Springer Handbookof Robotics

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HHandbookSpringer

of RoboticsBruno Siciliano, Oussama Khatib (Eds.)

2nd EditionWith 1375 Figures and 109 Tables

K

EditorsBruno SicilianoUniversity of Naples Federico IIDepartment of Electrical Engineering and Information TechnologyNaples, Italysiciliano@unina.it

Oussama KhatibStanford UniversityDepartment of Computer ScienceArtificial Intelligence LaboratoryStanford, USAkhatib@cs.stanford.edu

ISBN: 978-3-319-32550-7 e-ISBN: 978-3-319-32552-1DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32552-1Library of Congress Control Number: 2016937424

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V

Foreword

My first introduction to robotics came via a phone callin 1964. The caller was Fred Terman, the author ofthe world-famous Radio Engineer’s Handbook, whowas at the time Provost of Stanford University. Dr.Terman informed me that a computer science profes-sor, John McCarthy, had just been awarded a largeresearch grant, part of which required the develop-ment of computer-controlled manipulators. Someonehad suggested to Terman that it would be prudent ifthe mathematically oriented McCarthy had some con-tact with mechanical designers. Since I was the onlyone on the Stanford faculty whose specialty was mecha-nism design, Terman decided to phone me, even thoughwe had never met and I was a young assistant profes-sor fresh out of graduate school with only 2 years atStanford.

Dr. Terman’s phone call led me to a close associa-tion with John McCarthy and the Stanford Artificial In-telligence Laboratory (SAIL) that he founded. Roboticsbecame one of the pillars of my entire academic career,and I have maintained my interest in teaching and re-searching the subject through to the present day.

The modern history of robotic manipulation datesfrom the late 1940s when servoed arms were developedin connection with master–slave manipulator systemsused to protect technicians handling nuclear materials.Developments in this area have continued to the presentday. However, in the early 1960s there was very littleacademic or commercial activity in robotics. The firstacademic activity was the thesis of H. A. Ernst, in 1961,at MIT. He used a slave arm equipped with touch sen-sors, and ran it under computer control. The idea in hisstudy was to use the information from the touch sensorsto guide the arm.

This was followed by the SAIL project and a simi-lar project started by Professor Marvin Minsky at MIT,which were the only sizeable academic ventures intorobotics at that time. There were a few attempts at com-mercial manipulators, primarily in connection with partproduction in the automotive industry. In the USA therewere two different manipulator designs that were beingexperimented with in the auto industry; one came fromAmerican Machine and Foundry (AMF) and the otherfrom Unimation, Inc.

There were also a few mechanical devices devel-oped as hand, leg, and arm prosthetics, and, a bit later,some exoskeletal devices to enhance human perfor-mance. In those days there were no microprocessors.So, these devices were either without computer control,

Bernard RothProfessor ofMechanical EngineeringStanford University

or tethered to a remote so-calledminicomputer, or even a mainframecomputer.

Initially, some in the computerscience community felt that comput-ers were powerful enough to con-trol any mechanical device and makeit perform satisfactorily. We quicklylearned that this was not to bethe case. We started on a twofoldtrack. One was to develop particu-lar devices for SAIL, so that hard-ware demonstrations and proof-of-concept systems were available forthe fledgling robotics community toexperiment with. The other track,which was more or less moonlighted from the work atSAIL, was the development of a basic mechanical sci-ence of robotics. I had a strong feeling that a meaningfulscience could be developed, and that it would be best tothink in terms of general concepts rather than concen-trate exclusively on particular devices.

Fortuitously, it turned out that the two tracks sup-ported each other very naturally and, most importantly,the right students were interested in doing their re-search in this area. Hardware developments proved tobe specific examples of more general concepts, and thestudents were able to develop both the hardware and thetheory.

Originally, we purchased an arm in order to getstarted quickly. A group at Rancho Los Amigos Hos-pital, in Los Angeles, was selling a tongue-switch-controlled motor-driven exoskeleton arm to assist pa-tients without muscular control of their arms. We pur-chased one of these, and connected it to a time-sharedPDP-6 computer. The device was named Butterfin-gers; it was our first experimental robot. Several filmsdemonstrating visual feedback control, block stackingtasks, and obstacle avoidance were made with Butterfin-gers as the star performer.

The first manipulator that we designed on our ownwas known simply as the Hydraulic Arm. As its nameimplies, it was powered by hydraulics. The idea wasto build a very fast arm. We designed special rotaryactuators, and the arm worked well. It became the ex-perimental platform for testing the first ever dynamicanalysis and time-optimal control of a robotic arm.However, its use was limited since the design speedswere much faster than required due to the limitations

VI Foreword

of the computational, planning, and sensing capabilitiesthat were common at that time.

We made an attempt to develop a truly digitalarm. This led to a snake-like structure named the Orm(the Norwegian word for snake.) The Orm had severalstages, each with an array of inflatable pneumatic actu-ators that were either fully extended or fully contracted.The basic idea was that, even though only a finite num-ber of positions in the workspace could be reached,these would be sufficient if there were a large numberof positions. A small prototype proof-of-concept Ormwas developed. It led to the realization that this type ofarm would not really serve the SAIL community.

The first truly functional arm from our group wasdesigned by Victor Scheinman, who was a graduate stu-dent at the time. It was the very successful StanfordArm, of which over ten copies were made as researchtools to be used in various university, government, andindustrial laboratories. The arm had six independentlydriven joints; all driven by computer-controlled ser-voed, DC electric motors. One joint was telescoping(prismatic) and the other five were rotary (revolute).

Whereas the geometry of Butterfingers required aniterative solution of the inverse kinematics, the geo-metric configuration of the Stanford Arm was chosenso that the inverse kinematics could be programmedin any easy-to-use time-efficient closed form. Further-more, the mechanical design was specifically made tobe compatible with the limitations inherent in time-share computer control. Various end-effectors could beattached to act as hands. On our version, the handwas in the form of a vise-grip jaw, with two slid-ing fingers driven by a servoed actuator (hence, a trueseventh degree of freedom). It also had a speciallydesigned six-axis wrist force sensor. Victor Schein-man went on to develop other important robots: thefirst was a small humanoid arm with six revolutejoints. The original design was paid for by MarvinMinsky at the MIT AI Lab. Scheinman founded Vi-carm, a small company, and produced copies of thisarm and the Stanford Arm for other labs. Vicarm laterbecame the West Coast Division of Unimation, Inc.,where Scheinman designed the PUMA manipulatorunder General Motors sponsorship through Unima-tion. Later, for a company called Automatix, Schein-man developed the novel Robot World multirobot sys-tem. After Scheinman left Unimation, his colleaguesBrian Carlisle and Bruce Shimano reorganized Unima-tion’s West Coast Division into Adept, Inc., which tothis day is the largest US manufacturer of assemblyrobots.

Quickly, the modern trend of carefully detailed me-chanical and electronic design, optimized software, and

complete system integration became the norm; to thisday, this combination represents the hallmark of mosthighly regarded robotic devices. This is the basic con-cept behind mechatronic, a word conied in Japan asa concatenation of the words mechanics and electronics.Mechatronics that relies on computation is the essenceof the technology inherent in robotics as we know ittoday.

As robotics developed around the world, a largenumber of people started working on various aspects,and specific subspecialties developed. The first big di-vision was between people working on manipulatorsand those working on vision systems. Early on, vi-sion systems seemed to hold more promise than anyother method for giving robots information about theirenvironment.

The idea was to have a television camera capturepictures of objects in the environment, and then usealgorithms that allowed the computer images of the pic-tures to be analyzed, so as to infer required informationabout location, orientation, and other properties of ob-jects. The initial successes with image systems werein problems dealing with positioning blocks, solvingobject manipulation problems, and reading assemblydrawings. It was felt that vision held potential for usein robotic systems in connection with factory automa-tion and space exploration. This led to research intosoftware that would allow vision systems to recognizemachine parts (particularly partially occluded parts, asoccurred in the so-called bin-picking problems) andragged-shaped rocks.

After the ability to see and move objects becameestablished, the next logical need had to do with plan-ning a sequence of events to accomplish a complex task.This led to the development of planning as an impor-tant branch in robotics. Making fixed plans for a knownfixed environment is relatively straightforward. How-ever, in robotics, one of the challenges is to let therobot discover its environment, and to modify its ac-tions when the environment changes unexpectedly dueto errors or unplanned events. Some early landmarkstudies in this area were carried out using a vehiclenamed Shakey, which, starting in 1966, was developedby Charlie Rosen’s group at the Stanford Research In-stitute (now called SRI). Shakey had a TV camera,a triangulating range finder, bump sensors, and wasconnected to DEC PDP-10 and PDP-15 computers viaradio and video links.

Shakey was the first mobile robot to reason aboutits actions. It used programs that gave it the abilityfor independent perception, world modeling, and actiongeneration. Low-level action routines took care of sim-ple moving, turning, and route planning. Intermediate-

Foreword VII

level actions combined the low-level ones in ways thataccomplished more complex tasks. The highest levelprograms could make and execute plans to achievehigh-level goals supplied by a user.

Vision is very useful for navigation, locating ob-jects, and determining their relative positions and ori-entation. However, it is usually not sufficient for as-sembling parts or working with robots where there areenvironmental constraining forces. This led to the needto measure the forces and torques generated by the en-vironment, on a robot, and to use these measurementsto control the robot’s actions. For many years, force-controlled manipulation became one of the main topicsof study at SAIL, and several other labs around theworld. The use of force control in industrial practice hasalways lagged the research developments in this area.This seems to be due to the fact that, while a high levelof force control is very useful for general manipulationissues, specific problems in very restricted industrial en-vironments can often be handled with limited, or no,force control.

In the 1970s, specialized areas of study such aswalking machines, hands, automated vehicles, sensorintegration, and design for hostile environments be-gan to develop rapidly. Today there are a large numberof different specialties studied under the heading ofrobotics. Some of these specialties are classical engi-neering subject areas within which results have beendeveloped that have been particularized to the typesof machines called robots. Examples here are kine-matics, dynamics, controls, machine design, topology,and trajectory planning. Each of these subjects hasa long history predating the study of robotics; yeteach has been an area of in-depth robotics researchin order to develop its special character in regard torobotic-type systems and applications. In doing thisspecialized development, researchers have enriched theclassical subjects by increasing both their content andscope.

At the same time that the theory was being devel-oped, there was a parallel, although somewhat separate,growth of industrial robotics. Strong commercial de-velopment occurred in Japan and Europe, and therewas also continued growth in the USA. Industrial as-sociations were formed (the Japan Robot Associationwas formed in March 1971, and the Robotic IndustriesAssociation (RIA) was founded in 1974 in the USA)and trade shows, together with application-orientedtechnical sessions, were introduced and held on a reg-ular basis. The most important were the InternationalSymposium on Industrial Robots, the Conference on In-dustrial Robot Technology (now called the InternationalConference on Industrial Robot Technology), and the

RIA annual trade show, which is now called the Inter-national Robots and Vision Show and Conference.

The first regular series of conferences emphasizingresearch, rather than the industrial, aspects of robotics,was inaugurated in 1973. It was sponsored jointlyby the International Center for Mechanical Sciences(CISM), based in Udine, Italy, and the InternationalFederation for the Theory of Mechanisms and Ma-chines (IFToMM). (Although IFToMM is still used, itsmeaning has been changed to the International Feder-ation for the Promotion of Mechanism and MachineScience.) It was named the Symposium on Theory andPractice of Robots and Manipulators (RoManSy). Itstrademark was an emphasis on the mechanical sciencesand the active participation of researchers from East-ern and Western Europe as well as North America andJapan. It is still held biannually. On a personal note, itis at RoManSy where I first met each of the editors ofthis Handbook: Dr. Khatib in 1978 and Dr. Sicilianoin 1984. They were both students: Bruno Siciliano hadbeen working on his PhD for about one year, and Ous-sama Khatib had just completed his PhD research. Inboth cases, it was love at first sight!

RoManSy was quickly joined by a host of othernew conferences and workshops; today there are a largenumber of research oriented robotics meetings that takeplace through the year in many countries. Currently,the largest conference is the International Conferenceon Robotics and Automation (ICRA), which regularlydraws well over 1000 participants.

In the beginning of the 1980s, the first real text-book on robotic manipulation in the USA was writtenby Richard Lou Paul (Richard P. Paul, Robot Manipu-lators: Mathematics, Programming, and Control, TheMIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1981). It used the ideaof taking classical subjects in mechanics and applyingthem to robotics. In addition there were several topicsdeveloped directly from his thesis research at SAIL. (Inthe book, many examples are based on Scheinman’sStanford Arm.) Paul’s book was a landmark event inthe USA; it created a pattern for several influentialfuture textbooks and also encouraged the creation ofspecialized robotics courses at a host of colleges anduniversities.

At about this same time, new journals were createdto deal primarily with research papers in the areas re-lated to robotics. The International Journal of RoboticsResearch was founded in the spring of 1982, and threeyears later the IEEE Journal of Robotics and Automa-tion (now the IEEE Transactions on Robotics) wasfounded.

As microprocessors became ubiquitous, the ques-tion of what is or is not a robot came more into

VIII Foreword

play. This issue has, in my mind, never been success-fully resolved. I do not think a definition will ever beuniversally agreed upon. There are of course the sci-ence fiction creatures-from-outer-space varieties, andthe robots of the theater, literature, and the movies.There are examples of imaginary robot-like beings thatpredate the industrial revolution, but how about moredown-to-Earth robots? In my view the definition is es-sentially a moving target that changes its character withtechnological progress. For example, when it was firstdeveloped, a ship’s gyro auto-compass was considereda robot. Today, it is not generally included when we listthe robots in our world. It has been demoted and is nowconsidered an automatic control device.

For many, the idea of a robot includes the conceptof multifunctionality, meaning the device is designedand built with the ability to be easily adapted or re-programmed to do different tasks. In theory this ideais valid, but in practice it turns out that most robotic de-vices are multifunctional in only a very limited arena.In industry it was quickly discovered that a specializedmachine, in general, performs much better than a gen-eral purpose machine. Furthermore, when the volumeof production is high enough, a specialized machine cancost less to manufacture than a generalized one. So, spe-cialized robots were developed for painting, riveting,quasiplanar parts assembly, press loading, circuit boardstuffing, etc. In some cases robots are used in such spe-cialized ways that it becomes difficult to draw the linebetween a so-called robot and an adjustable piece offixed automation. Much of this practical unfolding iscontrary to the dream of the pioneers in robotics, whohad hoped for the development of general purpose ma-chines that would do everything, and hence sell in greatenough volume to be relatively inexpensive.

My view is that the notion of a robot has to do withwhich activities are, at a given time, associated withpeople and which are associated with machines. If a ma-chine suddenly becomes able to do what we normallyassociate with people, the machine can be upgraded inclassification and classified as a robot. After a while,people get used to the activity being done by machines,and the devices get downgraded from robot to machine.Machines that do not have fixed bases, and those thathave arm- or leg-like appendages have the advantage ofbeing more likely called robots, but it is hard to think ofa consistent set of criteria that fits all the current namingconventions.

In actuality any machines, including familiar house-hold appliances, which have microprocessors directingtheir actions can be considered as robots. In addition tovacuum cleaners, there are washing machines, refrig-erators, and dishwashers that could be easily marketedas robotic devices. There are of course a wide range

of possibilities, including those machines that havesensory environmental feedback and decision-makingcapabilities. In actual practice, in devices considered tobe robotic, the amount of sensory and decision makingcapability may vary from a great deal to none.

In recent decades the study of robotics has expandedfrom a discipline centered on the study of mechatronicdevices to a much broader interdisciplinary subject.An example of this is the area called human-centeredrobotics. Here one deals with the interactions betweenhumans and intelligent machines. This is a growing areawhere the study of the interactions between robots andhumans has enlisted expertise from outside the clas-sical robotics domain. Concepts such as emotions inboth robots and people are being studied, and older ar-eas such as human physiology and biology are beingincorporated into the mainstream of robotics research.These activities enrich the field of robotics, as they in-troduce new engineering and science dimensions intothe research discourse.

Originally, the nascent robotics community was fo-cused on getting things to work. Many early deviceswere remarkable in that they worked at all, and littlenotice was taken of their limited performance. Today,we have sophisticated, reliable devices as part of themodern array of robotic systems. This progress is theresult of the work of thousands of people throughoutthe world. A lot of this work took place in universi-ties, government research laboratories, and companies.It is a tribute to the worldwide engineering and scien-tific community that it has been able to create the vastamount of information that is contained in the 64 chap-ters of this Handbook. Clearly these results did not ariseby any central planning or by an overall orderly scheme.So the editors of this handbook were faced with the dif-ficult task of organizing the material into a logical andcoherent whole.

The editors have accomplished this by organiz-ing the contributions into a three-layer structure. Thefirst layer deals with the foundations of the subject.This layer consists of a single part of nine chaptersin which the authors lay out the root subjects: kine-matics, dynamics, control, mechanisms, architecture,programming, reasoning, and sensing. These are the ba-sic technological building blocks for robotics study anddevelopment.

The second layer has four parts. The first of thesedeals with robot structures; these are the arms, legs,hands, and other parts that most robots are made up of.At first blush, the hardware of legs, arms, and handsmay look quite different from each other, yet they sharea common set of attributes that allows them to all betreated with the same, or closely related, aspects of thefundamentals described in the first layer.

Foreword IX

The second part of this layer deals with sensingand perception, which are basic abilities any truly au-tonomous robotic system must have. As was pointedout earlier, in practice, many so-called robotic deviceshave little of these abilities, but clearly the more ad-vanced robots cannot exist without them, and the trendis very much toward incorporating such capabilities intorobotic devices. The third part of this layer treats thesubject areas associated with the technology of manip-ulation and the interfacing of devices. The fourth part ofthis layer is made up of eight chapters that treat mobilerobots and various forms of distributed robotics.

The third layer consists of two separate parts (a to-tal of 22 chapters) that deal with advanced applicationsat the forefront of today’s research and development.There are two parts to this layer; one deals with fieldand service robots, and the other deals with human-centered and lifelike robots. To the uninitiated observer,these chapters are what advanced robotics is all about.However, it is important to realize that many of these

extraordinary accomplishments would probably not ex-ist without the previous developments introduced in thefirst two layers of this Handbook.

It is this intimate connection between theory andpractice that has nurtured the growth of robotics andbecome a hallmark of modern robotics. These two com-plementary aspects have been a source of great personalsatisfaction to those of us who have had the opportu-nity to both research and develop robotic devices. Thecontents of this Handbook admirably reflect this com-plementary aspect of the subject, and present a veryuseful bringing together of the vast accomplishmentswhich have taken place in the last 50 years. Certainly,the contents of this Handbook will serve as a valuabletool and guide to those who will produce the even morecapable and diverse next generations of robotic devices.The editors and authors have my congratulations andadmiration.

Stanford, August 2007 Bernard Roth

XI

Foreword

To open this Handbook and unfold the richness of its64 chapters, we here attempt a brief personal overviewto sketch the evolution of robotics in its many aspects,concepts, trends, and central issues.

The modern story of Robotics began about halfa century ago with developments in two different di-rections.

First, let us acknowledge the domain of me-chanical arms, ranging from teleoperated tasks onradiation-contaminated products to industrial arms,with the landmark machine UNIMATE – standing foruni(versal)mate. The industrial development of prod-ucts, mostly around the six-degree-of-freedom seriallinks paradigm and active research and development,associating mechanical engineering to the control spe-cialism, was the main driving force here. Of particularnote nowadays is the successfully pursued effort todesign novel application-optimized structures, usingpowerful sophisticated mathematical tools. In a simi-lar way, an important issue concerns the design andthe actual building of arms and hands in the context ofhuman-friendly robots for tomorrow’s cognitive robot.

Second, and less well recognized, we should ac-knowledge the stream of work concerned with themesin artificial intelligence. A landmark project in this areawas the mobile robot Shakey developed at Stanford In-ternational. This work, which aimed to bring togethercomputer science, artificial intelligence, and appliedmathematics to develop intelligent machines, remaineda secondary area for quite some time. During the 1980s,building strength from many study cases encompassinga spectacular spectrum ranging from rovers for extremeenvironments (planet exploration, Antarctica, etc.), toservice robots (hospitals, museum guides, etc.), a broadresearch domain arose in which machines could claimthe status of intelligent robots.

Hence robotics researches could bring togetherthese two different branches, with intelligent robots cat-egorized in a solely computational way as boundedrationality machines, expanding on the 1980s third-generation robot definition:

(robot) . . . operating in the three-dimensional worldas a machine endowed with the capacity to interpretand to reason about a task and about its execution,by intelligently relating perception to action.

The field of autonomous robots, a widely rec-ognized test-bed, has recently benefited from salientcontributions in robot planning using the results of

Georges GiraltEmeritus ResearchDirectorLAAS-CNRS Toulouse(deceased)

algorithmic geometry as well as ofa stochastic framework approach ap-plied both to environmental mod-eling and robot localization prob-lems (SLAM, simultaneous localiza-tion and modeling), and further fromthe development of decisional pro-cedures via Bayesian estimation anddecision approaches.

For the last decade of the millen-nium, robotics largely dealt with theintelligent robot paradigm, blend-ing together robots and machine-intelligence generic research withinthemes covering advanced sensingand perception, task reasoning andplanning, operational and decisionalautonomy, functional integration architectures, intelli-gent human–machine interfaces, safety, and depend-ability.

