study will

siEfnif icant socisl and cultunsl features in Tai

which 6r.e reflecied in the choice of pronominal


FiElure 1 ! The Tei Sonf houses in the present


2Sa

a

t

Flgfure 2 t A Tai Songi couple ln the

for auspicious ceremony

trad it i ona I costume


FiEfure 3 I The Tai Song roman is ueavinEl

t

unden her house.


F.iEure 5 r A socerer in the /setnth+an"/ ceremony


26

FiEfure 6 r The bn i deglroom 6nd

to the bn i deEfroom' s

his frieDds ane payingl nespect

relat,ives.

The bride and

relatives of

her friends are payingi respect to

the bride.

Fi Eune 7 3


27a

)

a

F i Eure I 3 The br i degroom is

hir bnide in t he

weaningi a EfoId necklace

wedding cePerlolry r

to

a


zaa

J

aI"I

\.dilb{^r\-.=-----c

j-g-

Figure I 3 A socerer in the weddingl ceremony

a


a 29

a

a

R>1

a

Men and women

eorpse to the

ene in process of

temple.

F i Eiure 10 s cennying a


a

j

CHAPTER I I

THE I Ii,IPORTANCE OP THE STUDY AND SURVEYS OF RELEVANT L I TERATURE

Z. I I mport,ence

Langtuage I s an impontant meBns of undgnstand ingi

infornation about the speaker, includin8f hou Lhe speaker

esteblishes snd maintains social neletionship with oLher

p6ople (Trudgi I l: 1974). It is a form of sociel behavion

which is used by hunBn b6in6' in a Bocial context to

connunicate their needsr idees and emot ions t,o one another

( Labov I 1971 ) .

Each lenEluege must have its oyn sy6t,en which people

unden6tend and cen conmunicate with sach oth6n within Uhe

apeech coDmunit,y. Hence' I inEluists attempt to work out the

rules of lenEfuBBies becauBe ihey bslieve thet fhe variat ion of

languaEfe u66Efe comes from the lanEluBge stnucture. Some

I inguists found t hef t,he different use of lan8luBgle not only

depends on l enElusEle structurer but elso is concerned with

social structure because they find vanietlon6

idiosyncrasie6 of the speech of individuBls conditioned by

Eociety. The latten is a sociolingulst'E point.of view.

Generallyr linguists discovar Lhe system of lsnguagfe

by usinEl data that, was Elat,hered fnom veny few individualst

while sociolinE:uists who hsve normal ly accept,ed the system in

a I snEluagle will derive e lin8luistic system from the date of

natunal speekln6t (or natural wnitingl) ralher than eliciLingl

a

or

a


31a

it fnom inforoants.

expands into soclal

sociel structune es

1971).

They bel i ave

cont,extua I

wel I es the

t hat the study of lanEtuage

units whleh cBn mEnifest

I BnEfuaEf6 syst,sm ( F i 6hrlans

The st udy of I angfuagie in a social context by

soclol inEluist6 is the study of t,he I inEfuistlc mateniel

produced within the structurB of the society. It DBv6

l, speclel attention to the lvsy in which panticulBn

charactenl6tics of t,he society affect the structures of

veriat ion and ehanfe of !he lBngfuagfe spoken, Bnd, conven6ely,

to t,he wey in which different u6es of languag:e and diffBrenu

att itudes Ebout it,6 verieties affect the int ernal dimensions

end foncas of the reciplent community ( Levanderat 1988).

It is aecepted th6t t,he difference of langfue8fe usE is

defined by socio-cultural faetors. msinly, aRgr s€x;

occupBt ionr education and social status. In lsnEuager the

variation of pronominal ussgfe, especially pBnsonal pronouns,

depends on these soc i a I fact,ors. The use of persona I

pronounsr which relet,es to people, veries accordlnEf to the

int erlocutor or referent which is cheracteri zed by a socio-

cultural context theL affects the choice of pronominel form

of a speaker. Each pnonoun vanience cgn reveel aggr sElXr

occupetion, social stBtus, kinship and fani ly relBt ionship,

iniimacyr respect r emotion, attitude and of,her soci6l factoFs

that reflect and indicate social and cultural faetures within

I


e2

the speech comnunity. Thus, the investlBetion ofpronouns in thiE thesis will mske us saa

6ocio-cultural aspects of Tai SonEl ane showed in

speech and how eech ven i ence i s def ined

chareeferistlcs that govern the spe€ch behavion of the Tei

S onE.

2,2 Pnevious Studies of PnonounB in Thai

PnonounB have been studied and analyzed in aany

leng'ueg'es of various languagie farri lies for many yeers.

Before the pnesentet ion of the Tai Song pnonouns in this

thesisr a bniaf Eurvey of rvork concenninEf pronouns should be

discussed so that the investiElaLlon of pronouns in this study

will continue the effort of esnlier work. In Thei land. the

studies of pronouns by ElrammsriBns and scholars of l anEluaBfe

ane rest,ricLed io BanEkok Thai. To relate t,his study to thepreviou6 pronominal studiesl the discussion of Lhe Thai

pronouns should be offered.

Tei SonEl

how the

individuEl

by social

pronouns in itsGi lmsn ( 1960 ) .

An original and serious study

context wes studied by Brown

of

andsociEl

This

addness

study describes the semantics of pronouns of

in European langfuegfe, mainly Fnench, German and

Italian. The two address fonm6 in European languegieg are

tulvos in LBt,inr tu/vous in Frenchr tulvoi in ltelian, Lulvos

in Spanishr du/sie ln German or t,hou,/ye in Engf l ish, and these


a

sre nepnesentsd by a.o*r,:fflf Slt$*!t "= T/v. These two

,

addness form6 Bre conditioned by t,he "power. and "solidanity"

dltrl€nsionE whlch affect the choiee of pnonominal usaEfe Es

T or V. In s case of the power dimension siEfnifyinEl the

pronoun of addressl the fron of address will be nonrecipnocal

T-V between per6on6 of unBquBl powen (the superior' uEingi T

and receivingf v). The vaPious sociel compon€nts t hBt effect

Dower are phyEicBl 6t rBngfthr wealthr 6RBr 58)(r and an

lnstitutional ized role in the church, the stater the ermy' or

Lhe fanily. On the ot hsr handr tf the solidarity dimension

has won over t,hs power dln€nsionr the addrsss form will be

mutuel V or T betrreen persons of equivelent, powen. The social

sementic compon€nt s of soderit,y come from I ik€-mindedness or

simllar behevion disposltlons in political membership' family,

nel iEion. pnofessionr sex on birthplece.

In Letin ant,iquity there was only "tu" in the

sinElular. The plural "vos" as e form of sddress io one person

was finst n€fenned to the emperor. The use of the plurel t,o

the empenor begen in the fourt h centuny. By that, iimer there

wene two empenonBt one had hls seet ln Constantinopler and

the other sat in Romel thusr t,he vos form implies plunaliLy.

By medievel timesr the nonneciprocel T/V usaEle ceme f,o show

poweF relationshipt t,he uppen classes used T with the lower

classes buf, received v. such BSr converEBtiorlE between

cusf,omer and wsiterr parent and sonr employer and employse or

officer and soldier. The firsL will addnass the other with T

16649 l&c43+X

a

a

tlCopyright by Mahidol University

?4a

buL neceive V. Laterr t,he use of t,he non-reclprocal T/V Lo

expness pow€,r decneased end nutual T and v wene employed

insteadi bhe Dutual T shows 60lidarit,y while the muiual V is

nonsol idarit,y. For exampler in EpeakinEl between parent and

sorr maEten to feithful sErvent on elder bnother to youngfer

brother, peopl€ will recipnocate Ti while between customer

and waiterr officen and soldien, on employet' end amployeet

t,hey wi1l reclpnocete V. LloreovePr the choice may also vary

irt the oLher sociel charectenistics. The interlocutorB' for

ex6mple' usuelly necipFocBte V but, if both are emotlonal one

may addness the other with T.

After Brown and Gilman's study' Lhe investigation of

pronouns oecured in of,her langfuagles, such asr Fishen's sludy

pnonomina I useEl'e in Japanesee on the study by Friedrich in

the Rus6ien pronominBl useg:e (Patakornkul: 1972>, In

Thailand, pronouns have been described by many ElPammariarrst

the fol lowinEi is a brief discussion of Thal pronouns3

The sLudy of pronouns by si lBpasarn ( u?Yg'l Qtlfinaaild'|z

2514 t 32-38' 13l-l3z) investiEfated the whole itr.lrtt'"r"tr

feetures of St andend Thai. In Silapasarn's morphologicsl

sectionr "pnonoun6 are words that nepresent rldrlgsr To

escape nepeat ingfr s noun or noun phrase menL i oned or

understood B pronoun is employed to replace it"'


35a

Pronouns! accor.dinEf io S i lapsgBrrr, ape

into 6 caf,eElorlest per6onal pronouns ( 1t?'lid?11,lll'llj ) r

cle6sified

nelative!

pronouns (thufiuoditl,tu1!) r dis!ribut,ive pnonouns tiatnd:tuurll,

demonst,rative pronouns <flald??uu1l). indefinit,e pronounB

( aflgxdT1uu'ut) end lntennoEfative pronouns (:lqc$1d1Tlu1l, ) .

As fon pensona I pronouns r th€y ane words whi ch

repr66ent personE in 6 conv€rsstion or discus6ionl they may

* replBce a sendenr neceiver or neferent of the f irst,i second

or third penson. Each pensonEl pponoun covor6 sGlxr numben

and csse. Whan usinEl pronounsr a speaker essent iBl ly

considens t,he qu6 l ity of ihs sntecedent thet e pronoun

, replaces. lf Uhe noun an+,ecedentr fon exemplEr is malet

slnEiulanr he mu6t select the pnonoun which is proper for a

singile malei furLhar; a pronoun which showa cB€ie t hat' modifies t,he noun entecedenf,r can reveal t,he status of the

addressee or referent as in

av

/narj si:

Mr. neme

"lrlr. Sil he

v/na, j s i r

Mr. name

"Mr. Si ' he

t"l:r, rlrr ""Jnzhe tell I

told me"

ktgw bl ! k

he tel l

told ne ?"

c flrl/

I


36

v\/nasj sis men bxtk /

It{r. nBme it tell

"Mr. Si' it, told (me)".

It i6 appBrent, thet the pronouns /Lharr./, /khaw/ "he"

and /mer./ " it," which come sfter Uhe titl€ /r.sti/ "Mr." endV

the nsme /si./ 'Si" siElnify the different ststus of the

ref6ren! eccordingf to the spsskeP's feel inEl. It shows lheLi

the refen€nt who is referred by /t"atn/ recelves respectv

rst,hen than that refeFred by /khaw/ arrd /man/.

/man/ menifesf,s the least respeef,.

The term

To reBard

speaken express es

singnificant fsctor

ihe social ststus and respect thab

towerd his irtterlocutor or referent is

in us inEr pensonal proncruns in Thai.

a

e

Like the sLudy by Si lBpasannr Phenthumetha (u77QU

fiuorlOir 2514) wrote about pronouns in her bookr The

Characteristics of Thei. She defined pronouns as words that

replace nouns. To avoid repeet inEl rlounB many timesr pronouns

will be enployed in their pleces. Pnonouns in Phant,humetha's

work ane classified liks those in the work of Silapasern'

Phanthumet,hB elso explained lhBt the use of personal pronoung

musf, vary accord ing' to s€x r numben and stetus of

int,erloeutors. l{hen referring to self' person spoken lo or

person spoken of, Thai speekens often uGe kinship termst

!iiles, occupational Lerms as wel l as personal nBmes as


37t

t

pronounsr instead of personal ppoDourtsr ln Thair the kinship

tepms ars employed in order to express Effec!ion and create

fami I ienity Bmon$ relatives and non-kins. Only the terns

/Ler/ "(meternal) Efrandfet,er"i /JatJ/ "(matennal ) Eirand-

mot her"r /lu/ "older brothen of perents", /par/ "older sistar

of penents" , /rrst / "mother's younEler brother on sister" or

/pni't/ "older bnother or sistsn" are employed in calling

non-kln6 on non-acgua i ntencas but pat,grnal kinship t,erm6 such

as /pur/ "(petennsl) Efnandfstsr'r, /jea/ r'(peternal) gpand-

mot hen" o? /?a, / "fetherIs younger brother or Eistenrr 6re not

u6ed in addressinEi non-kins or non-acqua i ntBnce6.

In 1969r Cempbal I sUudied pronouns by reElBrdin€t

distribut ion and function whieh occur in cleuses on

sentences. Pronouns, accordinEl to Campbel l1 are words whieh

stand for nounsl thus, they are defined as "noun substitutes.

"Both nouns end pronouns share simi lerity of funcLions.

In "Noun Subst it,utes in Modern The i t. A St,udy of

Pnonominal ityr " Campbel l enployed I inEfuistic mat,enial thaL

comprised eiEfht hours end forty five minutes of tape recorded

t,elevision and rsdio panel discussions and interviews which

vrere recorded in BBngikok in 196O and 1961. This sLudy

concenns funet,ion and distnibution of the verious types of

Thai pronouns in their rols as noun substitutes. In spite of

f,he fsct thaL nouns and pronouns ere similBr in funct ion,

there ane some rest r i cL i ons that separet e nouns from

a paonouns. one rBstniction is that attnibute fonrns such as


38a

v\/suaj/ "pretty", /3ei/ "bigf" end /dil/ ngood, csn modify

nouns but, they csnnot nodify pronoun6. The of,h€r

re6triction6 are thBt one chBrectEnistic of interroEfetivesr

nelat ivss and demonEtratives 6hare cleuse funct,ion with nouns

and in lhe ot her chanacteristic. t hev have Lhe Bdditional

funciions. The lnt errogfetiver for exemple t /khrg i/ "who"t

when it functlons ss an indefinlLe pronounr is similar f,o e

IrouDr but when it iE an interrofative PFortounr which may

a funct ion as subi€ctr obieci' obJect of preposition or

glenit ive rel6t ion t,o B noun in B clause' it wi I I slSnal

qussi i on.

As demonstnative Dl.oDouDBr the words /'ri,/tAl ^l/,farr/, /nan/ ) /rf,oa,f,/ Brrd /rroiIr/

funct,ion es objects of verbsr obiects of pnepositions or

followers of t,he word /kwar/ "more". These words wiII share

funct,ions with Thei nouns. but when they ere demonstrative

adjectives tha! nodify nouns on noun phnases to indicate

spetiel or temporal location of the nouns in relation t,o the

speekerr they Bre a secondary framrnatical function. The

nelativ€s eonsis! of relat ive pronouns and forms which ane

not rglatlve pronouns. Only the PelBtive pronouns thet

function es the subiect or obieet of the pnedicate cleuse are

defined as noun substitutesi the othen neletivesrfor example,

/L"i,/ may function as a nounr clBssifierr pnspositionr or

relaf,ive conjunct,ion bu! is not, used as noun substitute. The

distnibution end function of personaI pronouns differs from

/,iit/

i

a


39

relat,iver interroElBtive' and demonstrative pronounsl thBy may

funct ion as the subject of a clauser object of e venbr obiect

of a preposltionr apposiLion f,o a nounsr apposition t"o oiher

personal pronounsr or in Efenit ival reletion to nouns.

Personal pronouns in Thei have various forms to nefer Lo

selfl to ihe p€)r6on spoken to or the person spoken of. The

choice wi I I vary accordinEf t,o LhB real or imegiined social

ststus of t,he speaken and his audienc€.

64-66) of The Inten-sentence RalaLions in Modenn ConversB-

tionBl Thai involved B description of the whole system of

Thai. A part of this work is explained in The The i

St,ruciure 3 Grammauieal Systam. In thi s study, pronouns sre

. They can subst it ute

w if,h nouns " .

Even thouElh pponouns csn be put, in t,he position of

nouns, there are differences between themt the fonmer cannot,

be nodified by edjecLives but the latter cart. she explained

tha€ 'the choice of pronominel usag'e in Thai must considen 3

siglnif icant socisl cateElonies s intimacyr social status, end

seniority of inLerlocutor and referent. In Thair there are

fonms of pnonouns to tsxpress t,he deEiree of inLimacyr for

examplel if the nelationship between speech participBnts is

inLimater types of pnonouns which ane employed will be

distinguished the pronominel forms used by partcipants who

tlAn interestinEl study by Panupon€l (a6Un[ ,11$un91 2522 |

descnibed as "a sub-class of nouns

nouns or occur in the same posiLion


40

are nou intimat,e. FurLhBrr socisl stetus cen charecLerize

papt icipBnts ar lower, upperr or equal class wiLh the

speeken; end it effect s the choice of pronorninal fonm6.

Participants who Bre in the Esme cla66 will us€, pronounE

differently from persons who come fron different clasaes. The

choica mu6t dapand upon the eEl€ of th€ addnessee. Fon

exanple; when speakin8l t'o e seniorr Thai speBkers vill not

use the pronouns /lue/ or /nstj/ 'youn and in refenring to

themselvesr the terms tk"itt "I" or /?ew/ " I. we" will not

be emp I oyBd.

Of these

tell which is

depend on tha

spsaker csnnot

pronoun may be

firdf, pnonouns

pronouns such

/k"wn/ "you",

thr€e socisl cateEiories' it i6 difficult to

the most importent social cat,eEoryl it muet

situauion duringi discussion. Perhaps, if a

decide which pronoun he should selectr the

omiLf,ed in speekingf. It is Bpperent Lhet the

wi I I be paired with their second personv ,./

as /chan/ "l' I /Lb '/ xyou" t /di .^nen/

or zr), "

"Jrrz\\

"l" | /fat bett/ "you" i when

usinEf pronounsr they nust be seleeted correctly. ln

t,ionr kin Uerms in Thai can be employed pronominal ly.

addi-

ln 1968r a study by Cooke ebout Pnonominsl Reference

in Thai, Burmese, end Vietnamese dlscussed fonms, meening end

usagle soncernin8i personal pronouns snd other types oi nounE;3

kintyDe nouns ( i.e. kin terms and staLus terms) and name

nouns. Pansonal pronounsr accondingf t,o Cooker are considerad


41a

in usindi with ell three persons but pronominal ly used forms

are eoncentrBted in first on second person conLexts. The

d6ta f or a I I tht'ee langluaSles wes den ived f nom inf onmant,s

Logethen with sone written meteriels end I itereny works.

,

forms

denote

us ed

person

In Thair F€rsonBl pronouns sre defined semBntical ly as

which heve differentation of person. They usuelly

only firstr secondr or thind pgr6on but pronominBl ly

forms may denote themselves as Uh€ finst or 56cond

dependinEf on the context.

I

Thene ere severBl fonms of personal pronouns in Thai.

Some forr6 may be restricted to sex on BEie. such aE the term

/Lua/ "ybu", which is only used by women and chi ldren| somel

heve ambiguity in personr for exemple lkts/ arrd /L"itn/ cen

be employed either the second or third person. ReEfBrding

pairsr t,he first person personal pnonouns are paired uiLh the

second person such es /gnom/ "Irme" with /khun/ "you", /kul /

"lr me" wtth /rnirj/ "you". Personal pnonouns are plurelized byl

meens of Lhe prsposed word lp"iak/ "8fnoup" .

l(int,ype nouns which comprise kin t,enms end status

terms are often used ss pronominal references. Whsn kintype

nouns are emphasized as numerat,ive expresslonsr the wondA

/p'iak/ "gfroup, will precede Lhem or occesionally they mBy be

reduplicated. The kinLype nouns may be used fol lowingi tit les

a Lo indicat,e propsr respecLr and both kin t,erms and stetus


42

term6 can be used as titles prscedinEl name nouns. General ly,

nsme nounsr which Bne derived from giiven names end nicknBmasr

Bre u6ed pronominal ly in Thei. and in speakinEi' kintype noun6

and nBrtle nounEi Br€r paired with personal pponouns such ssV^

/phom/ "Ir rnE'r paired with /phftl "you (fBthen)" . used by 6

son speakinEl to his fether.

In Thair ihe social factors such as ager sexr renk,

kin nelation6hip, lntimacy end nonrestneint aff ect, the use of

pronounB. The differencss of the ident,ificst ion of

interlocutons t hat ene conditioned by ihe6e factors will

determine .t he choice of pronominal forms which reflects some

important aspecis of ThBi culture. IL is found thet if a

speaker cannot deuermine the choice of pronominBl forms,

pronouns may be omit,ted in speakinEl.

In Burmeser pensonal pronouns are defined semgn-

iicelly as disUincL from pronominal ly used nouns. The former

unambiEluously denoie firstp second; or third person; but Lhe

latter msy denot e fir6tt secondl or third person dependinB: on

f,he context. There ere special plural mankerg which

dist,ingluish pronominel fnom nomimel usagie. Pensonal pronouns

and pronominal ly used nouns ane plureliz€d only by mesns of

the postposed pronominsl plural fo?m /dov{q/ r but in nominal

use they teke ths nominal plurel ize"s /-Lweyv/ "gl'roup" or

/myax/ "many".


