springer geography
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Springer Geography
Advisory Editors
Mitja Brilly, Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana,Ljubljana, Slovenia
Richard A. Davis, Department of Geology, School of Geosciences, Universityof South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
Nancy Hoalst-Pullen, Department of Geography and Anthropology, KennesawState University, Kennesaw, GA, USA
Michael Leitner, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana StateUniversity, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Mark W. Patterson, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Kennesaw StateUniversity, Kennesaw, GA, USA
Márton Veress, Department of Physical Geography, University of West Hungary,Szombathely, Hungary
The Springer Geography series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific books,aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in geographical research.
The series includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, andconference proceedings. It covers the major topics in geography and geographicalsciences including, but not limited to; Economic Geography, Landscape and UrbanPlanning, Urban Geography, Physical Geography and Environmental Geography.
Springer Geography—now indexed in Scopus
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10180
Mohammad Zaman · Mustafa AlamEditors
Living on the EdgeChar Dwellers in Bangladesh
EditorsMohammad ZamanHohai UniversityNanjing, China
Mustafa AlamUniversity of DhakaDhaka, Bangladesh
ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic)Springer GeographyISBN 978-3-030-73591-3 ISBN 978-3-030-73592-0 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73592-0
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer NatureSwitzerland AG 2021This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whetherthe whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuseof illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, andtransmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similaror dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoes not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevantprotective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this bookare believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors orthe editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for anyerrors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictionalclaims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AGThe registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to the teeming millionsof riverine and coastal char dwellers inBangladesh, who impress us with theirresilience in ‘living on the edge’; to whom weowe an obligation of ensuring a life betterthan what they currently eke out.
Preface
The idea of this book triggered following a series of op-eds by Mohammad Zamanin the Financial Express, Dhaka (March–June 2019) on the plight of communitiesliving in chars within the rivers of Bangladesh.Mustafa Alam, who earlier conductedextensive studies on chars under the aegis of the Flood Action Plan, followed upon the op-eds, suggesting we could together edit a book on the subject of chars inBangladesh.Wewere both enthused by the idea and sent out a Call for Papers in June2019, which received encouraging responses from many of our erstwhile colleaguesand other professionals around the globe.
It is gratifying to note that our initiative has brought together a multidisciplinaryand global team of international and national experts, contributing chapters to thebook on the diverse physical, environmental, socio-economic and institutional issuesconcerning chars inBangladesh.Wehope all thiswill prove valuable to academicians,policy planers and development practitioners alike.
Looking back, compiling this volume was not an easy task. As editors, it was achallenge going through multiple levels of professional interaction with all so manyauthors, providing feedback on their drafts and pulling the net together at the end. Thistruly collaborative task was possible only because we received full and continuoussupport from all concerned in the entire process.
We like to thank Jakia Akter and her Team at the Centre for Environmental andGeographic Information Services (CEGIS) in Dhaka for producing a number ofmaps used in the introductory part of the book. We also want to thank Dr. RobertDoe, Editor of the Springer Series in Geography/Human-Environment Research,and the Springer Production Team Lead Rajan Muthu and Ritu Chandwani for theirunderstanding support.
Sadly, Hugh Brammer (1925–2021), one important contributor to the volume,died of COVID-19 in January 2021. A geographer and a soil scientist of repute,he had a deep love for Bangladesh, which he considered his second home. He wasadvisor to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)—Bangladesh. He will beremembered for his wisdom as well as his warmth and generosity.
Our objective, and indeed, the driving force behind the book, has been to bringthe isolated chars and char people into the forefront of development discourse in the
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x Preface
country. We will consider our sincere effort in producing this volume a success onlywhen this objective is met.
Finally, our families and friends shouldered additional burdens in more ways thanone during the stretch of time over which we prepared the manuscript of the book.We thank them all.
Vancouver, B.C., CanadaVancouver, B.C., Canada
Mohammad ZamanMustafa Alam
About This Book
Panoramic view of charland in the dry season (source The Daily Star, Dhaka)
In Bangladesh, the chars within the river channels are an important part of its land-scape. However, these land masses continue to remain isolated, deprived of services,and pockets of poverty in the country. The char dwellers are vulnerable to naturalhazards like flood and erosion. In addition to these hazards, the coastal chars are facedwith the imminent problem of widespread inundation due to sea level rise resultingfrom climate change.