The second branch, for years referred to as non-manufacturing robotics, concerns a wide spectrum ofresearch-driven real-world cases pertaining to field,service, assistive, and, later, personal robotics. Here,machine intelligence is, in its various themes, the cen-tral research direction, enabling the robot to act:

1. As a human surrogate, in particular for interventiontasks in remote and/or hostile environments

2. In close interaction with humans and operatingin human environments in all applications encom-passed by human-friendly robotics, also referred toas human-centered robotics

3. In tight synergy with the user, expanding frommechanical exoskeleton assistance, surgery, healthcare, and rehabilitation into human augmentation.

Consequently, at the turn of the millennium,robotics appears as a broad spectrum of researchthemes both supporting market products for well-en-gineered industrial workplaces, and a large numberof domain-oriented application cases operating in haz-ardous and/or harsh environments (underwater robotics,rough-terrain rovers, health/rehabilitation care robotics,etc.) where robots exhibit meaningful levels of sharedautonomy.

The evolution levels for robotics stress the role oftheoretical aspects, moving from application domainsto the technical and scientific area. The organization ofthis Handbook illustrates very well these different lev-

XII Foreword

els. Furthermore, it rightly considers, besides a body ofsoftware systems, front-line matters on physical appear-ance and novel appendages, including legs, arms, andhands design in the context of human-friendly robotsfor tomorrow’s cognitive robot.

Forefront robotics in the first decade of the cur-rent millennium is making outstanding progress, com-pounding the strength of two general directions:

� Short/mid-term application-oriented study cases� Mid/long-term generic situated research.

For completeness, we should mention the largenumber of peripheral, robotics-inspired subjects, quiteoften concerning entertainment, advertising, and so-phisticated toys.

The salient field of human-friendly robotics encom-passes several front-line application domains where therobots operate in a human environment and in closeinteraction with humans (entertainment and education,public-oriented services, assistive and personal robots,etc.), which introduces the critical issue of human–robot interaction.

Right at the core of the field, emerges the forefronttopic of personal robots for which three general charac-teristics should be emphasized:

1. They may be operated by a nonprofessional user;2. They may be designed to share high-level decision

making with the human user;3. They may include a link to environment devices and

machine appendages, remote systems, and opera-tors; the shared decisional autonomy concept (co-autonomy) implied here unfolds into a large set ofcutting-edge research issues and ethical problems.

The concept of the personal robot, expanding torobot assistant and universal companion, is a truly greatchallenge for robotics as a scientific and technical field,offering the mid/long-term perspective of achievinga paramount societal and economical impact. This in-troduces, and questions, front-line topics encompassingcognitive aspects: user-tunable human–machine intel-

ligent interfaces, perception (scene analysis, categoryidentification), open-ended learning (understanding theuniverse of action), skills acquisition, extensive robot-world data processing, decisional autonomy, and de-pendability (safety, reliability, communication, and op-erating robustness).

There is an obvious synergistic effort between thetwo aforementioned approaches, in spite of the neces-sary framework time differences. The scientific link notonly brings together the problems and obtained resultsbut also creates a synergistic exchange between the twosides and the benefits of technological progress.

Indeed, the corresponding research trends and ap-plication developments are supported by an explosiveevolution of enabling technologies: computer process-ing power, telecommunications, networking, sensingdevices, knowledge retrieval, new materials, micro- andnanotechnologies.

Today, looking to the mid- and long-term future, weare faced with very positive issues and perspectives butalso having to respond to critical comments and loom-ing dangers for machines that are in physical contactwith the user and may also be capable of unwanted,unsafe behavior. Therefore, there is a clear need to in-clude at the research level safety issues and the topic ofmultifaced dependability and the corresponding systemconstraints.

The Handbook of Robotics is an ambitious andtimely endeavor. It summarizes a large number of prob-lems, questions, and facets considered by 164 authorsin 64 chapters. As such it not only provides an effi-cient display of basic topics and results obtained byresearches around the world, but furthermore gives ac-cess to this variety of viewpoints and approaches toeveryone. This is indeed an important tool for progressbut, much more, is the central factor that will establishthe two first decades of this millennium as the dawn ofrobotics, lifted to a scientific discipline at the core ofmachine intelligence.

Toulouse, December 2007 Georges Giralt

XIII

Foreword

The field of robotics was born in the middle of thelast century when emerging computers were alteringevery field of science and engineering. Having gonethrough fast yet steady growth via a procession of stagesfrom infancy, childhood, and adolescence to adulthood,robotics is now mature and is expected to enhance thequality of people’s lives in society in the future.

In its infancy, the core of robotics consisted of pat-tern recognition, automatic control, and artificial intel-ligence. Taking on these new challenge, scientists andengineers in these fields gathered to investigate novelrobotic sensors and actuators, planning and program-ming algorithms, and architectures to connect thesecomponents intelligently. In so doing, they created arti-facts that could interact with humans in the real world.An integration of these early robotics studies yieldedhand–eye systems, the test-bed of artificial intelligenceresearch.

The playground for childhood robotics was thefactory floor. Industrial robots were invented and in-troduced into the factory for automating spraying, spotwelding, grinding, materials handling, and parts assem-bly. Machines with sensors and memories made thefactory floor smarter, and its operations more flexible,reliable, and precise. Such robotic automation freed hu-mans from heavy and tedious labor. The automobile,electric appliance, and semiconductor industries rapidlyretooled their manufacturing lines into robot-integratedsystems. In the late 1970s, the word mechatronics, orig-inally coined by the Japanese, defined a new conceptof machinery, one in which electronics was fused withmechanical systems, making a wide range of indus-trial products simpler, more functional, programmable,and intelligent. Robotics and mechatronics exerted anevolutionary impact on the design and operation ofmanufacturing processes as well as on manufacturedproducts.

As robotics entered its adolescence, researcherswere ambitious to explore new horizons. Kinematics,dynamics, and control system theory were refined andapplied to real complex robot mechanisms. To plan andcarry out real tasks, robots had to be made cognizantof their surroundings. Vision, the primary channel forexternal sensing, was exploited as the most general, ef-fective, and efficient means for robots to understandtheir external situation. Advanced algorithms and pow-erful devices were developed to improve the speedand robustness of robot vision systems. Tactile andforce sensing systems also needed to be developed for

Hirochika InoueProfessor EmeritusThe University of Tokyo

robots to manipulate objects. Stud-ies on modeling, planning, knowl-edge, reasoning, and memorizationexpanded their intelligent proper-ties. Robotics became defined asthe study of intelligent connectionof sensing to actuation. This defini-tion covered all aspects of robotics:three scientific cores and one syn-thetic approach to integrate them.Indeed, system integration becamea key aspect of robotic engineeringas it allows the creation of lifelikemachines. The fun of creating suchrobots attracted many students to therobotics field.

In advancing robotics further, scientific interestwas directed at understanding humans. Comparativestudies of humans and robots led to new approachesin scientific modeling of human functions. Cognitiverobotics, lifelike behavior, biologically inspired robots,and a psychophysiological approach to robotic ma-chines culminated in expanding the horizons of roboticpotential. Generally speaking, an immature field issparse in scientific understanding. Robotics in the 1980sand 1990s was in such a youthful stage, attractinga great many inquisitive researchers to this new frontier.Their continuous explorations into new realms form therich scientific contents of this comprehensive volume.

Further challenges, along with expertise acquiredon the cutting edge of robotics, opened the way toreal-world applications for mature robotics. The early-stage playground gave way to a workshop for industrialrobotics. Medical robotics, robot surgery, and in vivoimaging save patients from pain while providing doc-tors with powerful tools for conducting operations. Newrobots in such areas as rehabilitation, health care, andwelfare are expected to improve quality of life in an ag-ing society. It is the destiny of robots to go everywhere,in the air, under water, and into space. They are ex-pected to work hand in hand with humans in such areasas agriculture, forestry, mining, construction, and haz-ardous environments and rescue operations, and to findutility both in domestic work and in providing servicesin shops, stores, restaurants, and hospitals. In a myr-iad of ways, robotic devices are expected to supportour daily lives. At this point, however, robot appli-cations are largely limited to structured environments,where they are separated from humans for safety sake.

XIV Foreword

In the next stage, their environment will be expandedto an unstructured world, one in which humans, as ser-vice takers, will always live and work beside robots.Improved sensing, more intelligence, enhanced safety,and better human understanding will be needed to pre-pare robots to function in such an environment. Notonly technical but also social matters must be con-sidered in finding solutions to issues impeding thisprogress.

Since my initial research to make a robot turna crank, four decades have passed. I feel both lucky andhappy to have witnessed the growth of robotics from itsearly beginnings. To give birth to robotics, fundamentaltechnologies were imported from other disciplines. Nei-ther textbooks nor handbooks were available. To reachthe present stage, a great many scientists and engineershave challenged new frontiers; advancing robotics, theyhave enriched this body of knowledge from a varietyof perspectives. The fruits of their endeavors are com-piled in this Handbook of Robotics. More than 100 ofthe world’s leading experts have collaborated in produc-ing this publication. Now, people who wish to committhemselves to robotics research can find a firm founda-

tion to build upon. This Handbook is sure to be used tofurther advance robotics science, reinforce engineeringeducation, and systematically compile knowledge thatwill innovate both society and industry.

The roles of humans and robots in an aging soci-ety pose an important issue for scientists and engineersto consider. Can robotics contribute to securing peace,prosperity, and a greater quality of life? This is still anopen question. However, recent advances in personalrobots, robotic home appliances, and humanoids sug-gest a paradigm shift from the industrial to the servicesector. To realize this, robotics must be addressed fromsuch viewpoints as the working infrastructure withinsociety, psychophysiology, law, economy, insurance,ethics, art, design, drama, and sports science. Futurerobotics should be studied as a subject that envelopsboth humanity and technology. This Handbook offersa selected technical foundation upon which to advancesuch newly emerging fields of robotics. I look forwardto continuing progress adding page after page of robot-based prosperity to future society.

Tokyo, September 2007 Hirochika Inoue

XV

Foreword

Robots have fascinated people for thousands of years.Those automatons that were built before the 20th cen-tury did not connect sensing to action but rather oper-ated through human agency or as repetitive machines.However, by the 1920s electronics had gotten to thestage that the first true robots that sensed the worldand acted in it appropriately could be built. By 1950we started to see descriptions of real robots appearingin popular magazines. By the 1960s industrial robotscame onto the scene. Commercial pressures made themless and less responsive to their environments but fasterand faster in what they did in their carefully engi-neered world. Then in the mid 1970s in France, Japan,and the USA we started to see robots rising again ina handful of research laboratories, and now we havearrived at a world-wide frenzy in research and the be-ginnings of large-scale deployment of intelligent robotsthroughout our world. This Handbook brings togetherthe current state of robotics research in one place. Itranges from the mechanism of robots through sens-ing and perceptual processing, intelligence, action, andmany application areas.

I have been more than fortunate to have livedwith this revolution in robotics research over the last30 years. As a teenager in Australia I built robotsinspired by the tortoises of Walter described in the Sci-entific American in 1949 and 1950. When I arrived inSilicon Valley in 1977, just as the revolution in thepersonalization of computation was really coming intobeing, I instead turned to the much more obscure worldof robots. In 1979 I was able to assist Hans Moravecat the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab (SAIL) as hecoaxed his robot The Cart to navigate 20m in 6 hours.Just 26 years later, in 2005, at the same laboratory,SAIL, Sebastian Thrun and his team coaxed their robotto autonomously drive 200 000m in 6 hours: four or-ders of magnitude improvement in a mere 26 years,which is slightly better than a doubling every 2 years.However, robots have not just improved in speed, theyhave also increased in number. When I arrived at SAILin 1977 we knew of three mobile robots operating inthe world. Recently a company that I founded manu-factured its 3 000 000th mobile robot, and the pace isincreasing. Other aspects of robots have had similarlyspectacular advances, although it is harder to providesuch crisp numeric characterizations. In recent years wehave gone from robots being too unaware of their sur-roundings that it was unsafe for people to share theirworkspace to robots that people can work with in close

Rodney BrooksPanasonic Professorof RoboticsMassachusetts Instituteof Technology

contact, and from robots that weretotally unaware of people to robotsthat pick up on natural social cuesfrom facial expressions to prosodyin people’s voices. Recently roboticshas crossed the divide between fleshand machines so that now we areseeing neurorobotics ranging fromprosthetic robotic extensions to reha-bilitative robots for the disabled. Andvery recently robotics has becomea respected contributor to research incognitive science and neuroscience.

The research results chronicledin this volume give the key ideas thathave enabled these spectacular ad-vances. The editors, the part editors,and all the contributors have done a stellar job in bringthis knowledge together in one place. Their efforts haveproduced a work that will provide a basis for muchfurther research and development. Thank you, and con-gratulations to all who have labored on this pivotalbook.

Some of the future robotics research will be in-cremental in nature, taking the state of the art andimproving upon it. Other parts of future research will bemore revolutionary, based on ideas that are antitheticalto some of the ideas and current state of the art pre-sented in this book.

As you study this volume and look for places to con-tribute to research through your own talents and hardwork I want to alert you to capabilities or aspirationsthat I believe will make robots even more useful, moreproductive, and more accepted. I describe these capabil-ities in terms of the age at which a child has equivalentcapabilities:

� The object-recognition capabilities of a 2-year-oldchild� The language capabilities of a 4-year-old child� The manual dexterity of a 6-year-old child� The social understanding of an 8-year-old child.

Each of these is a very difficult goal. However evensmall amounts of progress towards any one of thesegoals will have immediate applications to robots out inthe world. Good reading and best wishes as you con-tribute further to robotkind.

Cambridge, October 2007 Rodney Brooks

XVII

Preface to the Second Edition

The Springer Handbook of Robotics was a challeng-ing six-year endeavour from 2002 to 2008. It mobilizeda large number of active scientists and researchers toproduce this unique comprehensive reference sourcecombining basic and advanced developments. Thehandbook has been very successful and extremelywell received in our community. New researchers havebeen attracted to robotics which in turn have con-tributed to further progress in this trans-disciplinaryfield.

The handbook soon established itself as a land-mark in robotics publishing and beyond. It has beenthe bestseller of all Springer engineering books duringthe last seven years, the number one in chapter down-loads (nearly forty thousand a year), and the fourthmost downloaded over all Springer books in 2011.In February 2009, the handbook was recognized asthe Winner of the American Association of Publish-ers (AAP) PROSE Award for Excellence in PhysicalSciences & Mathematics as well as the Award for En-gineering & Technology.

The rapid growth of our field as well as the birthof new research areas motivated us in 2011 to startpursuing a second edition with the intent to providenot only an update but also an expansion of the hand-book’s contents. Our editorial board (with David Orin,Frank Park, Henrik Christensen, Makoto Kaneko, RajaChatila, Alex Zelinsky, and Daniela Rus) has beenenthusiastically engaged during the last four yearsto coordinate the contributions of the authors to theseven parts of the handbook in its three-layer struc-ture. The contents have been restructured to achievefour main objectives: the enlargement of foundationaltopics for robotics, the enlightenment of design of var-ious types of robotic systems, the extension of thetreatment on robots moving in the environment, andthe enrichment of advanced robotics applications. Mostprevious chapters have been revised, fifteen new chap-ters have been introduced on emerging topics, anda new generation of authors have joined the hand-book’s team. The contents were finalized by the springof 2015 after extensive review and feedback, and theproject was completed by the fall of 2015 – gen-erating, by that time, a record of over 12 000 ad-ditional emails in our folders to the 10 000 of thefirst edition. The result is an impressive collection of80 chapters over the 7 parts, contributed by 229 authors,

with more than 2300 pages, 1375 illustrations and 9411references.

One of the major additions of the second editionof the handbook is the inclusion of multimedia ma-terial. An editorial team has been established underthe leadership of Torsten Kröger and the contribu-tions of Gianluca Antonelli, Dongjun Lee, DezhenSong and Stefano Stramigioli. With the commitmentof such a group of energetic young scholars, the mul-timedia project has been pursued in parallel to thehandbook project. The multimedia editorial team hasselected for each chapter video contributions, fromthose suggested by the authors, based on their qual-ity and relevance to the chapter’s contents. In addition,the handbook editors have produced tutorial videos thatcan be accessed directly from each part of the hand-book. An openly accessible multimedia website, http://handbookofrobotics.org, has been established to hostthese videos with the sponsorship of IEEE Robotics andAutomation Society and Google. The website has beenconceived as a live dissemination project bringing thelatest robotics contributions to the world community.

We are deeply grateful for the continuous commit-ment of our handbook extended team, particularly thenewcomers to the project. We would like to expressour gratitude and appreciation to Judith Hinterberg,Werner Skolaut and Thomas Ditzinger from Springerfor their strong support, as well as to Anne Strohbachand the le-tex staff for their highly professional typeset-ting work in the production.

Eight years after the first appearance of the hand-book, the second edition comes to light. Beyond itstutorial value for our community, it is our convictionthat the handbook will continue to serve as a usefulsource to attract new researchers to robotics and inspiredecades of vibrant progress in this fascinating field. Thecooperative spirit inspiring our team since the inceptionof the first edition is amusingly illustrated in the videoThe Handbook – A Short History ( VIDEO 844 ). Thecompletion of the second edition has been inspired bythat same spirit and the gradient has been kept :-) Ourfellows in the robotics community are reminded now to. . . keep the Hessian ;-)

January 2016Bruno Siciliano NaplesOussama Khatib Stanford

XIX

Preface to the Multimedia Extension

Scientific and technical advancements in the domain of robotics have acceleratedsignificantly over the past decade. Since the inception of the Second Edition of theSpringer Handbook of Robotics in 2011, the Editors Bruno Siciliano and OussamaKhatib decided to add multimedia content and appointed an editorial team: GianlucaAntonelli, Dongjun Lee, Dezhen Song, Stefano Stramigioli, and myself as the Multi-media Editor.

Over the five years of the project, everyone on the team worked with all of the229 authors, the Part Editors, and the Editors. Besides communicating with all 80Authors’ teams and reviewing, selecting, and improving all video contributions, wealso scanned all the videos published at robotics conferences organized by the IEEERobotics and Automation Society since 1991. A total of more than 5500 e-mails weresent back and forth to coordinate the project and to ensure the quality of the content.We implemented a video management system that allows authors to upload videos,editors to review videos, and readers to access videos. Videos were selected with thegoal of helping convey content to all readers of the Second Edition. They may berelevant from a technical, scientific, educational, or historical perspective. All chapterand part videos are publicly accessible and can be found at

http://handbookofrobotics.org

In addition to the videos referenced in the chapters, each of the seven parts isaccompanied by a part video giving an overview of each part. The storyboards of thesevideos were created by the Part Editors and then professionally produced.

The video content provided in the Multimedia Extension makes understanding thewritten content easier and was designed to be a comprehensive addition to the Hand-book. Concepts, methods, experiments, and applications described in the book wereanimated, visually illustrated, or paired with sound and narration – giving readers a fur-ther dimension to comprehend the written content of the book.

Coordinating the work with more than 200 contributors cannot just be done bya small team, and we are deeply grateful for the support of many people and organiza-tions. Judith Hinterberg and Thomas Ditzinger from the Springer Team in Heidelberghelped us tremendously with professional support during the entire production phase.The app for smartphones and tablets was implemented by Rob Baldwin from StudioOrb and allows readers easy access to multimedia content. The IEEE Robotics andAutomation Society granted permissions to use all videos that have been published inthe proceedings of conferences sponsored by the society. Google and X supported usby donating funds for the implementation of the website backend.

Following the Editors’ inspiration, let us keep working and communicating as onecommunity – and let us keep the Hessian all together . . . !

March 2016Torsten Kröger Mountain View

XX Preface to the Multimedia Extension

Accessing Multimedia Contents

Multimedia contents are an integral part of the Second Edition of the Springer Hand-book of Robotics. 69 chapters contain video icons like this one:

VIDEO 843

Each icon indicates a video ID that can be used to access individual videos invarious simple and intuitive ways.

Using the Multimedia AppWe recommend using the multimedia app for smartphone and tablet PCs. You caninstall the app on iOS and Android devices using the QR code below. The app allowsyou to simply scan the pages of the book and automatically play all videos on yourdevice while reading the book.

Multimedia Contents

Using the Website: http://handbookofrobotics.orgAll chapter videos and part videos can be accessed directly from the website of themultimedia extension. Just enter a video ID in the search field in the top right corner ofthe website. You may also use the website to browse through chapter and part videos.

Using PDF FilesIf you read an electronic copy of the Handbook, each video icon contains a hyper link.Just click on the link to watch the corresponding video.

Using QR CodesEach chapter starts with a QR code that contains a link to all videos of the chapter. Partvideos can be accessed through the QR code at the beginning of each part.

XXI

About the Editors

Bruno Siciliano received his Doctorate degree in Electronic Engineering from theUniversity of Naples, Italy, in 1987. He is Professor of Control and Robotics at Univer-sity of Naples Federico II. His research focuses on methodologies and technologies inindustrial and service robotics including force and visual control, cooperative robots,human-robot interaction, and aerial manipulation. He has co-authored 6 books andover 300 journal papers, conference papers and book chapters. He has delivered over20 keynote presentations and over 100 colloquia and seminars at institutions aroundthe world. He is a Fellow of IEEE, ASME and IFAC. He is Co-Editor of the SpringerTracts in Advanced Robotics (STAR) series and the Springer Handbook of Robotics,which received the PROSE Award for Excellence in Physical Sciences &Mathematicsand was also the winner in the category Engineering & Technology. He has servedon the Editorial Boards of prestigious journals, as well as Chair or Co-Chair for nu-merous international conferences. Professor Siciliano is the Past-President of the IEEERobotics and Automation Society (RAS). He has been the recipient of several awards,including the IEEE RAS George Saridis Leadership Award in Robotics and Automa-tion and the IEEE RAS Distinguished Service Award.

