Sources and treatment of the folklore theme in thenovel Lola Casanova by Francisco Rojas Gonzales

Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic)

Authors Lowell, Edith Walmisley, 1927-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this materialis made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona.Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such aspublic display or performance) of protected items is prohibitedexcept with permission of the author.

Download date 15/06/2018 00:47:53

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/347592

SOURCES AND TREATMENT OF THE FOLKLORE THEME

IN THE

NOVEL LOLA CASANOVA BY FRANCISCO ROJAS GONZALEZ

by .

Edith S. Lowell

A T hesis Subm itted to th e F acu lty of the

DEPARTMENT OF ROMANCE LANGUAGES

In P a rtia l Fu lfillm ent of the Requirem ents For th e D egree of

MASTER OF ARTS

In the G raduate C o llege

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This th e s is has been subm itted in p a rtia l fu lfillm en t of requ irem ents for an advanced degree a t The U n iversity of Arizona and is d ep o s ited in the U n iversity Library to be made av a ila b le to borrow ers under ru le s of the L ibrary .

Brief quo ta tions from th is th e s is are a llow ab le w ithout s p e c ia l p erm issio n , provided th a t accu ra te acknow ledgm ent of source is m ade. R equests for p erm issio n for ex tended quo ta tion from or rep roduction of th is m anuscrip t in w hole or in p art may be granted by the head of the m ajor departm ent or the D ean of the G raduate C o llege w hen in h is judgm ent the proposed use of the m ateria l is in the in te re s ts of s c h o la rs h ip . In a ll o ther in s ta n c e s , how ever, p erm ission m ust be obtained from the a u th o r.

SIGNED L d dS .

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This th e s is has been approved on the d a te shown below:

Rena to R osaldo/r/Qc>

D ateH e ad , D epartm ent of Romance Languages

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The w rite r w ish e s to ex p re ss ap p rec ia tio n to M r. and M rs .

Edward M o ser, Summer In s titu te of L in g u is tic s , for help w ith re se a rch

and fie ld w ork, and a lso to Fernando P e sq u e ira , D irecto r of the B iblio-

/ •te c a Sonorense de G eografia e H is to r ia , Prof. Armando Q uijada

H ernandez , U n iv ersity of Sonora, and P rof. Edward H . S p icer, U niver-1

s ity of A rizona, for th e ir a s s is ta n c e during th is in v e s tig a tio n . The

su g g estio n s and c r itic ism s of P ro f. Renato R osaldo , U n iv ersity of

A rizona, have been of g reat a s s is ta n c e during the w riting of th is

t h e s i s .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ................... . . ' . . . . v i

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PART I . LOLA CASANOVA IN HISTORY AND TRADITION

C hapterI. EVOLVING TRADITION IN SONORA. . . . . . . . . . , 5

C ontem porary H is to ric a l R ecords, 1850-51 . . . 5O rigin of Folklore V ersion Around 1879 . . . . . 17Fusion of Legend and H isto ry in 1902 . . . . . 18

II . SERI VERSION .................................. . 30

III. USE OF THEME BY OTHER WRITERS . . . . . . . . . 50

Oai erne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50D olores o la Reina de los Kunkaaks . . . . . . 56

PART II-v THE NOVEL LOLA CASANOVA

VI. SOURCES USED BY FRANCISCO ROJAS GONZALEZ . . . 66

V. USE OF THE THEME‘BY FRANCISCO ROJAS GONZALEZ . 73

VI. THE SETTING OF THE NOVEL . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

G eograph ical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . 84H is to r ic a l Background . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