Within this context, the bookLivingon theEdge:CharDwellers inBangladeshhasbrought together valuable scholarship on the diverse issues relating to the chars andthe communities living in there. This comprehensive collection, with contributionof experts on the subject from across the globe, provides an understanding of the
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problems faced by the char dwellers and also comes up with policy prescriptions forensuring overall welfare of char communities in the country.
Contents
Part I Introduction
1 Background, Approach, and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Mohammad Zaman and Mustafa Alam
Part II The Delta and Charlands
2 The Delta Frontiers: History and Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Mohammad Zaman and Mustafa Alam
3 South Asian Chars as Destabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Jenia Mukherjee and Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt
4 Dynamic Land and Adaptive People of Bengal Basin and ItsCharland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41C. Emdad Haque and Mohammad Jakariya
5 Char Dwellers’ Right to Development in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Indrani Sigamany and Jay Drydyk
Part III Chars in Bangladesh: The Geo-Physical Context
6 Geographical Perspectives on Riverbank Erosion, Charlands,and Floodplains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Harun Rashid and Munshi Khaledur Rahman
7 Application of Remote Sensing to Study the Behaviorand Dynamics of Riverine and Coastal Chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Iffat Huque, Maminul Haque Sarker, and Knut Oberhagemann
8 The Morphology of Riverine Chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121Knut Oberhagemann, Maminul Haque Sarker, and Iffat Huque
9 Formation and Dynamics of Coastal Chars in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . 141Maminul Haque Sarker, Jakia Akter, Iffat Huque,Knut Oberhagemann, and Md. Kamruzzaman Akand
xiii
xiv Contents
10 The Soils of Charlands in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Hugh Brammer
11 Evaluating Future Threats of Climate Change on Riverineand Coastal Chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Shampa, Anisul Haque, M. Ashiqur Rahman, Delowar Hossain,A. Alauddin Azad, and Samsunnahar Mita
Part IV Flood and Erosion Disasters: Coping Strategies andSurvival
12 Floods, Charland Erosions and Settlement Displacementin the Ganges-Padma River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215Shafi Noor Islam
13 Coping Strategies of People Displaced by Riverbank Erosionin the Lower Meghna Estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227Bimal Kanti Paul, Munshi Khaledur Rahman, Thomas Crawford,Scott Curtis, Md. Giasuddin Miah, Rafiqul Islam, and Md. Sariful Islam
14 Role of NGOs in Post-Flood Rehabilitation in Chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241Babul Hossain
15 Flood Proofing to Reduce the Vulnerability of CharCommunities: Experiences and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253Ian Tod and Monzu Morshed
Part V Livelihood Vulnerability, Adaptation and GenderDimension
16 Agriculture in Riverine Chars: Vulnerabilities to ClimateChange and Community-Based Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275Zobaer Ahmed, Hermann Lotze-Campen, and Md. Humayun Kabir
17 Crop Production Patterns and Marketing in Char Areas:Adapting to Hazards and Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291M. Aminur Rahman, M. Shahjahan Mondal, Hamidul Huq,Nandan Mukherjee, and M. Rezaur Rahman
18 Out Migration as a Survival Strategy for Char Dwellers . . . . . . . . . . 307Hafiza Khatun, Md. Humayun Kabir, and Lutfun Nahar
19 Women in Chars: Challenges and Social DevelopmentOpportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323Suzanne Hanchett
Contents xv
Part VI Case Studies on Major Experiments in CharDevelopment
20 The Chars Livelihoods Programme: Experiencesand Learnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341Muhammad Lokman Hossain
21 Sandbar Agricultural Technology and Innovations in Chars . . . . . . . 361A. Z. M. Nazmul Islam Chowdhury
22 Char Development and Settlement Project: Experiencesand Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371Koen de Wilde
23 Livelihood Development in Coastal Chars in the MeghnaEstuary: The Danida Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387Harvey Demaine
Part VII Char Administration and Governance
24 The Charland Administration and Governance: Needfor a Paradigm Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403Mohammad Zaman and Md. Akhtar Hossain
25 Discourses on Char Development in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415Atiur Rahman
Part VIII Summary and Conclusion
26 Rethinking Char Development in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429Mohammad Zaman and Mustafa Alam
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Mohammad Zaman is an international development/resettlement specialist andadvisory professor, National Research Center for Resettlement, Hohai University,Nanjing, China. He carried out extensive ethnographic research on disaster anddisplacement in the Brahmaputra-Jamuna floodplain. For many years, his coreresearch has been on char settlement, their economies and social organizations andhow these have been historically shaped by the colonial and post-colonial land tenureand administration with regard to alluvial and diluvial lands. He is a Fellow of theSociety for Applied Anthropology, and advisor to the Administrative Staff Collegeof India, Hyderabad, India.