Oussama Khatib received his Doctorate degree in Electrical Engineering fromSup’Aero, Toulouse, France, in 1980. He is Professor of Computer Science at StanfordUniversity. His research focuses on methodologies and technologies in human-centered robotics including humanoid control architectures, human motion synthesis,interactive dynamic simulation, haptics, and human-friendly robot design. He hasco-authored over 300 journal papers, conference papers and book chapters. He hasdelivered over 100 keynote presentations and several hundreds of colloquia and sem-inars at institutions around the world. He is a Fellow of IEEE. He is Co-Editor of theSpringer Tracts in Advanced Robotics (STAR) series and the Springer Handbook ofRobotics, which received the PROSE Award for Excellence in Physical Sciences &Mathematics and was also the winner in the category Engineering & Technology. Hehas served on the Editorial Boards of prestigious journals, as well as Chair or Co-Chairfor numerous international conferences. Professor Khatib is the President of the Inter-national Foundation of Robotics Research. He has been the recipient of several awards,including the IEEE RAS Pioneer Award in Robotics and Automation, the IEEE RASGeorge Saridis Leadership Award in Robotics and Automation, the IEEE RAS Distin-guished Service Award, and the Japan Robot Association (JARA) Award in Researchand Development.

XXIII

About the Part Editors

David E. Orin Part A

The Ohio State UniversityDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineeringColumbus, USAorin.1@osu.edu

David E. Orin received his PhD degree in Electrical Engineering from The Ohio StateUniversity in 1976. From 1976–1980, he taught at Case Western Reserve University.Since 1981, he has been at The Ohio State University, where he is currently a ProfessorEmeritus of Electrical and Computer Engineering. He was a sabbatical faculty atSandia National Laboratories in 1996. His research interests center on humanoid andquadruped running and dynamic walking, dynamic maneuvers in legged locomotion,and robot dynamics. He has over 150 publications. His commitment to education hasresulted in his receiving the Eta Kappa Nu Professor of the Year Award in the EEDepartment at OSU (1998–1999), and the MacQuigg Award for Outstanding Teachingin the College of Engineering (2003). He is a Fellow of the IEEE (1993) and was thePresident of the IEEE Robotics and Automation Society 2012–2013.

Frank C. Park Part B

Seoul National UniversityMechanical and Aerospace EngineeringSeoul, Koreafcp@snu.ac.kr

Frank Chongwoo Park received his BS in Electrical Engineering from MIT in 1985,and PhD in Applied Mathematics from Harvard University in 1991. From 1991 to1995 he was Assistant Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at theUniversity of California, Irvine. Since 1995 he has been Professor of Mechanical andAerospace Engineering at Seoul National University, Korea. His research interests arein robot mechanics, planning and control, vision and image processing. In 2007–2008he was an IEEE Robotics and Automation Society (RAS) Distinguished Lecturer. Hehas served on the editorial boards of the Springer Handbook of Robotics andSpringer Tracts in Advanced Robotics (STAR), Robotica, and the ASME Journalof Mechanisms and Robotics. He is a fellow of the IEEE, and EiC of the IEEETransactions on Robotics.

Henrik I. Christensen Part C

Georgia Institute of TechnologyRobotics and Intelligent MachinesAtlanta, USAhic@cc.gatech.edu

Henrik I. Christensen is the KUKA Chair of Robotics and Director ofRobotics at Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA. He receivedMSand PhD degrees from Aalborg University in 1987 and 1990, respectively.He has held positions in Denmark, Sweden, and USA. He has publishedmore than 300 contributions across vision, robotics, and AI. Results havebeen commercialized through major companies and 6 spin-off companies.He served as the founding coordinator of the European Robotics ResearchNetwork (EURON) and the US Robotics Virtual Organization. He wasthe editor of the US National Robotics Roadmap. He is a Fellow ofthe International Foundation of Robotics Research (IFRR), AmericanAssociation of Advancement of Science (AAAS), and Institution ofElectrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). He is an Editorial Boardmember of the Springer STAR series, and serves on the editorial board ofseveral leading robotics journals.

Makoto Kaneko Part D

Osaka UniversityDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringSuita, Japanmk@mech.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp

Makoto Kaneko received the MS and PhD degrees in MechanicalEngineering from Tokyo University in 1978 and 1981, respectively.From 1981 to 1990 he was Researcher at the Mechanical EngineeringLaboratory, from 1990 to 1993 an Associate Professor at KyushuInstitute of Technology, from 1993 to 2006 Professor at HiroshimaUniversity, and in 2006 became a Professor at Osaka University. Hisresearch interests include tactile-based active sensing, grasping strategy,hyper human technology and its application to medical diagnosis, andhis work has received 17 awards. He is an Editorial Board member of theSTAR series and has served as chair or co-chair for several internationalconferences. He is an IEEE Fellow. He has served the IEEE Roboticsand Automation Society as a Vice-President for Member Activitiesand as a Technical Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Robotics andAutomation.

XXIV About the Part Editors

Raja Chatila Part E

University Pierre et Marie CurieInstitute of Intelligent Systems andRoboticsParis, Franceraja.chatila@laas.fr

Raja Chatila, IEEE Fellow, is Director of Research at the French National Centerof Scientific Research (CNRS), and Director of the Institute of Intelligent Systemsand Robotics at Pierre and Marie Curie University in Paris. He is also Directorof the Laboratory of Excellence SMART on human–machine interaction. He wasDirector of LAAS-CNRS, Toulouse France 2007–2010. His research covers aspects ofrobotics in navigation and SLAM, motion planning and control, cognitive and controlarchitectures, human–robot interaction, and robot learning. He is author of over 140publications. Current projects are Roboergosum on robot self-awareness and Spenceron human–robot interaction in populated environments. He is President of the IEEERobotics and Automation Society for the term 2014–2015 and is member of the EthicsCommittee on Research in Information Science and Technology of the Allistene. Hereceived the IEEE Pioneer Award in Robotics and Automation and a Honorary Doctorof Örebro University (Sweden).

Alex Zelinsky Part F

Department of DefenceDST Group HeadquartersCanberra, Australiaalexzelinsky@yahoo.com

Dr. Alex Zelinsky is a research leader in mobile robotics, computer vision andhuman–machine interaction. Dr. Zelinsky is Australia’s Chief Defence Scientistand Chief Executive of the Defence Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO).Before joining DSTO in March 2012, Dr. Zelinsky was Group Executive, Informationand Communication Sciences and Technology at CSIRO. Prior to joining CSIRO inJuly 2004, Dr. Zelinsky was CEO of Seeing Machines, a company dedicated to thecommercialization of computer vision systems. The technology commercialized bySeeing Machines was developed at the Australian National University, where Dr.Zelinsky was Professor from 1996 to 2000. In 1997 he founded the Field and ServicesRobotics conference series. Dr. Zelinsky’s contributions have been recognized bythe Australian Engineering Excellence Awards (1999, 2002), Technology Pioneer atthe World Economic Forum (2002-2004) and IEEE Robotics & Automation SocietyInaba Technical Award for Innovation Leading to Production (2010), Pearcey Medal(2013). Dr. Zelinsky is an elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering (2002) and an elected Fellow of the IEEE (2008) and anHonorary Fellow of Institution of Engineers Australia (2013).

Daniela Rus Part G

Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCSAIL Center for RoboticsCambridge, USArus@csail.mit.edu

Daniela Rus is the Andrew and Erna Viterbi Professor of ElectricalEngineering and Computer Science and Director of the Computer Scienceand Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) at MIT. Rus’ researchinterests are in robotics, mobile computing, and data science. Rus isa Class of 2002 MacArthur Fellow, a fellow of ACM, AAAI and IEEE,and a member of the NAE. She earned her PhD in Computer Sciencefrom Cornell University. Prior to joining MIT, Rus was a Professor in theComputer Science Department at Dartmouth College.

XXV

About the Multimedia Editors

Torsten Kröger

Google Inc.Mountain View, CA 94043, USAt@kroe.org

Torsten Kroeger is a roboticist at Google and a visiting researcherat Stanford University. He received his Master’s degree in ElectricalEngineering from TU Braunschweig, Germany, in 2002. From 2003to 2009, he was a research assistant at Robotics Research Institute atTU Braunschweig, from which he received his Doctorate degree inComputer Science in 2009 (summa cum laude). In 2010, he joinedthe Stanford AI Laboratory, where he worked on instantaneous trajec-tory generation, autonomous hybrid switched-control of robots, anddistributed real-time hard- and software systems. He is the founderof Reflexxes GmbH, a spin-off of TU Braunschweig working on thedevelopment of deterministic real-timemotion generation algorithms. In2014, Reflexxes has joined Google. Torsten is an editor or an associateeditor of multiple IEEE conference proceedings, books, and book series.He received the IEEE RAS Early Career Award, the Heinrich BüssingAward, the GFFT Award, two fellowships of the German ResearchAssociation, and he was a finalist of the IEEE/IFR IERA Award and theeuRobotics TechTransfer Award.

Gianluca Antonelli

University of Cassino and Southern LazioDepartment of Electrical and InformationEngineeringCassino, Italyantonelli@unicas.it

Gianluca Antonelli is an Associate Professor at the University of Cassino andSouthern Lazio. His research interests include marine and industrial robotics as wellas multiagent systems identification. He has published 32 international journal papersand more than 90 conference papers and is author of the book Underwater Robots. Heis chair of the IEEE RAS Chapter of the IEEE-Italy section.

Dongjun Lee

Seoul National UniversityDepartment of Mechanical and AerospaceEngineeringSeoul, Koreadjlee@snu.ac.kr

Dr. Dongjun Lee currently directs the Interactive and Networked Robotics Lab(INRoL) at Seoul National University (SNU). He received the PhD degree from theUniversity of Minnesota, and MS and BS degrees from KAIST. His main researchinterests are mechanics and control of robotic and mechatronic systems with emphasison teleoperation, haptics, aerial robotics, and multi-robot systems.

Dezhen Song

Texas A&M UniversityDepartment of Computer ScienceCollege Station, USAdzsong@cs.tamu.edu

Dezhen Song received the PhD degree in Engineering from the Uni-versity of California, Berkeley, in 2004. Currently, he is an AssociateProfessor with Texas A&M University, College Station. His researcharea is networked robotics, computer vision, optimization, and stochasticmodeling. Dr. Song received the Kayamori Best Paper Award of the 2005IEEE ICRA (with J. Yi and S. Ding) and the NSF Faculty Early CareerDevelopment (CAREER) Award in 2007.

XXVI About the Multimedia Editors

Stefano Stramigioli

University of TwenteControl Laboratory, Faculty of ElectricalEngineering, Mathematics & ComputerScience7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlandss.stramigioli@utwente.nl

Stefano Stramigioli received the MSc in 1992 and the PhD in 1998.Between the two degrees he worked as a researcher at the Universityof Twente. Since 1998 he has been faculty member and he is currentlyfull Professor of Advanced Robotics and chair holder of the Roboticsand Mechatronics group at the University of Twente. He is an officerand Senior Member of IEEE. He has about 200 publications including4 books, book chapters, journal and conference contributions. He iscurrently the Vice President for Member Activities of the IEEE Roboticsand Automation Society. He has been an AdCom member for IEEERAS. Stefano is a member of the ESA Topical Team on Dynamicsof Prehension in Micro-gravity and its application to Robotics andProsthetics.

XXVII

List of Authors

Markus W. AchtelikETH ZurichAutonomous Systems LaboratoryLeonhardstrasse 218092 Zurich, Switzerlandmarkus@achtelik.net

Alin Albu-SchäfferDLR Institute of Robotics and MechatronicsMünchner Strasse 2082230 Wessling, Germanyalin.albu-schaeffer@dlr.de

Kostas AlexisETH ZurichInstitute of Robotics and Intelligent SystemsTannenstrasse 38092 Zurich, Switzerlandkonstantinos.alexis@mavt.ethz.ch

Jorge AngelesMcGill UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering andCentre for Intelligent Machines817 Sherbrooke Street WestMontreal, H3A 2K6, Canadaangeles@cim.mcgill.ca

Gianluca AntonelliUniversity of Cassino and Southern LazioDepartment of Electrical and InformationEngineeringVia G. Di Biasio 4303043 Cassino, Italyantonelli@unicas.it

Fumihito AraiNagoya UniversityDepartment of Micro-Nano Systems EngineeringFuro-cho, Chikusa-ku464-8603 Nagoya, Japanarai@mech.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Michael A. ArbibUniversity of Southern CaliforniaComputer Science, Neuroscience and ABLE ProjectLos Angeles, CA 90089-2520, USAarbib@usc.edu

J. Andrew BagnellCarnegie Mellon UniversityRobotics Institute5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213, USAdbagnell@ri.cmu.edu

Randal W. BeardBrigham Young UniversityElectrical and Computer Engineering459 Clyde BuildingProvo, UT 84602, USAbeard@byu.edu

Michael BeetzUniversity BremenInstitute for Artificial IntelligenceAm Fallturm 128359 Bremen, Germanyai-office@cs.uni-bremen.de

George BekeyUniversity of Southern CaliforniaDepartment of Computer Science612 South Vis Belmonte CourtArroyo Grande, CA 93420, USAbekey@usc.edu

Maren BennewitzUniversity of BonnInstitute for Computer Science VIFriedrich-Ebert-Allee 14453113 Bonn, Germanymaren@cs.uni-bonn.de

Massimo BergamascoSant’Anna School of Advanced StudiesPerceptual Robotics LaboratoryVia Alamanni 1356010 Pisa, Italym.bergamasco@sssup.it

Marcel BergermanCarnegie Mellon UniversityRobotics Institute5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213, USAmarcel@cmu.edu

XXVIII List of Authors

Antonio BicchiUniversity of PisaInterdepartmental Research Center “E. Piaggio”Largo Lucio Lazzarino 156122 Pisa, Italybicchi@ing.unipi.it

Aude G. BillardSwiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL)School of EngineeringEPFL-STI-I2S-LASA, Station 91015 Lausanne, Switzerlandaude.billard@epfl.ch

John BillingsleyUniversity of Southern QueenslandFaculty of Engineering and SurveyingWest StreetToowoomba, QLD 4350, Australiajohn.billingsley@usq.edu.au

Rainer BischoffKUKA Roboter GmbHTechnology DevelopmentZugspitzstrasse 14086165 Augsburg, Germanyrainer.bischoff@kuka.com

Thomas BockTechnical University MunichDepartment of ArchitectureArcisstrasse 2180333 Munich, Germanythomas.bock@br2.ar.tum.de

Adrian BonchisCSIRODepartment of Autonomous Systems1 Technology CourtPullenvale, QLD 4069, Australiaadrian.bonchis@csiro.au

Josh BongardUniversity of VermontDepartment of Computer Science205 Farrell HallBurlington, VT 05405, USAjosh.bongard@uvm.edu

Wayne J. BookGeorgia Institute of TechnologyG. W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering771 Ferst DriveAtlanta, GA 30332-0405, USAwayne.book@me.gatech.edu

Cynthia BreazealMIT Media LabPersonal Robots Group20 Ames StreetCambridge, MA 02139, USAcynthiab@media.mit.edu

Oliver BrockTechnical University BerlinRobotics and Biology LaboratoryMarchstrasse 2310587 Berlin, Germanyoliver.brock@tu-berlin.de

Alberto BroggiUniversity of ParmaDepartment of Information TechnologyViale delle Scienze 181A43100 Parma, Italybroggi@ce.unipr.it

Davide BrugaliUniversity of BergamoDepartment of Computer Science andMathematicsViale Marconi 524044 Dalmine, Italybrugali@unibg.it

Heinrich BülthoffMax-Planck-Institute for Biological CyberneticsHuman Perception, Cognition and ActionSpemannstrasse 3872076 Tübingen, Germanyheinrich.buelthoff@tuebingen.mpg.de

Joel W. BurdickCalifornia Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Mechanical Engineering1200 East California BoulevardPasadena, CA 9112, USAjwb@robotics.caltech.edu

Wolfram BurgardUniversity of FreiburgInstitute of Computer ScienceGeorges-Koehler-Allee 7979110 Freiburg, Germanyburgard@informatik.uni-freiburg.de

Fabrizio CaccavaleUniversity of BasilicataSchool of EngineeringVia dell’Ateneo Lucano 1085100 Potenza, Italyfabrizio.caccavale@unibas.it

List of Authors XXIX

Sylvain CalinonIdiap Research InstituteRue Marconi 191920 Martigny, Switzerlandsylvain.calinon@idiap.ch

Raja ChatilaUniversity Pierre et Marie CurieInstitute of Intelligent Systems and Robotics4 Place Jussieu75005 Paris, Franceraja.chatila@isir.upmc.fr

François ChaumetteInria/IrisaLagadic Group35042 Rennes, Francefrancois.chaumette@inria.fr

I-Ming ChenNanyang Technological UniversitySchool of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering50 Nanyang Avenue639798 Singapore, Singaporemichen@ntu.edu.sg

Stefano ChiaveriniUniversity of Cassino and Southern LazioDepartment of Electrical and InformationEngineeringVia G. Di Biasio 4303043 Cassino, Italychiaverini@unicas.it

Gregory S. ChirikjianJohn Hopkins UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering3400 North Charles StreetBaltimore, MD 21218-2682, USAgchirik1@jhu.edu

Kyu-Jin ChoSeoul National UniversityBiorobotics Laboratory1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-guSeoul, 151-744, Koreakjcho@sun.ac.kr

Hyun-Taek ChoiKorea Research Institute of Ships & OceanEngineering (KRISO)Ocean System Engineering Research Division32 Yuseong-daero 1312 Beon-gil, Yuseong-guDaejeon, 305-343, Koreahtchoiphd@gmail.com

Nak-Young ChongJapan Advanced Institute of Science andTechnologyCenter for Intelligent Robotics1-1 Asahidai, Nomi923-1292 Ishikawa, Japannakyoung@jaist.ac.jp

Howie ChosetCarnegie Mellon UniversityRobotics Institute5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213, USAchoset@cs.cmu.edu

Henrik I. ChristensenGeorgia Institute of TechnologyRobotics and Intelligent Machines801 Atlantic Drive NWAtlanta, GA 30332-0280, USAhic@cc.gatech.edu

Wendell H. ChunUniversity of DenverDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineering2135 East Wesley AvenueDenver, CO 80208, USAwendell.chun@du.edu

Wan Kyun ChungPOSTECHRobotics LaboratoryKIRO 410, San 31, HyojadongPohang, 790-784, Koreawkchung@postech.ac.kr

Woojin ChungKorea UniversityDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringAnam-dong, Sungbuk-kuSeoul, 136-701, Koreasmartrobot@korea.ac.kr

Peter CorkeQueensland University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical Engineering andComputer Science2 George StreetBrisbane, QLD 4001, Australiapeter.corke@qut.edu.au

XXX List of Authors

Elizabeth CroftUniversity of British ColumbiaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering6250 Applied Science LanveVancouver, BC V6P 1K4, Canadaelizabeth.croft@ubc.ca

Mark R. CutkoskyStanford UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering450 Serra MallStanford, CA 94305, USAcutkosky@stanford.edu

Kostas DaniilidisUniversity of PennsylvaniaDepartment of Computer and Information Science3330 Walnut StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19104, USAkostas@upenn.edu

Paolo DarioSant’Anna School of Advanced StudiesThe BioRobotics InstitutePiazza Martiri della Libertà 3456127 Pisa, Italypaolo.dario@sssup.it

Kerstin DautenhahnUniversity of HertfordshireSchool of Computer ScienceCollege LaneHatfield, AL10 9AB, UKk.dautenhahn@herts.ac.uk

Alessandro De LucaSapienza University of RomeDepartment of Computer, Control, andManagement EngineeringVia Ariosto 2500185 Rome, Italydeluca@diag.uniroma1.it

Joris De SchutterUniversity of Leuven (KU Leuven)Department of Mechanical EngineeringCelestijnenlaan 300B-3001, Leuven-Heverlee, Belgiumjoris.deschutter@kuleuven.be

Rüdiger DillmannKarlsruhe Institute of TechnologyInstitute for Technical InformaticsHaid-und-Neu-Strasse 776131 Karlsruhe, Germanydillmann@ira.uka.de

Lixin DongMichigan State UniversityDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineering428 South Shaw LaneEast Lansing, MI 48824-1226, USAldong@egr.msu.edu

Gregory DudekMcGill UniversityDepartment of Computer Science3480 University StreetMontreal, QC H3Y 3H4, Canadadudek@cim.mcgill.ca

Hugh Durrant-WhyteUniversity of SydneyAustralian Centre for Field Robotics (ACFR)Sydney, NSW 2006, Australiahugh@acfr.usyd.edu.au

Roy FeatherstoneThe Australian National UniversityDepartment of Information EngineeringRSISE Building 115Canberra, ACT 0200, Australiaroy.featherstone@anu.edu.au

Gabor FichtingerQueen’s UniversitySchool of Computing25 Union StreetKingston, ON, K7L 2N8, Canadagabor@cs.queensu.ca

