spatia-temporal analyses of parks and gardens of rome

Spatia-temporal analyses of parks and gardens of Rome

F. ATTORRE, F. FRANCESCONI, L. PEPPONI,

R. PROV ANTINI and F. BRUNO

Introduction

The city of Rome is rich m green spaces: natural areas, parks, villas, gardens

and tree-lined roads are important legacies that require accurate management and maintenance. For this purpose, a Geographies Information System (GIS) has been set up that IS specific to each green space typology and based upon both a survey of the current conditions and the acquisition of historical documentation in order to analyse the transformatiorrs that have occurred. In

fact, accurate knowledge of the changes that have determined the current situatiOn must be the basis of future management and planning. The analysis

of the city's landscape transformations by mearrs of landscape ecology methodologies1 can be mentioned as an example of the applicatiOn of this kind of

approach. Moreover, the analysis of the historical transformatiorrs of treelined roads has demonstrated the relation between the species employed and the particular histoncal and political period of the city.>

The criterion of analysing historical transformatiorrs has thus been adopted to create a GIS of the oty's parks and garderrs. The use of this criterion may be corroborated by quoting Boudon's words: 'One of the essential keys to

the history of gardens is hrstorical cartography; this must be assumed as the

preferred instrument because it unfolds a rich and homogeneous documentary field and stimulates a method of research, analysis and exposition which it undoubtedly still lacks.' 3

Methods

The methodology employed is based on a survey of the current state of

the single green area, its computerization by mearrs of AutoCad and the

ISSN 1~60-1 176 0 ~003 TAYLOll &:-FRANCIS LTD

introduction of the information thus acquired mto a GIS, created by modifying

ArcView so as to facilitate database enqmry. Information on the manmade

structures (benches, fountairrs, drinking fountains, street lamps, monuments)

and on each plant (individual code, specific code, family, genus, species, phy

siognomy, date of last pruning, diameter of the trunk, height of ramificatiOn,

total height) IS collected and digitalised. The historical documentation is then

acquired. In particular, the historical maps are scanned and geo-referred so that

they can be compared directly to the current map. This process is undeniably

complex, laborious and may present only approxirnatiorrs, since the maps may

be heterogeneous and have different scales and purposes; nonetheless, the

approach Boudon has named 'topochronological' is essential in order to follow

the evolution of garden forrriS.

The historic centre and the surrounding districts have been completely

surveyed for a total of 462 green open spaces, which cover an overall area of

3 3 o hectares. The portion of municipal territory analysed contains a significant

part of urbanised areas. The outskirts, on the other hand, are characterised by

exterrsive agricultural areas and, therefore, have fewer parks and public garderrs,

thus confirming Migge's vision of cities as garden-generating entities."

On the basis of this analysis, it IS possible to IdentifY three main typologies

of green open spaces in the city: (r) squares with public green areas: mostly created at the end of the rnneteenth and beginrnng of the twentieth cen

turies, after the impressive urban organization work due to the fact that

Rome had become the capital of the newly created Italian state; (2) small

parks and gardens: these are areas of variable drmenswns created for particular

reasons, such as the presence of archeological remains, of monuments or as

green lungs for newly built areas; and (3) villas: these are remains of the

293

STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF GARDENS AND DESIGNED LANDSCAPES : ATTORRE ET AL.

gardens and parks adJacent to stately residences which have been enclosed by the city and acquired by the state. 5

A few examples of this articulated system are given here, together With historic, planimetric and botanic mformation so that their changes may be observed. The nomenclature of the species found, drvided alphabetically by family, follows Encke's classification.6

Results

PIAZZA CAIROLI

Historical analysis Piazza Cairoh is one of the few green squares created irr Rome irr the decades followirrg r 870: the transformation of Rome from Papal city to caprtal of the Italian state m most cases brought about the destruction of wide ample

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FIGURE r. Piazza Cmroli. the current location of the squar~ laid out m the Gr~gorian urban

Land Register (1811}-1822) (Archivw di Stato di Roma).

294

Renaissarrce and Baroque gardens that had remained unaltered until halfway

through the nirreteenth century.