Mustafa Alam, a Professor (Retired) in Economics, University of Dhaka,Bangladesh, has a rich background in research on issues relating to integrated waterresources management. He participated as a professional team member in severalFlood Action Plan study components in Bangladesh, where his involvement in themultidisciplinary Charland Study figured prominently. Prof. Alam gained valuableexperience about char life in the country through this study, whereby he carried outextensive fieldwork in numerous chars spread around all the major river systems ofthe country. Apart frommiscellaneous reports he produced on issues relating to charsin Bangladesh, he has a number of valuable publications to his credit on the subject.Given this background, Prof. Alam’s role as an editor of this volume certainly addsvalue to the discourses therein.
Contributors
Zobaer Ahmed Arkansas State University, Arkansas, USA
Md. Kamruzzaman Akand CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh
xvii
xviii Editors and Contributors
Md. Akhtar Hossain Bangladesh Bridge Authority, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Jakia Akter CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Mustafa Alam Professor, Department of Economics, University of Dhaka, Dhaka,Bangladesh
A. Alauddin Azad Institute ofWater and FloodManagement (IWFM), BangladeshUniversity of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Hugh Brammer FAO Agricultural Development Adviser, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Thomas Crawford Department of Geography, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA,USA
Scott Curtis The Dr. John Lining Professor of Physics, The Citadel - The MilitaryCollege of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
Koen de Wilde Former Team Leader, CDSP, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Harvey Demaine Bangkok and Roi-et, Thailand
Jay Drydyk Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
C. Emdad Haque Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,Canada
Suzanne Hanchett Planning Alternatives for Change, LLC, Pasadena, CA, USA
Anisul Haque Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), BangladeshUniversity of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Babul Hossain Department of Sociology, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
Delowar Hossain Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), BangladeshUniversity of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Muhammad Lokman Hossain Dhaka, Bangladesh
Hamidul Huq Department of Economics, United International University, Dhaka,Bangladesh
Iffat Huque Remote Sensing Division, CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Md. Sariful Islam Department ofGeography,Virginia Tech, Blacksburg,VA,USA
Rafiqul Islam Department of Agronomy, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur RahmanAgricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Shafi Noor Islam Department of Geography, Environment and DevelopmentStudies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD), Bandar Seri Begawan, BruneiDarussalam
Mohammad Jakariya Department of Environmental Science and Management,North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Editors and Contributors xix
Md. Humayun Kabir Department of Geography and Environment, University ofDhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Hafiza Khatun Department of Geography and Environment, University of Dhaka,Dhaka, Bangladesh
Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt Resource Environment and Development Program, Craw-ford School of Public Policy, College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian NationalUniversity, Canberra, Australia
Hermann Lotze-Campen Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research,Potsdam, Germany
Md. Giasuddin Miah Bangabandhu SheikhMujibur RahmanAgricultural Univer-sity, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Samsunnahar Mita Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM),Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh
M. Shahjahan Mondal IWFM, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Tech-nology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Monzu Morshed Development Specialist, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Jenia Mukherjee Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Instituteof Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
Nandan Mukherjee C3ER, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Lutfun Nahar Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Government of thePeople′s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
A. Z. M. Nazmul Islam Chowdhury Innovator and Founder Director, PumpkinPlus and Sr. Advisor-Agriculture, 2030 WRG, Global Water Practice, The WorldBank, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Knut Oberhagemann Northwest Hydraulic Consultants, Edmonton, Canada
Bimal Kanti Paul Department of Geography and Geospatial Sciences, KansasState University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Atiur Rahman University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
M. Aminur Rahman Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University ofTechnology, Brisbane, Australia
M. Ashiqur Rahman Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM),Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh
M. Rezaur Rahman IWFM, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Tech-nology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Munshi Khaledur Rahman Department of Geology and Geography, GeorgiaSouthern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
xx Editors and Contributors
Harun Rashid Department of Geography and Earth Science, University ofWisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, USA