There are many fonms of personal pronounsl some ere

nestnict,ed to women and children end the attnibutive /-rl.eq/

is modified to sigfnify female sex in some Burmese per.sonel

pnonouns. ln the spoken langfuagfer there is only /euv/ "he,

she" for the third penson which cen ba used by both mBle and

femele.

l(intype nounst kin terms snd status term6 at.e

fnequently used in Burmese, and they mey function as t,it les

pnecedingi names nouni two titles which precade name nouns ane

called pr imery and secondary. Primany tiLles will be put

before neme nouns Bnd t hey imply Mr., Mps., Mssterr. on Miss

in EnEtl ish' but seeondsry titles occur before primary tii,les

thBt have ordin6ry nominal meeninEfs such es kintype nouns

have elsewhere. Most Kin terms may be redupl icated Lo show

endearmenL or respect end ere nodified by /Lyix/ "bigi, gfreet"

to indica€e added nespect by the speakerr or by /-leyx./

Lo express added intimacy or Iess stetus differEnce

between speaker snd eddressee. Funther, neme nouns, Eiiven

nanes end ni cknames; may be redup I i csLed but the

unredupl icef,ed given names are Elenersl ly preceded by titlest

while nieknames ane not usually preceded by Litles, they are

frequent ly redup I i cated.

K i nt erms

Burmesa, and f,hey

in

be

and

ane

status terms ere Elenera I ly used

also used is titles, l{in ierms csn


44

employed as t,itles

numorativeE thst, ane

precedinE numena l s

often found in this

ln the forms

I enEluage.

of kin

The pronominel usegf€

deEfPss of aBer sexr nank and

ehoice of pnonominal forDs.

know infoPmation ebout sEie, or

of inf,inecy to eB6ume with his

omitt€d.

in Burmese is eonditionad by

lntimacy which ref lectE the

PerhaDs if e sDeaker doeEn't

he is doubtful to the de8fnee

interlocut,orr pronouns msy be

preposed

abro I ut e

ln VietnBmese, t,her€ ane speclal pronominal plural

markers that distinguish personel pponouns fnom pnonominel ly

used nouns. Persongl pronouns can be divided into two

subclasses. The f inst, is plunaliz6d by meens of a

,t cnurrd / "Efroup' but tha second cBn st,and a lone as

pluneI personal pronouns. Pronominel ly used nouns aneIplunelized by e preposed /cecl "Eiroup". Some plunalized

first pensonal pronouns may include the eddressee; such as

/chunEl t6tl 'you and 1", and some includo other persons (but

exclude ths addresse€) | such "r U "

"rlrrEt +.ao/ "I / he, she or

they".

The pronominel usaEe in Vietnamese is det ermined by

facLors of sbetus and inf,imBcy. The main fecLors affeci inEf

sLBt,us are aEler social rank. and kin nank; the chief faetors

affecting intimacy are kinship, friendship, stetus Bnd sex

which result in the choise of pnonominal forms.


45

In f,he three lengiueE:es ' the principal 6ociaI factorE

that affect the use of pronounG are w€althr egfer kin rankt

and soclal nankt including int imecy which depends on factors

of fsrni ly on fniendship associatlon' sex' and nelative aEfs.

Each lenElua$e has tenms which express intimacy end

non-int imecy. If a speaker snd sddnessBe are non-intimBte,

the form of pronoun will revesl respecLful bshavior. ln

Bunmeas and The i r som€r forms of penEona I pronouns sre

restnicted to women and chi ldnen. It is found that kin rank

is t,he most important in Vietnemese. Both kin tenms and

stetuB terms sne often used as titles in these languaEfes. In

cont,nastr Thsi does not have speciel pronominal plural

msnkens like Burmsse end Vietnanesei kintype noun6 in Thai

ere used fol lowinEl titles fo expness pnoper regpect. In

Bunmese r t hene are personB I pronouns whi ch make sex

distinctionr and in the spoken lenguagfe there is one term of

e third person personal pronoun which can be used by e men or

woman. Many kintype nouns are nedupl icated to express edded

fniendliness on intimacy. BoLh Burmese and Vistnamese have

speciBl pronominal plural mankensr but Vistnamese hes

inclusive and exclusive first person plural meaninEls' and

titles Bre ElenerBl ly omiLted in ths pronominel usaEle.

In a study

descr i bed pronom i nB I

socio-1 in8luist lc point

compi led from direct

of pronouns by Palakornkul (1972)

usaEfe in spoken Ban8fkok Thai fnom a

of view. The data on f,his study were

obsenvations of verbal interaction of


46

BanEfkok Tha i speaker s

wl'itten ThBi end in I

Pnonouns, aecordingf to

are def ined as follow3

and pronominal forms whish are used in

itenBny txorks by cont emporany writ,ers.

Pal6kornkul tdlnru a,a..|ntna lg72 , 34)

Pronouns are terrrs t,hat are used to

refer to a senderr receiven of a mssseEle or a

referenL referred t,o in a massaEle in speech

commun i caL i on. They may be ce I I ed f i rst ,

second end third person.

The use of pronouns in Thai can be classified into 2

Efroups3 pensonal pronouns proper toEiether with noun or noun

phnase employed pronominal ly. The first Elroup consists of

words that are generel ly monosyllabic and have different

forms in first, second and ihird penson. The second gfroup is

comprised of kin terms, pseudo kin termsr teknonymy, personal

nBtllpsr friendship termsr occupaLion termsr titlesr foreigfn

loan words, words end phrases specially employed to refer io

spouser and special vocabulary used in speakinEl to or by monks.

Whi le us ingi pronouns, parLicipants are siEfnif icent

componenis in the interpersonal csmmunicat ion processes. The

speech role of panticipants may be as sender, receiver on

referent who may on may nol be in the convensstion. In

addition, communicat in8f participants ane marked by social

nole(s) that each of them occupies. Each sociBI role is


47t

a

determined by underlying sociBl and eultursl charactenistics

thaL indicale Thei cultune snd its social st ructure. When e

speaker employs pnonounsr he eEsentially selects a pronoun

which is appropri6t,e to the condition of Lhe role

nelationship of hiE interlocutor or nefsnsnf.

The stratBEly employed in pronominal useg:e consists of

I ingfuist,ic rules and socio-l inEfuist ic rules. The formen er€t

the nules which siEfnify the gnammar of pronounsl t,he latter

are the rules t,haL indicaie social epproprietensss of usaEfe

det,ermined by Eociel and culturel fectorsl these trro rules

which underl ie the native communicstive cornpetence of a

speeken indicat,e the real istic 6tructural descniption of

pronominal stretegy in Thai. The pronominel systems used in

intenpensonal communicat lon comprise Z processes

pronominel izat ion end social marking:. Pronominalization is

employed to manifest a lineuistic process of e noun on noun

phrsse referringf to a sendenr receiverr or refereni into an

abst,ract t ingluistic E+PROl. Sociel merkinEl is used to chsnga

Lhe abstract t+PRol into a socially marked fonn l+pnonounl.

This sociel and I inEuist ic [*pronoun] has many vsnients in

the pnonominal systemE in Thai. Each van i ant is deterrnined

by the social role(s) and the role relationship of speech

pertieipants. The varlous social categiories affectingi social

roles of BanS:kok Thai people are povren and steLusr kin6hip

and f Bmi ly relationshipt BR€r fniendshipr ethnic groups

occupationr s€xr and ElenealoEfical distence. The sociel

a

)Copyright by Mahidol University

48

cateTon i es determiningi role relet ionshi ps are i.ntimBcyl

respectr sol idariLy, formel ity, presence of chi Id, pnesence

of non-acqua i nt ence or a penson with power and stetus, led8fth

of time of acquaintance, condescension, and emotional

nanifesLat,ions. ALl these sociel features differentiaf,e the

social role and role releLionship of BanElkok Thai speakers

f,hat are showed in the choice of pronominal form.

Furtherr there are 2 dimensions of pronominal usaEfe.

One is a pronominal form that, is employed in normal usagfei

the other is switehin8l of one pponominal form to BnoLher Lo

express emotionel disposition. In this study, Pslakornkul

tdtnrU OAlnTnA lgT}r l?l-lZZ) coneluded thBt

The present st,udy clearly indicaf,es thei

a simple l inEluistic description of pronouns

would give only half of the pictupe ofpronominal usagie, and thaL it would omit a

Elreat part, of ghe social and cultural

background manifested in the I ingfuisLicr

social, and verbal behavior of the Thal people

concerningi their choice of pronouns.

The stud i es of pronouns

Phanthumethal Phenuphon8i end Cambe I

distribution of pronouns which oecur

As shown by the st,ud i es of the

in Thai by Silapasann,

I ind i cate function and

in c I auses on sentences.

others, pnonouns are


f 49

concentraued on personal pnonouns in a society where. sociEl

fectot 6 withln the society affect end diEcniminate the choice

of pnononlnel forns. Eaeh v6niBnt r.ef lects t,he social

structure snd neveels the socio-cult,unal feeture in thBt

societ,y. lt is hoped thau the investiglat,ion of pronouns inthe' social context in this study will nake us 6e€, Tei SonEt

society end its stnucture which is reflEcted in the diffenent

spBsch pattenn6 on pronominal usag:e.

a

a


Kent ina V{attanBprasent and Suwattena Liemprewet t dlfifff infU:l:u-

u,audjflll'r durjf.lZvlfi r 198? ) wh i ch covers f,he same area of

study in thi s thesis.

CHAPTER I I I

CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS IN TAI SONG

Pnonouns in this Lhesis exclude relat ive pnonouns,

disiributive pronounsr demonstrative pronounsr indefinite

pronouns and lnterrogBttve pronouns. The use of pronouns in

Tai Songf is not only rest,rict,ed to proper personel pronouns

but also includes various types of rrouDsr such asr personal

nsmesr kinship termsr pseudo kinship tEr.msr feknonymy,

titlesr fniend6hip t,erosr occupBt ion termsr Ioen wordsr words

used to refer to spouse, end special vocabulany ernployed in

conversat ions to and . fnom monks.

pronouns end various-lypes of nouns

real life Bmongf commoners and monks

Both propen persona l

ene employed everyday in

in t,he area of this study.

t, he

is

the

the

Befone pnesentin8l the fopms of pronouns in Tai SonSf t

phonemic repnesentaLion should be offered. As this study

nestricted to the invesiigetion of Lhe Tai Song pnonouns,

phonemic representation will be taken fnom the study of

"PhonoloEly of Lao Dialec!s in Thachin River Besin" by

r dlcthe


5t

. citro

(r)(\,r')N

Olbfrt

Fa

-!l.

r)a)-)Dlz

traI'F11

F

a)a-(-e

OF).-

o,1>'o(!,

o- .c

t6o

-aFr

6.,6ql.L

o r\

Ldo@ 4,

J- .D

o6.- -r)..crtr6o)J'o

da6

la

B r, € E'

I!6traO),-o,

tr

r)d

oL -.>OLtr<Fdq-

=o

r>L

ooo.Eo

q(,)dtr

riod

.o

A(,,6tr

T' E

tD.0)croLt,).DOO

A

o,6ot

ao>r)d()

r-.&-

u)

da6z

dLo,oJ

U,

(I)-oI

Eo

bioat

-dlFj

otr'Oi,,,tr'6d{, tr.tro,ol,)ur troo's. a-iaoEuEotrotL.

.Dlol

EI

a


g2.

(>F

o)Ntt,N

ot2pDF

=EI-!Gi

('=_e

Dlz

FI(FE

-=dtc-C-

n=a)c

lotro'tn

!tF1

oio+)6O{)}troo>IDoL,ProlEIoE@troEo

6l

sgoatql

roD1'co*

,

)

o

c,

r)

,o

to,

!-AC(,t,,D

T'@!ttroL

D

.{.

.+

o

o

d

6

d

o

C

tr.

-c,o!,5oLtr=

o

o

-o)

G)

a6

co

4.r

ui

0-

.t,u6trtr

-.-r

m

n-

o,

boaoF

,EbobooF-

b:E

bo

I!

=

'I.6

==oJ

tboto{)

o


53

1. low-r'isinE (24'

Tone s

as tn

(354) 2 as in

es ln

/k9 te /

/ kwat j2 /

/ k8 J." /

/batt /

/ kop" /

/nat jn /

./1ieta

"neck"

" buffa lo"

"mad "

" face "

" wat, e r,

" hundred "

/ lam' /

/ hwa' /

/+,at ^ /

,/ ba t" /

/nat' /

'eye "

2. Tnid-risinE-fBl l ing

3. mid-risingf ( 35)

4. hlElh level < 441

5. mid level (33)

6. hiSth-fallinEf ( 43 )

4 as in

"hen"

"shoulder"

"easy"

as 1n

BS ln /nalm" /

/h). j6 /

r aflrtltulcluac dlslu1 2529 | S3-87 ,


54

Pronouns in 'Tsi

cateEfor i es es follows t

S onEl cen be divided into meln

3.1 Proper Per6onel Pronouns

Pnoper personal pronouns are words that represent

senderr neceiver end referent in a conversation which ere

referred to BS the firstr sacond and third persons. Personal

pronouns have different forms for 6ach personr The forms of

Tai SonEi pronounB are Efenerally monosyllebic words.

3.1.1 Finst Person

Pensonel pronouns in the f inst, persons comprise I

/?i: "phu:

/?estEf,a'

/ ?us" //enan'/

/:net'/

/ hsw" /

/kaIr /

/kvto /

/ kni j6 /

/nut'

/pnom^ /

^^1" /

'we '

'l or we'

't'

't''t'

1Copyright by Mahidol University

55

The wond /?wz" / -

/ ?s t t "t,s trna t e/, /rinom'/ ,

borrowed f orrn Tha i

male speekePs .

The

borrowed form Chi nese i

well os /nvt'/ 'l' ane

'I' is oftgn employed by

I' hBs been

/c'at'/ as

term,/kent/

3,1.2 Second Person

The Eecond persone I pnonouns cons i Et, of!

/?t"sut

/ cawt /

/knur." /

/ritu/

tm+r3; t/m)t ' /

/se mal

/sa me:

/ sua /

j"/-EJ nc3

'we '

'sinEtular you'i singular you '

'sin8'ulsn you I

'sinEfular you'

'sinElulsr You'

'plune I you'

j"/ 'plural you'

'sinEiular You'

'sinEiulat. You'/Ln arnn /

/1+t"/ 'singluler you' is fron Chlnese.

/?it"phvt'/ 'we' refer's to oneselfl in cellinEt the

lbcutonr B speaker will use /?it"sut*/ 'plural you'.

seme timer /kh3j-/ 'I' is paired wil,h /caw6/ 'sinEiular Vou',

/kuzo / - l' t / ^+r1"

/. 'sinEtular vou 'r end /har" / 'l'i /svl.*/

's i nElul ar yout .

The word

i nter-

At the


56a

/?iz"9nvzt/

/ kd) j'/

/ k,tt n /

/hazt /

/?it'awz'/

/ caw" /

/mint /I

/srttn/

3.1.3 Third Person

Personal pronounE in the third persons sre a6 follow6t

]/?itssawa/

/k€ts /

/mer," /

/mxt' /

/ pna n* /

/satmat.l-l

/satma! j"nlt j"/

/saw /

'he, shs on they'

'he on she'

'he or sha'

'he'

'he on she'

'they'

'they'

'her she or they'

a/?it"sawn/ and /sew*/ 'her she or they' hsve t,hs seme

neferencer but Uhe letter form is usual ly used whi le Uhe

ot her is only spoken amonBf some old Tei Song speskers.

* Perhapsl the term /saw* / 'her she or they' may be

pronounced as / saw" /,3


57]

a

3.2 Pronominel ly Used Nouns

The various types of nouns Lhet are

personel pronouns Bre as followst

rBEferded I i k€

3.2.1 Kinship Tenms as Pnonouns

In Tai SonEl societyl fami ly reletionship is a

s iElnif icent cultural aspect. Parents and sdults axpress

their effection to t,he chi ldnen by u6inEt kinship tenms a6

pnonouns. Both common kinship f,erms and kinship by msnniegie

term6 eBn be employed es pronouns in sll per6on6 and all of

Lhem can be u6ed alone.

Table 5

List, of kinship Terms Employed es Pronouns

a/?at,i6 /

/?emt /

/?ez 3' ?wt " /

/ ? emz ?uta /

"fef,her/ faLhen- in- law (wif€'s fat her

or husband's father ) "

'rmother/ moLhen-in-1aw (wife 's mot her

or husband ' s mother) "

"paternaI girandfather/ older or younSfer

bnother of peternal Ef rBnd f at her "

"patennaI gfrandmothen/ oIden on youDg'er

s i ster of patennal Efnandmother"

"mBt,erna 1 grandfather "/ ?et 3"1,'a.w" /


/ ?em" Ln av" //?attr"t-at'/

/?em"nar jt /

/ lw1" /

/rat" /

/?at ^ /

/?atw'/

/na r" /

/9itn?+a3"/

/larn'/

/?azw'kn+e5'/

/?at'lua" /_ 6_ h- -rllral R +aJ /

/nat" pa+" //?at j"k^+a3^ // ?at j' pai" /

/n:r;"ktiaj'/. 6 -B _/n)\ pe+ /

"meterna I girendmothsr

"older or youngfen bnother of matennal

gf randf at,her"

"older or youngier sister of mat€nnal

gneDdmother'l

"older bnother of parent.s/ husband of

older s i ster of psrents"

"older 6 i ster of parent,s,/ wi f e of

older brother of parent sl

"fBt her ' s youngeP sisLer"

"father 's younger broL her "

"mouher 's younEier brot,her or sister"

"o lder brother or sister"

"glrBndchi ldl niece or nephew"

"husbend of fether 's younSfsr sister'

"wife of the father's younEten bnothen"

"husband of mother 's youngier sisten"

"wife of mother 's youngfer brot hern

"husband of one's older sister"

"Bn older brot her 's wife"

'ryoun8ler s ister 's husbend"

"youngisr brother 's wife"

Acfual lyr in cel I ingi acguel kins' if t,he addressee

who is Bn older relBtive of a speBker's parent i i.e. r / lvlt t

"older bnother of parents/husbBnd of older brother ofparents" , /paz" / "older sister of perent s,/wif e of older


59

brother of parentsr' 1 /?atj" ?ut'/ "paternal grandfether/older

on younEler brot her of paterna I grandfatherr'I / ?er'2 ?vt a /

"paternal gnendmothen/older or youDger sisten of patennal

gfrendmother" r /?at.SBthaw-/ "maternal Elrendfather" r /?em'

Lnewt/ "materDel g'rsndmother'| /?alj"tat'/ "older on youn6ler

brother of m6t ennal Elrandfeiher", or /?em' r.eaJe / "older or

youngfen sisier of nat erndl grandmother", is singller he or she

wiII be addressed /sslw'/ "female singf le" and /barw"/ "male

singtle" as in /lu4a batu" / o" /pe, " .st*t/t However'. ln s-)case ivhene the eddnessee is married and has chi ldrsn, the

Lerm of cal l ing wi I I be /1w12 /, /paz"/, /?eti'zvt"/,/?emz?wt" /, /?arj" !tew-/, /?em" t,taw- /, /?ar.1"Lat t/ or /?em"

natj2/ plu6 lhe personal namB of his on her oldes! child.

But, if he or she has no chi ldrenr t,ha word /uew"/ "childless"wi I I be employed instesd es in /lun'waw"/, /pa" twaw" /,

I

/?emtnar;'rvaw"/ or /?et.;-tat twaw"/. In conversstion, wonds

will often bB shortenedr such as

/?at 3"?wt tra*"/ Lo /?rrl "*a*-, /?em"?uEiwa"t / l,o /?vt6vew6/,

/?arjEtat twa*-/ Lo /i,a, t*a*"/ or /?emtnar 3"waw-/ to

/nat 3"waw" /.

* A few people mBy call

place of /satwt / or /baiwa / .

personal name of addressee in


60

On the ot,her handr fon the addressee who i6 a

younSler reletive of a sp€6ken's perentrl.e.r /nst6/ "mothen'syounEfer brother ot. sistenr'r /?at t/ "f"th""rs youngen sister"r

or /?atw' / "fat her's younE er brother", i s s inEfl€ or

childless. t,hese lerms will be fol lowed by personal n6me of

addnesseer. But if tha eddressee he6 chi ldrenr he on she

wi I I be cal led /nat " /, /?"rt / or /?atw'l plo" t,he pensonel

name of his or hen oldest child. In addition, in callingf theyoungfest, chi ]d of a f emi ly, the x/ond /lat o/ *i 1l b" employed

as in /?a3 '1"r" /, /?arwl lat"/ or /rlar"l"t-l.