. A nthropological Background . „ . . . . . . . . . 96

VH. CHARACTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

VIII. STYLE AND LANGUAGE . . . .A . A .................... 130

iv

V

Page

CONCLUSIONS............................................................. 139

APPENDIXES .......................................... 143

LIST OF REFERENCES............................................... 154

ABSTRACT

The novel Lola C asan o v a w as w ritten in 1947 by F rancisco

Rojas G onzalez and is b ased on a n in e teen th cen tu ry legend from Sonora

concern ing an Ind ian c a p tiv e . The tra d itio n a l M exican v e rs io n of the

s to ry is founded on th e abduction of D olores C asan o v a February 3,

1850 follow ing an a tta c k by the Seri Ind ians on a p arty of trav e le rs on

the G uaym as-H erm osillo ro ad . This in c id en t w as reported by C olonel

C ay e tan o N av arro , P re fec t of G uaym as, in le tte rs to G overnor Aguilar

of S onora. A d iffe ren t v e rs io n of the legend is known by the Seri and

ap p aren tly w as to ld by them in su b s ta n tia lly th e same form as early

a s 1943.

Source of the sto ry for Rojas G onzalez w as Las ra z a s in d ig en es

de Sonora v la guerra d e l Y agui, 1902, by D r. Fortunate H ern an d ez .

The in fluence of th is source is found in errors in the p o rtray a l of Seri

cu ltu re and in the s ty le t w hich is rom antic to a deg ree co n s id e red

a ty p ic a l of the w orks of Rojas G o n za lez . The fo lklore them e is used by

th e n o v e lis t to p re se n t h is th e s is for m e s t iz a ie . This th e s is appears in

h is o ther w orks w ith ind igenous th e m e s , bu t is s e e n 'm o s t c le a r ly in

Lola C a san o v a .

v i

INTRODUCTION

Sources of the them e u sed by n o v e lis t F rancisco Rojas G onzalez

for h is novel Lola C a s a n o v a , 1947, are of p a rticu la r in te re s t for sev era l

r e a s o n s „

F irs t, th is novel seem s anom alous among h is w orks b ecau se of

its dom inant rom antic to n e . The source u sed for the novel w as an h is ­

to ric a l w ork, Las ra z a s ind fqenas de Sonora v la guerra d e l Yaaui by D r.

Fortunato H ern an d ez . The in fluence of th is source w ill be con sid e red

in co n n ectio n w ith th e com parison of the novel w ith o ther more r e a l is t ic

w orks w hich are thought to be b ased on fie ld s tu d ie s or p e rso n a l exper­

ie n c e s of the au th o r.

Second, the v e rs io n of the legendary them e g iven w ide c ircu ­

lation , by the novel and la te r by a movie based on i t is the v e rs io n tra d i­

tio n a l among the M ex ican re s id e n ts of Sonora. Another s ig n if ic a n tly

d iffe ren t v e rs io n e x is ts among the Seri Ind ians s t i l l liv in g in p a rt of

th e ir former te rrito ry . There is co n s id e rab le in te re s t in both v e rs io n s

in Sonora to d ay , so both w ill be p resen ted h e re .

T hird , the novel Lola C asan o v a a lso co n ta in s an e lab o ra te

. a ttem pt to re -c re a te th e life of the Seri Ind ians a t a tim e w hen th e ir

1. Fortunato H ernandez , Las ra z a s in d ig en as de Sonora v la guerra d e l Yaqui (M exico: T alleres de la C asa E d ito ria l "J. de E liz a ld e ," 1902).

n a tiv e cu ltu re w as re la tiv e ly in t a c t . The com bination of th is s c ie n tif ­

ic a lly p ic tu red Seri life w ith the rom antic s to ry h as been m entioned by

many c r itic s of the novel a s incongruous and frequen tly c ited as an

im portant c au se of an a ir of u n rea lity th a t mars the n o v e l. Anthropo­

lo g ica l th eo rie s w idely ac c ep ted around 1900 and s in ce d isca rd ed had

in fluenced H ernandez and through h is work the n o v e lis t .

The trea tm en t of th is them e p re se n ts an in te re s tin g opportunity

to s tudy the l ite ra ry aim s and tech n iq u es of F ran c isco Rojas G o n za lez .L '

He made a co n s ta n t effo rt to u se h is s tu d ie s in socio logy and an thro­

pology a s a b a s is for a r t is t ic c re a tio n . U nderlying th is effort w as h is

d e s ire to u se h is lite ra ry works to fo s te r a re a liz a tio n of the need to

uncover the ro o ts of M ex ican so c ie ty and to bring about so c ia l ch an g e .