While most European capitals witnessed radical changes irr their urban

structure startirrg irr the eighteenth century, Rome was confronted, over a

short period of time, with the new economic, social and administrative needs

of a new rulirrg class as well as with considerable demographic growth. The

solutions proposed by the r873 and r883 town plannirrg schemes drew inspiration from town plannirrg theories of the time. These theories were centred on the concepts of 'enlargement' and 'embellishment', which often meant

demolition of large parts of the historic centre, encouraged by the spe

culations of owners and contractors_7 In an historical moment overcome by 'a

ruthless obstinacy to destroy leaves, vegetation, trees, anything green, inside

and outside of Rome', in Rodolfo Lanciarn's words, 8 any creation of a new

garden deserves to be pomted out and appreciated.

FIGURE 2. Piazza Cairoli: the Jountam designed by Andre.

SPA TIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSES OF PARKS AND GARDENS OF ROME

FIGURE 3- Piazza Cairoli: the monument in memory of the Italian patriot Sesmit Dada.

Piazza Cairoli stands alongside VIa Arenula, one of the mairr roads provided

by the I883 town planning scheme to link Corso Vittorio Emanuele with the

new bridge, the Ponte Garibaldi. The oty admmistratlon realised the advantage

of creating a green square at the intersection between two important road axes

of the city: the north-south one connecting Piazza del Popolo to Trastevere

with Its brand new train station, and the east-west one connecting Campo

de'Fiori to the Testaccio district.

On the basis of these reflections, the city administration gave up plans of

building on the expropnated land and approved the plan of a new square to

replace the two pre-exrsting ones. Piazza Cairoh, in fact, nses on the site of

the former Piazza Branca, with the homonymous palace - now demolished

- belonging to the fifteenth-century Roman family Branca, and Piazza dr San Carlo ai Catinari. Figure I shows the previous structure, as illustrated in

the Gregorian r8I9 urban land regrster, as well as the current position of the

FIGURE 4- Piazza Cairoli: 1992 plan, redesigrud from t!u drawing by Massimo de Vuo

Fallani.

new square. All of the expenses for the creation of 'a square or public garden'

were sustained by Baron Guglielmo Huffer as a means of paying homage to

Countess Sforza Cesarini of Santafiora, who lived across the way in the

Santacroce Palace.9

This shows how extemporaneous the creation of green areas was at the

time: it depended on propitious circumstances and private initiative, rather

than on specific overall policy or serious debate on the function of green

urban areas, as was the case in England and France in the same century.

In I888 Edouard Franc;ois Arrdre was entrusted with drafting the project,

even though he complained that the dimensions of the area (approximately

I 700 m 2) were too small to create a square of any interest. Even though he

never came to Rome to follow up on the work, his influence can be traced

in later realizations of squares of more conventional dunensions, such as

Piazza Cavour and Piazza Vittorio, created in newly built quarters of the city.

295

STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF GARDENS AND DESIGNED LANDSCAPES ATTORRE ET AL.

( Piaziz Cairoli - 2002 plan)

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FIGURE 5. Piazza Cairoli: 2002 plan.

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The work on Piazza Carroli's garden was supervised by the architect Avenali

and was completed in I 890. One of the main features is the fountain on the

southern side (figure 2). The fountain, designed by Andre, is composed of a

large round Roman marble basin discovered during excavations in the nearby

Piazza dei Cenci m r887 and a square granite base w1th beveled corners. The

original wrought iron railing was also designed by Andre, but it was removed

in 1937 to be used as matenal for wartime industry. In 1919, a monument by

Maccagnani, m memory of the Italian patnot Seismit Doda, was erected along

the longitudmal axis aligned with the fountain (figure 3). The 1992 planimetnc

survey (figure 4) demonstrates how Andre's two original flowerbeds With therr

characterist:lc smuous lmes had disappeared and have been replaced by square

ones. Restoration work in 2000 re-introduced flowerbeds similar to the

original in an attempt to recreate their symmetric and curvilinear movement, as

can be seen in figure 5 which presents the current state of the garden.

Tilza americana

Platanus orienta/is

Quercus i/ex

Elaeagnus angustifo/ia

Viburnum tznus

I

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I

I

J

,. I 10 II 12 13 14

FIGURE 6. Pzazza Cairoli: histogram of the current species wmposition.