Paolo FioriniUniversity of VeronaDepartment of Computer ScienceStrada le Grazie 1537134 Verona, Italypaolo.fiorini@univr.it

Paul FitzpatrickItalian Institute of TechnologyRobotics, Brain, and Cognitive SciencesDepartmentVia Morengo 3016163 Genoa, Italypaul.fitzpatrick@iit.it

Luke FletcherBoeing Research & Technology AustraliaBrisbane, QLD 4001, Australialuke.s.fletcher@gmail.com

List of Authors XXXI

Dario FloreanoSwiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL)Laboratory of Intelligent SystemsLIS-IMT-STI, Station 91015 Lausanne, Switzerlanddario.floreano@epfl.ch

Thor I. FossenNorwegian University of Science and TechnologyDepartment of Engineering CyberenticsO.S. Bragstads plass 2D7491 Trondheim, Norwayfossen@ieee.org

Li-Chen FuNational Taiwan UniversityDepartment of Electrical EngineeringNo. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road106 Taipei, Taiwanlichen@ntu.edu.tw

Maxime GautierUniversity of NantesIRCCyN, ECN1 Rue de la Noë44321 Nantes, Francemaxime.gautier@irccyn.ec-nantes.fr

Christos GeorgoulasTechnical University MunichDepartment of ArchitectureArcisstrasse 2180333 Munich, Germanychristos.georgoulas@br2.ar.tum.de

Martin A. GieseUniversity Clinic TübingenDepartment for Cognitive NeurologyOtfried-Müller-Strasse 2572076 Tübingen, Germanymartin.giese@uni-tuebingen.de

Ken GoldbergUniversity of California at BerkeleyDepartment of Industrial Engineering andOperations Research425 Sutardja Dai HallBerkeley, CA 94720-1758, USAgoldberg@ieor.berkeley.edu

Clément GosselinLaval UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering1065 Avenue de la MédecineQuebec, QC G1K 7P4, Canadagosselin@gmc.ulaval.ca

Eugenio GuglielmelliUniversity Campus Bio-Medico of RomeFaculty Department of EngineeringVia Alvaro del Portillo 2100128 Rome, Italye.guglielmelli@unicampus.it

Sami HaddadinLeibniz University HannoverElectrical Engineering and Computer ScienceAppelstrasse 1130167 Hannover, Germanysami.haddadin@irt.uni-hannover.de

Martin HägeleFraunhofer IPARobot SystemsNobelstrasse 1270569 Stuttgart, Germanymmh@ipa.fhg.de

Gregory D. HagerJohns Hopkins UniversityDepartment of Computer Science3400 North Charles StreetBaltimore, MD 21218, USAhager@cs.jhu.edu

William R. HamelUniversity of TennesseeMechanical, Aerospace, and BiomedicalEngineering414 Dougherty Engineering BuildingKnoxville, TN 37996-2210, USAwhamel@utk.edu

Blake HannafordUniversity of WashingtonDepartment of Electrical EngineeringSeattle, WA 98195-2500, USAblake@ee.washington.edu

Kensuke HaradaNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand TechnologyIntelligent Systems Research InstituteTsukuba Central 2, Umezono, 1-1-1305-8568 Tsukuba, Japankensuke.harada@aist.go.jp

Martial HebertCarnegie Mellon UniversityThe Robotics Institute5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213, USAhebert@ri.cmu.edu

XXXII List of Authors

Thomas C. HendersonUniversity of UtahSchool of Computing50 South Central Campus DriveSalt Lake City, UT 84112, USAtch@cs.utah.edu

Eldert van HentenWageningen UniversityWageningen UR Greenhouse HorticultureDroevendaalsesteeg 46708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlandseldert.vanhenten@wur.nl

Hugh HerrMIT Media Lab77 Massachusetts AvenueCambridge, MA 02139-4307, USAhherr@media.mit.edu

Joachim HertzbergOsnabrück UniversityInstitute for Computer ScienceAlbrechtstrasse 2854076 Osnabrück, Germanyjoachim.hertzberg@uos.de

Gerd HirzingerGerman Aerospace Center (DLR)Institute of Robotics and MechatronicsMünchner Strasse 2082230 Wessling, Germanygerd.hirzinger@dlr.de

John HollerbachUniversity of UtahSchool of Computing50 South Central Campus DriveSalt Lake City, UT 84112, USAjmh@cs.utah.ledu

Kaijen HsiaoRobert Bosch LLCResearch and Technology Center, Palo Alto4005 Miranda AvenuePalo Alto, CA 94304, USAkaijenhsiao@gmail.com

Tian HuangTianjin UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering92 Weijin Road, Naukai300072 Tianjin, Chinatianhuang@tju.edu.cn

Christoph HürzelerAlstom Power Thermal ServicesAutomation and Robotics R&DBrown Boveri Strasse 75401 Baden, Switzerlandchristoph.huerzeler@power.alstom.com

Phil HusbandsUniversity of SussexDepartment of InformaticsBrighton, BN1 9QH, UKphilh@sussex.ac.uk

Seth HutchinsonUniversity of IllinoisDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineering1308 West Main StreetUrbana-Champaign, IL 61801, USAseth@illinois.edu

Karl IagnemmaMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyLaboratory for Manufacturing and Productivity77 Massachusetts AvenueCambridge, MA 02139, USAkdi@mit.edu

Fumiya IidaUniversity of CambridgeDepartment of EngineeringTrumpington StreetCambridge, CB2 1PZ, UKfumiya.iida@eng.cam.ac.uk

Auke Jan IjspeertSwiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL)School of EngineeringMED 1, 1226, Station 91015 Lausanne, Switzerlandauke.ijspeert@epfl.ch

Genya IshigamiKeio UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering3-14-1 Hiyoshi223-8522 Yokohama, Japanishigami@mech.keio.ac.jp

Michael JenkinYork UniversityDepartment of Electrical Engineering andComputer Science4700 Keele StreetToronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canadajenkin@cse.yorku.ca

List of Authors XXXIII

Shuuji KajitaNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand Technology (AIST)Intelligent Systems Research Institute1-1-1 Umezono305-8586 Tsukuba, Japans.kajita@aist.go.jp

Takayuki KandaAdvanced Telecommunications Research (ATR)Institute InternationalIntelligent Robotics and CommunicationLaboratories2-2-2 Hikaridai, Seikacho, Sorakugun619-0288 Kyoto, Japankanda@atr.jp

Makoto KanekoOsaka UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering2-1 Yamadaoka565-0871 Suita, Japanmk@mech.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp

Sung-Chul KangKorea Institute of Science and TechnologyCenter for Bionics39-1 Hawolgok-dong, Wolsong-gil 5Seoul, Seongbuk-gu, Koreakasch@kist.re.kr

Imin KaoStony Brook UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering167 Light EngineeringStony Brook, NY 11794-2300, USAimin.kao@stonybrook.edu

Lydia E. KavrakiRice UniversityDepartment of Computer Science6100 Main StreetHouston, TX 77005, USAkavraki@rice.edu

Charles C. KempGeorgia Institute of Technology and EmoryUniversity313 Ferst DriveAtlanta, GA 30332-0535, USAcharlie.kemp@bme.gatech.edu

Wisama KhalilUniversity of NantesIRCCyN, ECN1 Rue de la Noë44321 Nantes, Francewisama.khalil@irccyn.ec-nantes.fr

Oussama KhatibStanford UniversityDepartment of Computer Sciences,Artificial Intelligence Laboratory450 Serra MallStanford, CA 94305, USAkhatib@cs.stanford.edu

Lindsay KleemanMonash UniversityDepartment of Electrical and Computer SystemsEngineeringMelbourne, VIC 3800, Australiakleeman@eng.monash.edu.au

Alexander KleinerLinköping UniversityDepartment of Computer Science58183 Linköping, Swedenalexander.kleiner@liu.se

Jens KoberDelft University of TechnologyDelft Center for Systems and ControlMekelweg 22628 CD, Delft, The Netherlandsj.kober@tudelft.nl

Kurt KonoligeGoogle, Inc.1600 Amphitheatre ParkwayMountain View, CA 94043, USAkonolige@gmail.com

David KortenkampTRACLabs Inc1012 Hercules DriveHouston, TX 77058, USAkorten@traclabs.com

Kazuhiro KosugeTohoku UniversitySystem Robotics LaboratoryAoba 6-6-01, Aramaki980-8579 Sendai, Japankosuge@irs.mech.tohoku.ac.jp

XXXIV List of Authors

Danica KragicRoyal Institute of Technology (KTH)Centre for Autonomous SystemsCSC-CAS/CVAP10044 Stockholm, Swedendani@kth.se

Torsten KrögerGoogle Inc.1600 Amphitheatre ParkwayMountain View, CA 94043, USAt@kroe.org

Roman KucYale UniversityDepartment of Electrical Engineering10 Hillhouse AvenueNew Haven, CT 06520-8267, USAkuc@yale.edu

James KuffnerCarnegie Mellon UniversityThe Robotics Institute5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213-3891, USAkuffner@cs.cmu.edu

Scott KuindersmaHarvard UniversityMaxwell-Dworkin 151, 33 Oxford StreetCambridge, MA 02138, USAscottk@seas.harvard.edu

Vijay KumarUniversity of PennsylvaniaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering andApplied Mechanics220 South 33rd StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19104-6315, USAkumar@seas.upenn.edu

Steven M. LaValleUniversity of IllinoisDepartment of Computer Science201 North Goodwin Avenue, 3318 Siebel CenterUrbana, IL 61801, USAlavalle@cs.uiuc.edu

Florant LamirauxLAAS-CNRS7 Avenue du Colonel Roche31077 Toulouse, Franceflorent@laas.fr

Roberto LamparielloGerman Aerospace Center (DLR)Institute of Robotics and MechatronicsMünchner Strasse 2082234 Wessling, Germanyroberto.lampariello@dlr.de

Christian LaugierINRIA Grenoble Rhône-Alpes655 Avenue de l’Europe38334 Saint Ismier, Francechristian.laugier@inria.fr

Jean-Paul LaumondLAAS-CNRS7 Avenue du Colonel Roche31077 Toulouse, Francejpl@laas.fr

Daniel D. LeeUniversity of PennsylvaniaDepartment of Electrical Systems Engineering460 Levine, 200 South 33rd StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19104, USAddlee@seas.upenn.edu

Dongjun LeeSeoul National UniversityDepartment of Mechanical and AerospaceEngineering301 Engineering Building, Gwanak-ro 599,Gwanak-guSeoul, 51-742, Koreadjlee@snu.ac.kr

Roland LenainIRSTEADepartment of Ecotechnology9 Avenue Blaise Pascal - CS2008563178 Aubiere, Franceroland.lenain@irstea.fr

David LentinkStanford UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering416 Escondido MallStanford, CA 94305, USAdlentink@stanford.edu

John J. LeonardMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Mechanical Engineering5-214 77 Massachusetts AvenueCambridge, MA 02139, USAjleonard@mit.edu

List of Authors XXXV

Aleš LeonardisUniversity of BirminghamDepartment of Computer ScienceEdgbastonBirmingham, B15 2TT, UKa.leonardis@cs.bham.ac.uk

Stefan LeuteneggerImperial College LondonSouth Kensington Campus, Department ofComputingLondon, SW7 2AZ, UKs.leutenegger@imperial.ac.uk

Kevin M. LynchNorthwestern UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering2145 Sheridan RoadEvanston, IL 60208, USAkmlynch@northwestern.edu

Anthony A. MaciejewskiColorado State UniversityDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineeringFort Collins, CO 80523-1373, USAaam@colostate.edu

Robert MahonyAustralian National University (ANU)Research School of Engineering115 North RoadCanberra, ACT 2601, Australiarobert.mahony@anu.edu.au

Joshua A. MarshallQueen’s UniversityThe Robert M. Buchan Department of Mining25 Union StreetKingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canadajoshua.marshall@queensu.ca

Maja J. MatarićUniversity of Southern CaliforniaComputer Science Department3650 McClintock AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90089, USAmataric@usc.edu

Yoshio MatsumotoNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand Technology (AIST)Robot Innovation Research Center1-1-1 Umezono305-8568 Tsukuba, Japanyoshio.matsumoto@aist.go.jp

J. Michael McCarthyUniversity of California at IrvineDepartment of Mechanical Engineering5200 Engineering HallIrvine, CA 92697-3975, USAjmmccart@uci.edu

Claudio MelchiorriUniversity of BolognaLaboratory of Automation and RoboticsVia Risorgimento 240136 Bologna, Italyclaudio.melchiorri@unibo.it

Arianna MenciassiSant’Anna School of Advanced StudiesThe BioRobotics InstitutePiazza Martiri della Libertà 3456127 Pisa, Italya.menciassi@sssup.it

Jean-Pierre MerletINRIA Sophia-Antipolis2004 Route des Lucioles06560 Sophia-Antipolis, Francejean-pierre.merlet@sophia.inria.fr

Giorgio MettaItalian Institute of TechnologyiCub FacilityVia Morego 3016163 Genoa, Italygiorgio.metta@iit.it

François MichaudUniversity of SherbrookeDepartment of Electrical Engineering andComputer Engineering2500 Boul. UniversitéSherbrooke, J1N4E5, Canadafrancois.michaud@usherbrooke.ca

David P. MillerUniversity of OklahomaSchool of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering865 Asp AvenueNorman, OK 73019, USAdpmiller@ou.edu

Javier MinguezUniversity of ZaragozaDepartment of Computer Science and SystemsEngineeringC/María de Luna 150018 Zaragoza, Spainjminguez@unizar.es

XXXVI List of Authors

Pascal MorinUniversity Pierre and Marie CurieInstitute for Intelligent Systems and Robotics4 Place Jussieu75005 Paris, Francemorin@isir.upmc.fr

Mario E. MunichiRobot Corp.1055 East Colorado Boulevard, Suite 340Pasadena, CA 91106, USAmariomu@ieee.org

Robin R. MurphyTexas A&M UniversityDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering333 H.R. Bright BuildingCollege Station, TX 77843-3112, USAmurphy@cse.tamu.edu

Bilge MutluUniversity of Wisconsin–MadisonDepartment of Computer Sciences1210 West Dayton StreetMadison, WI 53706, USAbilge@cs.wisc.edu

Keiji NagataniTohoku UniversityDepartment of Aerospace Engineering,Graduate School of Engineering6-6-01, Aramaki aza Aoba980-8579 Sendai, Japankeiji@ieee.org

Daniele NardiSapienza University of RomeDepartment of Computer, Control, andManagement EngineeringVia Ariosto 2500185 Rome, Italynardi@dis.uniroma1.it

Eduardo NebotUniversity of SydneyDepartment of Aerospace, Mechanical andMechatronic EngineeringSydney, NSW 2006, Australiaeduardo.nebot@sydney.edu.au

Bradley J. NelsonETH ZurichInstitute of Robotics and Intelligent SystemsTannenstrasse 38092 Zurich, Switzerlandbnelson@ethz.ch

Duy Nguyen-TuongRobert Bosch GmbHCorporate ResearchWernerstrasse 5170469 Stuttgart, Germanyduy@robot-learning.de

Monica NicolescuUniversity of NevadaDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering1664 North Virginia Street, MS 171Reno, NV 8955, USAmonica@unr.edu

Günter NiemeyerDisney Research1401 Flower StreetGlendale, CA 91201-5020, USAgunter.niemeyer@email.disney.com

Klas NilssonLund Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Computer Science22100 Lund, Swedenklas.nilsson@cs.lth.se

Stefano NolfiNational Research Council (CNR)Institute of Cognitive Sciences and TechnologiesVia S. Martino della Battaglia 4400185 Rome, Italystefano.nolfi@istc.cnr.it

Illah NourbakhshCarnegie Mellon UniversityRobotics Institute500 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213-3890, USAillah@andrew.cmu.edu

Andreas NüchterUniversity of WürzburgInformatics VII – Robotics and TelematicsAm Hubland97074 Würzburg, Germanyandreas@nuechti.de

Paul Y. OhUniversity of NevadaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering3141 Chestnut StreetLas Vegas, PA 19104, USApaul@coe.drexel.edu

List of Authors XXXVII

Yoshito OkadaTohoku UniversityDepartment of Aerospace Engineering,Graduate School of Engineering6-6-01, Aramaki aza Aoba980-8579 Sendai, Japanokada@rm.is.tohoku.ac.jp

Allison M. OkamuraStanford UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering416 Escondido MallStanford, CA 94305-2203, USAaokamura@stanford.edu

Fiorella OpertoScuola di RoboticaPiazza Monastero 416149 Genoa, Italyoperto@scuoladirobotica.it

David E. OrinThe Ohio State UniversityDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineering2015 Neil AvenueColumbus, OH 43210-1272, USAorin.1@osu.edu

Giuseppe OrioloUniversity of Rome “La Sapienza”Department of Computer, Control, andManagement EngineeringVia Ariosto 2500185 Rome, Italyoriolo@diag.uniroma1.it

Christian OttGerman Aerospace Center (DLR)Institute of Robotics and MechatronicsMünchner Strasse 2082234 Wessling, Germanychristian.ott@dlr.de

Ümit ÖzgünerOhio State UniversityDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineering2015 Neil AvenueColumbus, OH 43210, USAumit@ee.eng.ohio-state.edu

Nikolaos PapanikolopoulosUniversity of MinnesotaDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering200 Union Street SEMinneapolis, MN 55455, USAnpapas@cs.umn.edu

Frank C. ParkSeoul National UniversityMechanical and Aerospace EngineeringKwanak-ku, Shinlim-dong, San 56-1Seoul, 151-742, Koreafcp@snu.ac.kr

Jaeheung ParkSeoul National UniversityDepartment of Transdisciplinary StudiesGwanggyo-ro 145, Yeongtong-guSuwon, Koreapark73@snu.ac.kr

Lynne E. ParkerUniversity of TennesseeDepartment of Electrical Engineering andComputer Science1520 Middle DriveKnoxville, TN 37996, USAleparker@utk.edu

Federico PecoraUniversity of ÖrebroSchool of Science and TechnologyFakultetsgatan 170182 Örebro, Swedenfederico.pecora@oru.se

Jan PetersTechnical University DarmstadtAutonomous Systems LabHochschulstrasse 1064289 Darmstadt, Germanymail@jan-peters.net

Anna PetrovskayaStanford UniversityDepartment of Computer Science353 Serra MallStanford, CA 94305, USAanya@cs.stanford.edu

J. Norberto PiresUniversity of CoimbraDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringPalácio dos Grilos, Rua da Ilha3000-214 Coimbra, Portugalnorberto@uc.pt

XXXVIII List of Authors

Paolo PirjanianiRobot Corp.8 Crosby DriveBedford, MA 01730, USApaolo.pirjanian@gmail.com

Erwin PrasslerBonn-Rhein-Sieg Univ. of Applied SciencesDepartment of Computer SciencesGrantham-Allee 2053754 Sankt Augustin, Germanyerwin.prassler@h-brs.de

Domenico PrattichizzoUniversity of SienaDepartment of Information EngineeringVia Roma 5653100 Siena, Italyprattichizzo@ing.unisi.it

Carsten PreuscheGerman Aerospace Center (DLR)Institute of Robotics and MechatronicsMünchner Strasse 2082234 Wessling, Germanycarsten.preusche@dlr.de

William ProvancherUniversity of UtahDepartment of Mechanical Engineering50 South Central Campus DriveSalt Lake City, UT 84112-9208, USAwil@mech.utah.edu

John ReidJohn Deere Co.Moline Technology Innovation CenterOne John Deere PlaceMoline, IL 61265, USAreidjohnf@johndeere.com

David J. ReinkensmeyerUniversity of California at IrvineMechanical and Aerospace Engineering andAnatomy and Neurobiology4200 Engineering GatewayIrvine, CA 92697-3875, USAdreinken@uci.edu

Jonathan RobertsQueensland University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical Engineering andComputer Science2 George StreetBrisbane, QLD 4001, Australiajonathan.roberts@qut.edu.au

Nicholas RoyMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Aeronautics and Astronautics77 Massachusetts Avenue 33-315Cambridge, MA 02139, USAnickroy@csail.mit.edu

Daniela RusMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCSAIL Center for Robotics32 Vassar StreetCambridge, MA 02139, USArus@csail.mit.edu

Selma ŠabanovićIndiana University BloomingtonSchool of Informatics and Computing919 East 10th StreetBloomington, IN 47408, USAselmas@indiana.edu

Kamel S. SaidiNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyBuilding and Fire Research Laboratory100 Bureau DriveGaitherbsurg, MD 20899-1070, USAkamel.saidi@nist.gov

Claude SamsonINRIA Sophia-Antipolis2004 Route des Lucioles06560 Sophia-Antipolis, Franceclaude.samson@inria.fr

Brian ScassellatiYale UniversityComputer Science, Cognitive Science, andMechanical Engineering51 Prospect StreetNew Haven, CT 06520-8285, USAscaz@cs.yale.edu

Stefan SchaalUniversity of Southern CaliforniaDepts. of Computer Science, Neuroscience, andBiomedical Engineering3710 South McClintock AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90089-2905, USAsschaal@tuebingen.mpg.de

Steven SchedingUniversity of SydneyRio Tinto Centre for Mine AutomationSydney, NSW 2006, Australiasteven.scheding@sydney.edu.au