Maminul Haque Sarker CEGIS, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Shampa Institute ofWater andFloodManagement (IWFM),BangladeshUniversityof Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Indrani Sigamany Free Lance Researcher and Capacity Building Consultant,Oxford, England, UK
Ian Tod Independent Water Resources Specialist, Cambridge, UK
Mohammad Zaman AdvisoryProfessor,NRCR/HohaiUniversity,Nanjing,China
Abbreviations
A2F Access to FinanceAC Assistant Commissioner (Land)ADC Additional Deputy CommissionerAED Alternate Wetting and DryingAGEP Agricultural Growth and Employment ProgramASA Association for Social AdvancementASPS Agricultural Sector Programme SupportATP Asset Transfer ProgrammeAUSAID Australian Aid for International DevelopmentBAC Bank attached chars or forced barBADA Bengal Alluvion and Diluvion Regulation Act of 1825BBS Bangladesh Bureau of StatisticsBBS HHIES BangladeshBureau of Statistics, Household Income andExpenditure
SurveyBCR Benefit-cost ratioBDP 2100 Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100BFRI Bangladesh Fisheries Research InstituteBI Braided IndexBRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement CommitteeBRCS Bangladesh Red Crescent SocietyBUET Bangladesh University of Engineering and TechnologyBWDB Bangladesh Water Development BoardCARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief EverywhereCARE-BD CARE-BangladeshCBCs Char Business CentresCBOs Community Based OrganizationCCM Cyclone Classifier ModelCDA Char Development AuthorityCDSP Char Development and Settlement ProjectCEGIS Center for Environmental and Geographic Information ServicesCFPR Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction
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xxii Abbreviations
CFPR-TUP Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction Targeting the UltraPoor
CIDs Char Input DealersCIRM Centre for Insurance and Risk ManagementCLP Chars Livelihoods ProgrammeCPHHs Core Participant HouseholdsCPK Char Pushti Karmi (Char Nutrition Worker)CPP Cyclone Preparedness ProgrammeCSK Char Shasthya Karmi (Char Health Worker)CSO Civil Society OrganizationDAE Department of Agriculture ExtensionDANIDA Danish International Development AssistanceDC Deputy CommissionerDEM Digital Elevation ModelDFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (of Australia)DFID Department for International DevelopmentDFID-B Department for International Development-BangladeshDG-LRS Director-General, Land Record SurveyDLS Department Livestock ServicesDMB Disaster Management BureauDMC Downstream mid-channel charsDOF Department of FisheriesDPHE Department of Public Health EngineeringDRR Disaster Risk ReductionDRTD Declaration on the Right to DevelopmentEBSATA East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act (1950)EDP Estuary Development ProjectEEP Economic Empowerment of the PoorFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationFAP Flood Action PlanFFS Farmer Field SchoolFFWC Flood Forecasting and Warning CentreFGDs Focus Group DiscussionsFGMs Focus group meetingsFYP Five-Year PlanGBM Ganges-Brahmaputra-MeghnaGDP Gross Domestic ProductsGED General Economic DivisionGIS Geographical Information SystemGNAEP Greater Noakhali Aquaculture Extension ProjectGoB Government of BangladeshGUK Gono Unnayan KendraGUP Gono Unnayan Prochesta, Rajoir, MadaripurGUP Gram Unnayan ParishadHH Households
Abbreviations xxiii
ICT Information and Communications TechnologiesIDPs Internally displaced personsIEP Infrastructure Employment ProjectIFAD International Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIGA Income-generating activitiesIMD Indian Meteorological DepartmentIMOs Implementing OrganizationsINCA Integrated Catchment ModelINGOs International Non-governmental OrganizationsIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIPF Integrated Prawn FarmingIRB Institute of Review BoardISISA International Small Island Studies AssociationIWFM Institute of Water and Flood ManagementIWMI International Water Management InstituteIYCF Infant and Young Child FeedingKIIs Key informant interviewsLFs Local FacilitatorsLGB Lower Ganga BasinLRP Land Reclamation ProjectLSP Livestock Service ProviderM4C Making Markets Work for the Jamuna, Padma and Teesta CharsM4P Making Markets Work for the PoorMAEP Mymensingh Aquaculture Extension ProjectMES Meghna Estuary StudiesMIS Management Information SystemMMS Manob Mukti SongsthaMODMR Ministry of Disaster Management and ReliefMOF Ministry of FinanceMOFL Ministry of Fisheries and LivestockMoLRD&C Ministry ofLocalGovernment,RuralDevelopment andCooperativesMoU Memorandum of UnderstandingMPRVD Multipurpose River Valley DevelopmentMRP Main River Flood and Bank Erosion Risk Management ProjectMSP Maxwell Stamp PLCNAM Non-Aligned MovementNCA National Char AllianceNGOs Non-Government OrganizationsNSPS National Social Protection StrategyOXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (Founded in 1942)PA Practical ActionPKSF Palli Karma Sahayak FoundationPMG Producer and Marketing GroupPO Presidential Order (1972)PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
xxiv Abbreviations