Botanical analysis

ObVIous references to the tradit:lon of squares can be found ill the chorce of

a row of forest trees (mamly plane, hrne, holm-oak and elm) along i:he

perimeter. The acacias that had decorated the former Piazza Branca were

eliminated or transplanted. HUffer's personal taste probably rnfluenced the

choice of the other trees: Araucaria araucana, which took the place of the

Cupressus glaucopendula present m Andre's project, and two Phoenix dactylifera

specimens. These choices are a clear reference to the fashion of the time for

exotic plants, as codified ill Loudon's Gardenesque style. ro

The current species composition is shown in figure 6. If compared to the

onginal design, only five specrrnens of Platanus x acerifolia and one of Tilia

Americana are st:!ll in place, while the second Tilia Americana and the five

Quercus ilex are later replacements. We should also like to poillt out the

disappearance of Araucaria, which had survived until thirty years ago; elms

SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSES OF PARKS AND GARDENS OF ROME

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lfjl,-----~ . -FIGURE 7- Gzardino di Carlo Alberto: current location of the garden laid out in the Gregorian urban Land Register (181g-1822) (Archivio di Stato di Roma).

(Ulmus minor), which were slowly decimated by the Ceratocystis ulmii; and the

two Phoenix, wluch did not surviVe the harsh winter ill 1985. Instead, Viburnum tinus and Elaeagnus angustifolia have been planted dunng the latest restoration works_

GIARDINO DI CARLO ALBER TO

Historical analysis

The Quirinale Garden is another example of the dlfficultles of the time ill creatmg open green spaces for the city, and it owes its creation to complex econonuc and bureaucratic viassitudes and fortuitous circumstances rather

than to any precise planning policy. In r886 Rome's city government bought the estates of the convents of

the Adoratrici Perpetue del SS. Sacramento and of the Cappuccine di Santa

Chiara, and then transferred these to the royal family, thus settling the debt

FIGURE 8_ Gzardino dt Carlo Alberto· A_ Viviani and G.C Linotte project (1889)

(Archtvio Storico Capita/ina).

incurred six months earlier when buying land needed to complete the

Palazzo delle Esposizionr in Via Nazionale (figure 7). However, in r888, the

German emperor William II visited Rome and lodged in the Qumnale, and

rt so happened that the demolition scene was right outside his Willdows. For

this reason, an irregular garden with an English landscape style, adorned by

the convents' remains, was quickly put together to temporanly cover the

rubble. After the Emperor's visit, the garden was demolished, but in the

wake of Its great success, the city government and the royal famrly agreed to

settle the debt by creating a new public garden instead of transferring the

newly acquired lands to the royal farnrly. The project was approved, despite

the opposrtlon of some town councillors who considered it a wasted

opportunity for property speculation rather than an occasion to endow

Rome's centre with a new green space it seriously needed.

A first preliminary project was presented in r 889 by the architects Viviani

and Linotte, together wrth Palice, the director of the city's Garden

297


FIGURE 9- Giardino dt Carlo Alberto. E. Andre project (1892) (Archivio Storiw

Capita/ina).

Department, who chose the plant species. This project proposed a typical

Italian-style garden, as shown in figure 8, with terraces sloping from the highest

point of VIa del Qwnnale down to Via Piacenza. Exotic species such as

Dasylirion, Phoenix canariensis and Agave americana were chosen - surprisingly

despite the fact that they contrasted with typically Mediterranean species such

as Quercus ilex e Myrtus communis that are more coherent with the geometrical

design.

The work was interrupted in I 892 because of a lack of funds. Thanks to

Guglielmo Huffer, who offered to meet the expenses necessary to complete the

project, it was resumed in I893. In exchange for his generosity, Huffer

obtained authorization to build on the two areas south of the garden which, m

the original project, were to be part of the garden. The work on the site was

supervised by Avenali, the Baron's trustworthy architect, and the project was

designed by Andre (figure 9) according to an eclectic style 11: the complex

298

FIGURE 10. Giardino dt Carlo Alberto: view of the i"egularly shaped lake with its row of

yews.

interlacing of curves in the flowerbeds contrasts with the picturesque vrew of

the irregularly shaped lake with its row of yews (figure ro).