List of Authors XXXIX

Victor ScheinmanStanford UniversityDepartment of Mechanical Engineering440 Escondido MallStanford, CA 94305-3030, USAvds@stanford.edu

Bernt SchieleSaarland UniversityDepartment of Computer ScienceCampus E1 466123 Saarbrücken, Germanyschiele@mpi-inf.mpg.de

James SchmiedelerUniversity of Notre DameDepartment of Aerospace and MechanicalEngineeringNotre Dame, IN 46556, USAschmiedeler.4@nd.edu

Bruno SicilianoUniversity of Naples Federico IIDepartment of Electrical Engineering andInformation TechnologyVia Claudio 2180125 Naples, Italybruno.siciliano@unina.it

Roland SiegwartETH ZurichDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringLeonhardstrasse 218092 Zurich, Switzerlandrsiegwart@ethz.ch

Reid SimmonsCarnegie Mellon UniversityThe Robotics Institute5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213, USAreids@cs.cmu.edu

Patrick van der SmagtTechnical University MunichDepartment of Computer Science, BRML LabsArcisstrasse 2180333 Munich, Germanysmagt@brml.org

Dezhen SongTexas A&M UniversityDepartment of Computer Science311B H.R. Bright BuildingCollege Station, TX 77843-3112, USAdzsong@cs.tamu.edu

Jae-Bok SongKorea UniversityDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringAnam-ro 145, Seongbuk-guSeoul, 136-713, Koreajbsong@korea.ac.kr

Cyrill StachnissUniversity of BonnInstitute for Geodesy and GeoinformationNussallee 1553115 Bonn, Germanycyrill.stachniss@igg.uni-bonn.de

Michael StarkMax Planck Institute of InformaticsDepartment of Computer Vision and MultimodalComputingCampus E1 466123 Saarbrücken, Germanystark@mpi-inf.mpg.de

Amanda K. StowersStanford UniversityDepartment Mechanical Engineering416 Escondido MallStanford, CA 94305-3030, USAastowers@stanford.edu

Stefano StramigioliUniversity of TwenteFaculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics &Computer Science, Control Laboratory7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlandss.stramigioli@utwente.nl

Gaurav S. SukhatmeUniversity of Southern CaliforniaDepartment of Computer Science3710 South McClintock AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90089-2905, USAgaurav@usc.edu

Satoshi TadokoroTohoku UniversityGraduate School of Information Sciences6-6-01 Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba-ku980-8579 Sendai, Japantadokoro@rm.is.tohoku.ac.jp

Wataru TakanoUniversity of TokyoDepartment of Mechano-Informatics7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku113-8656 Tokyo, Japantakano@ynl.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

XL List of Authors

Russell H. TaylorThe Johns Hopkins UniversityDepartment of Computer Science3400 North Charles StreetBaltimore, MD 21218, USArht@jhu.edu

Russ TedrakeMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyComputer Science and Artificial IntelligenceLaboratory (CSAIL)The Stata Center, Vassar StreetCambridge, MA 02139, USArusst@csail.mit.edu

Sebastian ThrunUdacity Inc.2465 Latham Street, 3rd FloorMountain View, CA 94040, USAinfo@udacity.com

Marc ToussaintUniversity of StuttgartMachine Learning and Robotics LabUniversitätsstrasse 3870569 Stuttgart, Germanymarc.toussaint@ipvs.uni-stuttgart.de

James TrevelyanThe University of Western AustraliaSchool of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering35 Stirling HighwayCrawley, WA 6009, Australiajames.trevelyan@uwa.edu.au

Jeffrey C. TrinkleRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteDepartment of Computer Science110 8th StreetTroy, NY 12180-3590, USAtrink@cs.rpi.edu

Masaru UchiyamaTohoku UniversityGraduate School of Engineering6-6-01 Aobayama980-8579 Sendai, Japanuchiyama@space.mech.tohoku.ac.jp

H.F. Machiel Van der LoosUniversity of British ColumbiaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering2054-6250 Applied Science LaneVancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canadavdl@mech.ubc.ca

Manuela VelosoCarnegie Mellon UniversityComputer Science Department5000 Forbes AvenuePittsburgh, PA 15213, USAmmv@cs.cmu.edu

Gianmarco VeruggioNational Research Council (CNR)Institute of Electronics, Computer andTelecommunication EngineeringVia De Marini 616149 Genoa, Italygianmarco@veruggio.it

Luigi VillaniUniversity of Naples Federico IIDepartment of Electrical Engineering andInformation TechnologyVia Claudio 2180125 Naples, Italyluigi.villani@unina.it

Kenneth J. WaldronUniversity of Technology SydneyCentre of Mechatronics and Intelligent SystemsCity Campus, 15 BroadwayUltimo, NSW 2001, Australiakenneth.waldron@uts.edu.au

Ian D. WalkerClemson UniversityDepartment of Electrical and ComputerEngineering105 Riggs HallClemson, SC 29634, USAianw@ces.clemson.edu

Christian WallravenKorea UniversityDepartment of Brain and Cognitive Engineering,Cognitive Systems LabAnam-Dong 5ga, Seongbuk-guSeoul, 136-713, Koreawallraven@korea.ac.kr

Pierre-Brice WieberINRIA Grenoble Rhône-Alpes655 Avenue de l’Europe38334 Grenoble, Francepierre-brice.wieber@inria.fr

List of Authors XLI

Brian WilcoxCalifornia Institute of TechnologyJet Propulsion Laboratory4800 Oak Ridge Grove DrivePasadena, CA 91109, USAbrian.h.wilcox@jpl.nasa.gov

Robert WoodHarvard UniversitySchool of Engineering and Applied Sciences149 Maxwell-DworkinCambridge, MA 02138, USArjwood@seas.harvard.edu

Jing XiaoUniversity of North CarolinaDepartment of Computer ScienceWoodward HallCharlotte, NC 28223, USAxiao@uncc.edu

Katsu YamaneDisney Research4720 Forbes Avenue, Suite 110Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USAkyamane@disneyresearch.com

Mark YimUniversity of PennsylvaniaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering andApplied Mechanics220 South 33rd StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19104, USAyim@seas.upenn.edu

Dana R. YoergerWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionApplied Ocean Physics & Engineering266 Woods Hole RoadWoods Hole, MA 02543-1050, USAdyoerger@whoi.edu

Kazuhito YokoiAIST Tsukuba Central 2Intelligent Systems Research Institute1-1-1 Umezono305-8568 Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japankazuhito.yokoi@aist.go.jp

Eiichi YoshidaNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand Technology (AIST)CNRS-AIST Joint Robotics Laboratory, UMI3218/CRT1-1-1 Umezono305-8568 Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japane.yoshida@aist.go.jp

Kazuya YoshidaTohoku UniversityDepartment of Aerospace EngineeringAoba 01980-8579 Sendai, Japanyoshida@astro.mech.tohoku.ac.jp

Junku YuhKorea Institute of Science and TechnologyNational Agenda Research DivisionHwarangno 14-gil 5, Seongbuk-guSeoul, 136-791, Koreayuh.junku@gmail.com

Alex ZelinskyDepartment of DefenceDST Group Headquarters72-2-03, 24 Scherger DriveCanberra, ACT 2609, Australiaalexzelinsky@yahoo.com

XLIII

Contents

List of Abbreviations ............................................................. LXIII

1 Robotics and the HandbookBruno Siciliano, Oussama Khatib .............................................. 11.1 A Brief History of Robotics .............................................. 11.2 The Robotics Community................................................ 31.3 This Handbook........................................................... 4Video-References ............................................................... 5

Part A Robotics Foundations

2 KinematicsKenneth J. Waldron, James Schmiedeler ...................................... 112.1 Overview ................................................................. 122.2 Position and Orientation Representation ............................. 122.3 Joint Kinematics ......................................................... 212.4 Geometric Representation .............................................. 252.5 Workspace ............................................................... 272.6 Forward Kinematics ..................................................... 282.7 Inverse Kinematics ...................................................... 292.8 Forward Instantaneous Kinematics .................................... 312.9 Inverse Instantaneous Kinematics ..................................... 322.10 Static Wrench Transmission............................................. 332.11 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 33References ....................................................................... 33

3 DynamicsRoy Featherstone, David E. Orin ................................................ 373.1 Overview ................................................................. 383.2 Spatial Vector Notation ................................................. 393.3 Canonical Equations .................................................... 453.4 Dynamic Models of Rigid-Body Systems............................... 473.5 Kinematic Trees .......................................................... 513.6 Kinematic Loops ......................................................... 583.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 61References ....................................................................... 63

4 Mechanism and ActuationVictor Scheinman, J. Michael McCarthy, Jae-Bok Song ....................... 674.1 Overview ................................................................. 684.2 System Features ......................................................... 684.3 Kinematics and Kinetics ................................................ 694.4 Serial Robots ............................................................. 724.5 Parallel Robots........................................................... 734.6 Mechanical Structure.................................................... 754.7 Joint Mechanisms ....................................................... 76

XLIV Contents

4.8 Actuators ................................................................. 784.9 Robot Performance...................................................... 854.10 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 87Video-References ............................................................... 87References ....................................................................... 87

5 Sensing and EstimationHenrik I. Christensen, Gregory D. Hager ....................................... 915.1 Introduction ............................................................. 915.2 The Perception Process.................................................. 925.3 Sensors ................................................................... 945.4 Estimation Processes .................................................... 985.5 Representations ......................................................... 1095.6 Conclusions and Further Readings ..................................... 111References ....................................................................... 111

6 Model IdentificationJohn Hollerbach, Wisama Khalil, Maxime Gautier ........................... 1136.1 Overview ................................................................. 1136.2 Kinematic Calibration ................................................... 1156.3 Inertial Parameter Estimation .......................................... 1226.4 Identifiability and Numerical Conditioning ........................... 1276.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 135Video-References ............................................................... 136References ....................................................................... 137

7 Motion PlanningLydia E. Kavraki, Steven M. LaValle ............................................ 1397.1 Robotics Motion Planning .............................................. 1397.2 Motion Planning Concepts.............................................. 1407.3 Sampling-Based Planning.............................................. 1417.4 Alternative Approaches ................................................. 1447.5 Differential Constraints ................................................. 1487.6 Extensions and Variations .............................................. 1517.7 Advanced Issues ......................................................... 1547.8 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 157Video-References ............................................................... 158References ....................................................................... 158

8 Motion ControlWan Kyun Chung, Li-Chen Fu, Torsten Kröger................................. 1638.1 Introduction to Motion Control......................................... 1648.2 Joint Space Versus Operational Space Control ......................... 1668.3 Independent-Joint Control ............................................. 1678.4 PID Control ............................................................... 1698.5 Tracking Control.......................................................... 1728.6 Computed-Torque Control .............................................. 1748.7 Adaptive Control ......................................................... 1778.8 Optimal and Robust Control ............................................ 1818.9 Trajectory Generation and Planning ................................... 1838.10 Digital Implementation ................................................. 187

Contents XLV

8.11 Learning Control ......................................................... 190Video-References ............................................................... 191References ....................................................................... 191

9 Force ControlLuigi Villani, Joris De Schutter .................................................. 1959.1 Background .............................................................. 1959.2 Indirect Force Control ................................................... 1989.3 Interaction Tasks......................................................... 2059.4 Hybrid Force/Motion Control ............................................ 2119.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 216Video-References ............................................................... 217References ....................................................................... 218

10 Redundant RobotsStefano Chiaverini, Giuseppe Oriolo, Anthony A. Maciejewski ............... 22110.1 Overview ................................................................. 22110.2 Task-Oriented Kinematics .............................................. 22410.3 Inverse Differential Kinematics......................................... 22710.4 Redundancy Resolution via Optimization ............................. 23210.5 Redundancy Resolution via Task Augmentation ...................... 23310.6 Second-Order Redundancy Resolution ................................ 23610.7 Cyclicity................................................................... 23710.8 Fault Tolerance .......................................................... 23710.9 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 239Video-References ............................................................... 239References ....................................................................... 240

11 Robots with Flexible ElementsAlessandro De Luca, Wayne J. Book ............................................ 24311.1 Robots with Flexible Joints ............................................. 24411.2 Robots with Flexible Links.............................................. 263Video-References ............................................................... 279References ....................................................................... 279

12 Robotic Systems Architectures and ProgrammingDavid Kortenkamp, Reid Simmons, Davide Brugali .......................... 28312.1 Overview ................................................................. 28312.2 History.................................................................... 28512.3 Architectural Components .............................................. 28912.4 Case Study – GRACE...................................................... 29612.5 The Art of Robot Architectures.......................................... 29812.6 Implementing Robotic Systems Architectures ......................... 29912.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 302Video-References ............................................................... 302References ....................................................................... 302

13 Behavior-Based SystemsFrançois Michaud, Monica Nicolescu .......................................... 30713.1 Robot Control Approaches .............................................. 30813.2 Basic Principles of Behavior-Based Systems .......................... 310

XLVI Contents

13.3 Basis Behaviors .......................................................... 31313.4 Representation in Behavior-Based Systems........................... 31313.5 Learning in Behavior-Based Systems .................................. 31413.6 Applications and Continuing Work..................................... 31813.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 322Video-References ............................................................... 322References ....................................................................... 323

14 AI Reasoning Methods for RoboticsMichael Beetz, Raja Chatila, Joachim Hertzberg, Federico Pecora........... 32914.1 Why Should a Robot Use AI-Type Reasoning? ......................... 33014.2 Knowledge Representation and Processing ........................... 33014.3 Reasoning and Decision Making ....................................... 33814.4 Plan-Based Robot Control .............................................. 34614.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 351Video-References ............................................................... 351References ....................................................................... 352

15 Robot LearningJan Peters, Daniel D. Lee, Jens Kober, Duy Nguyen-Tuong,J. Andrew Bagnell, Stefan Schaal .............................................. 35715.1 What Is Robot Learning ................................................. 35815.2 Model Learning .......................................................... 36015.3 Reinforcement Learning ................................................ 37215.4 Conclusions .............................................................. 385Video-References ............................................................... 386References ....................................................................... 386

Part B Design

16 Design and Performance EvaluationJorge Angeles, Frank C. Park .................................................... 39916.1 The Robot Design Process ............................................... 40016.2 Workspace Criteria....................................................... 40116.3 Dexterity Indices......................................................... 40516.4 Other Performance Indices ............................................. 40816.5 Other Robot Types ....................................................... 41116.6 Summary ................................................................. 416References ....................................................................... 416

17 Limbed SystemsShuuji Kajita, Christian Ott ..................................................... 41917.1 Design of Limbed Systems .............................................. 42017.2 Conceptual Design....................................................... 42017.3 Whole Design Process Example......................................... 42317.4 Model Induced Design .................................................. 42717.5 Various Limbed Systems ................................................ 43417.6 Performance Indices .................................................... 437Video-References ............................................................... 439References ....................................................................... 440

Contents XLVII

18 Parallel MechanismsJean-Pierre Merlet, Clément Gosselin, Tian Huang ........................... 44318.1 Definitions ............................................................... 44318.2 Type Synthesis of Parallel Mechanisms ................................ 44518.3 Kinematics ............................................................... 44618.4 Velocity and Accuracy Analysis ......................................... 44718.5 Singularity Analysis ..................................................... 44818.6 Workspace Analysis...................................................... 45018.7 Static Analysis ........................................................... 45118.8 Dynamic Analysis ........................................................ 45218.9 Design .................................................................... 45218.10 Wire-Driven Parallel Robots ............................................ 45318.11 Application Examples ................................................... 45518.12 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 455Video-References ............................................................... 456References ....................................................................... 456

19 Robot HandsClaudio Melchiorri, Makoto Kaneko............................................ 46319.1 Basic Concepts ........................................................... 46419.2 Design of Robot Hands.................................................. 46519.3 Technologies for Actuation and Sensing .............................. 47019.4 Modeling and Control of a Robot Hand ............................... 47319.5 Applications and Trends ................................................ 47719.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 478Video-References ............................................................... 478References ....................................................................... 479

20 Snake-Like and Continuum RobotsIan D. Walker, Howie Choset, Gregory S. Chirikjian ........................... 48120.1 Snake Robots – Short History .......................................... 48120.2 Continuum Robots – Short History..................................... 48520.3 Snake-Like and Continuum Robot Modeling.......................... 48720.4 Modeling of Locomotion for Snake-Like

and Continuum Mechanisms ........................................... 49120.5 Conclusion and Extensions to Related Areas .......................... 492Video-References ............................................................... 492References ....................................................................... 493

21 Actuators for Soft RoboticsAlin Albu-Schäffer, Antonio Bicchi ............................................. 49921.1 Background .............................................................. 50021.2 Soft Robot Design........................................................ 50221.3 Modeling Actuators for Soft Robotics .................................. 50821.4 Modeling Soft Robots ................................................... 51121.5 Stiffness Estimation ..................................................... 51321.6 Cartesian Stiffness Control .............................................. 51521.7 Periodic Motion Control ................................................. 51821.8 Optimal Control of Soft Robots ......................................... 52121.9 Conclusions and Open Problems ....................................... 524

XLVIII Contents

Video-References ............................................................... 525References ....................................................................... 526

22 Modular RobotsI-Ming Chen, Mark Yim ......................................................... 53122.1 Concepts and Definitions ............................................... 53122.2 Reconfigurable Modular Manipulators ................................ 53322.3 Self-Reconfigurable Modular Robots .................................. 53522.4 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 539Video-References ............................................................... 540References ....................................................................... 540

23 Biomimetic RobotsKyu-Jin Cho, Robert Wood ...................................................... 54323.1 Overview ................................................................. 54423.2 Components of Biomimetic Robot Design ............................. 54423.3 Mechanisms.............................................................. 54523.4 Material and Fabrication ............................................... 56123.5 Conclusion ............................................................... 567Video-References ............................................................... 568References ....................................................................... 570

24 Wheeled RobotsWoojin Chung, Karl Iagnemma ................................................ 57524.1 Overview ................................................................. 57524.2 Mobility of Wheeled Robots ............................................ 57624.3 Wheeled Robot Structures .............................................. 58224.4 Wheel–Terrain Interaction Models ..................................... 58624.5 Wheeled Robot Suspensions ........................................... 58924.6 Conclusions .............................................................. 592Video-References ............................................................... 592References ....................................................................... 593

25 Underwater RobotsHyun-Taek Choi, Junku Yuh .................................................... 59525.1 Background .............................................................. 59525.2 Mechanical Systems ..................................................... 59625.3 Power Systems ........................................................... 59925.4 Underwater Actuators and Sensors .................................... 60125.5 Computers, Communications, and Architecture....................... 60625.6 Underwater Manipulators .............................................. 61425.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 617Video-References ............................................................... 617References ....................................................................... 618

26 Flying RobotsStefan Leutenegger, Christoph Hürzeler, Amanda K. Stowers, Kostas Alexis,Markus W. Achtelik, David Lentink, Paul Y. Oh, Roland Siegwart ........... 62326.1 Background and History ................................................ 62426.2 Characteristics of Aerial Robotics ....................................... 62526.3 Basics of Aerodynamics and Flight Mechanics ........................ 62926.4 Airplane Modeling and Design ......................................... 641

Contents XLIX

26.5 Rotorcraft Modeling and Design........................................ 64726.6 Flapping Wing Modeling and Design .................................. 65326.7 System Integration and Realization.................................... 65926.8 Applications of Aerial Robots ........................................... 66226.9 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 666Video-References ............................................................... 666References ....................................................................... 667

27 Micro-/NanorobotsBradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong, Fumihito Arai ................................. 67127.1 Overview of Micro- and Nanorobotics ................................. 67127.2 Scaling.................................................................... 67427.3 Actuation at the Micro- and Nanoscales .............................. 67527.4 Imaging at the Micro- and Nanoscales................................ 67627.5 Fabrication ............................................................... 67827.6 Microassembly ........................................................... 68127.7 Microrobotics ............................................................ 68727.8 Nanorobotics............................................................. 69227.9 Conclusions .............................................................. 704Video-References ............................................................... 704References ....................................................................... 705

Part C Sensing and Perception

28 Force and Tactile SensingMark R. Cutkosky, William Provancher......................................... 71728.1 Overview ................................................................. 71728.2 Sensor Types ............................................................. 71828.3 Tactile Information Processing ......................................... 72528.4 Integration Challenges .................................................. 73028.5 Conclusions and Future Developments ................................ 731Video-References ............................................................... 731References ....................................................................... 731

29 Inertial Sensing, GPS and OdometryGregory Dudek, Michael Jenkin ................................................ 73729.1 Odometry ................................................................ 73729.2 Gyroscopic Systems ...................................................... 73929.3 Accelerometers .......................................................... 74229.4 IMU Packages ............................................................ 74329.5 Satellite-Based Positioning (GPS and GNSS) .......................... 74429.6 GPS-IMU Integration .................................................... 74929.7 Further Reading ......................................................... 75029.8 Currently Available Hardware .......................................... 750References ....................................................................... 751

30 Sonar SensingLindsay Kleeman, Roman Kuc .................................................. 75330.1 Sonar Principles ......................................................... 75430.2 Sonar Beam Pattern ..................................................... 75630.3 Speed of Sound.......................................................... 758