ExltSpeBkerA

s i st,er of paternal

the house of 93

A r /?uz"

older sisLer chi ldless comfontable

of paterns I Eirandrnothen

is e niece of Speeken B. B is Bn oldep

Elrandmo+,her of A. A comes t,o f ind B at

watv.t- - !sem be! J IHow are you I

/ ?lt u waw" /?

What, are you

do i nEl? "di: t ?a" ?et'

good ques. do

rr.r, * let" /

what peri.

/barw" / "me Ie

persona I nBme

few peop le may

sinEll€" snd

of addressee.

A use / se,.w' / "femele sinEr1e.,,

/waw"/ "childless" in place of


61

: /t,am"hu? "

vreave

- I -EI( f,8 n c l

bef or.e wi I I

let t pej4

part. glo

pt"3 -hom" sek "n )j'

blenket a I ittle bit

n"t*t lEwB si"tla+-

co ld a I neady how

jut " mien'k:?a di t' ?e'/)

be BenSfkok Eiood ques.

't I 'm weBv ing

ket because

is com i ngt.

f ine whi le

Bangtkok ? "

a blan-

t, he winter

l{ere you

stByingf in

/waw"/ in lhis example shows t hat B is childless.

*"*" / eomes from /?em" ?wt - *"*-/; the f i rst/?u3

syl lable is

Ex2t

s i st,er 3

dropped in spaak in8f.

In the shopr a nephew spesks to faLher's younEler

"What are you doingf ,

todeyr Aunt Phai?"

'l'd like you to help

rne to se I I goods a

little bit,. Ane you

free?"

A | /?e? t pt"lt-----+

younEier name

aunL

ci " ?et,* ta'ha1*will do whei

-6-m{ ! nt !

Lod.ay

B t /m+1" *" r 1-you free

ma32 ca! j''

come help

sak"nfj-

I itt 1e bit

-a - -5cl he+

wi I I giive

ktctn')

Elood

na/

pant.

ftt " j"t'ques.

- h -1R A3J

se l l

n+1n ton€,


a

/ oh ai" /')addnEssae.

unmarnied or

sinEfle.

after / ?az' /

This csllinEt

chidless. In

i s t he persona I

is used when en

this exemple' the

neme of the

addressee i s

eddnessee i s

6Z

many

depo s iL

wit,h me. "

Ex3! A isanieceof B.

cremet i on canemony st Ban

B | /?gt4/

yes

A t /fe?a hll' ktaw-

deposiL packagfe rice

saktnc.i- ? Ll" /

a little bit, with

t o Eto to t,he

"Ars you ElolnEl t,o Ban

Ko Lek, Aunt Han?"

sYes. "

ike to depo-

sit s paekagfB of

rice with you."

whi le

Ko Lek r

is pnepan i ngl

shouts et Bt

B

A

a A : z3g1B len^elder name

auntItpe:

elder aunt

paJ

Efo

:nan' /

name

fs"la:n')

name of

e vi l laEle

?a:t

ques.

a paJ

Eio

B : /nila

have

taa "nan)

all

tg: t batkon

but person

ken

f oEiet her

t f"?'

depos it

let'/

parL.

"There ane

people to

packagies


63a

/han' /

thi s examp I e.

addresaas has

is the first child of

Thi s cal l ingf wi I I

chi i d ren.

/par" /, tha addressee in

be employed when t he

the name of t,he sev€nth

oEx 4 t B is t,he \rif e of the oldar brot,her of A. Both sn6 in

the seme hous€. A and B sre talkingf about food to cook in

the even i n8ft

/f z" lat11" /

villa8le in Tambon

A t /kttnrsom5J

sour soup mede

of Lamarind pest'

b3rt ditt ?att

not good ques

msanE Ban I(o Lek t

Phai Hu Chang.

p"ak'bo1" k in

e species eat

of cl inber plant

?et j-pa+" /

older brothen's wif€

"Would you like to

havs /o nak" bont /'l

sour soup mede of

temer i nd pBste,

/?st japai.6 /?"

"lf you rf,ould like

to have it,, we can

cook it, because we

heve soms fish."

"Where did you giet,

lhese f ish?"

)B | /ker\' kc:" ke;r1'

make soup eft.erwerds make Eoup

pe3" hawt kcr- mltt/

f i sh we aftervrerds heve

kwua "

part.

A t /par'

fish

?aw* ka*Ia+- nat2 lets/

teke where come paPt.


64

it

a

a

of

mi t olwa r

yesterdey

2-tE nl I

this

B t /koro k.rr'aftenwends I

paj* s gt nE

gfo eaptune e f ish

with e hend-net,

le lt /

part, .

m+ t" /hand

I'l went to cstch

yestenday. "

ExSt

who is

ln a shopl

a Eti r I .

a female shopkBepen speaks to the customer

aA t /?aw' netm"ktLn'

)

tBke ice

**Jhelf

"Give me onB

of e plece

half

of i ce.

a

BI

AI

/t, tem"rna.1'

why

le! " ?aw'

parf,. Lake_ 3-'/at /

ques.

/?awa t en"J

teke saL

up

bc?" wet +

tel I speak

k {n)

half

b5r

not

-2m+ I

hEnd

I - -6laJ

get

? aw'

teke-2m+ I

hand

t gr I

but

"+lone

-2_im+ I '!ea

hand youngler

a unt,_ E - Z-'lel lr9ft /

)many too

"Why do you tBke

half of a piece

i ce?"

"My aunL says t haf

one piece of ide is

too rnuch. "

la, -

youngf est,

)Copyright by Mahidol University

65

/?s.z'laz6/ in this exemple is in the third person.

/laze/ sigfnif ies thet the referenL is the younEies! child of

her femi 1y.

A couple of common kinship tarm6 in Tsi SonEf cBn nefer

t,o e msle or femele persont /nat" / can refer. to mother'syoungier brot her on sisterror /latn'/ may be Bfrandchild/ niece

or nephew. To sigrlify sex of eddressee, the titles /bx16 1,

/?ej6/ "male" end /?i,€/ "femele" mey precede them BS in

/bolEls:ntl , /?a1tlatnt / "Erandson/ nephew'.! /?it'latr.'/

"Elrandaugfhter./ niece", /bat"larn'/ "molhen's youngter bro-

th€r"r snd /?it"nat"/ "motherI s younEler sister". The t,ern

/?at'/ "fether'6 youngler sisten" elways m6ans fa!hen,syounEler sisterr but sometimes i! may be cel led /?it'?"t'/ Lo

smphes i ze being female person,

. The wonds /lur1a/ "oldsr brot her of pBrents". msy be

addressed /?at ja lunt/, /rtal" / "mot,her's younEfen brother as)

/?atJ-nat" /l Lhe words /?emtpat 6/ mey b€ put, in place of

/patt/ "olden sister of pBrents"I and /?em2na;6/ insteed of

/na-" / "rnot,her's youngier e ister" when a speeker rrould I i ke

to show reEpecf, io the addressee who is the older brot,her ofparenfs; mother's younger brother, older sisLer of psnent6,

or mother's young:en sister like his or her father or rnothep.


Ex 6r In the housep e wife speBks to

66

hen husbend as fol low6:

A t /raja na3a

8lo f i eld

n.1' le t" /what, pa rt .

pej ?et '

dfodo

',What do you do et

f,he f teld?t'

" I Efo to 6prey

insecticide. "

"The riee fields ane

good' sren't they? "

,,Not quii6 Etood. ,.

"Whose field isn't

quile gtood ? "

ema:

come

,*Jyou

BI

AI

/ pa;i' cn i rt"go sprey

/ktaw- ditr

r i ce glood

j"t t ,"t'

insect,icide como

Iatkua"/

part.

? et" tratt /ques.

Bt

A!

/ba" ktej-

not glnaduB I 1y

. 2 - -E/ Tt't, I ef

field whene

dir' lc?"/

Elood part.

ler'/

part.

B : /nas t ?g"field mothen

55pal put n

e l der t,here

eunt

/? gnz pat "/ in thi =

is used in initet, in€l his

kuat/

part,.

"My eunt's f ield. "

exemple refers t,o older sisteP of B.

chi ldren's usaEfe.


67

As a matt,er of fectt in the past, the relafive by

marriegfe was called /?otl'p)zn/ for fsthen-in-lsw (wife's)

father or husband 's felhsr and /nwt" / for mother-in-law

(wife's mother ot husband 's mothen) r but now Lhe TBi SonEl

people hsve ehenEled to employ the word /?aaie/ instead of

/?onnp)t'/ arrd /?em2 / for /nut'/, But these two old wordst-are still ernployed in the weddinEl ceremony.

lu?' mat

_ E- -^-5 9 - 'l -5 h E(nu3 ) ',aal nll K cJ p ut

,otn]]in-t"* ono,ar psrt. I who

lon' ktBw" tewt ? wt wsrjs)

gfo down knees catch wai6i pay respeet

f€p' ktaw- tlt4" EJtt penr tapt

model enter stomach beg be I iverltstEasrt pen k fJ pen sal * f?,

beg be servant be clump

p.nt lewt pen! kat" ktam" ktetn'

be a k ind be Einass hold arm

of t ree

/ ? ott pa t..------,-------

fethen-in-law

chi Id come

hawt ?aw'

salute take-ir 5 - ak aw tap

enter I i ver61

,r"! sl!

Erass beg

/E.az /

s emant i c- empt,y

of thi s phrase

"being: servant,.

from

Bux i

is on

/----- prrrt kti.," p"rr' ="r / is s

liBpy pBptiele for rhymingl Lhe semant ic

the finst and second words which meen

a


68a

)

wel

speak

P"'not

lsj'get,

pa3

fether

ktam" ba: t b r?'

hold Ehoulder teII

'r t - 1 -,t. et dut c6,h

hes itete I ook mind

pejt ?4rn" ktf,p'

Elo ot her t hank

(mer t) ktc j-

mothen I

dul t ,r"r -

look fBce-1 - -a 2pal kal P. t

Elo f ar not,

tgr, " I pen !

rnot her- be

in-law

t,o father-in-lew

"/ f o" mother-in-

The above commont

wi 1l becom€ a

2nal

not2nal

not.aca+

you

nBl

part.

-iJlm

revcrre. h- Et lm

steb

t/?on*/ iE from /?on*olt*/.) )-

/?ortnp)ztl in !his pas6aEfe rsfensl

(wife's fatler or husbeDd's father) and /nul

lew (wife's mot,her or husbend's moiher).

would be spoken by e men or a womBn who

son- in- lew or dauElhter-in-law.

)

?on-----+

father-

in-1Bw

Iaw. I denote nyself t,o be your son and servant. lf I become

a bad pensonr you can nemiird Bnd teBch me. Don't revene me or

t,hink thet I ern a person out,side youn femi ly. Mank vou

very muchl you're like my fether (moLher).'l


69a

3.2,2 Pseudo kinship Terms as Pronouns

I(inship tenms are usual ly employed in addnessinEi

ectual kinsr but in est,abl ishinEf and maint,aininEl' personel

relationships smon$ non-kins or non-acquB i nt,ances r the common

kinshlp Lerms can be used t,o sol idify interpersonel

re let ionships between inLerlocutors.

In cellinEf non-kins on non-Bcquaint,artcesr Lhs agie of)

Lhe addressees is the primary factor dBt erminingi the choice

of kinship terms to be used as pronouns. If Lhe agle ranEle of

eddressee is older t,han t,he aEe nenEle of a speaker; he or she

will be celled /pit*?+aj" / "olden brother or sister". But if

the aEle ranEle of addressee i s o I der t,han the ege ranEls of a

spesker's pBrent, he on she will bB celled tlwlz t

brother of parents/ husband of older sisten of parent's"t

/per"/ "older sister of pardnts /wife of olden bnother of

parent,s" t /2at,5"?rtz" / "pBternal Elrandf at,hen/older or youngfera

bnot her of paterna 1 Elnandfather" r

Eirandmother/older or younEfer sisten of

/ ? emt ?wz " / " pst srna I

pat,enna I gr andmot hen " I

/?a:5-ttew-/ "maternel Efrandfalher"r /?em"Lnaw"/ "ma!ernslgirandmothsr"r /?etj".-at'/ "older or youngien brother of

msternal Efrandfatherr" . or /?emanat j" / "older or youngler

sister of matet'nal Elrandmother". On the contnaryr he or she

will be called /ne!6/ "mother's younEler bnoUher or sister"t

/?az'/ "fef,her's younEler s i sier" r or /?atw' / "father'syoungfep bnother" whsn the aEfe of Lhe addressee is youngler

"older

a


70

than the sge of e speaken's parent. Sometimesr Eome Tai SonBl

people may use t,he common kinship tenms to non-kin pengons

by followinEf the exemples of their spouse. Fon exampler s

man from other vi llaEle married to e wom6n at Ban Phai Hu

chen!, and moved to settle dovn in this arear he will employ

pnonouns of address in tha w6y his wife used them. This is a

common way for hin to stnenElt hen snd solidify irtterpersonal

relationship to people in the anee he .lives. The pronouns of

address for cal I i nEr non-kin6 or non-acqug i nt ances wi I I be

smploysd I iks calling rEal kinb,

ExTtAmanspeaks

villaEle.

to an old woman who is from his

, t ?:^"_ -":j'

older or younBer

s i sLer of maternal

Efrandmot hen

matz let'/

come pBrL.

paj' ke' I a i-"

Efo where

"lfhere're

/?em'rral

you Eio I ngf ,

i- /?"

B t /luka

ar i se

A t /lE rw6

a l reBdy

malz /

come

kgtls+- let t/

where pant.

ka

at

h.i.en

house

"I have juEt left ny

house. "

.acl

wi I I

paJ

Eo

,'lYhene , re you Efoing?.'.


7t)

B!

A r /lerw6 ?s:jttar'

e lneady older on younSfsn

brother of meterne I

Einandfathen

pajt ketre+- let" /

go where pant.

,' I am Efo i nEl to buy

food for cook i nE* .

"Where is youp husband?o

"He stays at homer'.

Eto fi6hing?n

/ma r'come

tkap" /

to eat

rice

-6s+l

buy

c+an.)

t,h i nEts

with

2-5nmn han

house t,here

_tlet

part.

;

I /Jut

be

kwua " /

pBrt,.

A | /b)aa daj' pej'

not get gio

?ai" /

ques.

"Doesn'L hs

nst

k walTl)

t hrow

bLta

fishinEt

a

t /bcr'not

dej" paj' l5?a /

get Efo part."Nor he doesn't. "

/?em'

/ ?at j"+,at t /

/?em"nat j" /

na3

for

is

3" / is employed to addness the old women and

the old rnale person. ln this exempler

in the second penson ar.d /?e1.1-tal t/ is the

)

third person.


72

Ex8!Amsn

pass ing eBch

speaks to sn older femgle

other.

penson whi ls both ars

A t /pat" "-gj..:I'

elder 6inElle

aunt

B t /pa;14 pu: n"

gfo t hen€

su3 k wan

conso 1e

pajt katlai-t mat t lett/

Elo where eome part.

"Whene're you Efo i n8t,

/1at" satw'/?"

A t /ta t wa

come beck

lvej" kan'

qu i ck toBfBthen

,"!t I!?* paj'

come part. go

saw" /

t hey

" I Elo to console them.,.

"You cone back gui ck ly.

fhis

lez" /

part.

B r /tatwt kue" -3 eci iu! h.l "I'm hurry t,o come back

come baek pant. will be what homB because I don,t

haqt kent le:" j,rt " koi" have BnylhinEl to do.',)

for t,oElether pBrt. be efterwerds

a I ongi t ime

bci " hut "cakt ?eL" hen'/)

not, know do what

/setw'/ is pu! efter /pato/ Lo indicate thaL

older femele person is sinEf le.


73

Ex 9: A snd B are in the sBme villaEle. A is e neighboun of

B. A passes in fnont, of the house of B while he is weBving a

kind of fish container.s.

A t /rnir1" satnr

you weavc,

- 4 E .l'KB nuen ce+

e fish use

conte i rre r.

?er" jatt/ "Are you rf,€eving

ques. /ka'rnual'.2 touse?"

Br

A!

/sern

lr€, a v €|

k ta: j t kwua"/

se11 part.

katpurn- let" /

t,here part.

"l weeve ii for

sel I in8f . "

"Whene do you get

vrood to weav€?"

"At uncle Nongf' s

house. "

of Lhe

/man'

itmar3t /

wood

. - e ,zD'Jt ml :

not have

Bt /hiana l un'---J

house e l den

2non

name

/rro1r" / in this example is lhe personalI

oldest, child of the referent.

3.2.3 Teknonymy as Pnonoun

uncle

In e fami ly, if

chi ldrenl Lhe parent s

chi ldren to cal l a

relaLi onshi p with the

t,he members of the family consist of

and relat ives usuel ly teech their

person eccord inEl Lo hi s on her

achi1d. This pnectice stresses


74

consan8luineal t ies by emphesizing' ties to chi ldrent t,his is

know es "teknonymy". A womanr for exampler may caI her

husband "Father" iniLaLin8l hep children 's usaEte. Thi s

practice stnesses the kinship that is cneated by the birth of

the chi ld end by avoidinEl the word "husbsnd"t the

specificat ion of an affin6l tie. Comrnon kinEhip t,ermE and

kinship by marriaEfe terms ere teknonymical ly used as pnonouns

in the second snd third penson. lt is found that teknonymy

may or nay not, be used in front of chi ldr€n and it is used

until chi ldren ere Elrown-uD men and wontBrrr

In Tai Songl society, tgknonymy is widely done for,

exampls, the people of Tai SonEl likB to cell youngfsr si6ter'6

husbend /nattkn+a5'/ o? /?a,wtkt+a3t/, and younBfer bnothen.E

wife /nas "pai-l on /?at'lwat / when the farni ly of e speaken

consists of children but ths sddnessee still hes no children,

Laterr if the addressee hes childnenr the pnonoun of Bddress

will be chanEfed from /nel "kn+a.; '/, /aat"r a+t /, Lo /nat"/,

/?arw'ktia3'/ ro )?atwtl, and /?at^ lwa" / t,o / lwa" /. The terms

/rrat" /, /?atw'/ and /luaz / will be followed by pensonal name

of the oldest children of' addr'essee. These callingfs are

employed imitet,inEl the children of the speBker's usaBie.


75!

Ex lo r Mother speak6 to her dauElhter,

/kta r 1- ?ew'

nBme tBke

6. I -rlpB t,ol peJ

big knife Elo

6_ h- -r.nal k +aJ

matsrna I younSlar

si st en 's husbBnd

teke t,he biEl knife

cut, f i rewood. "

- _5 g- n-ha+ nel k +aJ

Efiv€ rnaternal younger

s i st en's husbartd

c i " ?awt fant lua t /

wlll take cut firewood

t,o your /ner"knia5'/; he

,+J

You

a ,4paJ

EO

awou 1d

" You

I i ke t o

/nazt kt+e3 t /

person proDoun.

I / ?en" ?ul-

patenns I

gr andmot he r

in thi s exemp I e ls used ss the ihir.d

Ex 1l ! A dauEtht er-ln-law speaks t,o her mot her- i n- I aw.

pu? nr 3

a

?em'?u ! "

Lomorrow peterna I

Eirendmothan

"Where will you Elo

tomonrowr Elrandmother?"

"l{hBt wi I I you do?"

pajt kat I ei-

Eo whePe

? tt" Jaz' /ques.

Bt _ -a/c1

wi I I

?et'

do

hai- I i e16

gfive feed

n.J' ler" /what part.

-- 5 -?'( 1t maJ

title neme

" I 'd I i ke

cere of my

you to t eke

deuE:hter' Mai.

. _a/c1

wi I I,

Ar


a76

sekrnrj' knlj- cit pa.;' na:t/ e little bitt I wtll

e lit,tle bit I will Eio field Bfo to the f ield',.

/?em'?uz'/ in Ex I 1 i s t,eknonymy in the second

person. SpeEker A imitaf,es hen child's usaEfe /?ilu ma7'/,

Ex 12 t A is e deuS:hter of B. She ask6 B where hen cilder

brothen isr

aA I /lur12 F)t11r psjt ketlgi" l"r'/ "Whers, s Uncle PonE:"-1

olden name Efo whene p6rL. EloinEi?rr

uncle

B t /pa.,* ?awt ptitt ktint h*en"/ ,,He Eloes to console

)

ln ihe above exaroplel teknonymy is in lhe third psnson.

-- 2 i -/ruq prrrl / refsrs t,o another offspring of Bl /r'ra\t /)))

is the personal name of the oldest child of her cjlder brother.

She calls him eccordinEt to her children's usaEle.

g:o take spiri! go up house the spiriL".