The only geometrical axis left is that of the new road connecting VIa

Parma (now Via Piacenza) to Via Nazionale: an importarrt vrsual axis, along

which we find the two entrances to the garden (on the Via del Quirinale and

the Via Piacenza). The connection between the garden and VIa Piacenza, on

a lower level, is made by a double flight of steps that are symmetrical to the

entrance and made of travertine, as is the balustrade that surrounds the garden

instead of the plarmed iron railing. A few years after the conclusion of the

work in I 894, an equestnan monument to Carlo Alberto, King of Italy,

designed by Romanelli, was added at the centre of the garden, along Its main

axis (figures I I and 12).

Recent restoration work has recreated the origmal situation reported in the

current planimetry in figure I 3.


FIGURE II. Giardino di Carlo Alberto: the equestrian monument to Carlo Alberto, Kmg of Italy, by Romanelli (1894).

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Botanical analysis

(Giardino di Carlo Alberto - 2002 plan)

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FIGURE 12. Giardino dt Carlo Alberto: 2002 plan.

When the garden was inaugurated m July 1894, 496 plants belonging to 103

species were registered - an rmpressrve botanical collection, certamly excessive for an area of such restricted dimensions (the whole area of the

garden rs in fact about 6700 m 2). The species most present were small

trees and shrubs: Euonymus japonica (45 specrmens), Mahonia aquifolium (45), Ligustrum japonicum (39), Euonymus fortunei (19), Weigela rosea (19), Aucuba

japonica (12), Cotoneaster buxifolium (12) and Ligustrum spicatum (12). Probably

because of the disproportionate number of plants, and planning and planting errors, 'most of the plants seem to have a tendency towards Withenng rather than to be growing and increasing in vigour' as the director of crty's Garden Department noted at the time. Currently, the number of plants is considerably reduced and is now in keeprng with the drmensions of the garden:

6r specimens divrded into 25 species (figure 14). The physiognomy of the garden has changed owing to the prevalence of arboreous species such as Quercus ilex, Robinia pseudoacacia, Platanus x acerijolia and Magnolia grandiflora.

299

Ulmus minor

Trachyc.arpu.s jortune1

Ti!ta amencana

Stran'II'Clt:sta nunw

Sterculia platanifo/Ja

Sophora.JOponica pendula

Sophora;aponica

Robinia fMtud 'Umbraculifua'

PhU/yrea latifalia

Gledfuia tnacanthos

Clnnamomum glandulifuum

AlbwaJUilbn..s.Jil1

Aaculus hippoca.JtamJm

Acu pstudoplattrffllS

Ta:xus baccaJa

Ptttospon.un toblFQ

PfatClJTUS orlutalu

Putac1a lentucw

Magnolia grandiflora

Robm1a pnudoacocw

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STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF GARDENS AND DESIGNED LANDSCAPES ATTORRE ET AL

2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12

Legrnd ll!!lliounlaln

:2il"""""""' D boundarloo o1 ,.,.,.,.,

D =-""""""" "'Pinoo"'"'

FIGURE 14- Parco del Pmcio: current locatron of the park laid out on the the Nolli map

(1748)-

The specimens of Laurus nobilis are of remarkable dimensions and particularly interesting are the large specimens of Phyllirea latifolia - not part of the

origmal plan - and the two Phoenix canariensis along the side of the

equestrian monument_

PARCO DEL PINCIO

Historical analysis

FIGURE I3- Giardmo di Carlo Alberto: histogram of the current species compositwn_

The hill where the park rises owes its name to the Acili Pincii family who

built therr villa there m the fourth century AD thereby inscribmg a lastrng

name on this hill, whrch had been called Collis Hortorum until then_ Other

important villas (called hart!) had been built on this hill, among which were

those of Lucullo and of the Acilr and Domizi families_

300

The Parco del Pincio, called 'Jardin du Grand Cesar' wrth the obvious

intent of celebrating Napoleon, was designed at the end of the eighteenth

SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSES OF PARKS AND GARDENS OF ROME

FIGURE I5. Parco del Pinao: currmt location of the park laid out in the Gregorian urban

Land Register (1811)-1822) (Archivio di Stato di Roma).

century by Berthauld as part of the greater project of urban town planmng rearrangement and embellishment that the city underwent during the Napoleonic administration. The work was carried out in the first decades of the nineteenth century, during the papacy of Pius VII, by Valadier who was also entrusted With planning a new arrangement for Piazza del Popolo, which was to become the main northern entrance to Rome. Accordmg to ills project, the Piazza was to be connected to the park with a series of ramps. To make way for these, the vegetable gardens of the Agostinian Convent (present in Nolli's I784 map of Rome in figure I4) were eliminated.