L Contents

30.4 Waveforms ............................................................... 75830.5 Transducer Technologies ................................................ 75930.6 Reflecting Object Models................................................ 76030.7 Artifacts .................................................................. 76130.8 TOF Ranging.............................................................. 76230.9 Echo Waveform Coding.................................................. 76530.10 Echo Waveform Processing.............................................. 76730.11 CTFM Sonar ............................................................... 76930.12 Multipulse Sonar ........................................................ 77230.13 Sonar Rings and Arrays ................................................. 77330.14 Motion Effects ........................................................... 77530.15 Biomimetic Sonars ...................................................... 77830.16 Conclusions .............................................................. 779Video-References ............................................................... 780References ....................................................................... 780

31 Range SensingKurt Konolige, Andreas Nüchter ................................................ 78331.1 Range Sensing Basics ................................................... 78331.2 Sensor Technologies..................................................... 78531.3 Registration .............................................................. 79431.4 Navigation and Terrain Classification and Mapping .................. 80431.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 807References ....................................................................... 807

32 3-D Vision for Navigation and GraspingDanica Kragic, Kostas Daniilidis ............................................... 81132.1 Geometric Vision ........................................................ 81232.2 3-D Vision for Grasping ................................................. 82032.3 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 822Video-References ............................................................... 822References ....................................................................... 822

33 Visual Object Class RecognitionMichael Stark, Bernt Schiele, Aleš Leonardis .................................. 82533.1 Object Classes ............................................................ 82533.2 Review of the State of the Art .......................................... 82633.3 Discussion and Conclusions ............................................ 837References ....................................................................... 838

34 Visual ServoingFrançois Chaumette, Seth Hutchinson, Peter Corke ........................... 84134.1 The Basic Components of Visual Servoing ............................. 84234.2 Image-Based Visual Servo .............................................. 84334.3 Pose-Based Visual Servo................................................ 85134.4 Advanced Approaches................................................... 85434.5 Performance Optimization and Planning ............................. 85634.6 Estimation of 3-D Parameters .......................................... 85834.7 Determining s� and Matching Issues .................................. 85934.8 Target Tracking ........................................................... 859

Contents LI

34.9 Eye-in-Hand and Eye-to-Hand Systems Controlledin the Joint Space ....................................................... 860

34.10 Under Actuated Robots ................................................. 86134.11 Applications.............................................................. 86334.12 Conclusions .............................................................. 863Video-References ............................................................... 863References ....................................................................... 863

35 Multisensor Data FusionHugh Durrant-Whyte, Thomas C. Henderson.................................. 86735.1 Multisensor Data Fusion Methods...................................... 86735.2 Multisensor Fusion Architectures....................................... 88035.3 Applications.............................................................. 88535.4 Conclusions .............................................................. 889Video-References ............................................................... 889References ....................................................................... 890

Part D Manipulation and Interfaces

36 Motion for Manipulation TasksJames Kuffner, Jing Xiao ........................................................ 89736.1 Overview ................................................................. 89836.2 Task-Level Control ....................................................... 90036.3 Manipulation Planning ................................................. 90436.4 Assembly Motion ........................................................ 91136.5 Unifying Feedback Control and Planning.............................. 91836.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 920Video-References ............................................................... 923References ....................................................................... 923

37 Contact Modeling and ManipulationImin Kao, Kevin M. Lynch, Joel W. Burdick .................................... 93137.1 Overview ................................................................. 93137.2 Kinematics of Rigid-Body Contact ..................................... 93237.3 Forces and Friction ...................................................... 93637.4 Rigid-Body Mechanics with Friction ................................... 93937.5 Pushing Manipulation .................................................. 94237.6 Contact Interfaces and Modeling....................................... 94337.7 Friction Limit Surface.................................................... 94637.8 Contacts in Grasping and Fixture Designs ............................. 94937.9 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 950Video-References ............................................................... 951References ....................................................................... 951

38 GraspingDomenico Prattichizzo, Jeffrey C. Trinkle....................................... 95538.1 Models and Definitions ................................................. 95638.2 Controllable Twists and Wrenches ..................................... 96138.3 Compliant Grasps ........................................................ 96538.4 Restraint Analysis ....................................................... 967

LII Contents

38.5 Examples ................................................................. 97538.6 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 985Video-References ............................................................... 986References ....................................................................... 986

39 Cooperative ManipulationFabrizio Caccavale, Masaru Uchiyama ......................................... 98939.1 Historical Overview ...................................................... 99039.2 Kinematics and Statics .................................................. 99139.3 Cooperative Task Space.................................................. 99539.4 Dynamics and Load Distribution ....................................... 99639.5 Task-Space Analysis ..................................................... 99839.6 Control.................................................................... 99939.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1003Video-References ............................................................... 1004References ....................................................................... 1004

40 Mobility and ManipulationOliver Brock, Jaeheung Park, Marc Toussaint ................................. 100740.1 Grasping and Manipulation ............................................ 100940.2 Control.................................................................... 101340.3 Motion Generation ...................................................... 101740.4 Learning.................................................................. 102140.5 Perception ............................................................... 102540.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1029Video-References ............................................................... 1029References ....................................................................... 1030

41 Active Manipulation for PerceptionAnna Petrovskaya, Kaijen Hsiao................................................ 103741.1 Perception via Manipulation ........................................... 103741.2 Object Localization ...................................................... 103841.3 Learning About an Object............................................... 104941.4 Recognition .............................................................. 105441.5 Conclusions .............................................................. 1057Video-References ............................................................... 1058References ....................................................................... 1058

42 HapticsBlake Hannaford, Allison M. Okamura ........................................ 106342.1 Overview ................................................................. 106442.2 Haptic Device Design .................................................... 106842.3 Haptic Rendering ........................................................ 107142.4 Control and Stability of Force Feedback Interfaces ................... 107342.5 Other Types of Haptic Interfaces........................................ 107542.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1079References ....................................................................... 1079

43 TeleroboticsGünter Niemeyer, Carsten Preusche, Stefano Stramigioli, Dongjun Lee ..... 108543.1 Overview and Terminology ............................................. 1085

Contents LIII

43.2 Telerobotic Systems and Applications ................................. 108743.3 Control Architectures .................................................... 109043.4 Bilateral Control and Force Feedback .................................. 109543.5 Emerging Applications of Telerobotics ................................. 110143.6 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1104Video-References ............................................................... 1104References ....................................................................... 1105

44 Networked RobotsDezhen Song, Ken Goldberg, Nak-Young Chong.............................. 110944.1 Overview and Background.............................................. 110944.2 A Brief History ........................................................... 111044.3 Communications and Networking ..................................... 111244.4 Properties of Networked Robots ....................................... 111544.5 Cloud Robotics ........................................................... 112144.6 Conclusion and Future Directions ...................................... 1125Video-References ............................................................... 1126References ....................................................................... 1126

Part E Moving in the Environment

45 World ModelingWolfram Burgard, Martial Hebert, Maren Bennewitz......................... 113545.1 Historical Overview ...................................................... 113645.2 Models for Indoors and Structured Environments .................... 113745.3 World and Terrain Models for Natural Environments ................. 114145.4 Dynamic Environments ................................................. 114945.5 Summary and Further Reading......................................... 1149Video-References ............................................................... 1150References ....................................................................... 1150

46 Simultaneous Localization and MappingCyrill Stachniss, John J. Leonard, Sebastian Thrun ........................... 115346.1 SLAM: Problem Definition............................................... 115446.2 The Three Main SLAM Paradigms ....................................... 115746.3 Visual and RGB-D SLAM ................................................. 116646.4 Conclusion and Future Challenges ..................................... 1169Video-References ............................................................... 1170References ....................................................................... 1171

47 Motion Planning and Obstacle AvoidanceJavier Minguez, Florant Lamiraux, Jean-Paul Laumond ..................... 117747.1 Nonholonomic Mobile Robots: Where Motion Planning

Meets Control Theory .................................................... 117847.2 Kinematic Constraints and Controllability ............................. 117947.3 Motion Planning and Small-Time Controllability ..................... 118047.4 Local Steering Methods and Small-Time Controllability.............. 118147.5 Robots and Trailers ...................................................... 118447.6 Approximate Methods .................................................. 118647.7 From Motion Planning to Obstacle Avoidance ........................ 1187

LIV Contents

47.8 Definition of Obstacle Avoidance ...................................... 118747.9 Obstacle Avoidance Techniques ........................................ 118847.10 Robot Shape, Kinematics, and Dynamics in Obstacle Avoidance.... 119447.11 Integration Planning – Reaction ....................................... 119647.12 Conclusions, Future Directions, and Further Reading ................ 1198Video-References ............................................................... 1199References ....................................................................... 1199

48 Modeling and Control of Legged RobotsPierre-Brice Wieber, Russ Tedrake, Scott Kuindersma ........................ 120348.1 A Brief History of Legged Robots ....................................... 120448.2 The Dynamics of Legged Locomotion .................................. 120448.3 Stability Analysis – Not Falling Down.................................. 120948.4 Generation of Dynamic Walking and Running Motions .............. 121448.5 Motion and Force Control ............................................... 122248.6 Towards More Efficient Walking ........................................ 122548.7 Different Contact Behaviors............................................. 122748.8 Conclusion ............................................................... 1228References ....................................................................... 1228

49 Modeling and Control of Wheeled Mobile RobotsClaude Samson, Pascal Morin, Roland Lenain ................................ 123549.1 Background .............................................................. 123649.2 Control Models........................................................... 123849.3 Adaptation of Control Methods for Holonomic Systems .............. 124049.4 Methods Specific to Nonholonomic Systems .......................... 124149.5 Path Following in the Case of Nonideal Wheel-Ground Contact .... 125549.6 Complementary Issues and Bibliographical Guide ................... 1261Video-References ............................................................... 1263References ....................................................................... 1263

50 Modeling and Control of Robots on Rough TerrainKeiji Nagatani, Genya Ishigami, Yoshito Okada .............................. 126750.1 Overview ................................................................. 126850.2 Modeling of Wheeled Robot in Rough Terrain ........................ 127050.3 Control of Wheeled Robot in Rough Terrain ........................... 127450.4 Modeling of Tracked Vehicle on Rough Terrain........................ 127650.5 Stability Analysis of Tracked Vehicles .................................. 127850.6 Control of Tracked Vehicle on Rough Terrain .......................... 127950.7 Summary ................................................................. 1281Video-References ............................................................... 1281References ....................................................................... 1282

51 Modeling and Control of Underwater RobotsGianluca Antonelli, Thor I. Fossen, Dana R. Yoerger ......................... 128551.1 The Expanding Role of Marine Robotics in Oceanic Engineering .... 128551.2 Underwater Robotics .................................................... 128751.3 Applications.............................................................. 130251.4 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1303Video-References ............................................................... 1304References ....................................................................... 1304

Contents LV

52 Modeling and Control of Aerial RobotsRobert Mahony, Randal W. Beard, Vijay Kumar .............................. 130752.1 Overview ................................................................. 130752.2 Modeling Aerial Robotic Vehicles ...................................... 130952.3 Control.................................................................... 131652.4 Trajectory Planning...................................................... 132452.5 Estimating the Vehicle State............................................ 132852.6 Conclusion ............................................................... 1330Video-References ............................................................... 1331References ....................................................................... 1331

53 Multiple Mobile Robot SystemsLynne E. Parker, Daniela Rus, Gaurav S. Sukhatme ........................... 133553.1 History.................................................................... 133653.2 Architectures for Multirobot Systems................................... 133753.3 Communication.......................................................... 133953.4 Networked Mobile Robots .............................................. 134053.5 Swarm Robots ........................................................... 135153.6 Modular Robotics........................................................ 135453.7 Heterogeneity............................................................ 135753.8 Task Allocation........................................................... 135953.9 Learning.................................................................. 136153.10 Applications.............................................................. 136253.11 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1366Video-References ............................................................... 1366References ....................................................................... 1367

Part F Robots at Work

54 Industrial RoboticsMartin Hägele, Klas Nilsson, J. Norberto Pires, Rainer Bischoff ............. 138554.1 Industrial Robotics: The Main Driver for Robotics Research

and Application ......................................................... 138654.2 A Short History of Industrial Robots ................................... 138654.3 Industrial Robot Kinematics ............................................ 139254.4 Typical Industrial Robot Applications .................................. 139354.5 Safe Human–Robot Collaboration ..................................... 140554.6 Task Descriptions – Teaching and Programming...................... 140954.7 System Integration ...................................................... 141454.8 Outlook and Long-Term Challenges.................................... 1416Video-References ............................................................... 1418References ....................................................................... 1418

55 Space RoboticsKazuya Yoshida, Brian Wilcox, Gerd Hirzinger, Roberto Lampariello ....... 142355.1 Historical Developments and Advances of Orbital Robotic Systems . 142455.2 Historical Developments and Advances of Surface Robotic Systems. 143055.3 Mathematical Modeling................................................. 143755.4 Future Directions of Orbital and Surface Robotic Systems............ 145255.5 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1457

LVI Contents

Video-References ............................................................... 1457References ....................................................................... 1458

56 Robotics in Agriculture and ForestryMarcel Bergerman, John Billingsley, John Reid, Eldert van Henten ......... 146356.1 Section Scope ............................................................ 146456.2 Challenges and Opportunities .......................................... 146556.3 Case Studies.............................................................. 146756.4 Conclusion ............................................................... 1487Video-References ............................................................... 1488References ....................................................................... 1489

57 Robotics in ConstructionKamel S. Saidi, Thomas Bock, Christos Georgoulas ........................... 149357.1 Overview ................................................................. 149457.2 Offsite Applications of Robotics in Construction ...................... 149957.3 Onsite Applications of Single Task Construction Robots .............. 150457.4 Integrated Robotized Construction Sites............................... 151157.5 Currently Unsolved Technical Problems................................ 151457.6 Future Directions ........................................................ 151657.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1516Video-References ............................................................... 1517References ....................................................................... 1517

58 Robotics in Hazardous ApplicationsJames Trevelyan, William R. Hamel, Sung-Chul Kang........................ 152158.1 Operation in Hazardous Environments:

The Need for a Robotics Solution ...................................... 152158.2 Applications.............................................................. 152358.3 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 153758.4 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1544Video-References ............................................................... 1545References ....................................................................... 1546

59 Robotics in MiningJoshua A. Marshall, Adrian Bonchis, Eduardo Nebot, Steven Scheding .... 154959.1 Modern Mining Practice................................................. 155059.2 Surface Mining........................................................... 155259.3 Underground Mining .................................................... 156259.4 Challenges and Industry Acceptance .................................. 156859.5 Challenges, Outlook, and Conclusion .................................. 1569Video-References ............................................................... 1571References ....................................................................... 1572

60 Disaster RoboticsRobin R. Murphy, Satoshi Tadokoro, Alexander Kleiner ...................... 157760.1 Overview ................................................................. 157860.2 Disaster Characteristics and Impact on Robots........................ 158160.3 Robots Actually Used at Disasters ...................................... 158260.4 Robots at the Fukushima-Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident ... 158860.5 Lessons Learned, Challenges, and Novel Approaches ................ 1591

Contents LVII

60.6 Evaluation ............................................................... 159860.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1600Video-References ............................................................... 1601References ....................................................................... 1601

61 Robot Surveillance and SecurityWendell H. Chun, Nikolaos Papanikolopoulos ................................ 160561.1 Overview ................................................................. 160561.2 Application Domains .................................................... 160761.3 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 160861.4 Active Research .......................................................... 161761.5 Conclusion ............................................................... 1622Video-References ............................................................... 1623References ....................................................................... 1623

62 Intelligent VehiclesAlberto Broggi, Alex Zelinsky, Ümit Özgüner, Christian Laugier ............. 162762.1 The Motivation and Approaches to Intelligent Vehicles .............. 162862.2 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 163262.3 Road Scene Understanding ............................................. 163562.4 Advanced Driver Assistance............................................. 163962.5 Driver Monitoring........................................................ 164562.6 Towards Fully Autonomous Vehicles .................................. 164762.7 Future Trends and Prospects ........................................... 165062.8 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1651Video-References ............................................................... 1651References ....................................................................... 1652

63 Medical Robotics and Computer-Integrated SurgeryRussell H. Taylor, Arianna Menciassi, Gabor Fichtinger, Paolo Fiorini,Paolo Dario ...................................................................... 165763.1 Core Concepts ............................................................ 165863.2 Technology ............................................................... 166263.3 Systems, Research Areas, and Applications ........................... 166763.4 Conclusion and Future Directions ...................................... 1675Video-References ............................................................... 1676References ....................................................................... 1676

64 Rehabilitation and Health Care RoboticsH.F. Machiel Van der Loos, David J. Reinkensmeyer, Eugenio Guglielmelli . 168564.1 Overview ................................................................. 168664.2 Rehabilitation Therapy and Training Robots .......................... 169264.3 Aids for People with Disabilities ....................................... 170364.4 Smart Prostheses and Orthoses ........................................ 171164.5 Augmentation for Diagnosis and Monitoring ......................... 171364.6 Safety, Ethics, Access and Economics .................................. 171564.7 Conclusions and Further Readings ..................................... 1716Video-References ............................................................... 1717References ....................................................................... 1718

LVIII Contents

65 Domestic RoboticsErwin Prassler, Mario E. Munich, Paolo Pirjanian, Kazuhiro Kosuge ........ 172965.1 Mobile Domestic Robotics .............................................. 173065.2 Enabling Technologies .................................................. 174765.3 Smart Homes ............................................................ 1754Video-References ............................................................... 1757References ....................................................................... 1757

66 Robotics Competitions and ChallengesDaniele Nardi, Jonathan Roberts, Manuela Veloso, Luke Fletcher........... 175966.1 Introduction ............................................................. 176066.2 Overview ................................................................. 176066.3 Competitions Inspired by Human Competitions ...................... 176266.4 Task-Oriented Competitions ............................................ 176966.5 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 1780Video-References ............................................................... 1781References ....................................................................... 1781

Part G Robots and Humans

67 HumanoidsPaul Fitzpatrick, Kensuke Harada, Charles C. Kemp, Yoshio Matsumoto,Kazuhito Yokoi, Eiichi Yoshida ................................................. 178967.1 Why Humanoids? ........................................................ 178967.2 History.................................................................... 179267.3 What to Immitate? ...................................................... 179467.4 Locomotion .............................................................. 179567.5 Whole-Body Activities .................................................. 180167.6 Morphological Communication......................................... 180967.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 1813Video-References ............................................................... 1813References ....................................................................... 1813

68 Human Motion ReconstructionKatsu Yamane, Wataru Takano................................................. 181968.1 Overview ................................................................. 181968.2 Models and Computations.............................................. 182068.3 Reconstruction for Understanding ..................................... 182568.4 Reconstruction for Robots .............................................. 1829Video-References ............................................................... 1830References ....................................................................... 1831

69 Physical Human–Robot InteractionSami Haddadin, Elizabeth Croft................................................ 183569.1 Classification............................................................. 183669.2 Human Safety............................................................ 183969.3 Human-Friendly Robot Design ......................................... 184769.4 Control for Physical Interaction ........................................ 185369.5 Motion Planning for Human Environments ........................... 185969.6 Interaction Planning .................................................... 1862

Contents LIX

69.7 Conclusions and Challenges ............................................ 1867Video-References ............................................................... 1868References ....................................................................... 1869

70 Human–Robot AugmentationMassimo Bergamasco, Hugh Herr .............................................. 187570.1 Concept and Definitions ................................................ 187670.2 Upper Limb Wearable Systems ......................................... 187770.3 Lower Limb Wearable Systems.......................................... 188270.4 Whole Body Wearable Systems ......................................... 188970.5 Control of Human–Robot Augmentation Systems .................... 189270.6 Conclusions and Further Developments ............................... 1902Video-References ............................................................... 1902References ....................................................................... 1902

71 Cognitive Human–Robot InteractionBilge Mutlu, Nicholas Roy, Selma Šabanović .................................. 190771.1 Human Models of Interaction .......................................... 190871.2 Robot Models of Interaction ............................................ 191471.3 Models of Human–Robot Interaction.................................. 191671.4 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 1927Video-References ............................................................... 1927References ....................................................................... 1928

72 Social RoboticsCynthia Breazeal, Kerstin Dautenhahn, Takayuki Kanda..................... 193572.1 Overview ................................................................. 193672.2 Social Robot Embodiment .............................................. 193672.3 Social Robots and Social-Emotional Intelligence..................... 193872.4 Socio-Cognitive Skills ................................................... 194172.5 Human Social Responses to Social Robots............................. 194472.6 Social Robots and Communication Skills .............................. 194672.7 Long-Term Interaction with Robot Companions ...................... 195072.8 Tactile Interaction with Social Robots ................................. 195472.9 Social Robots and Teamwork ........................................... 195872.10 Conclusion ............................................................... 195972.11 Further Reading ......................................................... 1960Video-References ............................................................... 1960References ....................................................................... 1961

73 Socially Assistive RoboticsMaja J. Matarić, Brian Scassellati .............................................. 197373.1 Overview ................................................................. 197373.2 The Need for Socially Assistive Robotics ............................... 197473.3 Advantages of Embodied Robots over Virtual Agents ................ 197573.4 Motivation, Autonomy, and Companionship.......................... 197773.5 Influence and the Dynamics of Assistive Interaction ................. 197873.6 Personalization and Adaptation to Specific Needs and Abilities .... 197873.7 Creating Long-Term Engagement and Behaviour Change ............ 197973.8 SAR for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Therapy ..................... 198073.9 SAR Supporting Rehabilitation ......................................... 1982