3.2,4. Titles as Pronouns

Titles in this theEis ane classified into iwo groups.

The firs! Eroup cannot be used aloner i.e., /b}aa /, /?8 j" /,,male,' and /?its / ',f emale',. These titles Eleneral ly eome.


77

befone personal nsmes in orden to siBnify 6ex. The second

Bfroup can occur by themselves Bnd they are used !o manifest s

person'E nsnk end stetus to honor the penson spoken t,o.

These titles consist of I

/kemt flsnt/

/Lnltt/

/siar1'/

Penhaps in calling /sia1" /,

/?aj6 / may precede in order to siglnify

and /?aj- sia1" t.

"t,he heedrnan of a vi I leEe"

"Bn sssistent of fh€ hesdmen of

a vi I legfe. "

"B kamnanr en alect€d official

who looks after the gieneral

w€lfare of the people in a

sub-d i str i ct, . "

"e man who has left the pniest,-

hood. lYhi le he was in Buddhist

ordination' he must be wlthin

a monestery for three months

dur ing Lhe rainy saasohr rr

"e younEl man who has left, Buddhist

novitiet,e. Whi le beingi a novice;

he must be ordained for three

mont hsr usuelly below the ege of

20..

titles /b)16/ or

as in /b9s" sierl't

/Dn-lr/9

g -a -u3 lrsr tE h -1 .ul c usJ /

Uhe

sex


7Aa

a

These eforement i oned

personel nsmeS.

Ex 13t A men speeks to a kEErnen who

ernands in the dist,rict.

tit, 1es may be f ol lowed by

is EoinEl out to run some

"Where ' re you E:o i n8f

/ kem* r.enn /?"

"l wiII Eto to the

di str ict,. "

A!

A : /kamanent pa i'

f it le gfo

B | /ci" p.it ?amapnglz I

wi 1l Eo dislrict

katla+t le! "/

where Dart.

ha*" rom'f,ti t "dint rnan

give Department of it

lBnds2tn?3 5t! satm

t iLle deed for a

piece of I and

4 - h 1 -- twat k l!n 'l 7,)

ques. of title

zsal'onden

"I Efive the deparf,ment

of LBndS to do t,he card

of title deed for a piece

of tand of Mrs. Thap '

I'd like Lo know when

it wi I1 be finished.lr 9-L Ltp /

neme

t

? eL" be i."

do cerd

lEiset I e8w

finish a I ready

B t /?a, t ci' pai' tnatm' barlt he+"2

yes wi I I Elo ask look Siive

"l will Bsk for you."

Ex 14,

vi I I aEte,

C hanEl.

Two mele

Bnd one

Both ane

persons ere teIkinEl. One is from anoihBr

l ives in the fiff,h vi I lage of Ban Phai Hu

talkinEr aboui the fifLh village that will bea


79a

divided inLo the e i Elhth vi I laEle.

a

A : /ltw6

B I reBdy

han')

whet

B : /mu: a

vi I leEte

ba j'

nam€,

hat-

five

kwua t /

part.

k 9r "

aftenwends

- a -aphul na+

-----i----title

l-at.rmul hel ne

villaEle five par.

let" /

part, .

s t,he name of the

the heBdmsn of the

fiflh vi I lage?x

"Be i is the head-

man of the fifth

vi I laEe. "

"0h, hs is the heEdmen

of thi s vi 11eEfe. "

?it" nan/ "t didn'i know he

part,. is the headman of

the vi I lage. "

A I /?oa " phut" p"+'

-.._f_--inten. t it 1e

pnu: na+" ?a" /--___t i t,1e ques.

, B : /kena bJ' he:'

I not yet,

?t3 " ler e

with par! .

kwua t men" ;na1'

part. it st i I I

je!kt kant bft "

divide to8:ether not,

lct t ken4 jrr: "

weit toEieLher be

baj t pen 1

name be

hu!

know

A r /bejt irrtp"!rr'

neme second name

tok " I ont ken'

agf ree t ogtet, her- -6 -6 2laJ ma3 J nanIJget they sti l l

"He's Bai Inparn.

They ean't dec i de

where the f ifth

villaEle will be

divided. "

)

tr


80a

hit na /

pant.

/ p'wt

personel I

A r /t"it,' jut "

t itle neme

t -3,na.+ / ln thls

it is fol lowgd by

exernple is used

ths p€rsonel neme

as t he third

of f,he neferent.

ThB rvord

it refens io the

Ex 15t A is

the front of

/mal j" / is Ehontened

people in the f ifth

from /saamar j6l "t hey" 1

vi I I egf e.

ta relBtive of B.

Lhe hous€ of A.

pa.lt katla+t l"t"/

g:o where pBrt.

lott pajt "ti tt t jat

cBn gfo .sprey insecticide3 6_hua setn /

)

of a vi I l6ge

t-epa3 b?t

fish wel I

A cBlls B while he is pas6inEl

"Where're you Efoin8lr

/tnit*/ Yut. "

B t /cit har'

will f ind

kB n 13n-)at name

A ! /m+t"nit" pa.it I,"tJt,oday Eto wash

- h -4 - 3k aJ le3

who part.

,'l will Efo to

e cen to

insectieide

Hue Chen8t. "

find

spPay

at NonEl,

"Whose wel I do you

.cet,ch the fish in

today?"

a


8t,

B z /paio le:11- bc:t

go wesh wel l

tnit,t witt/

t itle neme

comes efter the title

eddnesEe€ gnd /w7La /

" I gf o to catch

Bt the wel I of

wii. .

the f ish

/Ln i+,* /

/ jwi," / that

neme of t he

the neferent.

/tniLn/ is Lhe

i s the personalpsrsonB I

name of

Apent from lhe term /1," il,'/, if a men or woman

"/, /?at jB Lnaw" /, / ? etn" t.naw- /, /?atj" Lat'/ on

j-/ end et, the Eeme tine t'he gddpessee has chi ldnen

left the Buddhi6t pniesthoodr the pnonoun of addness

situation wi I I be fol lowed by the . word /t,on" /

plus personal neme of the oldest child of eddressee

lsa

lGine!5pal

ton- damt/

ion- hant/

ton'dtlj'// ru1"

a

called /nat"/, /?at'/, /?a,w^/, /iw1" /, /1ar"/, /?atjd ?ut'/,

/ ? emz ?wt

/?em'rtal

who have

in this

"firsf,'as iDt

ln eddition' in callinEl a male penson who has left

the Buddhist priest,hood' t,he pronoun of addr.ess may be

/tnit*/ or /LniL" / + personal neme of addressee and when he

is celled /tat"/, /?atw'/ o? / lunt/ by a younEler personi)

thereforer the pronouns of eddress may bel


) 8Z

/nat 6 / ,

/ rtat " / ,

addnessee.

/?atw'/ or

/?atw'/ or

/ lwrl

/ luJ

+

+

/tail,n /

/Ln il,t / + personal nBme

of

Ex 16r /lu1'/naa"

/?ar'tt

+,' il-' /

t'i+,t/

' t ti!'

ttit'/ I ur;'

- 2-JOm /

liz'/

.Ex 17 r Spegker A spesks to rpeaker B rvho ls her older unc I €.

A t /1ajt katla+- me! a le: " larnt Ln ii " /-----1

8lo where come pant. olden title

uncle

B t /ga1' t,tuule?* ,"! " :,ra*/

Efo errend cons part.

"V[h€re'r€ you goinE

t tu1" L" iL' t ?-

" I Efo out f,o nun

some errands? "

, A r /pu?'ni t " pagh 2um

up

?LraSara

gues.

"Do we have assembly

of Tembon tomorrow?"tomorrow round

I un" L' iLn /--Jolden title

uncle

4it2+tt2EllpacumpBcumround up round up

2- rlca! kem /

n i Etht

.tlrz4sa p at tam bon

assembly Tambon

"There wi I

essembly

t omonrow

1be the

of Tembon

nighi?"

)


83

/tnito/ that comes after / Lu42 / siTnifies that the)

addnessee hes left the Buddhist priesthood. Perheps it may

be followed with the pensonal name of the addr.€s6ee.

Ex t8t A snd B ane in the sama village. Both of t hem Eio tot,he consolst ion ceramonv (fi6ai!il-x). A is EfoinEl to the ceremony

to

but B is cominEi bgck homa. A finds B and sp€ak6 t,o henr

A , /?ot " g1r - tgrr- t,hint tstw"

inger. elden oldest neme come

aunL bEck

kano leSt pe3" tono

tosfether pant. "i0"" oI."aunt

B , /?)r t t"!.t let"/

yes come perf.

beck

"Heyr You hur.ny tocome back, /petE

t,on"ttint/."

"Yes r I rm eominEf

bsck homg. 'l

"We just arr ive. Then,

(we) must 8fo bsck.

Everyone hes work

(to do). Aft,er eetinE:t

( evenyone ) t, hen

must gfo back home

quickly. "

.awaJ

quick

. 't-

tt ln

name

A r /?itap

we

l?t

parL.

-aml !

have

,i rl h- 2 - 2 -5 aut p *J na! cl me!

just part. wi 1l come

t,atwt lEw6 pta*" kft-

come a lready who efterwards

bsck

wia?+ let " ,rat kin4 lew6

wonk pBrt. part. eat alneedy


a4a

ka r E

afterwBr.ds

JA 3 J

renE:e

ietw'

come bBck

JE3 J

range

h*gna ksn'

house toElether.

a

/t"lr."/ is t,he personal name of the oldes! chitd of Bl

/t,on6 / is put in front of iU because her child has left the

Buddhi Bt pr i esthood.

3.2.5 Pensonal Names as Pronouns

Pensonel names in T"i Son8f can be adopted fon

pronominal reference in all pensons. Psnsonal name6 mBy come

from first rrBrrBSl shontened finst names or nicknames. At

presente nieknames are often employed amongl t,he Tai sonEl

childnen and t,eeneElers to refen to themselves while having

venbel interact,ion wit,h panenis on friends. Ganeral lyr they

are preeeded wit,h litles and/or common kinship termsr for

exemple t

a

/b)ta

/?aj'

/?ita

/ Ln iLn.'r6/p ul

/na:"/pat'

dcl.\t /

dam'/

m tlwz /

3on" /-3 -).". o"J

tan' /

han t ,/

"Mr. DeanEl't

"Mr. Dam"

"Miss' Mrs. Mew'l

" /Lh il4 / Yom"

" 7ph11i " na+t/ Bai"

" / na r' / Ylan"

" /r at" / Har,"a


85

Ex 19

shop r

A r /bo" ?ir"inter. f,itlenat 6 htw"

fsce shr ink

B t /ment I +am-

iL ent er

B is a fniend of A.

enters t he shop end A

lfhi 1e A is eauin8l noodles

speEks t,o B:

,oJ' I.tJ'

B

ln

t*an' "Heyr l{ns . Tuen r you're

walkinEl with a shrun-

ken face. "

"The sunl i 8:ht enters

in my eyes. "

ngme

emal

come

you

kan

each

othen

walk

let" /

pent.

a

te wen

sun

ne/

part.

Bx 20 t B iswhi le she is

a neiEihbour of At A is

havinEi lunch t

older than B. A calls

A I /k i n' *"rr"

eat lunch-x 6 2k aw nam

r.ice with

?aj- qgq'

iitle name

kut ' /

I

"WouId you

have I uneh

Mr. Dem?"

I i ke to

with me,

kln

eet

,

B | /?at kin'

adv. eat

Itu"/

e I ready

"I had it alr€ady."

name s

/?irr/

/L+er,r /of Lhe

'rfema1e"

in Ex l9

addressees.

end / ?ot" /

end /dem^ / in Ex 2o

They are preceded by

"ms1e".

sre per sona I

the titles


86

Ex 21 r A is veny

fr i end as follow6

close f rierrd

I

Both ane speak i ngi ofof B.

A t /?)tr.' wat ' bgr g

t-hink Lit.le

I ar1"

neme

a- h- -- lt -2k r3 k uJ

exBEl€ler.at i on

-3but

not kDow

.a,t!

,Bn" ktit"mot

he Ef i ven to

D"t " tet'

fece eye

l,'+?" /t i 8ihf,

"Whet do you thinkabout, how lrr. Lueng

i s, On?r

"I think he gfives

to exeggenBt i on i

when l6ee him,

I can't tel I any-

thinEi sbout hirn. rr

nams you

B t ./kut wat

I speak

,r" t hen '

part. see

bc?a bcrt

tel l noL

t _ a_ -E ^ Epen s+ 3 - 1a+- lea - /

be how p6nL.

/?crr.' / is

spoken w i t, hout the

the personal nsme

tit, 1e before it.

of tha addressee; iL ls

/bl t'

refenent who

" / "M", Luengf "

fr i end of A and

is the pensonal name

B.

ofletn

is a

the

Ex 22 t A husband speaks'to his wife.

--2-Z/nr I mlnJ

name you

"Did you have

kin' -2

J"t', I tw" wet /

que s.eet breakfast elreedy

breekfast alreedy, Nee?"


s7

/nit"/ is lhe shorten first neme of the addresseeS in

this exemplel /ni ."/ is from /su?5nitt/ "Mrs. Suneg".

3.2.6 Friendship Terms as Pronouns

Among close end very close friendsr lhe wor.d /siawa /

rney be used es pronominsl references Uo indicet,e Lhis special

neletionship between them. ln Tai Song'' it is found that the

tern /sie.w'/ "friend" is employed in calltngf the frlend who

may be e nonintim6te' intimste' or veny intimatB friend.

Sometines it may be pneceded with e tit, le /bt r"/, /?aj'/

"male{ o? /?ira / "feme1e".

Ex 2? , SpeBker A and B ere

fr iend of B!

in the sBme vi I lage. ls

A r /haj"

i nten.

.9slaw

friend Efo

katla+- le: "/

where part.

pa "Hey; where'ne you

going. / siawt /?"

B | /b)r t hu, "cskt ?ett ha4t pait "l don't know wheneI

noi know do what Elo will Elot I'm EloinEl

1*aj' l*aj' ..rr" la?/ cont inuously. "

conL inuous Iy cont inuously part. pert.

friend.

/sisw'/ in this exemple is used in celling msle


88

3.2,7 Occupation Terms es pronouns

Liks many other lBnguaEles. s penson rnaiy call acquain-

tances or non-acqua i nf,anees by their professional titles.Occupstion terms in Tsi Songf r are employed pronominal ly inell persons which consist ofr

Only t,he term /knrttt / can be used es the first,second or third persons, the oLhars witl be in t,he second end

third pensons. ln speskinEf, personal nemes can come aft,ertha occupet.ion tenms as in /knuz!niU+/ .'Tescher Nit,' or /?Ba3

""3nt t,?t.win"/ ,,TeacheF Thawin,,. The fol lowingf is an

example of the term /knwt" / thai is used as ths first end

second person Dronoun.

Ex 24 I A t,eacher speeks to e pupil.

/khvtz /

/2aztcaann /

t cazl' // plt'kat" /

/mtl'kat" /

_12hen ma II

rxhet come

"teachen "

"t eacher "

" cnaftman"

"menchant "

"fema 1e s hopkeepsr "

A t /pej' str s

Eio buY

IeB " knur" /

part. teacher

"What do you come to

buyr t eacher ? rt


J

B : /khu:' me ! 2 thu?a ls?t hi-en"

89

?elj" "I come t,o run some

A I /mita ma

have

n o! t som-

preserved

younEl

bamboo shoot

B t /roitt Lan")

have all

I )?' cit

part,. will5

k33

afLerward s

" ?g:"5"r' l9w"

ques. a I ready

?tr ajar' gr1-]a.i",ques. femele

shopkeeper

enrands at Lhe house

of Mrs.SinEl's fsther.

Where'ne you Elo I nEl? 't

"l will Efo Lo pick

some Java wesd for

mothan. "

"Do you hsve any

squash and preserved

younBi bamboo shoof, r

lmtt oke r " /?"

"Which kind of preserved

younEf bsmboo shooL do

you want r chopped or

s heet, ? "

t, eacher

?i r "

tit le

come

.tstn

name

errand.t .r!cr peJ

wi I I Elo

hous e

- rl- -ftka le+

whene

father

let'/

part.

ha*E

Efive

up

my

a

A r /ci"

wi I I

? em"

mot hen

-4 _ SpeJ kep

gfo pick up

kwua " /

part,.

rl -9 ep al( pJSn)

Jevs *eed

Ex25!

Sf nocsry

A customer

stor'e.

speeks t,o e female shopkeeper in the

elik werll)

squash-2m1!

have

t

nLw" fakt n Lw" sej'

kind chop kind sheet_ 1 2 _ -6?ew nLw la+

f,ake k ind what

ta j" /

get

)


90

3.2,4 Loan Wonds as Pronouns

Losn words smp I oyed as pronouns cen

followst

/p om /

/enan'/

/nul' /

./ kn un" /

/Lnaznt /

/ ?wa" /

/ l+re /

(Thei )

(Thei )

" 1" (Thai )

"You" (Thei )

"You" (Thai )

'1" (Chinese)

"You" (Chinese)

be cited es

Ta i 'S onEi

These two

TBi Song

Loan Pronouns

Losn words /phorn^ /, /cne;tt/ snd /nutt/.1" "n" used

to nefep to sElf when spBakinEl t,o leachers or rDonks. Only

Lhe terms /k'un" / and /l,netnn / ,you, ane employed by

connonens in ce I I ing: monks. Loan words us€d in intenact, i on

with monks wi I I be further discussed in secLion 3.2. lO.

/?!a" / " 1" Bnd /1+s6 / are employed by

people in intereciion with lhe Chinese speakersi

Elroups of speakens rnay sonet ines reciprocats t,he

pronouns of addPsss.


91

Chinese Ninship Terms

/ cer" /

/:niat /

/LiE '/

/?at tnil

/?a I t korl

/?g t rme t

/?at tsgt

"oIder sister"

"oIden bnother"

"fBther"

"older sister'E husband'l

" pat 6r.nB I on maternBl gfrandfetenrt

"paternaI or met ernBl Efrandmother'

" d 6ught er- in- 1aw"

ln interact, lon

speeksns wi l1 use the

descendants's uEagle such

/t ie^ / 'fathen".

The

s hopkeeper

ulth Chinese people; t,he Tei SonEl

eddness fonms fol lowinEl Chine6e

as /?as^s a'/ "dauElhter-in-law" on

term ,/cer "/ is used in cellinSf e Chine6e female

as in the fol lowingl examplet

Ex 26 , A customer speeks to Chinesa fernele shopkeeper.

A t /9g1"

olden

s i ster

B t /mitz

have

kiswo

neme

?aw'. L),

take how

me"ptglnt mitt ?tttjatt/ '.Do you heve any

squash have ques. squa s h? "

le+

muc h

le t" /

part.

"I do. How much do

you want . "

a


)

/ ki aw" /

addnessee.

3.2.9 Words Used to Befen Lo Spouse

ln eddress inEf onB.s ovn spouse or e

some l anEiusEles have spec i a I t,erms Lo svo i d

"wife" snd "husband". Sini lar1y, most Tai

specisl words to replace these two terms.

are employed es pronouns in ths second and

can be divided into the following:

By Spouse in Refersnce to Spouse

/ jat jt t'aw- /

/t az' Ln aw- /

92

"How much does it cosi?,'

"Six baht pen klIo."

"Give me a half of kilo.

fniend's spouse,

us i ngf words fon

S on8f people have

The special words

third persont they

"femaIe old person"

( husband speaks )

"rnele old person"

(wife speaks )

A 3 /1o3

ki 1o

B t /lot

ki 1o

trl'1a+"how much

hok' bazLt /

six baht

let "/p6nt.

ha*- * n*T'

Efive helf

A r /?e,(a mata

Lake come

lot" /

ki lo

ain this example is the pensonal name of the

a

o


93

)

Ex 27 t SpeBker A and B talkinE: about doinEf rice farmingi.

A t /pit^

t /bar"

year thi s

l.sI( ew p8J

poor-El'Pede paddy

f ield wit,h Loo

much water

bli t ?eta nat a

not do f ield

ka" t"*" ?a" /

with they gues.

"Wi I I you do poor-Elrede

f ield with too much

water t,his yeer. ? "

hsve a mBch i ne

to do rice ferming like

othen people. I only

had t he o ld mechine

thet nust be fixed every

yesn. My husband wsnted

to sell itr and now I

had sold it already."

-6n1:

a

not, have

na -2ml l

pent,. have_ h- I 6k tt catn

lszyB-!cu3 p13

every year-2t1lem k aln

be annoyed

1t:w6 ler "

a I ready psrt.hEtaw

_ n- 4 2l( +a9 nam

machine with

ttr " kn+an*)

but msch i ne

pej4 =3rt srnt

Eio fii fix

",.r 3 " pi ! t

every year

larj' kta:j'

pass sel I- 2 _ h- Imt3 k +gn

)

heve mach i ne5nan

mi t a a6AW

they

kew

old

a

old ma 1e

.acl

wi 11

psrson there

ktar.5 t ha+- daj- kwen"/

se I I Efi ve get part.

a


94

The Lsrm /Lnaw" / i s form /Lat'shontened in spaekingt. ln this exemple,

/Lnaw"/ to refer to her husband.