He ad v o ca tes in Lola C a san o v a , perhaps more c lea rly than he does any­

w here e l s e , m e s t iz a ie . He does not ad v o ca te e lim ination of the Indian

in any way; ra th e r he urges am algam ation of th is p art of M exican h e ri­

tag e w ith m odern,M exican so c ie ty . H is deep fee lin g s on th is su b jec t

produce a t tim es a fe rv en t em otional note in h is s ty le . The n o v e lis t 's

b e lie f in the o b liga tion of a c rea tiv e w rite r to help bring abou t or sup­

port so c ia l change re s u l ts in exp o sito ry in tru s io n s and d ig re ss io n s

w hich in te rfe re a t tim es w ith the n a r ra tiv e . This d id ac tic ism is accom ­

panied by an e lem ent of rom anticism p re se n t in the c o n sc io u s search

for the roo ts of la m exicanidad in the lo s t Indian p a s t and w ill be

co n sid e red a s a fac to r in producing the h igh ly rom antic atm osphere ina ■

w hich the a c tio n of the novel ta k e s p la c e .

PART I

LOLA CASANOVA IN HISTORY AND TRADITION

CHAPTER I

EVOLVING TRADITION IN SONORA

C ontem porary H is to ric a l R ecords, 1850-51

Lola C asan o v a d isap p ea red from c iv iliz ed M exico some 115

y ears ago w hen she w as cap tu red in a ra id by Seri In d ia n s . Follow ing

h er d isap p e a ran ce she d ied acco rd ing to th e o ffic ia l M exican reports

of 1850, lived and becam e queen of the Seri accord ing to M exican

rom antic fo lk lo re , or m arried an Ind ian name Coyote Iguana and be­

cam e the m other of a son by him acco rd in g to Seri oral tra d itio n . Fol­

low ing the o ffic ia l repo rt of h er cap ture and d e a th , fo lk lo r is ts , an thro­

p o lo g is ts , and n o v e lis ts have in turn concerned th em se lv es w ith her

f a t e .

The chrono log ica l unfolding of h e r sto ry beg ins w ith th ree

contem porary h is to r ic a l r e fe re n c e s . The d a te February 23 , 1850, is

g iven and the e x is te n c e of the m ain c h a ra c te r s , D olores C asan o v a and

C oyote Ig u an a , is confirm ed, though no re la tio n sh ip be tw een them is

in d ic a te d . D e ta ils concern ing lo ca tio n and the number k illed or captured

in d ica te th a t a ll th ree re fe ren ces are to the same in c id en t, though nam es

are g iven only in the f ir s t re p o r t . Later re fe ren ces from 1862 and 1885

probably w ere b ased on contem porary h is to r ic a l a c c o u n ts .

6

The e a r l ie s t record of the d isap p ea ran ce of D olores C asanova

is found in the handw ritten le t te rs of C o lonel C aye tano N avarro , P refect

of Guay mas in 1850. These l e t t e r s , d isco v e red by Fernando P esqueira

in 1952, w ere ad d ressed to the the G overnor of Sonora, Jo se de A guilar,

in co n n ectio n w ith an in c id en t w hich occurred during one of the Indian

u p ris in g s th a t p lagued Sonora, e s p e c ia lly during the m iddle d ecad es of

the 1 8 0 0 's . D e ta ils w ere sen t to th e governor a s the in v e s tig a tio n and

cam paign a g a in s t the re b e ls w ere carried out during the sp rin g of 1850.

The in c id en t is sum m arized on the file card in the a rch iv es (see Appen­

d ix D ).