LX Contents

73.10 SAR and Eldercare ....................................................... 198573.11 SAR for Alzheimer’s Dementia and Cognitive Rehabilitation ........ 198673.12 Ethical and Safety Considerations...................................... 1987References ....................................................................... 1988

74 Learning from HumansAude G. Billard, Sylvain Calinon, Rüdiger Dillmann.......................... 199574.1 Learning of Robots ...................................................... 199574.2 Key Issues When Learning from Human Demonstrations ............ 199874.3 Interfaces for Demonstration ........................................... 200074.4 Algorithms to Learn from Humans ..................................... 200274.5 Conclusions and Open Issues in Robot LfD ............................ 2008Video-References ............................................................... 2009References ....................................................................... 2009

75 Biologically Inspired RoboticsFumiya Iida, Auke Jan Ijspeert ................................................. 201575.1 General Background..................................................... 201675.2 Methodology............................................................. 201775.3 Case Studies.............................................................. 202175.4 Landscape of Bio-Inspired Robotics Research and Challenges ...... 202675.5 Conclusion ............................................................... 2028Video-References ............................................................... 2028References ....................................................................... 2029

76 Evolutionary RoboticsStefano Nolfi, Josh Bongard, Phil Husbands, Dario Floreano................ 203576.1 Method ................................................................... 203676.2 First Steps ................................................................ 203676.3 Simulation and Reality.................................................. 204076.4 Behavior as a Complex Adaptive System .............................. 204176.5 Evolving Bodies.......................................................... 204476.6 Seeing the Light ......................................................... 204676.7 Computational Neuroethology ......................................... 204976.8 Evolution and Learning ................................................. 205476.9 Evolution of Social Behavior............................................ 205776.10 Evolutionary Hardware ................................................. 206076.11 Closing Remarks ......................................................... 2061Video-References ............................................................... 2061References ....................................................................... 2062

77 Neurorobotics: From Vision to ActionPatrick van der Smagt, Michael A. Arbib, Giorgio Metta ..................... 206977.1 Definitions and History ................................................. 207077.2 The Case for Vision ...................................................... 207177.3 Vertebrate Motor Control................................................ 207577.4 The Role of Mirror Systems.............................................. 208277.5 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 2089References ....................................................................... 2090

Contents LXI

78 Perceptual RoboticsHeinrich Bülthoff, Christian Wallraven, Martin A. Giese...................... 209578.1 Perceptual Mechanisms of Object Representations................... 209778.2 Perceptual Mechanisms of Action Representation.................... 210378.3 Perceptual Validation of Robotics ...................................... 210778.4 Conclusion and Further Reading ....................................... 2108Video-References ............................................................... 2109References ....................................................................... 2109

79 Robotics for EducationDavid P. Miller, Illah Nourbakhsh .............................................. 211579.1 The Role of Robots in Education ....................................... 211679.2 Educational Robot Tournaments ....................................... 211779.3 Education Robot Platforms ............................................. 212079.4 Education Robot Controllers and Programming Environments ...... 212379.5 Robotic Technologies for Student Learning............................ 212779.6 Educational Evaluation of Robot Programs............................ 212979.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 2131Video-References ............................................................... 2131References ....................................................................... 2131

80 Roboethics: Social and Ethical ImplicationsGianmarco Veruggio, Fiorella Operto, George Bekey ......................... 213580.1 A Methodological Note .................................................. 213780.2 Specificity of Robotics ................................................... 213880.3 Cultural Differences in the Acceptance of Robots ..................... 213880.4 Roboethics Foreshadowed in the Literature .......................... 213980.5 And Expressed in Real Robotics ........................................ 213980.6 Ethics in Science and Technology ...................................... 214080.7 Ethical Issues in an ICT Society ......................................... 214380.8 Human Principles and Rights .......................................... 214480.9 Legal Issues in Robotics ................................................. 214680.10 Roboethics Taxonomy ................................................... 214780.11 Roboethics Enforced: From Ideals to Rules............................ 215680.12 Conclusions and Further Reading ...................................... 2157Video-References ............................................................... 2158References ....................................................................... 2159

Acknowledgements .............................................................. 2161About the Authors ................................................................ 2163Index ................................................................................ 2197

LXIII

List of Abbreviations

Symbols

k-NN k-nearest neighbor0-D zero-dimensional1-D one-dimensional2-D two-dimensional2.5-D two-and-a-half-dimensional3-D three-dimensional3-D-NDT three-dimensional!normal distributions

transform4-D four-dimensional6-D six-dimensional6R six-revolute7R seven-revolute

A

A&F agriculture and forestryAA agonist–antagonistAAAI American Association for Artificial

IntelligenceAAAI Association for the Advancement of

Artificial IntelligenceAAL ambient assisted livingABA articulated-body algorithmABF artificial bacterial flagellaABRT automated!bus rapid transitABS acrylonitrile–butadiene–styreneAC aerodynamic centerAC alternating currentACARP Australian Coal Association Research

ProgramACBS automatic!constructions building systemACC adaptive cruise controlACFV autonomous!combat flying vehicleACM active chord mechanismACM active cord mechanismACT anatomically correct testbedADAS advanced driving assistance systemADC analog digital conveterADCP acoustic Doppler current profilerADL activities for daily livingADSL asymmetric digital subscriber lineAFC alkaline fuel cellAFC armoured (or articulated) face conveyorAFM atomic force microscopeAFV autonomous!flying vehicleAGV autonomous guided vehicleAGV automated!guided vehicle

AHRS attitude and heading reference systemAHS advanced highway systemAI artificial intelligenceAIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and

AstronauticsAIM assembly incidence matrixAIP air-independent powerAIP anterior intraparietal sulcusAIP anterior interparietal areaAIS artificial intelligence systemAIST Institute of Advanced Industrial Science

and TechnologyAIST Japan National Institute of Advanced

Industrial Science and TechnologyAIST National Institute of Advanced

Industrial Science and Technology(Japan)

AIT anterior inferotemporal cortexALEX active leg exoskeletonAM actuator for manipulationAMASC actuator with mechanically adjustable

series complianceAMC Association for Computing MachineryAMD autonomous!mental developmentAMM audio-motor mapANN artificial neural networkAO Arbeitsgemeinschaft für

OstheosynthesefragenAOA angle of attackAP antipersonnelAPF annealed particle filterAPG adjustable pattern generatorAPI application programming interfaceAPOC allowing dynamic selection and changesAR autoregressiveaRDnet agile robot development networkARM Acorn RISC machine architectureARM assistive!robot service manipulatorARX auto regressive estimatorASAP adaptive sampling and predictionASCII American standard code for information

interchangeASD autism spectrum disorderASIC application-specific integrated circuitASIC application-specific feature transformASIMO advanced step in innovative mobilityASK amplitude shift keyingASL autonomous systems laboratoryASM advanced servomanipulator

LXIV List of Abbreviations

ASN active sensor networkASR automatic!spoken-language recognitionASR automatic!speech recognitionASTRO autonomous!space transport robotic

operationsASV adaptive suspension vehicleASyMTRe automated!synthesis of multirobot task

solutions through softwarereconfiguration

AT anti-tank mineATHLETE all-terrain hex-legged extra-terrestrial

explorerATLANTIS a three layer architecture for navigating

through intricate situationsATLSS advanced technology for large structural

systemsATR automatic!target recognitionAuRA autonomous robot architectureAUV autonomous underwater vehicleAUV autonomous aquatic vehicleAUVAC Autonomous Undersea Vehicles

Application CenterAUVSI Association for Unmanned Vehicle

Systems InternationalAV anti-vehicle

B

B/S browser/serverB2B business to businessBCI brain-computer interfaceBE body extenderBEMT blade element momentum theoryBEST boosting!engineering science and

technologyBET blade element theoryBFA bending fluidic actuatorBFP best-first-plannerBI brain imagingBIP behavior-interaction-priorityBLE broadcast of local eligibilityBLEEX Berkely exoskeletonBLUE best linear unbiased estimatorBML behavior!mark-up languageBMS battery management systemBN Bayesian networkBOM bill of materialBOw bag-of-wordBP behavior primitiveBP base plateBRICS best practice in roboticsBRT bus rapid transitBWSTT body-weight supported treadmill

training

C

C cylindrical jointC/A coarse-acquisitionC/S client/serverCA collision avoidanceCACC cooperative adaptive cruise controlCAD computer-aided draftingCAD computer-aided designCAE computer-aided engineeringCALM communication access for land mobilesCAM computer-aided manufacturingCAN controller area networkCARD computer-aided remote drivingCARE coordination action for robotics in

EuropeCASA Civil Aviation Safety AuthorityCASALA Centre for Affective Solutions for

Ambient Living AwarenessCASPER continuous activity scheduling,

planning, execution and replanningCAT collision avoidance technologyCAT computer-aided tomographyCB computional brainCB cluster bombCBRNE chemical, biological, nuclear,

radiological, or explosiveCC compression criterionCCD charge-coupled deviceCCD charge-coupled detectorCCI control command interpreterCCP coverage configuration protocolCCT conservative congruence transformationCCW counterclockwiseCC&D camouflage, concealment, and deceptionCD collision detectionCD committee draftCD compact discCDC cardinal direction calculusCDOM colored dissolved organic matterCE computer ethicCEA Commissariat à l’Énergie AtomiqueCEA Atomic Energy CommissionCEBOT cellular robotic systemCEC Congress on Evolutionary ComputationCEPE Computer Ethics Philosophical EnquiryCES Consumer Electronics ShowCF carbon fiberCF contact formationCF climbing fiberCFD computational fluid dynamicsCFRP carbon fiber reinforced prepregCFRP carbon fiber reinforced plasticCG center of gravity

List of Abbreviations LXV

CG computer graphicsCGI common gateway interfaceCHMM coupled!hidden Markov modelCHMM continuous hidden Markov modelCIC computer integrated constructionCIE International Commission on

IlluminationCIP Children’s Innovation ProjectCIRCA cooperative intelligent real-time control

architectureCIS computer-integrated surgeryCLARAty coupled layered architecture for robot

autonomyCLEaR closed-loop execution and recoveryCLIK closed-loop inverse kinematicsCMAC cerebellar model articulation controllerCMCs ceramic matrix compositeCML concurrent!mapping and localizationCMM coordinate measurement machineCMOMMT cooperative multirobot observation of

multiple moving targetCMOS complementary

metal-oxide-semiconductorCMP centroid moment pivotCMTE Cooperative Research Centre for Mining

Technology and EquipmentCMU Carnegie Mellon UniversityCNC computer numerical controlCNN convolutional neural networkCNP contract net protocolCNRS Centre National de la Recherche

ScientifiqueCNT carbon nanotubeCOCO common objects in contextCOG center of gravityCOM center of massCOMAN compliant humanoid platformCOMEST Commission mondiale d’éthique des

connaissances scientifiques et destechnologies

COMINT communication intelligenceCONE Collaborative Observatory for Nature

EnvironmentsCOP center of pressureCoP center of pressureCOR center of rotationCORBA common object request broker

architectureCORS continuous operating reference stationCOT cost!of transportCOTS commercial off-the-shelfCOV characteristic output vectorCP complementarity problemCP capture point

CP continuous pathCP cerebral palsyCPG central pattern generationCPG central pattern generatorCPS cyber physical systemCPSR Computer Professional for Social

ResponsibilityCPU central processing unitCRASAR Center for Robot-Assisted Search and

RescueCRBA composite-rigid-body algorithmCRF conditional random fieldCRLB Cramér–Rao lower boundCSAIL Computer Science and Artificial

Intelligence LaboratoryCSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial

Research OrganisationCSMA carrier-sense multiple-accessCSP constraint satisfaction problemCSSF Canadian Scientific Submersile FacilityCT computed tomographyCTFM continuous-transmission frequency

modulationCU control unitcv-SLAM ceiling vision SLAMCVD chemical vapor depositionCVIS cooperative vehicle infrastructure

systemCVT continuous variable transmissionCW clockwiseCWS contact!wrench sum

D

D distalD/A digital-to-analogDAC digital analog converterDARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects

AgencyDARS distributed!autonomous robotic systemsDBN dynamic Bayesian networkDBN deep belief networkDC disconnectedDC direct currentDC dynamic!constrainedDCS dynamic covariance scalingDCT discrete!cosine transformDD differentially drivenDDD dangerous, dirty, and drearyDDF decentralized data fusionDDP differential dynamic programmingDDS data distribution serviceDEA differential elastic actuatorDEM discrete!element method

LXVI List of Abbreviations

DFA design!for assemblyDFRA distributed field robot architectureDFT discrete Fourier transformDGPS differential global positioning systemDH Denavit–HartenbergDHMM discrete!hidden Markov modelDHS US Department of Homeland SecurityDIRA distributed!robot architectureDIST Dipartmento di Informatica Sistemica e

TelematicaDL description logicDLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und

RaumfahrtDLR German Aerospace CenterDMFC direct methanol fuel cellDMP dynamic movement primitiveDNA deoxyribonucleic acidDNF dynamic!neural fieldDOD Department of DefenseDOF degree of freedomDOG difference of GaussianDOP dilution of precisionDPLL Davis–Putnam algorithmDPM deformable part modelDPN dip-pen nanolithographyDPSK differential phase shift keyingDRIE deep reactive ion etchingDSM dynamic!state machineDSO Defense Sciences OfficeDSP digital signal processorDSRC dedicated short-range communicationsDU dynamic!unconstrainedDVL Doppler velocity logDWA dynamic window approachDWDM dense wave division multiplexD&D deactivation and decommissioning

E

e-beam electron-beamEAP electroactive polymerEBA energy bounding algorithmEBA extrastriate body part areaEBID electron-beam induced depositionEC externally connectedEC exteroceptionECAI European Conference on Artificial

IntelligenceECD eddy current damperECEF earth-centred, earth-fixedECER European Conference on Educational

RoboticsECG electrocardiogramECU electronics controller unit

EDM electrical discharge machiningEE end-effectorEEG electroencephalographyEGNOS European Geostationary Navigation

Overlay ServiceEHC enhanced horizon controlEHPA exoskeleton!for human performance

augmentationEKF extended Kalman filterELS ethical, legal and societalEM expectation maximizationemf electromotive forceEMG electromyographyEMIB emotion, motivation and intentional

behaviorEMS electrical!master–slave manipulatorEO electroopticalEO elementary operatorEOA end of armEOD explosive!ordnance disposalEP exploratory procedureEP energy packetEPFL Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de

LausanneEPP extended!physiological proprioceptionEPS expandable polystyreneER electrorheologicalER evolutionary!roboticsERA European robotic armERP enterprise resource planningERSP evolution robotics software platformES electrical!stimulationESA European Space AgencyESC electronic speed controllerESL execution support languageESM energy!stability marginESM electric support measureETL Electro-Technical LaboratoryETS-VII Engineering Test Satellite VIIEU European UnionEURON European Robotics Research NetworkEVA extravehicular activityEVRYON evolving morphologies for human–robot

symbiotic interaction

F

F5 frontal area 5FAA Federal Aviation AdministrationFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationFARS Fagg–Arbib–Rizzolatti–SakataFARSA framework for autonomous robotics

simulation and analysis

List of Abbreviations LXVII

fastSLAM fast simultaneous localization andmapping

FB-EHPA full-body EHPAFCU flight control-unitFD friction damperFDA US Food and Drug AssociationFDM fused deposition modelingFE finite elementFEA finite element analysisFEM finite element methodFESEM field-emission SEMFF fast forwardFFI Norwegian defense research

establishmentFFT fast Fourier transformFIFO first-in first-outFIRA Federation of International Robot-soccer

AssociationFIRRE family of integrated rapid response

equipmentFIRST For Inspiration and Recognition of

Science and TechnologyFl-UAS flapping wing unmanned aerial systemFLIR forward!looking infraredFMBT feasible minimum buffering timeFMCW frequency modulation continuous wavefMRI functional!magnetic resonance imagingFMS flexible!manufacturing systemFNS functional!neural stimulationFOA focus of attentionFOG fiber-optic gyroFOPEN foliage penetrationFOPL first-order predicate logicFOV field of viewFP fusion primitiveFPGA field-programmable gate arrayFR false rangeFRI foot rotation indicatorFRP fiber-reinforced plasticsFRP fiber-reinforced prepregfs force!sensorFSA finite-state acceptorFSK frequency shift keyingFSR force sensing resistorFSW friction!stir weldingFTTH fiber to the homeFW fixed-wing

G

GA genetic algorithmGAPP goal as parallel programsGARNICS gardening with a cognitive systemGAS global asymptotic stability

GBAS ground based augmentation systemGCDC Grand Cooperative Driving ChallengeGCER Global Conference on Educational

RoboticsGCR goal-contact relaxationGCS ground!control stationGDP gross!domestic productGenoM generator of modulesGEO geostationary Earth orbitGF grapple fixtureGFRP glass-fiber reinforced plasticGI gastrointestinalGIB GPS intelligent buoysGICHD Geneva International Centre for

Humanitarian DeminingGID geometric!intersection dataGIE generalized-inertia ellipsoidGIS geographic information systemGJM generalized!Jacobian matrixGLONASS globalnaya navigatsionnaya

sputnikovaya sistemaGLS global navigation satellite systemGMAW gas-shielded metal arc weldingGMM Gaussian mixture modelGMSK Gaussian minimum shift keyingGMTI ground!moving target indicatorGNC guidance, navigation, and controlGO golgi!tendon organGP Gaussian processGPCA generalized principal component

analysisGPRS general!packet radio serviceGPS global positioning systemGPU graphics processing unitGRAB guaranteed recursive adaptive boundingGRACE graduate robot attending conferenceGraWoLF gradient-based win or learn fastGSD geon structural descriptionGSN gait sensitivity normGSP Gough–Stewart platformGUI graphical user interfaceGV ground vehicleGVA gross!value addedGZMP generalized!ZMP

H

H helical jointHAL hybrid!assistive limbHAMMER hierarchical!attentive multiple models

for execution and recognitionHASY hand!arm systemHBBA hybrid behavior-based architectureHCI human–computer interaction

LXVIII List of Abbreviations

HD high definitionHD haptic deviceHD-SDI high-definition serial digital interfaceHDSL high data rate digital subscriber lineHE hand!exoskeletonHF hard fingerHF histogram filterHFAC high frequency alternating currentHHMM hierarchical!hidden Markov modelHIC head injury criterionHIII Hybrid III dummyHIP haptic interaction pointHJB Hamilton–Jacobi–BellmanHJI Hamilton–Jacobi–IsaacHMCS human–machine!cooperative systemHMD head-mounted displayHMDS hexamethyldisilazaneHMI human–machine!interactionHMI human–machine!interfaceHMM hidden Markov modelHO human operatorHOG histogram of oriented gradientHOG histogram of oriented featuresHPC high-performance computingHRI human–robot interactionHRI/OS HRI operating systemHRP humanoid robotics projectHRR high resolution radarHRTEM high-resolution transmission electron

microscopeHSGR high safety goalHST Hubble space telescopeHSTAMIDS handheld standoff mine detection systemHSWR high safety wide regionHTAS high tech automotive systemHTML hypertext markup languageHTN hierarchical task networkHTTP hypertext transmission protocolHW/SW hardware/software

I

I/O input/outputI3CON industrialized, integrated, intelligent,

constructionIA interval algebraIA instantaneous!allocationIAA interaction!agentIAB International Association of BioethicsIACAP International Association for Computing

and PhilosophyIAD interaural amplitude differenceIAD intelligent!assisting device

IARC International Aerial RoboticsCompetition

IAS intelligent!autonomous systemIBVS image-based visual servo controlIC integrated chipIC integrated circuitICA independent!component analysisICAPS International Conference on Automated

Planning and SchedulingICAR International Conference on Advanced

RoboticsICBL International Campaign to Ban

LandminesICC instantaneous center of curvatureICE internet communications engineICP iterative closest pointICR instantaneous center of rotationICRA International Conference on Robotics

and AutomationICT information!and communication

technologyID inside diameterID identifierIDE integrated!development environmentIDL interface definition languageIE information!ethicsIED improvised explosive deviceIEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics

EngineersIEKF iterated extended Kalman filterIETF internet!engineering task forceIFA Internationale Funk AusstellungIFOG interferometric fiber-optic gyroIFR International Federation of RoboticsIFREMER Institut français de recherche pour

l’exploitation de la merIFRR International Foundation of Robotics

ResearchIFSAR interferometric SARIHIP intermediate haptic interaction pointIIR infinite impulse responseIIS Internet Information ServicesIIT Istituto Italiano di TecnologiaIJCAI International Joint Conference on

Artificial IntelligenceIK inverse kinematicsILLS instrumented logical sensor systemILO International Labor OrganizationILQR iterative linear quadratic regulatorIM injury measureIMAV International Micro Air VehiclesIMTS intelligent!multimode transit systemIMU inertial measurement unitINS inertia navigation system

List of Abbreviations LXIX

INS inertial navigation systemIO input outputIO inferior oliveIOSS input-output-to-state stabilityIP internet protocolIP interphalangealIPA Institute for Manufacturing Engineering

and AutomationIPC interprocess communicationIPC international AI planning competitionIPMC ionic polymer-metal compositeIPR intellectual property rightIR infraredIRB Institutional Review BoardIREDES International Rock Excavation Data

Exchange StandardIRL in real lifeIRL inverse!reinforcement learningIRLS iteratively reweighted least squareIRNSS Indian regional navigational satellite

systemIROS Intelligent Robots and SystemsIS importance samplingISA industrial standard architectureISA international standard atmosphereISAR inverse SARISDN integrated services digital networkISE international submarine engineeringISER International Symposium on