PSF Pond Sand FilterRCS Red Cross SocietyRDRS Rangpur Dinajpur Rural ServicesREIS Riverbank Erosion Impact StudyRFLD Regional Fisheries and Livestock DevelopmentRFLDC Regional Fisheries and Livestock Development ComponentRIMES Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning SystemRLGS Rural Local Government SystemRS Remote SensingSDGs Social Development GoalsSKS SKS FoundationSLDP Smallholder Livestock Development ProjectSLR Sea Level RiseSOP Standard Operating ProcedureSRI System of Rice IntensificationSSNP Social Safety Net ProgramsSTW Shallow tube wellSWC Storm Warning CentreSWFF Securing Water for FoodTSU Technical Support UnitUMC Upstream mid-channel charsUMIC Upper Middle-Income CountryUN United NationsUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural OrganizationUNHCHR United Nations High Commissioner for Human RightsUNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency FundUP Union ParishadUPDMC Upazila Parishad Disaster Management CommitteeUSAID US Aid for International DevelopmentUSD United States DollarUSS Udayan Swabolombee SangsthaUTC Coordinated Universal TimeVDCs Village Development CommitteesVGF Vulnerable Group FeedingVPISU Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityVSL Village Savings and LoanWARPO Water Resources Planning OrganizationWASH Water, Sanitation and HygieneWWII Second World War
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 River systems of Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Fig. 1.2 Index map of the char regions, 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Fig. 1.3 Area of charland (in ha) by region 2000–2020. Source
CEGIS, December 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Fig. 2.1 Map of the Bengal delta. Source Banglapedia 2018
(https://en.banglapedia.org/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Fig. 4.1 Bengal basin and the GBM river system. Source (Haque
1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Fig. 4.2 Comparative maps of the Bengal deltaformations. Source
(Haque 1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Fig. 4.3 Causes of displacement (%) in char Jananat Union.
Source Data adapted from Islam (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Fig. 4.4 Comparison of displacement frequency (%) in Shibchar
and Kazipur chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Fig. 6.1 Rivers of Bangladesh. Source Munshi Khaledur Rahman) . . . . 75Fig. 6.2 Results of Geospatial Analysis: Erosion of Bhola Island,
1989–2019. Source Original figure prepared by MunshiKhaledur Rahman, based on Landsat 5 TM, 21 February1989, Landsat 5 TM, 17 February 1999 and Landsat 8, 8March 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 6.3 Results of geospatial analysis: erosion of Kutubdia Island,1989–2019. Source Original figure prepared by MunshiKhaledur Rahman, based on Landsat 4 TM, 21 February1989, Landsat 5 TM, 13 December 2000, and Landsat 8,1 February 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 7.1 Development of a cluster of bars in the Jamuna Riverinto a char over. Source CEGIS (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Fig. 7.2 Development of Urir Char and surrounding areasin the Meghna Estuary. Source CEGIS (2009a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
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xxvi List of Figures
Fig. 7.3 Flowchart showing steps in the processing and analysesof satellite images for studying morphology of rivers,riverine chars, estuaries and islands, and outcomescorresponding to each step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 7.4 Change in water surface area derived from time seriesof satellite images with time. Source Sarker and Thorne(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Fig. 7.5 A satellite image and a classified image of a reachof the Jamuna River. Source CEGIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 7.6 Satellite image of JamunaRiver showing various planformfeatures—channels, chars, sand bars and banklines.Source EGIS (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 7.7 Shoreline of Bangladesh delineated from IRS P6 LISS IIIsatellite image mosaic, 2008. Source CEGIS (2009a) . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 7.8 Method of estimating the width of Jamuna River. SourceEGIS (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 7.9 Method of estimating reach averaged width of Padmaand Lower Meghna rivers. Source Sarker and Thorne(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 7.10 Illustration of relative maximum bank erosion and relativeradius of curvature extracted from satellite image. SourceEGIS (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 7.11 Illustration of deviation angles extracted from satelliteimage. Source EGIS (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 7.12 Erosion-accretion along the Jamuna River 1973–2018.Source Sarker and Hore (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 7.13 Jamuna River—cumulative erosion. Source CEGIS . . . . . . . . . . 105Fig. 7.14 Erosion and accretion in the Meghna Estuary
during the period of 1973–2008. Source Sarker et al.(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 7.15 District-wise distribution of erosion and accretionduring the period of 1973–2008. Source Sarker et al.(2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 7.16 Changes in length averaged width of the Padma Riverwith time. Source Sarker and Hore (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 7.17 Changes in braiding intensity of a Jamuna, b Padma,and c Lower Meghna rivers. Source Sarker and Thorne(2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Fig. 7.18 Age of selected chars of the Jamuna River in 2013.Source CEGIS (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 7.19 Relation between relative height and age of char from twodifferent studies. Source CEGIS (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Fig. 7.20 Relation between age of char and vegetated areawithin the study area. Source CEGIS (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
List of Figures xxvii