N ews of the a s s a u l t w as rece iv ed in Guaym as on th e day i t

o ccu rred , February 23, 1850 , and the f ir s t le t te r w as w ritten on February

24, a s the P re fec t aw aited the re tu rn of h is o fficer sen t to in v e s tig a te

th e re p o r t . F irs t to re tu rn from the party w as th e brother of D olores

C asan o v a . The inform ation he reported w as included in th is f ir s t le t te r

(see Appendix D ). At f ir s t i t had been b e liev ed th a t the a tta c k took

p lace a t the Rancho d e l H uerfano; but w hen the in v e s tig a tin g troops

arrived and in terv iew ed the w ounded , they learned th a t am bush occurred

near El H uerfano a t a r e s t stop ca lled La P a lm ita .

Today, road s ig n s on the highw ay app rox im ate ly .fo rty -five m iles

north of Guaym as id en tify El H uerfano as Los P ocitos and La Palm ita a s

1. Sonora A rch iv es , f ile : S eris 2 1 4 .3 -1 8 5 0 . P refec tu re d e l P artido de S a lv a t io n , le t te rs of C oronel C aye tano N avarro to G overnor A guilar, 1850.

7

La P in ta d a , acco rd ing to o ffic ia ls of the Sonora A rchives (see Appendix

A ) . Armando Q uijada H ernandez , U n iv ersity of Sonora, s ta te d th a t in

the h il ls south of Eos P o c ito s , near C anon d e l D iab lo , are found stone

im plem ents of Seri orig in m arking Seri cam p site s or re fu g e s . These

s ite s are a lso even w ith the T astio ta a rea of the c o a s t , h a b ita t of Band

II acco rd ing to Edward M o se r 's c la s s if ic a t io n , a Seri g ro u p ’th a t engaged

in ra id s on M exican se ttlem en ts a s w ell a s a s s a u l ts on tra v e le rs along

the H erm osillo -G uaym as ro ad .

The ex te rn a l re la tio n s of Band II w ere d ec id e ly tu rbu len t . Although th e ir prim ary b a se of operation w as a c o a s ta l a re a , the people did not u se the ocean a s a source of food. They p referred b ee f and h o rsem eat w hich w as e a s i ly acqu ired by s te a lin g an im als from ra n c h e s . H ere ag a in the w rath of the ranchers and th e governm ent w as in c u rre d . .

A sm all group of Yaqui ev en tu a lly jo in ed Band EC and in term arried w ith them . The Seri claim th a t the Yaqui induced the w arrio rs of th is band to a s s a u l t tra v e le rs on the road be tw een H erm osillo and G uaym as. C oyote Iguana , w ho acco rd in g to Seri tra d itio n cap tu red Lola C asan o v a , w as of th is b an d . This a c tiv ity soon brought re trib u tio nfrom the governm ent.^

Another p o s s ib le lo ca tio n for the a s s a u l t is a t th e old ranch

La Palm ita (see Appendix A ) . This lo c a lity ap p ears more p ro b ab le , a s

i t is only approxim ately f if te e n m iles north of G uaym as. This sho rter

d is ta n c e seem s in d ica ted by C olonel N av arro 's re fe ren ce to Don Ramon

1. In terv iew w ith Armando Q uijada H ernandez , O c t. 25 , 1964.

2 . Edward M o ser/ "Seri B ands, " The K iva, XXVIII, (February, 1963), p . 23.

C a sa n o v a 's re tu rn from the s ite of the am bush by sev en o 'c lo c k in the

even ing on February 24. The o fficer A guirre, who w as in charge of the

ex p ed itio n to in v e s tig a te the reported a s s a u l t re tu rned five hours la te r .

The g rea te r d is ta n c e to the o ther proposed s ite of the a s s a u l t a t La

P in tad a , approx im ately fo rty -fiv e m iles north of Guay m a s , seem s to

be too far for a round trip on h o rseb ack w ith in about tw en ty -fo u r h o u rs .

A dditional ev id en ce favoring the old ranch lo c a lity of La Palm ita ,

e a s t of the p re se n t h ighw ay about four m iles north of El C a b a llo , is

found in i t s proxim ity to a prom inent h i l l , El H uerfano . This h ill l ie s -

ten m iles to the north on the w e s t s id e of th e h ighw ay . The name La

Palm ita appears in the lo ca tio n given for the old ranch on a map of

Sonora pub lish ed in 1864 in San F ran c isco . A ccording to P esq u e ira ,

th is map w as an o ffic ia l on e , draw n for the governm ent of Sonora by

1a French o ffice r. I t is now in the s ta te a rch iv es in H erm osillo .