Between I793 and I82o, Valadier drew different versions of the ramps, all charactensed by a greater interest in the vegetation than the buildmgs, as well as by an attempt to integrate the natural environment and the buildings according to the principles of places and crescents, m fashion at the time. Nonetheless, a progressive change in the theories of garden design led to the regular geometric solutions chosen by Berthault and Gisors, more in keeping with the celebratory tone of the park. 12

Figure I 5 shows a detail of the Land Register, ordered by Pius VII in

I 8 I 9, which presents the final structure of the park. The definitive project

displays a consistent reductiOn m building works compared to preVIous

hypotheses, and less propensity towards the neoclassical monumentality and

strict geometry of Berthault's first project. The main path is in axis with the

obelisk to rughlight the relation between the two areas on different levels and

the green areas are used to delimit circular spaces connected by radial paths.

The park IS delimited as follows: on the northern and eastern side, the

park's boundary IS the Muro Torto, the medieval Mums raptus, built as a con

tainment of the Acili's gardens and intentionally inserted into the Aurelian

walls; on the western side, the gardens border the Piazza del Popolo; and on

the southern side, the park is contiguous to Villa Medici. Villa Medici was

bmlt m I 544 by Card1nal Ricci da Montepulc!ano and later transformed and

embellished when bought by Cardinal Ferdinando dei Medici. It is now the

seat of the French Academy. Later on, new decorative elements that gave the

park Its final physiognomy were added, as shown in the I 848 plarumetry

(figure r 6): the Casina V aladier, a neoclassical constructiOn inaugurated in

I83o, and the obelisk dedicated by the Emperor Hadrian to his lover

Antmoos, found outside Porta Maggiore in the sixteenth century and

re-erected on the Pmcio in I 822.

During the few months of the Roman Repubhc (r849), a senes of busts

were comm1sswned representing illustrious Italians who had contributed to

the makmg of a national awareness. These were placed in the Pinoo by Pius

IX after his exile in Gaeta, thus initiating a tradition which lasted until the

I96os and brought the number of busts to 228 (figure I7).

During the Papal RestoratiOn, and until the urufication of Italy, public

gardens m Rome enjoyed a penod of renovatiOn. The Pincio, ill particular,

which had suffered damage during the Republican Resistance, was made the

object of specific architectural and botanical restoration. In addition to

maintenance, restoration and embellishment, the most important architectural

works carried on between the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the

twentieth centunes and still VISible in the current planrmetry (figure I 8) are:

a water-clock, based on a project by Ersoch, created and donated to the city

by the Dominican Father Giovanni Battista Embriago was installed in I873

(figure I9); the Magnolia Boulevard connecting the Pinoo to Villa Borghese

was inaugurated in I 908; and the equestrian statue of VIttorio Emanuele was

JOI


FIGURE I6. Parco del Pindo: 1848 plan (Archivio di Stato di Roma).

removed from the Pincio loggia ill 1936 and replaced by a three-spout fountain designed by Raffaele de Vico.

Botanical analysis

The first survey, carried out in r848 during Pius IX's papacy, recorded 5393

specrmens and is the result of Michelangelo Poggioli's work. (Poggioli was

in charge of the park's management admirustration from r827.) The classi

fication being in vernacular Italian, it is not always possible to identify the

species clearly; nonetheless, the most common are: robirua (737 specrmens),

elm (674), cypress (335), Laurus nobilis (334), Broussonetia papyrifera (274),

Quercus ilex (193), Catalpa bignonioides (175), thuja (I64), pilletree (13 r), Melia

azedarcuh (126) and Sophora japonica (104).

The I 870 survey bears witness to the major restoration work carried out a

few years earlier by the French gardeners Francesco Vachez and Augusto

Houssaille, under Luigi Vescovali's drrection. Some 7049 specimens were

registered, but the situation had considerably changed since the I 848 survey.

302

FIGURE I7 Parco del Pzncio: commemorative busts.