Fig. 7.21 Age of different parts of the coastal islands of Bhola,Hatiya, Sandwip, Monpura, and Urir char as observedin 2018 satellite images. Age is calculated from Rennell’smap (1776), Tassin’s map (1840), topographic map(1943), and satellite images of 1973, 1984, 1998, 2008.Source CEGIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 7.22 Definition diagram showing the method of estimatingstraight, meandering, and braided widths. Source CEGIS(2009b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 7.23 Changes in straight, meandering, and branching widthof the Mawa reach of the Padma River. Source CEGIS(2009b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig. 7.24 Erosion and accretion in the southwest of Bhola over time.Source CEGIS (2009a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 7.25 Erosion prediction and vulnerability assessmentof the Jamuna River. Source CEGIS (2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig. 7.26 Process-response model describing the responseof the braided rivers to the changes in bed material load.Modified from Sarker and Thorne (2009) as observedfrom satellite images and other field data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Fig. 8.1 The braided Brahmaputra System. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . 123Fig. 8.2 Population development in Bangladesh. Source
Bangladesh Bureau of statistics and national watermanagement plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Fig. 8.3 River widening of Jamuna and Padma Rivers. SourceProcessed CEGIS bankline data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Fig. 8.4 Jamuna: Upazila wise population and banklinedevelopments: 1973/4, 2001 and 2011. Source Authorsbased on BBS data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 8.5 Upazila and union population density along the JamunaRiver. Source Authors based on BBS data 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 8.6 Changes in the Jamuna river corridor over the last twocenturies. Source CEGIS Dhaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 8.7 Area of water (blue), sand (yellow) and land (green)along the main part of the Jamuna River. Source NHCand EMM (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fig. 8.8 Char age for upper reach (left) and central reach (right).Source NHC and EMM 202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 8.9 Char dynamics in the central Jamuna over a period of onedecade. Source NHC and EMM 202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fig. 8.10 Sandy char soil with vegetative cover. Source Lead author . . . . 132Fig. 8.11 Reeds (catkin) slow down flow velocities and encourage
the deposition of fertile finer particles during the floodseason. Source Lead author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
xxviii List of Figures
Fig. 8.12 Vertical char growth. Source EGIS (1997) and CEGIS(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Fig. 8.13 Superimposition of the Old Brahmaputra course in 1765and its modern-day channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Fig. 8.14 Area of water (blue), sand (yellow) and land (green)along the main part of the Padma River. Source NHCand EMM (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Fig. 8.15 Char age in the Padma River. The red line indicatesthe alignment of the Padma Bridge. Source NHCand EMM (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Fig. 8.16 Char age at the confluence with Upper Meghna. SourceNHC and EMM (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 8.17 Historical development of the Upper Meghna Course.Source NHC and EMM (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 8.18 Local dredging of sand in Padma for constructionindustry. Source Lead Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Fig. 9.1 Meghna estuary area in Bangladesh as per IRS LISSsatellite image of 2018. Source CEGIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 9.2 Map of (A) Paleo-geographic map after Goodbredand Kuehl (2000a) and (B) the Pathways and timingof the phases of late Holocene growth of the lowerdelta plain associated with the Ganges (G1, G2,G3), Brahmaputra (B1, B2), and Combined Ganges–Brahmaputra (GB1) after Allison et al. (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 9.3 Historical development of the Meghna estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Fig. 9.4 Direction and relative importance of river and tidal flows
in influencing sediment discharge (based on Sokolewiczand Louters 2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 9.5 Process of land formation in the Meghna estuary. SourceSarker et al. (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig. 9.6 Erosion/accretion in the Meghna estuary from 1943to 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig. 9.7 Net accretion in centennial and decade scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Fig. 9.8 Changes in surface area and shore line retreat of Bhola,
Hatiya, and Sahdwip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Fig. 9.9 Changes of area of Bhola, Hatiya, and Sandwip over time . . . . 156Fig. 9.10 Centennial scale erosion/accretion of the Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Fig. 9.11 Decade scale erosion/accretion of the islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158Fig. 9.12 Century-scale stability of the islands and delta
progradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161Fig. 11.1 Study area of riverine chars (Source Authors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Fig. 11.2 Land persistence or age of lands in selected compound
riverine chars. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190Fig. 11.3 Study area of coastal chars. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
List of Figures xxix