A le tte r by C olonel N avarro d a ted February 25, 1850, re ­

counted th a t an e a r lie r rep o rt th a t Dona D olores C asan o v a , 18 years

of a g e , w as mong the dead a t the s i te w as in erro r. The P re fec t of

Guaym as ex p la in ed th a t Don Ramon C a sa n o v a 's m istake in th ink ing

he saw h is s is te r 's body among the dead on the -evening of February 23

w as u n d erstan d ab le co n sid e rin g h is fa tig u e and em otional s ta te , s in ce

h is m other. Dona Anita V elasco de C asan o v a w as among th e v ic tim s .

1. Sonora A rc h iv e s , map of Sonora by C h . A lb essa r, L ib ra ire- C o m m ., San F ran c isco , 1864.

Sr. C asan o v a had la te r s ta te d p o s itiv e ly th a t h is s is te r w as not among

the d e a d , and she w as l is te d as m iss in g , abducted by the m arau d e rs . The

C o lonel added th a t the error in id e n tif ic a tio n w as probably not s ig n if ic a n t

a s the lo t of a Seri cap tiv e w ould be so bad she m ight a s w e ll be d e a d . 1

The cam paign to pun ish the In d ian s and reco v er the ca p tiv e s

co n tin u ed . On April 24, 1850, in ano ther le t te r to G overnor A guilar,

C o lonel N avarro confirm ed the new s of Dona D olores C a sa n o v a 's d e a th ,

though only by inform ation reported to him: "For n u es tra parte tenem os

que lam en tar la m uerte de la jo v en D? D olores C a sa n o v a , a quien

sac rif ica ro n pocas horas desp ites de la acc io n de B atam ote, a c o n se -

cu en c ia de h a b e rse le m uerto a l enem igo una muger h erida de ba la en la

m ism a a c c id n ;11 in th e sam e le t te r he confirm ed the e x is te n c e of C oyote

Iguana: "En e l em barcadero de. la is la d e l T iburdn, se p re s e n t^ e l

C o y o te-Ig u an a a un p iquete de tro p a , y no fue cap tu rad o , segun misI

. in s tru c c io n e s ." 3

These l e t t e r s , known s in ce 1952, are a lso c ited by Laureano

C alvo Berber, in N ociones de h is to r ia de Sonora, p u b lish ed in 1958,4

1. N avarro to A guilar, le t te r of February 25, 1850.

2. N avarro to A guilar, le t te r of April 24, 1850 .

3 . Ib id .

4 . Laureano C alvo B erber, N ociones de h is to r ia de S onora , (P ublicaciones d e l G obierno d e l e s ta d o de Sonora), (M exico: L ibreria de M anuel Porrua, S .A ., 1958).

10

Follow ing a d is c u s s io n of se rio u s Indian u p ris in g s in th e 1840 's and

the c o lla p se of effo rts to finance a cam paign a g a in s t reb e llio u s t r ib e s ,

he say s:

Se lam entaba aun e l fra c a so de la p asad a cam p an a , cuando e l 23 de febrero de 1850 lo s s e r i s , in s tig ad o s por un indfgeha mayo llam ado M iguel E s teb an , ce leb re y a por su s tro p e lia s , in ic ia ro n uno de su s tan to s a lzam ien to s con

. e l a s a lto a un convoy de c a rro s , en e l p a ra je llam ado "El H u erfan o ," sobre e l cam ino de Guaym as a H erm o sillo , re su lta n d o m uertas once p e rs o n a s , y dos hom bres con cuatro m ujefes c a u tiv a s . Entre lo s m uertos se con to a un herm ano d e l senor J o s i F ran c isco V elazco / s i c / , au to r que fue de la obra "N o tic ia s E s ta d fs tic a s d e l E stado de S onora," y en tre la s c a u t iv a s , a la sen o rita D olores C asan o v a , de 18 anos de ed ad , e h ija de un com ercian te e sp a n o l, a v e - c indado en G u ay m as.