The most frequent speaes ill this survey are Iigustrum japonicum (2430

specimens), Euonymus japonicum (1056), Laurus nobilis (328), Prunus laurocerasus

(237) and Quercus ilex (r78). Apart from these, there are many exotic species

and vaneties found ill only one or two specunens; therefore a taxonomical

identification rs difficult. Comparison between the two surveys shows a

profound transformation in the garden: a drastic reduction of arboreous

species to the advantage of small trees that do not grow more than IO metres

in height when mature, such as the Ligustrum, Euonymus and Prunus. The

current situation, as shown in the histogram of figure 20, demonstrates

further transformations since I 870. The number of plants surveyed has

drastically reduced from 7049 to I244 specimens.

The park's physiognomy is mainly characterised by arboreous species:

among the first ten species present, more than 70% are represented by Quercus

ilex, Platanus x cuerifolia, Aesculus hippocastanum, Cupressus semperoirens, Pinus

Plant Biology Department University of Rome "La Sapienza•

Plant physiognomy

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Parco del Pincio - 2002 p

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0 50 100

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FIGURE r 8. Parra del Pinna. zaaz plan.

Garden Department City Council

303

STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF GARDENS AND DESIGNED LANDSCAPES

FIGURE 19. Parco del Pindo: the water dock, based on a pro;ect by Ersoch (I87J).

c.ltis autral/..s

Pr--wtu Cln:rtif~ 'Piuorr/11'

Ta:rus boccatD

Ctretsnl~

C~cf.-,latwi/1

Pttt~tobl.ra

C~:s/wlfrilis I====

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50

ATTORRE ET AL.

100 150 200 250

FIGURE 20 Parco del Piru:to: hrstogram of the current species composition.

30(


pinea and Robinia pseudoacada. The near future will probably Wltness further changes due to the poor phytopathological condition of plane trees that are considerably old and exposed to the phytopatogen Ceratocystis fimbriata responsible for the well-known plane coloured cancer. Palms (Trachycarpus Jortunei, Chamaerops humilis, Phoenix dactylifera, P. canariensis, Washingtonia filifera, Butia capitata) are well represented by 126 specimens, as a consequence of a large number of palms which were transferred from Bordighera to Rome by order of Queen Margherita to save them after they were uprooted to make space for the Sanremo-Bordighera Railway. One curious element is

the presence in this park of a monumental tree (a Ginkgo biloba) planted in

I 8oo and now 22 metres high and 3. I 5 metres in diameter.

University of Rome "La Sapienza" and Comune di Roma, Servizio Giardini

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank the architect Massimo de Vi co for useful comments

and suggestions.

Appendix: List of Taxa

Aaraceae Acer campestre L. Acer negundo L. Acer pseudoplatanus L.

Agavaceae Cordyline australis (G.Forst.) Endl. Yucca gloriosa L.

Anacardiaceae Pistacia vera L.

Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L.

Aquifoliaceae flex aquifolium L.

Araucariaceae Araucaria heterophylla (Salish.) Franco

Bignoniaceae Catalpa bignonioides Walt.

Buxaceae Buxus balearica Lam. Buxus sempervirens L.

Caprifoliaceae Sambucus nigra L. Viburnum tinus L.

Cuprasaceae ]uglandaceae Cupressocyparis leylandii (A.B. Jacks. & Dallim.) Junglans regia L. Dallim. & A.B. Jacks. Cupressus sempervirens L. Thuja plicata Donn ex D.Don

Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Thunb.

Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagnus angustifolia L.

Ericaceae Arbutus unedo L.

Fagaceae Quercus canariensis Willd. Quercus cerris L. Quercus ilex L.

Quercus pubescens Willd.

Ginleoaceae

Ginkgo biloba L.

Gramineae

Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.

Hippocastanaceae

Aesculus hippocastanum L.

l.Auraceae

Cinnamomun camphora (L.) ].S. Pres[ Cinnamomun glanduliferum Hook. Laurus nobilis L.

Persea americana Mill.

Leguminosae

Albizia julibrissin Durazz.

Cercis siliquastrum L Gleditsia triacanthos L Robinia pseudoacacia L. 'Umbraculifera'

Robinia pseudoacacia L.

Sophora japonica L. Sophora japonica L. 'Pendula'

Wisteria sinensis (Sims) Sweet

Lythraceae

Lagerstroemia indica L

Magnoliaceae

Magnolia grandiflora L.