Experimental RoboticsISM implicit shape modelISO International Organization for

StandardizationISP Internet service providerISR intelligence, surveillance and

reconnaissanceISRR International Symposium of Robotics

ResearchISS international space stationISS input-to-state stabilityIST Instituto Superior TécnicoIST Information Society TechnologiesIT intrinsic tactileIT information!technologyIT inferotemporal cortexITD interaural time differenceIU interaction!unitIV instrumental variableIvP interval programmingIWS intelligent!wheelchair systemIxTeT indexed time table

J

JAEA Japan Atomic Energy AgencyJAMSTEC Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science

and TechnologyJAMSTEC Japan Marine Science and Technology

CenterJAUS joint architecture for unmanned systemsJAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration AgencyJDL joint directors of laboratoriesJEM Japan Experiment ModuleJEMRMS Japanese experiment module remote

manipulator systemJHU Johns Hopkins UniversityJND just noticeable differenceJPL Jet Propulsion LaboratoryJPS jigsaw positioning systemJSC Johnson Space CenterJSIM joint-space inertia matrixJSP Java server pages

K

KAIST Korea Advanced Institute of Scienceand Technology

KERS kinetic energy recovery systemKIPR KISS Institute for Practical RoboticsKLD Kullback–Leibler divergenceKNN k-nearest neighborKR knowledge representationKRISO Korea Research Institute of Ships and

Ocean Engineering

L

L/D lift-to-dragLAAS Laboratory for Analysis and

Architecture of SystemsLADAR laser radarLAGR learning!applied to ground robotsLARC Lie algebra rank conditionLARS Laparoscopic Assistant Robotic SystemLASC Longwall Automation Steering

CommitteeLBL long-baseline systemLCAUV long-range cruising AUVLCC life-cycle-costingLCD liquid-crystal displayLCM light-weight communications and

marshallingLCP linear complementarity problemLCSP linear constraint satisfaction programLDA latent Dirichlet allocationLED light-emitting diodeLENAR lower!extremity nonanthropomorphic

robot

LXX List of Abbreviations

LEO low!Earth orbitLEV leading edge vortexLfD learning!from demonstrationLGN lateral!geniculate nucleusLHD load!haul-dumpLIDAR light detection and rangingLIGA Lithographie, Galvanoumformung,

AbformungLIP linear inverted pendulumLIP lateral!intraparietal sulcusLiPo lithium polymerLLC locality constrained linear codingLMedS least median of squaresLMS laser measurement systemLOG Laplacian of GaussianLOPES lower!extremity powered exoskeletonLOS line-of-sightLP linear programLQG linear quadratic GaussianLQR linear quadratic regulatorLSS logical sensor systemLSVM latent support vector machineLtA lighter-than-airLtA-UAS lighter-than-air systemLTL linear temporal logicLVDT linear variable differential transformerLWR light-weight robot

M

MACA Afghanistan Mine Action CenterMACCEPA mechanically adjustable compliance and

controllable equilibrium positionactuator

MAP maximum a posterioriMARS multiappendage robotic systemMARUM Zentrum für Marine

UmweltwissenschaftenMASE Marine Autonomous Systems

EngineeringMASINT measurement!and signatures intelligenceMAV micro aerial vehiclesMAZE Micro robot maze contestMBA motivated behavioral architectureMBARI Monterey Bay Aquarium Research

InstituteMBE molecular-beam epitaxyMBS mobile!base systemMC Monte CarloMCFC molten carbonate fuel cellMCP magazining, cleaning, plottingMCP metacarpophalangealMCS mission!control system

MDARS mobile!detection assessment andresponse system

MDL minimum description lengthMDP Markov decision processME mechanical!engeneeringMEG magnetoencephalographyMEL Mechanical Engineering LaboratoryMEMS microelectromechanical systemMEP motor!evoked potentialMESSIE multi expert system for scene

interpretation and evaluationMESUR Mars environmental surveyMF mossy fiberMFI micromechanical flying insectMFSK multiple FSKMHS International Symposium on Micro

Mechatronics and Human ScienceMHT multihypothesis trackingMIA mechanical impedance adjusterMIME mirror!image movement enhancerMIMICS multimodal immersive motion

rehabilitation with interactive cognitivesystem

MIMO multiple-input–multiple-outputMIP medial intraparietal sulcusMIPS microprocessor without interlocked

pipeline stagesMIR mode identification and recoveryMIRO middleware for robotMIS minimally invasive surgeryMIT Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyMITI Ministry of International Trade and

IndustryMKL multiple kernel learningML machine!learningMLE maximum likelihood estimateMLR mesencephalic locomotor regionMLS multilevel surface mapMMC metal matrix compositeMMMS multiple master multiple-slaveMMSAE multiple model switching adaptive

estimatorMMSE minimum mean-square errorMMSS multiple master single-slaveMNS mirror!neuron systemMOCVD metallo-organic chemical vapor

depositionMOMR multiple operator multiple robotMOOS mission oriented operating suiteMOOS motion-oriented operating systemMORO mobile robotMOSR multiple operator single robotMP moving plateMPC model predictive control

List of Abbreviations LXXI

MPF manifold particle filterMPFIM multiple!paired forward-inverse modelMPHE multiphalanx hand exoskeletonMPSK Mary phase shift keyingMQAM Mary quadrature amplitude modulationMR magnetorheologicalMR multiple reflectionMR multirobot!taskMRAC model reference adaptive controlMRDS Microsoft robotics developers studioMRF Markov random fieldMRHA multiple!resource host architectureMRI magnetic resonance imagingMRSR Mars rover sample returnMRTA multirobot!task allocationMSAS multifunctional satellite augmentation

systemMSER maximally stable extremal regionMSHA US Mine Safety and Health

AdministrationMSK minimum shift keyingMSL middle-size leagueMSM master–slave!manipulatorMST microsystem technologyMT momentum theoryMT multitaskMT medial temporal areaMTBF mean time between failuresMTI moving target indicatorMVERT move value estimation for robot teamsMWNT multiwalled carbon nanotube

N

N&G nursery and greenhouseNAP nonaccidental propertyNASA National Aeronautics and Space AgencyNASDA National Space Development Agency of

JapanNASREM NASA/NBS standard reference modelNBS National Bureau of StandardsNC numerical controlND nearness diagram navigationNDDS network data distribution serviceNDGPS nationwide different GPS systemNDI nonlinear dynamic inversionNDT normal distributions transformNEMO network!mobilityNEMS nanoelectromechanical systemNEO neodymiumNERVE New England Robotics Validation and

ExperimentationNESM normalized ESM

NIDRR National Institute on Disability andRehabilitation Research

NiMH nickel metal hydride batteryNIMS networked!infomechanical systemsNIOSH United States National Institute for

Occupational Safety and HealthNIRS near infrared spectroscopyNIST National Institute of Standards and

TechnologyNLIS national livestock identification schemeNLP nonlinear!programming problemNMEA National Marine Electronics AssociationNMF nonnegative matrix factorizationNMMI natural machine motion initiativeNMR nuclear!magnetic resonanceNN neural networkNOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric

AdministrationNOAH navigation!and obstacle avoidance helpNOC National Oceanography CentreNOTES natural!orifice transluminal surgeryNPO nonprofit organizationNPS Naval Postgraduate SchoolNQE national qualifying eventNRI national robotics initiativeNRM nanorobotic manipulatorNRTK network real-time kinematicNTPP nontangential proper partNTSC National Television System CommitteeNURBS nonuniform rational B-splineNUWC Naval Undersea Warfare Center

Division NewportNZDF New Zealand Defence Force

O

OAA open!agent architectureOASIS onboard autonomous science

investigation systemOAT optimal arbitrary time-delayOBU on board unitOC optimal controlOCPP optimal!coverage path planningOCR OC roboticsOCT optical!coherence tomographyOCU operator control unitOD outer diameterODE ordinary differential equationODE open dynamics engineODI ordinary differential inclusionOECD Organization for Economic Cooperation

and DevelopmentOKR optokinetic responseOLP offline programming

LXXII List of Abbreviations

OM optical microscopeOM occupancy mapONR US Office of Naval ResearchOOF out of fieldOOTL human!out of the loop controlOPRoS open platform for robotic serviceORCA open robot control architectureORCCAD open robot controller computer aided

designORI open!roboethics initiativeORM obstacle restriction methodOROCOS open robot control softwareORU orbital replacement unitOS operating systemOSC operational-space controlOSIM operational-space inertia matrixOSU Ohio State UniversityOTH over-the-horizonOUR-K ontology based unified robot knowledgeOWL web ontology languageOxIM Oxford intelligent machine

P

P prismatic jointP&O prosthetics!and orthoticPA point algebraPACT perception!for action control theoryPAD pleasure arousal dominancePAFC phosphoric acid fuel cellPAM pneumatic artificial musclePaMini pattern-based mixed-initiativePANi polyanilinePANTOMEC pantograph mechanism drivenPAPA privacy, accuracy, intellectual property,

and accessPAS pseudo-amplitude scanPAT proximity!awareness technologyPB parametric!biasPbD programming!by demonstrationPBVS pose-based visual servo controlPC polycarbonatePC personal computerPC principal contactPC passivity controllerPC proprioceptionPC Purkinje cellPCA principal component analysisPCI peripheral component interconnectPCIe peripheral component interconnect

expressPCL point cloud libraryPCM programmable!construction machinePD proportional–derivative

PDE partial differential equationPDGF power!data grapple fixturePDMS polydimethylsiloxanePDOP positional dilution of precisionPDT proximity!detection technologyPEAS probing environment and adaptive

sleeping protocolPEFC polymer electrolyte fuel cellPEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cellPerceptOR perception!for off-road roboticsPET positron emission tomographyPF particle filterPF parallel!fiberPFC prefrontal cortexPFH point feature histogramPFM potential field methodPGM probabilistic graphical modelPGRL policy gradient!reinforcement learningpHRI physical!human–robot interactionPI policy iterationPI possible!injuryPI propositional integralPI proportional–integralPIC programmable!intelligent computerPID proportional–integral–derivativePIT posterior!inferotemporal cortexPKM parallel kinematics machinePKM parallel kinematic machinePL power loadingPLC programmable!logic controllerPLD programmable!logic devicePLEXIL plan execution interchange languagePLSA probabilistic latent semantic analysisPLZT lead lanthanum zirconate titanatePM permanent magnetPMC polymer matrix compositePMMA polymethyl methacrylatePneuNet pneumatic networkPnP prespective-n-pointPNT Petri net transducerPO partially overlappingPO passivity observerPOE local product-of-exponentialPOI point!of interestPOM polyoxymethylenePOMDP partially observable Markov decision

processPOP partial-order planningPPS precise positioning systemPPy polypyrrolePR positive photoresistPRM probabilistic roadmapPRM probabilistic roadmap methodPRN pseudo-random noise

List of Abbreviations LXXIII

PRoP personal roving presenceProVAR professional vocational assistive robotPRS procedural reasoning systemPS power sourcePSD position sensing devicePSD position-sensitive-devicePSK phase shift keyingPSPM passive set-position modulationPTAM parallel tracking and mappingPTU pan–tilt unitPUMA programmable!universal machine for

assemblyPVA position, velocity, and attitudePVC polyvinyl chloridePVD physical vapor depositionPVDF polyvinylidene fluoridePWM pulse-width modulationPwoF point-contact-without-frictionPZT lead zirconate titanate

Q

QAM quadrature amplitude modulationQD quantum dotQID qualifier, inspection and demonstrationQOLT quality!of life technologyQOS quality of serviceQP quadratic programmingQPSK quadrature phase shift keyingQRIO quest for curiosityQSC quasistatic!constrainedQT quasistatic teleroboticsQZSS quasi-zenith satellite system

R

R revolute jointR.U.R. Rossum’s Universal RobotsRA rectangle algebraRAC Robotics and Automation CouncilRAIM receiver autonomous integrity monitorRALF robotic arm large and flexibleRALPH rapidly adapting lane position handlerRAM random!access memoryRAMS robot-assisted microsurgeryRAMS random!access memory systemRANSAC random sample consensusRAP reactive action packageRAS Robotics and Automation SocietyRBC recognition!by-componentRBF radial!basis function networkRBF radial!basis functionRBT robot!experimentRC radio control

RC robot!controllerRCC region connection calculusRCC remote center of complianceRCM remote!center of motionRCP rover chassis prototypeRCR responsible conduct of researchRCS real-time control systemRCS rig control systemRDT rapidly exploring dense treeRECS robotic!explosive charging systemREINFORCE reward increment = nonnegative factor

� offset reinforcement � characteristiceligibility

RERC Rehabilitation Engineering ResearchCenter

RF radio frequencyRFID radio frequency identificationRG rate gyroRGB-D color camera with depthRGB-D red green blue distanceRGB-D red–green–blue–depthRHIB rigid!hull inflatable boatRIE reactive-ion etchingRIG rate-integrating gyroRISC reduced instruction set computerRL reinforcement learningRLG ring laser gyroscopeRLG random loop generatorRMC resolved momentum controlRMDP relational Markov decision processesRMMS reconfigurable modular manipulator

systemRMS root mean squareRNDF route network definition fileRNEA recursive Newton–Euler algorithmRNN recurrent neural networkRNNPB recurrent neural network with

parametric biasRNS reaction!null-spaceROC receiver operating curveROC remote!operations centreROCCO robot!construction system for computer

integrated constructionROD robot!oriented designROKVISS robotics component verification on ISSROKVISS robotics!components verification on the

ISSROM run-of-mineROM read-only memoryROMAN Robot and Human Interactive

CommunicationROS robot operating systemROV remotely operated vehicleROV remotely!operated underwater vehicle

LXXIV List of Abbreviations

RP rapid prototypingRP-VITA remote presence virtual C independent

telemedicine assistantRPC remote procedure callRPI Rensselaer Polytechnic InstituteRPS room positioning systemRRSD Robotics and Remote Systems DivisionRRT rapidly exploring random treeRS Reeds and SheppRSJ Robotics Society of JapanRSS Robotics Science and SystemsRSTA reconnaissance, surveillance, and target

acquisitionRSU road!side unitRT real-timeRT room temperatureRT reaction!timeRTCMS C104 Radio Technical Commission for

Maritime Services Special Committee104

RTD resistance temperature devicesRTI real-time innovationRTK real-time kinematicsrTMS repetitive!TMSRTS real-time systemRTT real-time toolkitRV rotary vectorRVD rendezvous/dockingRW rotary-wingRWI real-world interfaceRWS robotic workstationR&D research and developmentR&D research and development

S

SA simulated annealingSA selective availabilitySAFMC Singapore Amazing Flying Machine

CompetitionSAI simulation!and active interfacesSAM smoothing and mappingSAN semiautonomous navigationSAR synthetic aperture radarSAR socially assistive roboticsSARSA state action-reward-state-actionSAS synthetic aperture sonarSAS stability augmentation systemSAT International Conference on Theory and

Applications of Satisfiability TestingSBAS satellite-based augmentation systemSBL short baselineSBSS space based space surveillanceSC sparse coding

SCARA selective compliance assembly robotarm

SCI spinal cord!injurysci-fi science fictionSCM smart composite microstructuresSCM soil!contact modelSD standard deviationSDK standard development kitSDK software development kitSDM shape deposition manufacturingSDR software!for distributed roboticsSDV spatial dynamic votingSEA series elastic actuatorSEE standard!end effectorSELF sensorized environment for lifeSEM scanning electron microscopeSET single electron transistorSF soft fingerSFM structure from motionSFX sensor fusion effectSGAS semiglobal asymptotic stabilitySGD stochastic gradient descentSGM semiglobal!matchingSGUUB semiglobal uniform ultimate

boundednessSIFT scale-invariant feature transformSIGINT signal!intelligenceSIR sampling importance resamplingSISO single input single-outputSKM serial!kinematic machinesSLA stereolithographySLAM simultaneous localization and mappingSLICE specification language for ICESLIP spring loaded inverted pendulumSLRV surveyor lunar rover vehicleSLS selective laser sinteringSM static marginSMA shape memory alloySMAS solid material assembly systemSMC sequential Monte CarloSME small!and medium enterprisesSMMS single-master multiple-slaveSMP shape memory polymerSMS short message serviceSMSS single-master single-slaveSMT satisfiabiliy modulo theorySMU safe!motion unitSNAME society of naval architects and marine

engineerSNOM scanning near-field optical microscopySNR signal-to-noise ratioSNS spallation neutron sourceSOFC solid oxide fuel cellSOI silicon-on-insulator

List of Abbreviations LXXV

SOMA stream-oriented messaging architectureSOMR single operator multiple robotSOS save our soulsSOSR single operator single robotSPA sense-plan-actSPaT signal!phase and timingSPAWAR Space and Naval Warfare Systems

CenterSPC self-posture changeabilitySPDM special purpose dexterous manipulatorSPHE single-phalanx hand exoskeletonSPL single!port laparoscopySPL standard!platformSPM scanning probe microscopeSPM spatial pyramid matchingSPMS shearer position measurement systemSPS standard position systemSPU spherical, prismatic, universalSQP sequential!quadratic programmingSR single-robot taskSRA spatial!reasoning agentSRCC spatial remote center complianceSRI Stanford Research InstituteSRMS shuttle remote manipulator systemSSA sparse surface adjustmentSSC smart soft compositeSSL small-size leagueSSRMS space!station remote manipulator systemST single-taskSTEM science, technology, engineering and

mathematicsSTM scanning tunneling microscopeSTP simple temporal problemSTriDER self-excited tripodal dynamic

experimental robotSTS superior!temporal sulcusSUGV small!unmanned ground vehicleSUN scene understandingSURF robust featureSVD singular value decompositionSVM support vector machineSVR support vector regressionSWNT single-walled carbon nanotubeSWRI Southwest Research Institute

T

T-REX teleo-reactive executiveTA time-extended assignmentTAL temporal action logicTAM taxon!affordance modelTAP test action pairTBG time-base generatorTC technical committee

TCFFHRC Trinity College’s Firefighting RobotContest

TCP transfer control protocolTCP tool center pointTCP transmission control protocolTCSP temporal constraint satisfaction problemtDCS transcranial!direct current stimulationTDL task description languageTDT tension-differential typeTECS total energy control systemTEM transmission electron microscopetEODor telerob explosive ordnance disposal and

observation robotTFP total!factor productivityTL temporal logicTMM transfer matrix methodTMS tether management systemTMS transcranial!magnetic stimulationTNT trinitrotolueneTOA time of arrivalTOF time-of-flightToF time-of-flightTORO torque!controlled humanoid robotTPaD tactile pattern displayTPBVP two-point boundary value problemTPP tangential proper partTRC Transportation Research CenterTRIC task space retrieval using inverse

optimal controlTS technical!specificationTSEE teleoperated!small emplacement

excavatorTSP telesensor programmingTTC time-to-collisionTUM Technical University of MunichTV television

U

U universal jointUAS unmanned aircraft systemUAS unmanned!aerial systemUAV unmanned aerial vehicleUAV fusing air vehicleUAV fielded unmanned aerial vehicleUB University of BolognaUBC University of British ColumbiaUBM Universität der Bundeswehr MunichUCLA University of California, Los AngelesUCO uniformly completely observableUDP user datagram protocolUDP user data protocolUGV unmanned!ground vehicleUHD ultrahigh definition

LXXVI List of Abbreviations

UHF ultrahigh frequencyUHV ultrahigh-vacuumUKF unscented Kalman filterULE upper!limb exoskeletonUML unified modeling languageUMV unmanned marine vehicleUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural OrganizationUPnP universal plug and playURC Ubiquitous Robotic CompanionURL uniform resource locatorUSAR urban!search and rescueUSB universal!serial busUSBL ultrashort baselineUSBL ultrashort-baselineUSC University of Southern CaliforniaUSV unmanned!surface vehicleUTC universal coordinated timeUUB uniform ultimate boundednessUUV unmanned underwater vehicleUV ultravioletUVMS underwater vehicle!manipulator systemUWB ultrawide bandUXO unexploded ordnance

V

V2V vehicle-to-vehicleVAS visual!analog scaleVCR video!cassette recordervdW van der WaalsVE virtual environmentVFH vector field histogramVHF very high frequencyVI value iterationVIA variable impedance actuatorVIP ventral intraparietalVM virtual!manipulatorVME Versa Module EuropaVO virtual objectVO velocity obstacleVOC visual object classVOR vestibular-ocular reflexVR variable reluctanceVRML virtual reality modeling language

VS visual servoVS-Joint variable stiffness jointVSA variable stiffness actuatorVTOL vertical take-off and landing

W

W3C WWW consortiumWAAS wide-area augmentation systemWABIAN Waseda bipedal humanoidWABOT Waseda robotWAM whole-arm manipulatorWAN wide-area networkWASP wireless!ad-hoc system for positioningWAVE wireless!access in vehicular

environmentsWCF worst-case factorWCR worst-case rangeWDVI weighted!difference vegetation indexWG world!graphWGS World Geodetic SystemWHOI Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWML wireless markup languageWMR wheeled mobile robotWSN wireless!sensor networkWTA winner-take-allWTC World Trade CenterWWW world wide web

X

XCOM extrapolated center of massXHTML extensible hyper text markup languageXML extensible markup languagexUCE urban!challenge event

Y

YARP yet another robot platform

Z

ZMP zero moment pointZOH zero order holdZP zona pellucida