/nu: "m €ll/nut" 9!7t //+,a12 h+ en2 /

t, aw /l

speeker

is

uses

chi ldren do

now? "

itB

ThB words /jE.tj2 t,taw-/ and ./tat' Lnew"/ are employed

among the old Tai SonEt people in eddr.essingf end refering toone's own wife or husbBnd.

-: By Fniend in Reference to Fr.iend 's Spouse,

" devot,ee " (wife)

"devoteer'(husband)

'gfnoup housB" (wife or husbsnd)

neulral term to refer to wife/La j h*an-l is a

husband of t, he addressee.

Ex 28 | A man is talkinEf

enother villaEfe

or

Lo e man who is his fr i end from

A t / lgwc

a l reBdy_9le3

. part,

B t /site/

four

lu?'

ch i I d

cu3 m+3

now

ki t a kon'

how person

ni t" /

part.

"How many

you have

" Four "


95

A t /pra 'cat.1t

son

":r1" f)two dauEihter

s tD /

two

3 - t 9-

rt\ e)t\ /dauslhter two

"How many sons do you

hsve?"

"Two sons "

I'You hsve two sons and

two dauEihiers?'i

,Yes. I heve iwo sons

and two daught,ers ".

"Who is the older person,

you or your wif e?'r

tHer aEle is eque I t,o me. "

"Her e8:e is

isn't it?"

equa I to you r

ki r

how

-2l( on

pe r son

lei'/

part.

t /cat jz

son

srrJtwo

At /cer j

son

B3 /?+t'yes.

A z /let6v

a I redy_ lt -4l( aJ

who

/pt'.

equa I

/1,9 z 2

dqua 1

/L)t'

equa 1

kan"

.2cali sStnJJson t wo

lez'/

part.

Eul

you

let "/part.

B!

A:

BI

. -2 a - ateJ h+sn kB

group house end

kLlt kwatt karr'

old. more toE:ether

kan*/goEf et he n

kan ?at /

Logiether ques.

kan* kwua "

toglet,her psrt."lL's egual

of us were

seme ygar. "

t,o me . Bot h

born in the

- i -- €'pri dlew

year sane

t oEl'et her


Ex 29 . A is e friend of B. A asks B s

/Le j' h+a,n" /

t, he inter I ocut or.

A t /h?ir nut -rn at ?i

inUer. d evot ee

in Ex 28 is used

96

to refen to t,he wife of

"Heyr where

wi f e?'l

16 your

I don't know where she

is."

B z / sas'

she

3 + -4t sul paJ

you gio

1ei" /

part.

mett bwt" /

have not know

no more

katlai-

where

met "

have

no more

peJ

Efo

KA la.l-

whene

ln

speaker B

used es the

Ex 43, /nu! ErnEt t/ refens to f,he wife of the

and is in refennce to Lhe friend 's spouset it is

third person pronoun.

3.2.10

Br a hman i sm

fnom Laos

followinEf

Special Vocebulsry

and from Monks

Employed in Conver6st i on6 to

ln f orrner timesr lhe Tai SonEf people payed respect to

reliE:ion. Laterl when they migrated to Thei land

and Vietname they chang'ed into Buddhist rel igion

the Thais. Nowadays they sii I I bel ieve in snd

worship Lhe spirits of ancesLors. In communi cet i on or


97a

discussion with Buddhist

special fonms of langfusge

and by monks. Some of Lhe

priest,sl the Tai Song

Uhet are employed in

special words consist

people heve

speaking to

ofr

- Monks to Conmoners

F i rst, Penson

a/ ? at L'Latrr,a i" /

/ luall / + common

Second Person

aEx 30 : A monk speaks to

tellinEl fortunes for them.

/ jo tm' prt aca t j2

s man and his wife after finishingf

/si t ^kat t /

/ jotm" / + (common kinship term)

/+,n iLt / + (personal neme)

k inshi p Lerm

ktet"dit" nJtj" jotm"

ered i t I ittle you

kwa t " - --- ---- /

more

cred i b 1y than her. "

you man

tr 6 - 2 -4p ur nrn paJ

-----r---1woman Elo

"You (nale) gfo

-.t h - rlpal p ult

gfo speak

ptutL' dir'

speak gfood

to speak less


The

siginify sex

wonds

of the

/ p )rn car j",z "1;16n"

i nier locut,ors.

98

and / p hu'.- pi4",z "woman,,tj

- Commoners to Monks

F i nst, Person

/pnom'/

/c en /

/nuz ' /

Second Person

/ kn utt" /

/Lnatnn/

/luarlt / + common kinship term)

/?a!"cairtn /

The terrn /?a:'

monks; an ass i stant of

an ordinat ion or instel

re I i gi ous student, r or s

"":rrtl i. restricted to the head of

a Buddhiri priBst who is officiated st,

lation ceremony, e priest who teaches

monk who has ordained priest for many

year.s.

/ luar{'/ + common kinship term is usBd by commoners in)

cBlling nonks who m6y be raal-kins or non-kins.


99

Ex 31 t A commoner sp€ek6 to an old monk

-.f - - rl- ''

.l_peJ Drn t e batt,

Elo f ood of f Br i nE:s

which fal ls into

a Buddhinst, a lms-bowI

1ez" /

part .

daj- kap"kt

get th i nEf s

eat w ith

who is noD- k i n.

A r / lual' tar'eldePly Buddh i st

"l{here're you ioinT

for food of f eringfs,

/ luen t Let' / ?")

"Rece ived some

reasonable elIlount.

pr i est,

. sB 3 j r

way

B : /paj'

Elo

le+

where

sas jr Lai,'/

way south

aew

to

nice

"I Eo to the south.'l

" Do you Efet msny

kinds of food?"

A I /bintthgtbatt'

food offer i ngs

which fells into

e Buddhi st a lms-bowl

'?e a

many

B : /daj-

get

? tt" jat" /

ques.

h 2 !t- h 2 -prlsomkuBn/

reasonab I e

Ex 32 r A commonen speaks Lo B young:sr monk.

A i / k hun" -4 Z - Zpa.t h,Bn .lo I m "Whose house

you go?"

.9el

wi l lyou go house her she

do


a

lais lez" /

whose part.

B, /cit paj' h+arr"

will Eo houre'oJ' "l wiIl Eo to /1u12

100

bir.' /' s houre. ',

monk who may be

bin'/

nemeolder

uncle

/knwn" / can be used in cellingt thsyounEi€n or olden than the speaker.a

/lunthis

/blr.t /

" / "olden

examp I e .

- Monks to Monks

First Person

is the pet sonel nsma of the oldest, child ofbrother of perentsrr who is the referent in

o/pnom'/

tlual'/ + common kinship term

Second Penson

/knunt /

/Lnalr.n /

/?el*cazrr'/


101

I{hen nefennin€f to monks, higlh-nanking monk6 who ar€,

outside the temple, the t,enm /l,natnn/ + eccle6iast,ical tit, lewlll be ernployed. In the pestr when speaking of the supreme

patriarch, the Tai Song people used /thg:n' crtrt/.

Pronouns in Tai SoDg can be clsssified lnto two

categories. One is proper per.sonal pnonouns which represen! a

speakent a person spokgn to snd referent. The other ispronomlnal ly used nouns which compnisa kinship terms, pseudo

kinship terms. teknonymy' personal D6rn€s; t,itlesl f r.iendship

termsr occupation Uenmsr loan wonds. wonds used to refer to

spouse as we I I as spec i a I vocabulary employed in

coriversation6 to Bnd from monks.

Both common kinship ierms end kinship by merrieE:e

terms cen be used es pronouns. Only common kinship terms

employed in callindi non-kins or non-scqus i nt anee s ar€ called

"pseudo kinship terms". Furthenmone, vanious types of Doun€;

such as tit, lesr oecupationsr pensonal namesr or somg words

t,hBU signify interpersonel relstionships amonEl friends cen be

employed pronominel ly.


oCHAPTER IV

THE LINGUISTIC STRUCTURE OF TAI SON6 PRONOUNS

This chepter discusses three I ingfui stic aspects ofTa i SonEi pnonouns, t,ha! i s, the semgnt i c feBLures ofpnonouns, the syntect ic struc!une of pronouns, and theEfremmat i ce I processes of pr.onouns.

4,1 Sement,ic Features of pnonouns

4.1.1 Semantic Feat,ures of Pnopen pensonel pronouns

Personal pronouns are distinet semantical ly from

pnonominal ly used f orrns on the reeson that pensonal prdnouns

hsve difference in term of pensonl they denote themEelves as

the f irst,, secondr or thind person. The t,enms /kuar / /ki)j6/,/haz z / ' l' are always ident ified es t,he finst per6onst

/m+nt /, /caw"/, /Ev '/ 'singulan you. as the second person6,I

end /man" /, /kt t.l and /pnann/ 'he or' shs, es Lhe thirdper6ons. Some personal pronouns hava ambiEiuity in term ofperson such ES /m)tt/ 'singlular you,/ he, or /sanme.t 3" /

'plurel you/ t,hey' can be used es both second and thind penson.

A couple of Tai SonE: personel pronoun6 are pestricted

to sexr f or. examplet ,/ k\ ur.t / as well as /Lnetr.t / 'singfular

you' are spscific to males end monkslor /m)r'/ will be

employed by male speaken.

a

a

a


Persona I pnonouns, themse lv€s,plunal. Some lerms cen 6iElnify singulepfor exsnpler /traw2 / 'l or wa , , /savt/,she or they, .

I O3

may be a inEular or

or p luns I nunbers I

snd /?i"rse**/ 'he,

The fol loyinEpensonal pronoun.s in

represented in teble 2

is distinctive feat ures ofTai Son8l. The symbols thet

et e l isted in Table 6.

propsP

I I bewl


104o

Table 6 3 Featunes,

Persona I

and Sighification of proper

in Tai Songf

S yrnbo I s

Pronouns

a

Features

Penson + flrEt per s on

+ recond psnson

+ thind penson

Sex

S i Eh i f i cBt i on

this form used s6 f ir'6t penson

pronoun.

thi e fopm used

pronoun.

thi s form used

pr onoun.

es sBcond per son

as f,hi nd person

+

sax

sex

sgx

femele

male

thi s fonm

female on

can be emp l oyed

male speaker.

by

oNumber

Specificity

number

numben

numb e a

s i n8'u I er

plurel

t,hi s f orn

sinBfulen

+

+ can be uEed in

or p lura I number

+ specificity

- spec i f i c i t,y

+ specificity

def inite person (s)

indefiniLe or ot,her person (s)

definite on indefinite person (s)

Symbols

a


105a

Teble 6 ( cont i nued )

Featunes

SituBLion

Sigfnifie6tion

forma I situation

inf orrne l situat lon

Lhis pronominal fonm cen be

used in both fonmal and informal

s i tuet iona

t,his form of

convsrset i on

pronoun emp I oyed

to monk

ln

a

Symbols

sit,uation

s i t,uat ion

situation


a

Table 7 s Distinct ive Festures of

Tai SonEf

106

Proper Personel Pronouns in

Persona I

Pronouns

monk

a

/?artrts'mal.z /

/ ? i t'pnut'

/?ii"saut/

/?ii'sur'/

/ ?we" /

/ caw" /

/cnant /

/haz" /

/ :naw" /

/ kan" /

/ket" /

/kuzn /

/ kn urt" /

/kit 5" /

/l+t6/

/ mer." /

/min'/

/m jt' /

/ttwz' /

+

+

+

+

+

+

+1

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

I+

+

t+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

a

+,

firstenson

s6cond

per s on

third

person

number lspecificity situat ion


t07

Teble 7 ( cont i nued )

Pensona I

P ronoun6

firstperson

s econd

p€rson

thirdperson

sex number specificity situetion monk

/ pnant /-lrl/p om I. + -B/sa melJ

- 4 -6/sa meiJ

n3sjs/

/ sawn /

/swi"/

/l,natnt/

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

i.

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

!+ +


108

4,1,2 Senant ic Featunes of Pronominel ly Used Nouns

BeEsndinEf Lhe semantic features of pronominal ly used

nouDsr lhey do not discriminate person. The t,erms /?atj6/

'fBthen / father-in-law (wife's f Bt,her or husbend's father'

or /?ema/ 'mother / mothsr-in-lew (wife's mothsr op husbsnd's

mother.' may denof,e es the fin6ti secondr or third parson

dependinSf on the context they occur.

Most, Tal Songf kinship t,enms siElDify srxr €r g., /?at'/

'fathen's youngter si6t,eF', /?atw'/ 'felher's youngfen

brother' , /?at jB t,naw-/ 'maternal Elrandfather',

/?em"Lnsw" / 'ma+,ernal gfrendmother'. some kinship t enm6

refer to either. male on femele. For exempler /letn'/

nefer to 'grendchi ld ,/ niece or nephew' Bnd ,/nBt t/ ,"y

to mothen's youngfer brothen or sister. In onder Lo signify

s€)x, the titles /bci"/, /?aje/ 'male' snd /?it"/ 'female'

will be placed before those kinEhip termsr for exemple, /?aj

1a!ntl or /b3 t" latnt/ 'EJrandson /nephew', /b2la nat6/

'mother's youngfer bnother', /?1!tlarn'/ ' Ef randdauB:ht,er /niece'

arrd /?il tnat"/'mothar's youngfer sisUer'.

4.2 Syntactic Structure of Pronouns

phna E e

vP).

The basic sentense of Tei Songi consists of a noun

(symbolized by NP) end a verb phrase (symbolized by

or

msy

may

refer

The verbB I modifier i nd i caL inEl ne€lation will precede


a

and the verbsl modifier indicat inEl

a verb. Two Lypes of Tai Song

personsl pronouns end pronom i na I

in a sentence in an NP position as

109

int ennogBt, l on wi I I

pronounsr Lhat, is.

ly u6sd nouns wi l1

f ol low6!

verb

followpr o per

oc cun

VP

PronJ

)

a

J

4.3 Grammat,ical Processes of Pronouns

4.3. I Pnonominelization

A pronominal ization is a process f,o convept the noun

to the proper personal pnonoun. Propen pepsonBl pnonouns

msnked t + PRO I substitute nouns in st nuctune. Nouns manked

E - PRO I are also employed pronominsl ly to refen to sender,

receiverr or referent, and it wi 11 be prononinBl ized into

t + PRO l. The t + PRO I which refers to senden is manked

t + I Ir to receiver t + Il 1t and to refersnt t + III l.

4. ?,2 Restniction on P r onom i na I i z st i on

lf a

and [ -human ]

sent,ence end s

r it cEnnot be

with a noun

pronom i ne I

-en imetemarked

i zed .


Ex

(l)lr/kut,I

_,?atn

nead

_a'/a I Tr

read

_3Ya I n

read

lar j2

pas s

na1'si' : /boo k

^^nt /

r l0

"I read the book. "

" I reed it. "

" I have not yet

finished resd i nEf

iL. "

*(2) /kuta

I

( 3 ) /kut a

I

Icop

finish

it

It should be noted thau sentence (Z) i6 unEiremmaticBl

only when it is an inilial utterance.

But in case t,het, the object noun marked t -enimete land [ -hriman ] is fol lowed by some verbel modifiers, it can

be opereted by pnonominelizst,ion.

IlIit

r"Jstill

b )+he 2 |

not yet

The d i rect

[ -human] cannot be

object noun

pronom i na I i zed

marked [ -an i mat,e ] and

but an indirect objeet, noun

can.

E\2 t

(4) /tornF hs i-6)

name give

ktetnomt ?em"

swseis mothen

'rTon8i Elave some sweet s

to her aunt. "

9at 6 /

e I der

aunt


a

hal-. msna ?em'..----!.:_

Efive it rnother

- -El - tt 4 Ena+ k e nom

Eii ve sweet, s

111

g^tt / "TonEf Efave lt aunt. ,,

e I der

auni

x(5) /tor1sneme

(6) /t,ot:

naire

.*(7) /Uorl6

ngm€

*(8) /to!TE

nam€|

hai-6 ke: "

Elive she

k Et

she

kLt'/

shs

-at " /

iu

"TonEt EfBve the sweets

to her. "

{TonEl E eve it, her."

"TonEl gev€ hen lt. "

- -th a{-

Ri ve

4e,n

ito

a

The sentences 51 7 and I ere unEfr.emmat i ca I . They show

thst the direct object cannot be pronominal ized. In sentence

Br the indirect objeet cannot occur in front of .the direct

object because t,he syntactic Brrengiement of e sentence in Tai

SonEiS(N)VN Nd6 tndo

4.3.3 Plurelization of Pronouns

Most pensonel pronouns in Tei Songl sre singulani but,

a few are both s ingfuler and plural. To manifest the plurel

numbers, t,he terms /pnuak* /, /t,a jz / ar,d / p+r1t /' "group" willl

be placed before the pronouns.

o


It is found t,hat the plural merker /pnuako/

csn precede ell the proper personal pronouns and the

which have been bonnowed from Thei end Chinese.

Ex 3:(91 lLe i' lrrt' cit pai' c?ti+

Efroup I will gfo help

a"tr,th+"rrt pu?tni: " /

namE of B cerrcrmony tomorrow

(lo) /phuakt m+4t ?ett h.q" lel" /--1 )

Eroup you do what pBrt.

(11) / pin"

Eir ouP

?e r "

many

3sBw

he

lel "/

part i c 1e

mut

pig

kut

712

'Efnoup'

terms

uonds

"Group I (our Elroup )

vi 1l Efo help /seln'

hlen" / cer.emony

tomorrow. "

"What sre youn gfnoups

do i nEt? "

"They feed many piEis."

The

/ pa uakt / , /Lajz / ar,d / p++1' /' 'gfnoup' csn occun wi!h somsJ

proper psrEonel pronouns.

I i ar1'

feed

/qnvak+,t, /LaJ2 / and t o+t72 t pnecede /kwt* / .

< 12> /p tua k'

Elroup

-3cl

wi 1l

"Wou I d

Efo for

us?"

,"JEio

. n- at, law

Eo out

for p I easure

you like t,o

e trip with

' to+1" t is often pronounced es to"+3" t.


paJ

Efo

nBm' ? ll" jat'/

with ques.

113

"We ssw them fightingt,

so we help them. "

'rwould you I ike to gto

to the /se r n' hi-ant /

ceremony in Petchbut i

province with us?"

"Are you EfoinEl to carry

sand toni ght / I uan')

pnit*/? ( If you are

go i ngf to cerry it).

IVe will help you?"

-a-.1p+n Ku3(13) /saw" ti3' kan

t,hey hiL t oEteUhen

hent knaw- l?r j" c : j'

see entsr then help

gfroup I

-at.wal /

keep

( l4) /!,aj' kur' cit pajt sern'h+an'

giroup I will Efo name of a

c B r emony

. 3 - a h + - s -4Ke m+arJ p er cl paJ

at province Petchburi vriII €lo

l*r' bJr" pej' let"/

or noi Elo part.

/gnuakn/ pnecedes Lhe term rrhich is bonrowed f rorn Thai.

A Elnoup of sinEile young' women cotne across a monk on

the roadi they spaak to hims

i h. .l - r!- 2 - 6p li t( .+.tn ntt( 15) /lue\

e I dery!rtkon

carry_Et(ct

afterwerds

Euddh i st ioni gfht

sa:.it ?g.r u.3et t ptauk*

sand ques. Efnoup.t - a -4wst cl paJ

speak will go

.lc1

wi I Ilttcan

I

kon

carry

a


114

cf,! j4 saktnrj-

help a little

-94'!Ll na!

wit,h psrt,.

Tha Lenms /sawt/ er.d /?i t tsewt/ 'het she on they csn

bs both sin$utar and plunel. The terms /?i t "ptut t/ 'we'

/?lz'srrt/ 'plunel you', /satma:.1"/ and /satmar j-n !:j-lplursl you /Lhey 'are plurel. To emphasi ze the plural

numbenst the plun6l menkens /pnwak'/ , /Laj'/ or /p*4'/ mayJ

be added before t,hese t,enms.

Ex4t(16, / irr':"r* ,"r' ?"t' n.rJ' "what are your Efroups

J

you(plu. ) come do what doingt?'

?e t' kon" let" /

meny penson part.

( l7) /phuak' ?i r ""ur ."t t ?"t' "So mBny of' you come,

what are you do i nEl?"g:roup

n")*what

you(plu.

?e 3 '

many

come do

kon'

person

lerS /

part.