Malvaceae

Hibiscus syriacus L.

STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF GARDENS AND DESIGNED LANDSCAPES : ATTORRE ET AL.

Menisperm.aceae Coaulus laurifolius (Roxb.) DC.

Moraceae Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent. FU:us carica L.

Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea glabra Choisy

Oleaceae Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl Ligustrum japonU:um Thunb. Olea europea L. Phillyrea latifolia L.

Pal mae

Butia capitata (Mart.) Becc. Chamaerops humilis L. Phoenix canariensis hart ex Chabaud Phoenix dactylifera L. Trachycarpus Jortunei (Hook.) H. Wendl. Washingtonia filifera (Lind. ex Andre) H. Wendl.

Pinauae Cedrus atlantica (Endl.) Manetti ex Carr. Cedrus deodora (D.Don) G. Don

I. FABIO ATTORRE, BARBARA SBREGA, ALESSANDRO RossETTI and FRANCO BRUNO, 'Landscape changes

ofRome', Coenoses, I3 (I998), pp. 57-64. 2. FABIO ATTORRE, M!>.URIZIO BRUNO, FABIO

FRANCESCONI and FRANCO BRUNO, 'Landscape changes of Rome through tree-hned roads', Landscape and Urban Planning, 49 (I999), pp. I 15-128

3. FRANr;:OISE BoUDON, 'Nascicl del giardino alia francese: cartografia e stona de1 castelli', in L'architettura dei giardini d'Ocddente, eels MONIQUE MOSSER and GEORGES TEYSSOT (Milan, 2000), pp. I23-130.

J06

Cedrus libani A. Rich Picea abies (L.) Karst. Pinus halepensis Mill. Pinus pinea L Pinus sylvestris L.

Pittosporaceae Pittosporum tobira (Thunb. ex Murr.) Ait.

Platanaceae Platanus orientalis L.

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata Lam.

Podocarpaceae Podocarpus neriifolius D. Don

Punicaceae Punica granatum L.

Ro.saceae Photinia serrulata Lindl. Prunus avium L. Prunus cerasifera. Ehrh. 'Pissardii' Prunus domestica L. Spirea cantoniensis Lour. Stranvaesia nussia (D. Don) Decne.

NOTES

4· MARCO DE MICHEL1S, 'La nvoluzione verde. Leberecth M!gge e la nforma del giardmo nella Germani modemista', in L 'architettura dei grardini d'Oaidente, eels MONIQUE MossER and GEORGES TEYSSOT (Milan, 2000), pp. 405-416.

5. ALBERTA CAMPITELLI, Le ville a Rom. Architetture e giardini dal 1870 a/ 1930 (Rome, 1994).

6. FRITZ ENCKE, GuNTHER BucHEIM and SIEGMUND SEYBOLD, Zander Handworterbuchder IJlanzennamen (Stuttgart, I 994).

7· hALo lNSOLERA, u atta nella storia d'Italia: Roma (Ban, 1985).

Rutaaae Citrus aurantium L.

Salicautu Populus x canadensis Moeruh

Saxifragaceae Philadelphus wronarius L.

Scrophulariaceae Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb. ex Murr.) Stued.

Simoroubaceae Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle

Sterculiaceae Firmiana simplex (L.) W.F. Wight

Taxaceae T axus baccata L.

Taxodiaceae Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl.

Tiliacea~

Tilia americana L.

Ulmaceae Celtis australis L. Ulmus minor Mill. emend. Richens

8. RoDOLFO LANCIANI, Ancient Rome in the Light of Modem Discoveries (Boston, MA/New York, r888).

9. MAssiMO DE V1co, Storia dei giardini pubblici di Roma nell'Ottocento (Rome, 1992).

ro. ToM TURNER, 'Loudon's stylistic development',

Journal of Garden History, 2 (1982), pp. I75-I88. I I. MARIELLA ZoFP1, Storia delgiardino europeo (Bari, I995). I2. GEORGES TEYSSOT, 'Un'arte cosi ben dissimulata. ll

grardino eclettrco e l'imita.zione della natura', in L'architettura dei giardini d'Ocddente, eels MONIQUE MossER and GEORGES TEYSSOT (Milan, 2000),

pp. 355-366

spatia-temporal analyses of parks and gardens of rome

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