Fig. 11.4 Model grid and bathymetry for riverine (upper)and coastal model (lower). Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 11.5 Discharge boundary conditions of the simulation: aBrahmaputra–Jamuna. b Ganges. c Upper Meghna.Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 11.6 Example of sea boundary condition (base condition).Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 11.7 Flood inundation at peak flood time under differentscenarios. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. 11.8 Distribution of flood velocity in present-day extremescenario. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 11.9 Flood hazard map for selected climatic scenarios. SourceAuthors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Fig. 11.10 Fluvio-tidal inundation in coastal area. Source Authors . . . . . . . 203Fig. 11.11 Flood hazard map of coastal chars during fluvio-tidal
flooding. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Fig. 11.12 Typical water-level variation during normal tidal
and during storm surge in river near Dublar char . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Fig. 11.13 Inundation due to SIDR like cyclone in changing climatic
conditions over time. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207Fig. 11.14 Flood hazard map due to Sidr like a cyclone in changing
climate over time. Source Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209Fig. 12.1 Study village and surrounding chars. Source Islam et al.
(2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217Fig. 12.2 Location of Padma Bridge vis-à-vis Char Janajat. Source
Islam et al. (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219Fig. 12.3 Population density and settlement patterns (1970–2008).
Source Islam et al. (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220Fig. 12.4 Omar Ali and his family’s displacement and migration
history in and around Char Janajat. Source Author 2020 . . . . . . 221Fig. 12.5 Conceptual model for charland settlement and livelihoods.
Source Author 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223Fig. 13.1 Study area within the Meghna Estuary. (Source Bimal
Paul) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Fig. 13.2 Perception on riverbank erosion by respondents. Source
Field Survey 2018 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234Fig. 14.1 Map of the study area location. Source https://www.the
bangladesh.net/rangpur-division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243Fig. 14.2 Comparison between the pre- and post-flood housing
conditions. Source Field Survey June–September 2018,December 2018–April 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig. 14.3 Loan repayments modality and schedule. Source FieldSurvey June–September 2018, December 2018–April2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
xxx List of Figures
Fig. 14.4 Quality of housing materials provided by NGOs. SourceField Survey June–September, 2018, December 2018–April, 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fig. 15.1 Charland Classification. Source FAP 23 (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254Fig. 15.2 Change in riverbank Alignment in Mollikpara, Maijbari
Union, Kazipur. Ian Tod/Google earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258Fig. 15.3 Layout of raised homestead. Source Care Bangladesh 2008 . . . 260Fig. 15.4 Design and drawing of a multipurpose cyclone shelter.
Source CARE Bangladesh 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265Fig. 16.1 Study area. Source Google earth application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278Fig. 16.2 Topography and climate data on the study area. Source
SENTINAL 2, LANDSAT 8- band 10, 5 and 4 satelliteand world climatic data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig. 16.3 Monthly mean temperature variability near the study char.Source Global Surface Summary of the Day Weather Data . . . . 284
Fig. 16.4 Monthly mean rainfall variability near study char. SourceGlobal Surface Summary of the Day Weather Data . . . . . . . . . . 284
Fig. 16.5 Community-based climate change adaptation framework.Source King, 2014 modified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig. 17.1 Map of the study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293Fig. 17.2 Chilli drying at a chatal in Bogra. Source Research Team
2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297Fig. 17.3 Crops covered against rain at another chatal Source
Research Team 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298Fig. 17.4 Preservation of chilli at household level. Source Research
Team 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Fig. 17.5 An industrial scale dryer in Bogra. Source Research Team
2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303Fig. 18.1 Location of the study chars. Source Modified from ASB
(2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310Fig. 18.2 Migration pattern of the study chars. Source Field Study
(2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314Fig. 19.1 Abandoned house plot (on the left) due to fast
approaching erosion. Women helping to rebuild houseplinths to relocated new site. Source Suzanne Hanchett(1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Fig. 20.1 CLP’s pathway out of extreme poverty to livelihoodsecurity. Source Conroy et al. (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Fig. 20.2 Women’s empowerment scorecard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351Fig. 21.1 Aerial view of sandbar cropping in 2020. Pumpkin Plus,
Bangladesh 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363Fig. 21.2 Farmers dig holes using local technology for ground
water (left) and harvest rainwater (right) for pumpkinand other high-value winter crops. Sources MizanurRahaman 2018 (left) and Salman 2020 (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
List of Figures xxxi