- lr -zl/p uak

plurel iiy.

/ which comes before /?it"..rttl enphasizea

/?it"swt'/ 'plural you' in sentence 16 shows the

plural ity withouf, any wonds sigtnif yin8f plurel iLy.


,115

. Singulen p€rsonel pronouns cen be made plur.6 I by

sddinEl the verbal gu6 lifier /kena / which magr be followed by e

nurnber es in sentenee 20.

Ex5t( 1B) /man2 ci" pa3t katla+- lst" ,'tyhere wi Il he Efo?',

he will Elo where pBrt.

( l9) /nen2 ci " paj' ka*Ie+" '.Where wi t I t,hey gfo?"

he wi I I g:o where

!-' teia /

t ogtet, her part .

(ZO) /man' paio !"r' s i r " ,,The f our of t hem Eio

he Elo t,oEiether f our toget,hep. ,,

kon" /

Derson

4,3,4 Pronomi ne I Apposition

A Lhird person personsl pronoun may follow a subjector an object of e Eenlence as sn apposition t,o the praeedingl

noun.

Ex7!

(21) /blr" dg:4' penr lu?'kt+a,1 ' '.Mn. Deengl is the newJ

title name be son-in-lew son:in-law.'.mai' /

a

a


{ZZt /b)tiit,le n6m€,

1u?'kt+a3'

. son-in-law

(Z}t /?ttt t sit'

paterna I nBme

Slnandf at, her

dz:1' 21t9I Pen

he be

-tme+ /

nsw

s .Esew cgr

he mind

la:nt /

ElnBndch i I d

115

"lrn.DaenEfr he is the

new son-in-law."

, glrendf ather Si l he

is kind to his chil-

dren"

" I gfave sweets to the

chi l d nen. "

di I'

Elood

ka?'

Yriih

(24, /kw,ra

I

9"r" /he

lu?'

chi ld

- -ettra+

Eive

k tanom'

sweets

dek'n? : j "

chi ld

The

function es

On fhe other handl if a

in subject pos it ionl it

funct i oninEt as epposition

22t Zg and 24

f,hi nd person pansonal pronoun

may bs fol lowed by a noun

Lo the preced ing pPonoun.

third per son

eppos it i on to

pronouns in sentsnces

Lhe pnBced ing nouns .

occuns

phrasE

ExBr(2s> /w'

I

kt:rq'J

of

I u?' ptJ= kon"

chi ld female person

?atj-

fether

"It who is

fema I e chi

psrents. "

ton-

first

t,he f i r6i

ld of my

?em" /

mot, her


(26) ./ saw 3

he

.EJa 3 n

af ra i d

A

marker /kh

Ex9t(27 ) / h+en

house

wat

Lemp 1e

(ZB) /?emz

mofher

t,ta?"

cut

naktle:nt)

ruff i snlt -5p a+ /

who

pronoun may

t rr t / b"f or."

"He, the

is not

eDyone .

tt7

old ruff i an,

efraid of

kaw

old

b?"

not

4.3.5 Genitivization of Pnonouns

2 -tt tI( f rq

-jof

,.3nan Jut

he be

2l(ttm

edE:e

be gtenitivized

s Dronoun.

by havinE: t,he genit ive

"His hou6e is on the

ed gie of t,he t emp I e . 't

"Mr, Dam' s mother went

to cut Elras6. "

"mother of Dam go cuf,

Eira s s "

'rMi ss 0nts uncle visiied

her yest erday. "

na t /I

Sfress

paJ

Efo

t,ta?"

cut

t b?" dam'

tiile

*(29) / ?emz

mot he r

Fe3 /

Elrass

( 30) / luq ktJ i

t _ t -r]dam paJ

neme 8lo

k I3n----J

of

' ?i r " ? l: n" ma3

com€!t,itle nameelder uncle of


118a

- t _- aJe!m '!ta

visit t iLie

*(31) /luqz kt, rq'--..-=eldan unc le of

3a:m' ?i: e

visit title

-zz-g-ur+l lvre: nl3 /

yesi,erday thi s

mat" "uncle of 0n visit,

come Mi ss 0n yest erday"- a , - 6.ftrt 1we3 nt3 /

yesterday t hi s

?? r n"

neme

?rtn'n6me

?Jr n'

neme

aThe sentence 29 and 31 are struetural ly unaccept able

amon8f the Tei SonEf Epesker.s. Accordingi to i,he rule of this

langtuaEfe' if the Elenitive nerker /kn}zr1'/ is inserted befoneJ

the nerns of anyoner there must be s tit, le before thet DBinar

But, in sentences 29 and 3l' t,he titles are dnopped ouL.

tt should be noted tha! the E:enit,ive msnker /kh)ttl'/I

is often deleted in speakinEf es in the f ol lov{inEl sent ences t

Ex 1O :

( 32) / hlar.z

house

waL* /

temp 1e

( 33 ) /h.i-on2

house he

jor t k zl m"

be ed8fe

"His house is on the

edge of the temp I e. "

"His house is on t'he

edg:e of the temple. "

"Mr. Dam' s mothen went

to euL 8irass. "

ktcrn'------Jof

mana

he

man ,gJUI

be

k!:m2 waLt /

edgfe temp I e

l3 4l / ?emz

mot he n

ktr:nt----+of

bgr t o=I'title nsm€,

peJ

Efoa


119a

t, ta? "

cut[ra'./t

glress

( 35 ) /?ern'

mot hsr

bgt " damt pa3t tta?" Pat / "1.{r. Dem's mother

went to cut EraEE.tit le namB 8fo

?i r "

tiLle

cut, gfnBss

?crnt mBr2

name coma

(36) /lur1"

elder

uncle

.latn'

visit

"Mi ss On' s unele

visited her

yesterdey. "o

?i r "

title?Ctna

neme

- a z - 5.[rf 3 rJweI Irta /

yestenday th i s

(37) / l:ur.2'--elder

uncle

?it"

LiLle

?i.r'title

?-2!-E t mait istmr

name come visiL"Uiss Ort's uncle

visited her

yesterday. "

??rn6

ngme

-22rn+ t

Jl{y8 I

yesierday

- tE.nl! /

thi s

a(38) /lune d:g"jj'

of title

p 33 n peJ

go

,.|.{ i s s Pongt, s uncle

went to feed cows.elder

unele

lial-feed

nsne

lus /I

cow

(39) ,/ lunz---elden

uncle

?i r'title

paJ

Efo

lia1"feed

"Mi ss Pong:'s uncle

went t,o feed cows.

a


a

r]ue 2 /

cow

(40) /lunr pJtnt_J _Jelden nBme

uncle

-4 - - 6p6J l ra9

Elo feed

a

dropped I

Pongl's

persona I

ln sentence

t herefore

unc Ia" but

name ofa

In Tei SonEf ,

reflexive manker

a pronoun nay

/?etn^ / "self")

e26b3 kon cBw

person cook

by Bdd i ng

1!

/br"r"

I

pen

fbe

?en--se Ia

1ua /cow

The subj€ct of s6nt 6nce

subjects of sentences 38-39. ln

thBt the subject is "lili6s PonB's

menken /k'?t4'/ is pnesent. In)

st,tll "!liss PonEl's uncla" even

ktSrn'/ is de l eted.J

40' the title /?it

t,he subject, of Uhi 6

"ths uncle named

the o ldest child of

be reflexivized

efter it.

" I r my6elf,

the nice. "

"/ pneced in6 /p)tn!/ is)

senLence is hot "Mi ss

PonEtrr. Pon8f is the

the eddnessee who is

celled ttu12 t,

the

Ex1(41)

4.3.6 Reflexivization of Pronouns

120

"UncIer whose e l dest

chi ld is named Pong,

went to feed cows. "

4O is different from the

sentence 38r lt is obvious

uncle|. b€ceuse th6 T€nitive

sentencE 39' ths subject is

thouBh t,he Sfenit i ve mErker

cooked


a lZl

"l am ths penson uho

cooked rice. "

"lr myaelfr cooked

the rice. "

lrEkaw

n i ce

a

( 42) / t,awz

I

- ,r .Eksw

r i ce

(43) /havz

I

pen

be

_t'aen

)se I f

tcav

cook

ba t kon'

pst son

t2?'/

part.

5cew

cook

knaw- ?e1' l??4 /-)rice self part.

a

Thougfh Bll t,hree sentsnces convey the 6ame meEningft

thsy Bne sl iElhtly different in that sentence 4l focuse6 the

Bgent whersas sentences 42 End 43 emphasize the act ion.

4.3.7 PosiLions of Pronouns in InterroSfetive

Constnuct i ons

EX 12 I

(44) /kamanan'ci" pajt I €w" *rzt / "l{iII kamnan Elo

a I ready?"

a

iitle will Eo alreedy ques.


"Have you eaten dinner?rl(45) /rn*qz---Jyou

(46) /n+r

lastanen

J

movie

kin' larrj" ltvgeet dinhen a l ready

*aat /

gues.

2- tf - 2 _- a ak +tn 71t sut

niEtht ;

? Lz" tratt /

que6 .

i LBst niEfht

to see the

did you gfo

movies?"

paJ

Efo

o'J's cte

147) /?em2 m+4" b)" pgj' kin,t-

-mot her you not Elo eat

"Mother, don't you gfo

to t,he / se I n'h+gnt /

cer.emony?"sein

a ceremony

?s'/

ques.

The ebove

the interrogietive

struct,une like fhe

sent enees

6entences

pFonom inB I

show that persona I

wi I I occur in the

ly used noun.

pronoun6

same klnd

ln

of

4. 3.8 Pronoun I nvers i on

The Tai SonB pnonouns can be

aL the end of senf,errces.

Ex 13 3

( 48 ) ./? i I ssut' ?"t,' ha4' jut ' 1"t" /J

you do whel be part.

put aL th€ begiinninEt end

"l{hat ere you doingf ?"

( 49) /?eLs nar;* jur'

do whot be

-alel

part

r-:riscl-"2you

"What Bre you doin8t ?"


a 7ZA

( 50) /pst pej hi?/

e l de n aunt glo per.L

"Aunt r 1et's rfo. "

'.Aunt. lst,s Efor shall we?r

E:o pant i ele elder sunt

ln senlencgs 49 and 51. the nords /?il'sut'/ and

/paz"/ sre inverted to the end of the sentences after the

particles.

Sentencg6 50 6hovs 6uBg:astion but, sentence 51 is to

implore' to sollieit the aunt to Eio.

4.3.9 Pronoun Deletion

In conversBtionsr pronouns can be deleted in the

f ol lowinEl situations 3

1. The addnesser lscks of informet ion about the

Bddr.essee. This happens f,hen the r.elst,ionship between the

communiceLingl pantners are nonint,imets. (see example on p.i3r-139)

2. The status of the addr.essen is equal t,o that of

the addressee.

3. There are only iwo inlerlocutonst t,heneforer thene

a is no need to address the speaken or heener.

(51) /psj hi? pa,/

a

a


124

Proper pensonal pnonoun and pronominBlly used noun

ane seltant, lc6 I ly different. The fonmen has diffenence lnpensonr i.e.r f,he firstr secondr or third person when€as the

lett€n do€6 not discrinrinat,e personr but t,he context wiII

determine its penson.

The gframmaf ic6 I proc€sses of pponouns includ€

pronomlnal izBtion vhich is e procass to convert the noun or

noun phrsse mank€d t - PROI to t,he pnoper. penEonal pnonoun

manked t + PROIt restrictlon on pr.onominal izetiont plural i-

zat,ion of pronounsl pnonominal appositioni EleniLivizstiorr of

pronounsl reflexiviz6t ion of pronounslpositions of pnonoun6

in i nt,er.roEi6t ive constnuct ionsI pnonoun invErsionl end

pronoun deletion.


a

o

CHAPTER V

SOC I AL AND CULTURAL FACTORS

UNDERLYING PRONO}'INAL USAGE IN TAI SONG

The focus of this chapter is on the siElnif icant

social erid cultunel factors which underl ie pponominal usaEfe

in Tal SonEl. These fectors are elassified into t,wo mein

Efroupsr i.e. r social and cultural factors deter.minlnlt social

nole in T6i SonEl ano social and cultunsl fect,on6 det enminlng

role relaLionships in T6i SonEl'.

5.1 Social and Cult,urel Fect'ors DetenmlninE Social Role6 in

Tsi S onEl

5. l. 1 Sex

Sex is s significent sociel f ect,on which influencEs

the use of pronouns in Tei SonBi. Many kinship t enms ln Tai

Song: indicete male and femele speekers. The kinship tanms

Lhst indicaf,e sex of speekers srer for axampler /?atvtL /

'fether's younElen brother'| /?al t/ 'fathe"'s younEler sistsr"

/ lunz / 'olden bnother of panents/ husband of older sisLer)

of parents't /r at -/ 'old"" slst,er of perents/ wife of older

brother of parents', znri1"t"ie.j '/ 'youngier sistarrs huEband''

/nc4"pa+" / 'youn8fer brothsr's wife'' z?etj'ktiaj'/ 'husbsndJ

of one's older si6ter't /?atj-pai-/ 'an older bnothen'6 wife'r

or the words /sarw'/ 'femele sinEf le' and /betlw" / 'male

sinElle' which follow the kinship terms Bs in /lu4' batwt,/J

'sinElle older brotheF of parentE', ,/pst - r"!*t/ 'singf le older

a


126a

sistsr of parent,a') /?wt t bal*"/ '6inElle peternal grandfather,

end /?ut Eat*'/ 'sin$le paternel Trandmother,. The titles

/brtc /, /?aJB / 'nele' and /?i r t/ 'female, which precede Eome

kin€hip tenms /natt/ end /latn'/, t,he friEndship ter.m /siaw'/

the t6rus shich is u6ed in refer to spouse, 6ueh BEr

/jatj' tnaw" / 'fernale old penson' , /Lel t ttaw"/ 'mEle oldperson" /nut -a121'/ 'devot ss (wife)'r /ns'1,p11a1 'dsvot,ee

( husband ) ' r on the occupst ion t €nm6 r /mtt'ket'/ 'fena le

shopkeepEn' and /p9rtk.a"/ 'oerchant' will dlfferentiEte sexa

of sp€ech participEnt6. It is appenent thet the sexual' differenLBtion deterrnlnes the pronominal usagB in Tal SonEf .

5,1,2 AgB

Sone kinship t,erms in Tei Songf ere restnicted to the

age of speech pert,icipBnts. For. exemple, /setmatjtnJtj'/'plurel you/they' is used to refer. to a childr and /kLa"/'her she' is used Uo refer to an old penson. The aEle ranEfe

of the addressee who ls called /rtet"/ 'mother's youngfer

brother or sistenr, /?e, t/ 'fathen's youngf€r sisten', or

/?atw'/ 'fat,her'r younE:en bnoihen' is less than a person who

i s add nes s ed ttwrl'/ 'old6P brothsP of parents /husbend of

older sisten of parent,s' on /pat'/ 'olden sl st,er of

a

par.ents/ wife of older bnother of parents', and

of t he addpesssa who is cal led /ng: " /, /2"t'/

more than a person who is addressed /pitn

brother or sisten'. Apperently, if the aEle of

the agf e rsng'e

or /?alw'/ is

?+s.j6 / 'oIder

t, h€ addressera


a

is nonequiva I ent r it

selected eppropriately

t27

is essential that a

in eccondance with En

and eddnessee

pnonoun mu6t be

interlocutor.

a

5.1.3 ltinship Bnd Family R€lationship

Klnship end fani ly neletionship is e fundamental

soclal lnt,erpersonal relationship in all 6ocieties. NinBhlp

is a very lnpontant social aspecu influencingf the pnononlnBl

fonms of Tai Songf . The corrrnon kinship f,erms' the klnship by

marriBgte tenms lncludinEl the speeific pnopen pensonal

pronouns /k")3" / 'l' end /cew"/ 'singular you t which ene

employed ln addnessing a motheF-in-law' fBt her-in-law on

elder relativas of wife or husband are evidences that all of

them are affected by kinship status. Furthen; kinship and

femi ly relationship can be esteblished on non-kins which are

cel led pseudo kinship terms.

5. 1.4 GenealoElical Di6tance

There are distinctions on kin6hips terms which ere

employed in callin8f non-kinsi Lhe pseudo kinship term6' for

example, /nel"/ 'mother's young,er brothen on sisf,er' has

feaLure which differs from /pi t'?+r3" / 'older brolher or

sister'. The term /net" / is manksd t+eg'el end [*generat ion]

which indicate that the sddressee who is called /nest/ b"longs

to the older Elenepation than the speaken but the term

a

a


arz8

/9itt?+.a3" / expnesses that the speeker and th€ addressee are

in t,he same g6nenat,ion. FurtherrDorer thene is other

differentet ion of ElBneration, fon instsnce, the t arms

/?atSaLat'/ 'older on yound'er bnothen of met,ernel

Eirandfethsr'or /?emtnat.i" / 'older. or youngfer sister of

naterngl grandmother' snd /lu4'/ 'oldsr brot,her of parents/l

husband of olden sister of pErent s r or /ratt/ 'oldep siEten

of pBrsnt,s/ wife of older brouh€n of penents'. The persons

who are addnessed by thg lest two tepms belonEt to f,he youn3'er

Eteneration then the p€nEonr who ane addressed by the ot h6p

ter.ms.

a

5.1.5 Titles

a

The titles

and /ptut -ctue.ltl

person pronoung.

Lhnee terms are

intenlocuf,on.

/tniL'/, /sia1" / t /kem'nan'/, /pnvr'ye+" /

may be employed as t,he second end t,he thind

Al I t,hese tit, les are widely used. The last

employed in order to pey respect to

5.1.6 ReliEtion

Monks! like in Thai societgl ap€ marked by power and

stat us group. The Tai Songf people pay hi8lh respaet to monks.

ln conversation wit,h monks, they wi I I employed 6pecial

vocabularies, for €x6mple, /knun" /, /Ldaznt/ 'you', on

/lua4t/* common kinship term is used in spesking: to monks andJa


at29

Es I f/ ? alL'Latma tt /

whi le speek i ngf

is employed by monks fon referring

to t,he Tai SonEl people.

to

a

5. 1.7 Occupet ion

Pronouns sre uged d i fferent ly amonEf

occupation6r i.e. r teBcheni crBftmBnr merchantt

shopkeeper. /knwlz / 'teBcher' csn be used ss a

al l per.sons whanses /?attcatnt / 't,eacher' t

'craftman' . /p9 t tk"t "/ 'menchent I and /m e t+kat

shopkeeper' are used as pronouns in the second

person6.

d i fferent

snd feme le

pronoun in

/ cstr.t /l

" / 'female

end ihind

5. 1.8 Ethnic Groups

The two ethnic giroups gt Ban Phai Hu ghanSl end Ban Ko

Lek are the Thai and Chinesel especially; t,he Chinese is e

subglroup thet, affects in clessifyinE speakers int,o Tei Songa

snd non-Tei SonEi. ti is found thst Chinese personel pponouns

end kinship terms ane edopied fon pronouns.

Nowgdays the Tai SonEl people like Uo Sfive educaLion

to their of f sprinElst th€rBfore' t,he youngf Tai Song people

have opporf,uniLy to study in higiher levels. In a primsry

schoolr secondary school or in the col leEler t,hey must heve

conf,ecu with Thai speakeFSl so tha Thai I an8luaE|e mey have

influence on thein speech behavior. IL is found thet /phoml/,a


/cnant/ snd

speak ing Uo

/n:ua' / are

t,eachers,

130

borrowed fron Thei snd 6re employed inparent,s r on edults.

Ex. 3 Speaker A is Tei SonEl while speaker B is Chinese.

Speeken A want6 to nill nice at, speaken 8,6 rice mill.

A I /?us6 cir mat2 6i! t kta:wt ka?u "I vent uo mill ric€.

I rrill cone hull rice et Ther€ is no mone Fice

h*en" bg" miit ktaw"satntcetw- to eat at my house.

house not have

kin* latj2 lir6

eat pess you

kt:nr daj-

before get

n i ce

- t _ -6 _ asl3 hel ?ue

hul I gf ive I

Could you rnlll it for

na finst?"

"O.X. I wtll nill it

for you first."

?et

QUBS r

B r /darjE

gef

katn'

bef or e

.3cl si t

will hullh- 2p +3n

fr i end

I - -Bnerl

Elive

lat j" /

pass

.2,*Jyou

5.1.9 Friendship

Friendship is s social

amongi non-k ins. I f re I at i on

part,icipants is friendly, so in

specisl word wi I I bs employgd.

t,errn /siaw'/ -friend' is widely

femgle speeker.

i ntgr.persons I relat ionship

betwe€n two communicetlng

speak in8f to his interlocutor.