On the follow ing page C alvo Berber co n tin u es:

Se encom endo la cam pana a D , C aye tano N avarro ,P refec to de G uaym as, y segun e l p arte c ircu n stan c iad o que de e lla rind io a l gobierno en 24 de a b r il, p e rec ie ro n en acc io n de arm as 7 guerreros y 3 m ujeres; fueron cap tu rados 12 m ujeres y 17 m u ch ach o s , y se p resen ta ro n e sp o n ta n e a - m ente en tre o tro s , lo s e a p ita n c illo s C oy o te-Ig u an a y Becerro G ordo, q u ienes fueron p u es to s en l ib e r ta d , por conven ir as jf a l mej or ex ito de la cam pana .

Thus far C alvo Berber h as sum m arized the fa c ts co n ta in ed in

le tte rs of sev e ra l d iffe ren t d a t e s . Follow ing th e se p a ra g ra p h s , he c ite s

a p a s sa g e ap p aren tly from the le t te r of April 24, re ferring to th e fa te of

th o se c ap tiv e s he ld by the S e ris , and-no tes the follow ing:

R efiriendose e l senor N avarro a la s p erso n as c au tiv a s ejue fueron r e s c a ta d a s ; : , d ice : "En la ac c io n d e l Bata m o te , Zulema Rodriquez y su h ijo , Biviana

1. Ib id , p . 164.

11

Romandia y su h ijo . En e l em barcadero de la is la d e l Tiburdh, en trego e l C o y o te -Ig u an a , a l j oven A gustm A rreguiber. For n u es tra parte tenem os que lam entar la m uerte de dona D olores C asan o v a , a qu ien sa c rif ic a ro n pocas horas d esp u es de la acc id n d e l B atam dte, a c o n secu en c ia de h a b d rse le s m uerto una m ujer h erid a de b a la en la misma acc idn ; y que no h a lla s e lib e rtad o a la n ina E lena I s la s , que segun v a ria s d e c la ra c io n e s de lo s m ism os S e ris , fue llev ad a a Tepoca por una s e r i v ie ja y tu e rta que la adopto como suya „ „ " Tal e s la verdad h is td r ic a re sp e c to a l fin tra g ic o de la jo v en D olores C a s a n o v a .1

These le t te rs w ritten by C olonel N avarro fu rn ish confirm ation

of the e x is te n c e of the m ain ch a rac te rs and a da te d iffe ren t from th a t of

the novel (1850 ra th e r th an 1854) for the a s s a u l t on the ro a d . Lola

Casanova® s cap tu re and d isap p ea ran ce are a t te s te d to in th e le t te r s .

The fa c t of h er d ea th r e s ts on the repo rt rece iv ed by C o lonel N avarro .

This s lig h t e lem en t of u n ce rta in ty may have b een a ll th a t w as requ ired

to give r is e to the leg en d . In the quo ta tions from th e se le t te rs c ited by

C alvo Berber is found the ad d itio n a l inform ation th a t some cap tiv es w ere

re scu e d a fte r the engagem ent a t Batam ote a t th e sam e tim e , or w ith in a

few hours a t le a s t , th a t D olores C asan o v a w as k illed in re p r is a l for the

. d ea th of a Seri w om an. I t may a lso be noted th a t one of the freed cap ­

tiv e s w as re le a se d by C oyote Iguana h im se lf . The ap p aren t c a se of

adop tion m entioned in co n n ec tio n w ith the fa ilu re to reco v er die ch ild

E lena I s la s is s ig n if ic a n t in th e m atter of Seri r e s is ta n c e to adoption of

o u ts id e rs .

1.. Ib id . , p . 165 .

12

A sea rch for ad d itio n a l contem porary re fe ren ces to the abduc­

tio n or d ea th of D olores " Lola" C asan o v a re v e a ls an in te re s tin g

re fe ren ce to the in c id en t by Jo se .F ran c isco V elasco , quoted by W . J .