Fig. 21.3 Pit preparation for pumpkin cultivation (women providingmost of the labor). Source Mizanur Rahaman (2018) . . . . . . . . . 365
Fig. 21.4 Pest control kit in pumpkin field. Source NazmulChowdhury (2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Fig. 21.5 Pumpkins ready for harvest (proud female farmer holdingcouple of pumpkins in her hands). Sources Mamun(Kurigram 2018); Nazmul Chowdhury (Gaibandha 2008)and Mehrab Gani (Rangpur 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Fig. 21.6 In-house storing of pumpkin and transportationto local/long distant markets by pikers. Sources IqbalHossain (Gaibandha 2008) and Mizanur Rahaman(Rangpur 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Fig. 22.1 Project area and location of CDSP I–IV. Source CDSP(2018a, b, c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Fig. 23.1 Areas under the “New Chars” of CDSP Phase IV (SourceCDSP IV (2013)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 25.1 Comparison of access (i.e., time taken) to differentservices for char dwellers and rest of the country. SourceData from the HIES 2016 report of BBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fig. 25.2 Incorporating river erosion managementinto comprehensive char development strategy.Source author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Areas of water, sand and chars, 1984–1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Table 4.2 Percentage distribution of cropping patterns by zone
in Kazipur (Multiple responses possible) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Table 6.1 Jamuna River: instability analysis of a sample reach . . . . . . . . 77Table 6.2 Morphological characteristics of the Padma River . . . . . . . . . . 78Table 9.1 Char name and area (km2) in the Meghna estuary area . . . . . . 142Table 9.2 Mean annual suspended loads, based on sediment
measurement of FAP 24 from 1994 to 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Table 9.3 Time required for land development at different
locations in the Meghna estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152Table 9.4 Comparison of erosion and accretion rates from different
studies (MES II 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153Table 9.5 Comparison of erosion and accretion for the current study . . . 153Table 9.6 Erosion/accretion, net accretion of Bhola, Hatiya,
Sandwip, and Manpura Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Table 10.1 Proportions of alluvial sediments and soils
in Bangladesh’s riverine and estuarine floodplainregions in textural classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Table 10.2 Land accretion and erosion in the major riversof Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Table 11.1 Climatic conditions and criteria considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187Table 11.2 Morphological aspects of selected riverine chars . . . . . . . . . . . 189Table 11.3 Morphological aspects of selected coastal chars . . . . . . . . . . . 191Table 11.4 Description of the hazard scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195Table 11.5 Flooding characteristics of riverine chars in the base
condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196Table 11.6 Inundation characteristics of riverine chars in different
scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199Table 11.7 Characteristics of fluvio-tidal flood in coastal chars
in base condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202Table 11.8 Depth-average flood velocity in coastal chars
during fluvio-tidal flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
xxxiii
xxxiv List of Tables
Table 11.9 Areal extent of flooding due to cyclone SIDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Table 11.10 Percentage of inundated areas due to cyclonic conditions . . . . 208Table 13.1 Post-relocation support for resettlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236Table 14.1 Amount of financial help as loan from NGOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247Table 14.2 Types of assistance received for agricultural
rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Table 16.1 Socio-demographic and economic characteristics
of the char dwellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280Table 16.2 Char dwellers’ impact rating perception on local
hazards and vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283Table 16.3 Community-based climate change adaptation strategies
in the study char . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287Table 17.1 Crop-specific hazards, impacts, coping and adaptation
measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299Table 18.1 Profiles of the study chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311Table 18.2 Destination preferred by type of HH members (%) . . . . . . . . . 315Table 18.3 Extent of migration from the sample chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316Table 18.4 Reasons for migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316Table 18.5 Migrants’ employments in the place of destination . . . . . . . . . 317Table 18.6 Use of remittance money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319Table 19.1 Women’s vulnerabilities in flood crises’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326Table 20.1 CLP’s graduation criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353Table 23.1 Characteristics of household fish culture in new chars . . . . . . 392Table 23.2 Profile of large livestock rearing in the new chars . . . . . . . . . . 393Table 23.3 Profile of poultry rearing in the new chars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394Table 25.1 Social safety net allocations for projects/programs
directly related to char development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423