In Tai Son8f! the friendship

used and can rsfer t,o mels or


a

The fol lowinEf is

fsctorE inf lu€ncing t,he

ReliElion

st of soeial

of TEi SonEf

131

end cul tura I

spaakans.

a brief li

socisl role

Tiile

Sex

3 nonkr non-monk

! with a tit ler wit,hout e t it, le

t maler female

t youngier, equa I agle' oldera

C

Age

Ninship and Faml ly Relet ionship

I(inship

Fami ly Relationship

GeneloEii cB I D i stence

Fr i endshi p

Occupat i on

Ethnic Group

s kinr non-kinr panent,sr offspninEft

relativsr siblinEl

r member of the fBmi ly, spouse

3 of youngen Efenenationr of

salne gieneret i on r of older

gfenerat i on

t fniendr non-fr i end t acquaint ancel

non-acgue i nt ence

t,eecher. cref t,mgn r merehantt

feme I e shopkeep€r

Chineser Tha i


t32

5.2 Social Bnd Cultural Fectons DetermininEl Role RelBtionships

in Tai SonEl

The role nelat ionship of speech participant,s may be

determined by t,he Bocio-cultunal fect,ors discusEsd below.

5.2.1 Solidarity

Whi le hBving verbal interact ion with non-kins or

acquelntancesr soliderit,y can be created amortEi thesa gfroups

by usinEf kinship t6rms as pnonouns. The. common kinship terms

are, fot exampler /9i1"?+ai'/ 'older brothen or sisten';

/latat / 'Slrandchi ldl niece on nephew ', /natt / 'molher's

younElon brolher or slster', /?al t/ 'fether'6 youn8l'er slster.' t

/?stw'/ 'fether'B younEier brothsn'| /lvrlz/ 'older bnother of)

penents'r /patt / 'older sisten of parsnts "

/?ati"?vt" /

'pat,ernal EirBndfaLher' , /?em"?wt" / 'pat,ernal girendmot h€r' r

/?at.it!taw"/ 'mat,ernal girandfathen' r /?em"r,naw" / 'maternal

ginandmothen'| /?a',3-|-at'/ 'older or younEfer broUh€r of

maternal Efnandfather' as well ss /?emznat32/ 'older or

younEler 6i6ter of maternal grendmot,her'. It is found thet

bot,h paternal and mai,ernal common kinship t,erms ane used fo

create solidenity emonEf non-kins and amon8l acquaintanceE.


133

5.2.2 Presence of Chi ld

Pr.esence of chi ld csn determine spesch behaviorr

especiellyr the use of pponouns. To init,at,e t,he childnen's

usagfa is videly done' fon example the people of TEi SonE

oft,en cell thein own youtrEler sl6ten's husband /nat'kn+gtr^ /

'hu6bend of motherrs younEfer slsten'on /?arw'kt+e3'/ 'husband

of fat,her's younlter sisten" on Bddness youngfer' brother'6

wife ss /aaz'9a+"/ 'sife of mother'5 youngsr bPotheP' ot'

/?at'lwa" / 'wife of t he fat her'6 youngler bt other' vhi ]e the

addnessees have no chi ldran. In case that the addnessees hsve

ehildnen, the address forms in such cBllinEl will be chanEled

from /nat"kn+ei'/ or /naltpe.+t/ to /nett/, /?^tttkt+a5t/ to

/?azw'/ ar,d /?a'. t 1uet/' t,o /lvs" / plu6 the personel nams of

t,he oldest child of eddragBee. All ere called fol lowinEl the

children's usagfe of a speeker while theBe conversations may

or mey not be in fnont of childnen. Presence of child

explicitly cond it,ions the pronominal usegle in TEi sonB.

Forms I i Ly

ln a formal and informal Eituat ionr Dronouns will be

used diffarent ly. ln fopm6l occasiont such esr in B ceremony

or in e meetinElr the fsBtune of pronoun will be marked

f + formalityl. Pronouns which ere employed in this situeLion

are /L,et" / -1,, /:nawt/ 'l or we' peferringf t,o self, /swaa/

'singiulsr you' and /sewn/ 'her aher on they' refenring to


tI S4

ot,her peop I e.

5.2,4 lnt inacy

IntimBcy can condit ion t,hs use of pronouns in Tei

SonEf . For instancer if role rBlationship betwEen two male

friends shoss nonintimscy, they may exchanEle /hat"/'t' and

/sr:-zt/ 'sinElulsr you' end in case t hat Lhe role relationship

becomes intimacyr bot'h nay reeiprocet e /kwtn / and /m};12 /.

5.2.5 Ernot i on Manlfest Btions

In speech coDmunicetionr a Epesker will not u6s the

same pnonouns to his arrdiencB. When the spsaker i€

ernot lonalr pronouns which are normal ly used uill be shifted

to ot'her. pronouns in order to show his emoLion to the

addressee. For exEmpler e woman usually uses /ktri-/ 'l' and

/cawt / 'you' to show respect when speekinEf to her

mother-in-lew but in s situBt ion whepe thay become Eng'ry'

both mey exchanBa /kutt/ 'l' and /mi4t / 'you' which ere used)

to show no respect to each ot,her.

The example belov is an expressive Ewitchingf . It is

s stony about a dBuEfhter-in-1aw qusrrel ing wiLh hen

mother-in-law about property thet she should get after her

husband died.

a

o


a

bem€

L it 1B nama

- E - -tb?t har

not Elive2wetn nan

reLr i but, i on it- -2. h EiJA: J t eW

aortba!t kut'

propsrty I you

-54-2r(3r ssrJ '*rlafterwerds no youa_aahznat nam t En

will follow in t,ime

nokn /

-2mt:

hsve

ta t w

com€l

back

c e3t

nat i on

135

"Even Lhougfh you don'L

gfi ve me pnopenty. nevBr

rnindl retribution for

youn bBd deed will bs

back Lo you soon. "

"You don't nespect your

fathen-in-lew and

mother- in- 1aw, You csn

do enyt hinEt what you

want . "

" l have my fat her and

mother and I will Efo

to be with then. It is

enouElh t,o meet you in

thi s life."

At /2its

a

old woman stinEly

B: /mir1t ,"n' bf,tt n"pttt+t t ?at5"

you it not respect, father_ 2 - 2 -t _ . t - z?em m+n ct 'let, s+!

J

mot,her you wi I I do whBt

kJt6 sstn'l m+nt /))afterwands no tnett,eF you

a

Ar /kutt lu?t mi!' ?alj6

I chi ld hsve fBt,her

?em" kut t kot - ci "

mothen I eften- wi I I

werds

hiant heiE p)t 6 kan'

housa Elive find each

of her

diew" ni!" 1??4 /

one thi s part.

a


Bt /te t w€

come

bac k

pej' larj'

Elo Pass

?i:"ha: k in'l

dsmn eat

136

"Get out. You dBmn I"

Actuel ly' e dauEfhter- i n- I aw will use /kn C j"/ fot

self-rsfer€nce and /cewt/ for sel linEl mother-in-lew but when

she became snEJry' both will necipnocal,a lkur'/ and /m+*z /.)

Further' the speakep A cal led molher-in-law /?izt bernt/

in6t,esd of /?emz / and used tha word /jarjtttaw-/ which showed

no nespBcL.

Ex r SpeBken A end E ere telkingf aboui their friends

-_- z -3 a - 2l'ltl salJ man mi3

t it I B name she have

b)r a hu: "cak" balt lu?')

noi know look chi ld

nLwz ptr! -"a r *t ni t "

Lype s inElle wornen thi s

ln Tai Songf societyl when

chi ldren' she will be called /?em

Iu?t mi: t t,aw

child have e woman's br€ast

?et t pen' m et a ka* l!, n"

J

do be mother be effected

"Mrs. Soi, she doesn't take cere of her chi ldren,

she likes io 6how herself off like a sinEile womsn."

has

hen

a woman is married snd

* persona I nama of


at37

t he referent i s ca l l ed by

vhich show the speaker's

oIdest chi

the Litle

sancesm t,o

ld but inplus her

her.

this examp I e

per6onal name

5.3 Rules of Pronominal Usagfe

The use of pronouns involves thg pronominal veriants

which ene Eloverned by socio-llnEluist ic rules whlch ere

condit loned by soclo-cult,ural fact ors indicat,ing Tsi SonEfa

cu I ture.

There are 2 types of soc I o- I I nElu i 6t i c rulest the base

rules and veniant nules. The baEe rules Elovern usage and

t h6t are applied to match social and cultural factors to t,he

ebst ract I+PROI result,inEl e form f + pronounl. The vaniant

rules differentiate one pronominal vanianu from another.

5.3.1 Bese Rulesa

1. t+PROI ----> E+pPonounl ,/ lociat rote

of sender r

recsivsr and

neferent

the cond it ion of

role rslstionship

bet,ween sender

and recs i ver r and

sender end neferBnt


t+PROI

t+t l

Example of BaEe Rule I

----> /ka}.it /

138

"lf, is ihe ray to go to

thB csremony, isn't it?',

"Yes. "

l- senden end I [ ""r,0 , "

, "r, or ro r e-l

I re""iren llretationshin is I

[+aaurnten-in-rawl-] l5+ rorurat itv: l

2. E+PROI -----r, f, rbt tOj

n a cas6 thet, a speeker does not know infonmationabout, the social role and the nole nelatlonship of hisinterlocutor, a zero veriant is employed.

Example of Base Rule 2

SpeBken A is a man who cqme from another villageispeeker B is a fsmale shopkBeper who i6 hevingf breakfast, A

came into her shop 6nd asked her how to go to the censmony atMrs. Baep's house.

At /paj t h+en"

8io houE €

-_- rl/'!aa men

yes riEfht

rjstn

ceremony

m€nt ?a" /

r i gfhi guea.

Bt


At /hien"

hous e

Br /tor;'l

str i ef ht_6n1l

this

At /4am")

think

Bt /paj +

Eio

_tb? 3

noL

I ew" 6I I atr

?i: " bdp"

f,itle nemct

.4 I - hpal t,atm t

go a I oDEl

leg'/

pert

s non

aoad

knvaa' /

n i Etht

ni t " n".'/

t,his part..t't2se p sln

br i dEte

----------- \

139

"Mrs. Baep's house. r

"You Eio stre i Eiht elongi

the noad end then f,urn

r i elht' "'

" l think that t,his is

the way to go. r'

"You can't go because

t,he br i d8le i s out of

order. "

alrBedy turn4 -+ - awar peJ tBrrl

speek gfo way

b?r" daj" lg?"

not get part

di t' /

Efood

5.3,2 Ve n i ant, Rules

VarianL rules result, in different, pnonomonal veriant s

vrhich ar€ det,ermined by the social role and role rsletionship

of speech participants. The fol Iowin8, are variani I.ulsE forpnominal usege in Tei SonEf .

ar Varlant Rules of Proper Pensonal Pronouns

t+E+

pronoun l

I]

I RrI Rt

/s t

SI

adu lt

eduli

edulL l

edult l

/?iz"pnutt/


140a

s

S

s

s

[ + offspr i nEl

t + sibl ing' l

E + kin l

t + friend l

+ panents

Eibl ingf l

kin l

friend l

I RtRt+

Rt+Rt+

/?a.l1,"l,eamat' /

/ ?!at / It+Teisonstr3t+chineeej|

adulult-nale:]

/s

CRR

t+t+

monk I nff - rronk I t + adult lforma I lty J

zs[t +

n[r +a

/st+st+

/s t +

t-

ecqua i ntence

Bcquintance

/ c' stt' /

/ hat" /

/ hayz /

monkl[+

monk l

monkl[+

off6pn i ng

kin I t -

t + kin I t

Iteachen :l cnn r

It+education:]

eEie I t + aducatio

+ ase r]

,r L, -B

f t +

1,-s[c +

s[r +

RI

+ fonnel ity lR [ + parent s

"rj

ofr i end

lovan l

Rt+Rt+

fnlend l

lover l'

+ friend lfr i end I R C

forne I ity l

CRRE-intimatel

CRR t + intimete.3

a -. .tnls

no examp I e

rule is derived from an

to support it.a

i nt,erv i ew so t hat, there i s


t

+ offspr i nEl

+ 6iblingf l

* spouse J

/S t +fniend I RE

s t + siblinEf I R t

S[+ecguieniance]

14r

+ parents

+ sibl ingi

+ spouse

+ fniend I CRR t - intimate l+ siblinEt lR[+acquiBntance]

I BtRT

RT

ST

stst

l

l

l

,

kan' /

/krttn /

/ka j" / fathen-in-lew

moUher-in-laru

/s

s

s

5

S

S

S

S

S t1J

t

CR

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

(l)

lr

+ fnlend I Rt+

R t + int imste I t

+ offBpringi I Rt

+pBrentslRt

+ siblinEt I B t

+spouselRt

+ kin I R t

-adultlRt+adulLlRt

+ fet h6t -in-law l

+ mother-in- lew l

friend l

- forna I ity

+ panent s l

+ offspr ingf

+ siblinEf l

* spouse J

+ kin l

+ adult l

- edult l'l R rt +L\()J {c +

ason- in- lew l

daughter-in-1aw

l')LrJ

"J'*), *

/stt +)

i, *

,lr.1

son-in-law , I

daughLer- in-law J )

Sft + Elrsndson by marriage I I R (t + fnandfethen-in-lewJ J

{r + s""r,aaeughuer by ma,'r,.""\1, + Efrandmoth".-rr,-r"*J }

,tI t+t-

male

rnalet

/nwt ^ / -rnonklt-edultl


+monk f Ia

- monk I t + t,eacher l.) CRR E + formBl igy l

offsprinEf I t + educgt,ion :] R E + panents l

kin I t - edult I t + educet,lon :]

t+kinlt+adultr]

acquaintance I t - adult I f + eOucefion :]

[ + ecqueintence ] f + atlult, I ]

S

s

zs [c

* J-'

tt'.1, *s [r +

*1,

'[' .

nlc

R

IrIr

B

IrR

ir'1,

+

+

L

+

t

- monk I t + edulf, I f + nale l]

imonk, ,l

- monk I t + teach"" rJ J CRR t +

offspring I t + education :] n f +

kin I t - sge I t + educat,ion J]

+kinlf+age:]

aequaintencelt-.*rr]+ acquaintance I t + aSe :]

142

forma I i ty

parents J

,/ pn om' /

/?i. su'. /

p r onoun

tt l

t+T+

/s

S

S

S

s

s

+ adult l

- adult, l

+ offspr inEI

+ siblinSf l

+ kin l

+ fr i end l

adult l

adulf, l

parents J

siblingf l

kin l

fr i end l

Rt -BT+Rt+Rt+Rt+Rt+


a143

formsIiiyl

/ cav" /

/knun

/ l+ao /

tm+1't

Eirandson by

Efrandmot her

/ sir +

(E +

son- in- I sw l

dauthen- in- I awt-(,rl j,

t

+ f et,her- i n- I ew I I

+ mothan-in-law I \+ older rrelst ive ofl

wife on husbgnd J )

RJt + EtrBndf at hen- in-law II

It + franamot,hen-in-law J,f

t !' *

?' *rrarniage I J

ty ,."ri"g" :I

"r rsl - [+ monk ] CRR t+monk l t + edu I t,

t - edulu

aequisnt enca f f

+ 6cqua intance l

acqua intance I I

+ ecqusintancs l

+ rai sone l]I + Chinese lJ

+ chinese l]

E + Tai Song:]

ll .

a

zs [r +

'[,s[r +

*[,

a

/5

s

s

S

S

5

S

S

s

t +fniend I R

t + offsprinEf l

E + pensnts l

t + siblinEl l

[ +.spouse ]

t + kin l

t - adult l

+ edult l

[ - acquient 6nce ]

[ +fathar- in- lew ]

E +moLher- in- law l

t + oldeP nelative

t+fr i end I CRR t+inUinatelt-fornelityl

R[+psnents]

RE+offsDrinEl

R E + sibling l

Rt+spousel

R t + kin l

R t + eduli l

Rt-edulil

Rt-acquiantencel

+son- in- l aw l+deuEiht,er-in-lew ,l

* ['l,on

a

s

of wi fe husband l


144,

/m zr / +

+

/s E

stfniend I B

acqu i Bntence

St.}friendl

kin I [ - aEte

kinlt+6Ete

acqu i ant ance J

acqu i entance l

t + friend l

I Rt+acquientBncel

/ sa*met tro /S

S

S

S

/setmaI j-nf,t j-l

/ s:ut' /

/l-naln'/

t + friend ln[r + tir, : c + age :]r

tlc + rrn r t - age l]

sgel]R [t+ ecquianisnce]t+

ager] R [r+ ."o,rt"rrtanca]t-

.". r]'

.""r]

R

]J

rlt-t+

[t*[.,*

[t+

[,*

a

fr I end

lover l

monk l

pBP6nt6

adult l

Bdult

adult

fr i end

lover l

/s

s

I Rt+Rt -

t+t+

offspninSl

adult- l

CRRI- int imete l

monk l CRR t+ forpalityJ

I Rt+Rt+

/s t +

st+

t+t-

,,s

lr -

t+t+

1iR r+

il

apr onoun

III ]

tThi=

Lhe same aEfe.

pnonoun is usBd by tv{o speekBrs Yrho are sbout

a


145t

/ ? i t" savt /

/kLtt /

/m)r t /

/pn6nt/

/ sa'mst j" /

. + -E -6 -/sB matJ nrlJ /

friend l

off spr i nEf

sibl inEf l

kin l

adult l

t + friend lRt t + parent s lRt t + siblinEf lRt t + kin lRtt+sdultl

/S t +

St+5t+st+st-

RL

l

r r + edult l] I:r+aeel] |

sdurr il nt,1[r +

.e" r] i *"i1, .

Rtt+Rrt-

lS t +

St+

z s([r + tin :

l[, * * '" ,

/58+st+

/st+st+

t

t

kin

kin

afriend I Rt E +friend l

acquaintance I Rt E + acquaintance J

friend I Rt t +friend l

siblinEr I Rt t + siblinEt l

a

/s

ST

ST

s [r *.Ir*

t +friend I Ri t +friend l

+ kin I t - a8ie I RL E + kin I t + age J'

+ kin I t + BEle I Rt t + kin I t - eEle l

acquiant,ence:f -ag"r] nt Ir+ acquiantancelE+aBeJ]'

acquient,snce:f +age:l Rt ft+ acquiantencelt-agel]JL

psrents l

adult l

off6pninEl l

BdulL l

'Thi= p"orroun is used by two speakers who are about

Lhe seme s8:e.a


146a

/ sawt / /st+St+st+5t+st-

fr i Bnd l

offspn inEf l

siblingf l

kin l

edult l

Rt,t+Rtt+Rtt+Rtt+Rit+

friend lpsrents

siblingf

kin l

adult l

l

l

b. Variant Rule6 for Pronomielly Used kinship Terms

E * pronoun 3a

/ Sr R' Rt t + kin lAl I kinship terns

t + I, ll, III l

[/na s "/

I

\r2",'t II tz^r*'l )

t + I, I

+ pepsonB I

t + kin l

I, tll l

name of addressee or referent /St R, Rt

ot twle r

/ pal" /

/?et tr" ?vr " // ? em" ?vr" // ?ez tr6Lat' /

/SrRrRtt+kinl

+ (/ ba.we / ))r""r.'r\lr*,*', )

/?em"nat j" /

[ + Ir II, III


/nat" /

/?az'/

/?atv'/

/ lur12 /,)

/ger" /

/?et 36 ?vt' /

/ ?emt ?wt " /

/?at ia ld awd /

/?em"Lnawt /

/?atj6t,at'/

/?emtnat j" /

t + Il, lll

147

/t on" / + pen6onBl neme of Uhe oldest child

of addrsssee or refereno /Sr Rr Rt t + kin

( /r.a.'/ )

l, ,r^,*' ,f|,r.,;, )

t + ll,

+ /LhiL'/ + (personel name of addressee or

referent t /5. R, Rt t + kin l

I II ]

c. Verisnt, Rules fon Pnonomial ly P6eudo kinshio Terns

. - 4_- -l'/91I ',lteJ

/ latn^ /

/rtal" /

/?azw'/

/?ar'/

I + Il, I

1.I

E + pronoun l

( persona I

/s, R, Rt

CRR of Sr

neme of addressee or referent

t - kin I [ + acquienLence ]

R and S, Rt t + solidarity l

II ]


a

/ 9at" /

?at 3e ?wt " /

/?em" ?ur t /

/?er Sttar '

/ ?ern"na t.5"

/ lut1" t

E + II, ttt l

/nai" /

/ ?aiw' /

/?at'/

/ lu1' t/paz" /

/?at j" ?wt " /

/?em" ?wr" /

/?at j-L'ewt y'

/?emtt.naw-/

/?az 3"l,et' /

/?emznai jt /

t + II, Ill l

Rt t- kinl t+

Sr R end S. Rt

t4a

acqu i anLance 3

[* solidariiy]

(zterw'z)

* ]r"",*', (

lrr^*", J

/5,

CRR

Ri

of

a

I / t,orr" / + persona I name of

of addressee or ref ensnt,

[ + Bcquaint,ance ] CRR t

the oldast chi ld

/Sr R! Bt t + kin

+ Eol idariLy l

a

(/nas 5/

''l

)rr^,*' ,\1r,"1', )

[ + Il,

+ /t,h iL'/ +

/s, R, RL

III ]

(personal neme of adnessee or refergnt )

t-kinl [+acquBintence] CRR I+sol idarityl


a 149

[-nale] t+Bdultl + (pepsonel

of addressee or refenent )

Chlnese kinship t erm

t + II, III l ngm9

/s t + Tsi Sondf I [ + eustomer ]B t + Chinesa I t + shopkeep€r lCRRt+solidarityl

[ +ecqu i antence ]

t+Tai S onEl l

[ +ecquB intance ]

t +Chi nese l

CRR t+soliderityl

Ch i nese

T+ I I ]

kinship t, erms

a /cer'/ lf-rnate: f +adu1t, ll/hie" / [t+rra1e] t+adultll/Liat / lf+nalel t+aduft l]/?at'n+r1'/ lf+:nete: f+adult, lltZat'*.o1" tlt+malel t+adult I f+eee{

/?at'mar "z IC-mete: tsdult] t+adelJ

/?atrs),"2 lf +rrate: t +adu tt,I J

/s

a d. VsrienL Rules of Pronominal ly Used Teknonymy

[ + pronoun ]

Teknonymy /5

T+ I I ]

[ + msmber of

fem i ly I CRR

the fam i ly l

[ + presence

[ + mambEr

chi ld l

R

of

of the


150a

Fir.Et n6me, short erred first narner or nickname

+ friend l

[ + pBnent6 ]lr,l *[, + kin ] r + adulr l]

first nsne, or n i cknsme

t+T+

pronoun

I]

a

/s I +

SE+s[r +

Finst

t+ I lfriend I R t

offspr.inEf I R

kinlt-adultnamE, 6hontened

t + II, llt l

.[,

r[t

/5E+friendl

S[+panEntE]I

S Lt + kin I t +(

S Lt + kin I t +

+ acqua intsnee

* ecqui antance

S[+spouse]

R, Rt, t +

R, Rt- E +

adult, l] n, nt [r

"g" ,] n, **, [r *edult Il n,

friend l

offspr inEf l

+kinlr-adurtl]

kin I t - ass l]

nt [r +acoue lntance] t-eouttl]

,

f. Varienf, Rules of Prononinal ly Used Titles

+ pronoun l

"g," ,] n, nt [r +acqua i natnce ] r-"g.:ltf+spousel

It+It+B' R

titles iznnur

-pa+'z l

)}i6!!+t\/p ut c uai /)Ir*.r"rr"r,', )

+(persona I name of Bdrsssee

/SC+ecquaintancel

Br Rt t + acquaint ance l

or r'eferent )

a

The

t + Litle l


151

t + ll, III CBRofR'RtI+ respect l

BddrsssaeThe titles sonB I

nefere

t +f

[ +o

[*s

lr +kTIr +k

E

t

t

k

l,t t+

R, Rt

Rt [rI

lr

/+.n iL'/ or /siaq" / + (penl

t llr III I or

+ fnland I R, Rt

+ pBr.ent s I R, Rt

+ siblin8t I R, Rt'I

+ kin I t-agtelJ R, Rt,l

+ kin I t + aEielJ R, Rt

+ spou6€ I R, Rt,

acqueint,ance: f - agel]

acquaintance I t + eger] R,

narle of

nt)niend l

ffspr.in

iblinEr

in I t+

inl t-a

spouse

fr +acI

I t +.Er"

+ acqu

- sgs

/ss

S

S

s

S

8fl

l

.g":Jse rJl

qua i ntance llI

]J

a i ntance I I,.l

t[, *

'[, *

The titles b)t" /

2e j6 /

? i ta /

II, I

ent6 l

I ingf l

I-I

It l

I t + edult

: f + afe:]

/sE+st+s[c *s[c +

st+s[r+acoslr + eeo

\,

t+pan

"lokin

kin

spo

uai

uai

personal nsms of eddressee or neferent

I t + adult. l]

: f + age: ]

R, Rt tR, Rt tR, Rt, [r

R, Rr [rR, Rt E

:] n, nt,

Rt Rt,

+ offsprin€t l

+ sibllnEt l

+ kin lt - adulL lI+ k inlt -aEte lJ

+ spouse luss l

ntence

nt ene e

[E +acoua i ntence ] t -adu rt lJ

[t +acoue i ntance: f -efe:]


t52

g.

f + pronoun I ------------ >

/knvr" /

t+I l

/5 [ tt eecher ] R t +student l CRR [+respect ]

addressee

I n, nrI

lJ

fzt<"urI rz"r't+t

caln

Ir I

-]

It l

+ (personal neme of

/SI t + st,udent ]I

IE + scqua lnt,ance

CRBE+nespectJ

or referent )

t +t€achen l

c+malelJ

C-met":]

/cazrlt/ /S t+ scguaintance I R t+ cnBftmen I CRR ttsolidaritylJ

t+ t I, I I I l

/p3r tket'/ /s l+ cust,onerl

t+ I I l

/mt: tkat " / /" l+ customenl

t tt l

n lc

+snonreener:

tR Lt +shopkeeper l

h. Variant Rules of Words Pronornlnal ly Used to Refer to Spouse

f * pnonoun I --:----------)

/ja: j "t tew

+ II. III

-z [c-mete:r+eger] / S, R, Rt [+ spouse]t

t


153,

[ /ta' itnew-z [r+mare:c+"ge:]t + Il, Ill l

spouse 1

/ S t + friend I R + t + friend.s spouse l

end culturel factors affectinE sociel

people ere sexr egfer kinship end family

Efnoupsr end friendship. The sociel and

/ s, R, Rt t+

trl

I / ttw6

J,,,., ,

L,.,t+

,mtt /

" 9)t' /t h+"r,

III ]

a Whi le pnonominaI izetion siElnif ie6 t,he I angtuagfs

pnocess whsrs a noun nefeprinEf to s Eenderr rec€iver, or

rsfensnt is chBnged lnto t+PROI; the socio-l ingiui6tic

manklnEl indicgtgs appnoprist€ness of pnonominal usegs and it

is employed to chenEfe t+PROI int,o socielly conditioned form

[ +pronoun]. Thi s t+pronounl hes many var i ances in the

prononinal usaEfe of Tei Son8f . Esch varience is det ermined by

the soci6l nolB(s) end the role relationEhip of speech

conmunicatop5 affected by Lhe sociel and cultunal factons in

Tai SonSf soc i et,y.l,

The sociel

roles of Tai SonEl

relat,ionship; ethni c

cuIt ura I faqtonr determininEl ro 1e relat,ionship gre

solidsrityrpresence of child, formal ityr iniimecyr ernotional

menifesietions.

diffenentiete

Al I sociel end cultural factors

a

the social role and nole relationship of Tai


a 154

SonEf spsekens,

pronouns.

which are explicitly shored in lhe use of

ln a penticular situation, a pgrson nay occupy

verious social noles 6s a mot,herl e wif€, a dBughter-in-lBwrteachert or kin. Th6se various roles determine the choice ofpnonominal fonms. Whi le speBkinEf t,o husband, the socialrole will be the wife Bnd nole neletionEhlp in this featurewill . be viewed a6 one-bonded. But, when t,he woman is both

teacher and kin of a boy, in the fonmal situationr the rolarnerked t+titlel wi Ll prevBi I end in the informal sit,uation

t he role menked t+kinl wi l l dominatB. TheEe two diffBr€nt

sociel noles in such situeLion will be mult,i-bonded.

ln Tei Songf , Lhe pole of Bn intenlocuuon

nult i-bonded can be itlustreLed es followst

a

a

,


RoIe6 in Conflict end PrevBi linEt Bole'

Roles in Conf I I ct

155

Pneve i I inEf Roles

Litle

tiLlE' fniend

titlek inl kin + Litle

title (/kam'nan'/, /gnwttya+'t

or /ptut -cnue3t/ , friend

title (/kem nan /.. h B

'i -4 -orlpu!cuaJ/,

/phu:

kin

B -t.P'r '

teachan I kin

k inr fr i end

tAn irrdi.,iduaI may

seme time in e pertieuler

the sociel role msrked [ +

sit,ustion.

occupy various sociel roles at the

situaLion. ln Tei Songi societyl

tiLlel wi I I prevei I in the formal

t eachar

kin

kin

k in

S ituet i on

fonna I

i nforme I

fonma I

i nforma I

fonma I

i nforma I

forma l

i nforma I


a

a

CHAPTER VI

Ilt.IPLICATION AND CONCLUS I ON

6.1 Implication

The corr.e I et i on between I BnEluaEfe str.uctune and

socio-cultunal structune can be seen in th6 use of pponouns

in TEi Spng. The soclal and cultunsl fectors undenlyinEi anfi-

conditioninEf the pponominal ussgfa sre i I lustnEtad ineonvensBt,ion6. A Ehoup of personal pronounB employed inspeaklnEf to and fnom nonk6 lndicates the . diffenentation

between social gnoups whlch ere divided int,o monk snd

non-monks Efr.oups. Anong non-monk grroup, ell kinshlp by

manrieEfe t erms sre used as pronouns in all persons and there

ape a p6ir of specific propen perronel pronouns /kn)jt / for

,.efernlnEf to self and /cav"/ for referrinEl to per.tnen

employed by kin6 by mErriEgf€ Eo es to express respect, towsrds

fathen-in-law; mother-in-la\r1 op elder relaLives of wife or

husbBnd. Th6se usagfes stness effinaltty of Tai SonEl p6ople.

Bot,h pBternsl Bnd mst,ennBl eommon kinship t,€rms ere used in

cal I lng non-kins and non-acque i nt ances.

The dlffenentatlon of sex 6nd Bgie slso det ermlnes

!hB pronominel u6Bde. Many kinship termsr oecupet ion termsr

tit, le6r words used Uo refer to spouga which sre employed

pnonomirraI ly distinEfuish bstw€en the female and male role.

Similartyl the common kinship tarms which are characterized

by the ett,ribute iltplyinEf 'sin8lle' rnus.t be chosen

Bppropniately sccondinB t,o the sex of Epsech part,icipentl

/bs.zwt / for 'male singller end /satwi/ for 'female singfle'. In

a


157

reElard to aEfe, the Tai Songf kinship terms siBnify the aEla ofspeech communicators such es the addn€sseeE who are called/1w4" / 'older brother of perents, ond /par"/ 'older sister of

1

panent,s' ane older then those who sre addrggged /net" /'mothet rs youngler brothen or sisten', /?al t .f"then .s

younben sister.' end /?etw'/ 'father 's younEler bnothen t,

which belongt to sene ElEineration. Inteneat lnEly. in cese thatf,he ege of an adnesseB is younEfen then a speBker's papent. toemphasize the inpontance of the aEfe rolel the adnessee willbe cel led /r.slt / 'mot her 's young,er brot,h€r on 6i6ter . r

/?el'/ 'fEther ,s younE:er sisten ,, or /?at,w'/ 'fath€n .s

youngen brother ' plus his on her p€nEonal nane whan he or

she i6' single I on'childless '. On thB coninany, if an

6ddres6ee iE old€n than 6 speaken's psrant r t,he Bddnessee

wlll be cslled /lu1r/ 'oldsr brothen of parents/ husbend ofolder 6i6ten of paren!sr /?ar jt?wr t./ 'patennal gfrendfather/

older or youngfer bnoih€n of paternel Eirendfether' , op

/?az j6+.att / 'older or younger brother of met enns I

gfrendfethen' plus /betv'/ 'mele singfle'. Yet if the

eddresse€ is e femele uho is older then the speaker's panent,

she will be called /rat"/ 'older sister of perents',

/?em"?wz-l 'patennal grendmot her./ oldar or younEier 6ister ofpaternel Elrandmot her' r or /?en"nat j" / 'oldep or younEler

sister of meternal ElrBndmolher' plus /sazw'/ 'femBl€ EinEfle'.

when the addressee i s chi ldles6 r t,he t erm /vav" / 'chi ldless'

will be added at the end of such kinship terms. In TBi Song

societyr when s nan i6 younEf r gfenerel ly he is to be ordained

as e novice. Aft er hBving left the role' he is lo be called


158

/siaq" /. Laten' when lhe man is 20 yeens old, he yill be in)

Budhist or.dination Bnd after he has lsft the priesihood, he

wi I I be eddn€essd /Ln lLt / ot /r.on6 / . The term6 /sia4" / ,I

/+.niL'/ ae well es /!.on'/ ane often enployEd t,o emphssize the

aE|e of the eddnesseee snd to show that he has b€come edulL.

ln addit,ionr the Thai snd Chinese tenms, the names of

occupetions in T6i SonEf , frisndship term emgloyed in speekingl

to friend and speclal terrns fon spouae Bre elso usgd aE

pronouns.

Pronominal Variants and Speech Vsriation

Fnom t,he dat,a

pnononlna I uEeEle in Tai

variation. The TBi Son3|

expoBed abover it is found thet the

Songf conEists of two levels of speech

speBkers mBke both int srcultural end

intrecultural speech varistion . The first is veriation

across lanEfuaEls' but, the second is within one lanEtuaEte.

I nt,enculturs I VeriBt ion

Thsi snd Chinese are two ethnic Eir.oup6 out6id€ Tei

Songf speech communlty that influence pnonominal usaE:e in Tei

Songf . The pensonel pronouns, i.e., /?,Ja'/ 'l' and /l+a6/'you', and sone kinship terms ane bonnorred from Chinese.

Moreovenl Thai pronouns such as /pnom'/, /cnant'/ rrnd /nut'/

are Bmployed in referrinEl to self while speaking to monks,

Leachens; offspring: t,o parentsl or childnen to edults. The

terms used in speakinEl t,o monks ane the same as Thai becausa


Tai SonEi people sne Blso Buddhists. In eddnessing: tovho is neal-kin or non-kin, the term /lwa'ir/ + comDon

)tenm is u6Ed. Tha pronoun /?attrtatma l, / iB u66d by

nefen to s€lf and the pronouns /sis'k.t. /, /JOtm. / +

kinship term) .you. to refer t,o e commoner.

Inir.ecult unB I Vsniat,ion

159

a monk

kinship

monk to( common

on

r or

uEe

The re

whlch cen be

in TBi Songf

Social Vanietion

The d i fferrent i at, i on of sociel Efnoup6 in Tai S onEl

onsociety into nonk and non-monk gfroups has Bn eff€ctprononina I usBE:€. Pronouns used ln callinEf monks, e.g../knwn'/ and /Laain'/ will not be employed in eBllingfcommoners and pronouns used by commonens to refer t,o self,e.6., /kul t/end / cavt,z will not be amployed by monks to rsf€rto self.

2. Pensona I VBniBtion

en6 verioue types of vsristionsummenlzed in the fol lowinEr

Pnonouns may be employed differently dependingl

role relation6hip between a spssker snd hi6 eudience.

exempler if two interlocutor.G Bre non-intlmatel they will/Iosi" / 'l'end /sutn/ 'you, whiih show pol it,eness but whsn


roleyou I

relat,ionship becomes int imate; /kwt'/ . I

may be used in plece of those pronouns.

160

Bnd /n+1" /

6,2 Conc lus i on

This study presents th6 clgssificEt,ion ofthe llnguistic struct,ure of Tai Song pronouns; and

cultursl fect,ons und6rlyinB pronominal usage in TBi

pronoun6 r

sociel and

Song.

The clBEsificatlon of pnonounB in Tai Songf consistsof two maJor t"ypes of pronouns, nam€ly, pnoper pensonel

pnonouns and pronomlnal ly used Dounsr propen personalpronoun6 include the finstr second, and thind persons. There

an€ veriouE types of nouns that csn be used es pronouns, fonexampl€r klnship tsrms, pseudo kin6hip terms, teknonymy,

titles, pen6onal names.

The IingfuiEtic stnucturg of Tei Son3f proDouns isdiscussed ln terms of thr.ee aspects, i.e., the s€mBntic

featunes of pnonounE, tha Eynt Bctic stnucture of pronouns,

and the grsmmetical pnoces6es of pronouns. The finst espect,

covers both the semsntic features of proper personel pronouns

and pronominal ly us6d nouns. The second one has to do with

the syntactic poGltion in which a pronoun occuns. The lastone includ6s t he Bremmaiical processes of pronouns! for

exampler pronom i na 1 i zat i on which siEfnif ies a I in8fuistic


proces6

nece i ven ,

t +PRo l.

whera a noun

ot refsrent

s noun phna sEi

changed into

refer.r i ng'

an abstrBct

161

to sander,

llnEulsttc

or

is

In netand to the soeiel Bnd culLunal factorsundenlyinEl pnononinal useEte I the dlffenent, letion ofpronominal usag'e is detenmined by the differentiat ion ofsociel dnoups in Tai Song: society into monk and non-monk

Troups. ln e6ch sociel Bnoup, the social and cultur6l fecLorsdetermine var.ious social roles end role relationshiplnfluencing the cholca of pnoDoninal varlents. propen

p€psonel pnonouns includingf words end phnaEe which ane used

pronorninelly cen neflect social role Bnd role relationEhip ofi nier I ocutors. It should b6 noted also tha! the choice ofpronominal varient,s msy be conditioned by emotionsl Ettitudein a part iculsr siLuation.


BIELIOGRAPHY


BIBLIOGRAPHY

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un::J5r. " ina riuu#ilirynr dnrrnr an:rur iofi n nrni rr arnrnrdn{.eil'ra.rnroiiln'tirsrda. zsza..|

nruvn:rrnrrfiruurtqfriru. ,,rond17udnit:lrcifraaru?ialfi uaunr:firuuruririru!i

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l|l't1?nf,1Aglluna. 2525.

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l,lUg rlor. dnrruunrurlna. n?\,rrl,rc r lzofilrfarOn't. 2s14.l

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nrlurufln a'r?'rc1tnflltnlng arnilrnrurnviuaan. lrrinarfigBailrn:. zsza.

u.iusran. "iin-iruuo:zl-rl:vrrfi1nn:.:cir" rrrdr:inusrz!1ns ifi e,

11J1l7t 6 r tt. 12 <f.trltrnl zslt, lnz1nl-nlarfiud zsr2),.., - ",1llTt 9 01l1r7t , ,2 ( ,Ju1n - Itlilgu 2512r .

d/ t: -;t t nfl2fl'u afl 7u r?16?an2aau I uii tlaun$u . n1?6nu17]'l \r lilfl'rdni r R8?nuBanl

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ulruo

U?'?U

uuo't

141?Ytg1nE F1Al1fi7 , 2522,


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lqi inufir.'.nrzfinurtnz.rairrdrnrlalarrfrio. " inarfiuuC6ailnran:-

rinfiBfinsdolu tleg'rUn7t$riur.rillhfinsdnlu filnT 0 r Yll{ IlUnT 3 ?t'l \tltUd?ue lnfluunils. 2523.lr

ollru1 0rfln Bflun?r1}lflu1d.rn! llulaytgldg r ntn76.tdni, 2521 .a E;

1{9t7,0n I I

iinmrnnrr, na'll. rrudunirr*a.rrutrfiIna. n:ril:vlrarir?na10. zso4.

lrtu'] 76-78.,qo I - a

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2524,AA J . UAU A i'{dT fir r ol. rlruifidnioT'[narri,r

+altt\tllllll9}?drl. 25 19.!rt

d?x1?6 rirfiirX, sr.6. 1ess. rand,lTrlrunaun'rrdauii'l cRLc 525. I uri,.t

d?ar inuna, n?. " atllnflndrrxiiattauflrul1nsn6hfla1{t. "tttt- 4J - -J + a /fl1B1Uas?f,lugt7r,. rln 5 l ltii 1 n7! rYlltl s 17 \rl,t uxnlangldg-

I

tnsafi turrudrl nrr rnululuna !

677t!c11dn4, 2528,-],+,JdllYlT ! UTrUflU. n'l1 l Allnalrlla {41? t, {l7l'tll \tfl lt . dn1llU?Qgfl1u'l Uau?flU8711,t t

-!-

t uaflflu1iltlt7l. y't?ylg'taE viaa, 2524,,r. r . - ^ I - -lddfl7 lnl66. , t?. 1,1:uun7 r d1unu'junA \t ?ng'l ' 2509.

r ondT ?1117s'lBdrrlfiar'lnn'lro''l r flau'r,t r aut

altaau'tntau 6.ruiaunrilU.

d.rur"crunrillr , r-532. t dndr rur >

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