M cG ee:

W riting about 1864 > H is to rian V elasco recurred to the Seri to say: "This handful of b a n d its , a s s a s s in s , th ie v e s ,

, b ru tes ^ in h u m an 0 j7 / in fin ite ly v ile and cow ard ly , on Feb­ruary 23 l a s t , on the Guaym as ro ad , a t the p lace c a lled H uerfan o , a s s a s s in a te d 4 unhappy wom en, in c lu d in g a g irl of nine y ears and 7 men who w ere conducting them in a c a rt tow ard th a t p o r t .

W hen i t is read in h is to ry 50 y ea rs hence th a t a hand­ful of m urderous C e ris , c e r ta in ly not more than 80 of the trib e ab le to b ear a rm s , w as ab le to dom ineer in the m idst of th e ir crim es w ith unexam pled a u d ac ity on acco u n t of the d e b ility of the governm ent and the in h a b ita n ts , i t w ill be regarded a s a rom ance or a fab le; for i t seem s im p o ssib le th a t in the n in e teen th cen tury such a cond ition of th in g s could e x is t to degrade the re a so n , the m ora lity , and the d ig n ity of c iv iliz ed man

M cG ee adds further:

A fin a l n o te , ap p aren tly added in p re s s , recorded th a t "In con seq u en ce of the l a s t in c id en t of th e C e r is , the p re fec t of G uaym as, Don C ay e tan o N avarro , took the f ie ld , re tu rn ­ing w ith 12 women and 16 ch ild ren p riso n ers; a lso 2 s tr ip lin g s and a v ie illa rd . He slew 9 among th o se who had no le a d e r .This w as on Is la Tiburon. The In d ian s fled th e n c e , and are supposed to be a t T e p o cac ."^ .

As may be noted ab o v e , M cG ee b e liev ed th e se paragraphs to have been

w ritten around 1864. In ap p aren t co n trad ic tio n of th is s ta te m e n t, h is

1. W . J . M cG ee , The Seri In d ian s (Bureau of Am erican Eth­no logy , Annual Report, N o. 17, P art 1; W ash in g to n , D .G . : Governm ent P rin ting O ffice , 1898), p . 116 .

2 . Ib id .

13

footnote to th e se p a s sa g e s is to a work by V elasco p u b lish ed in 1862.1

V elasco w as a lso the au thor of an e a rlie r w ork, N o tic ia s e s ta d is t ic a s

d e l e s ta d o de Sonora, 1850. M cG ee re fe rs to the e a r lie r work in d is ­

c u ss in g p u b lish ed so u rces of Sonora h is to ry , "Among the more u se fu l

com pila tions is th a t of V e l a s c o . "3 S u b seq u en tly , upon re fe rrin g again

to the h is to ry p u b lish ed in 1850, M cG ee ad d s , "The w hole w as re v ise d ,

ex tended and rep u b lish ed in the s e v e ra l volum es of the f ir s t s e r ie s of

Bol. Soc. M ex. y E s ta d . , 1 8 6 1 -1 8 6 6 ."^ The 1850 p u b lica tio n is c ited

by G alvo Berber in h is d is c u s s io n of the a s s a u l t (see a b o v e , p . 9 ).

There are fu rther in d ica tio n s th a t V elasco w as concerned about

the in c id e n t. J . R. B artle tt, during h is tra v e ls in Sonora, w rote on

D ecem ber 30, 1851: "M y a tte n tiv e frien d s h e re , p a rtic u la rly Don Fran­

c is c o V elasco , to whom I fee l under g rea t o b lig a tio n s , w ere quite

d e s iro u s to know my opinion re sp e c tin g th e C eris tribe and th e ir la n ­

guage ." 5

1. Jo s^ F ran c isco V elasco , Boletfn de la Sociedad M exicana de G eografia y E s ta d f s t ic a , tomo XL (M dxico:1862), p p . 124-125 .

' - ,

2. Jose F ran c isco V elasco , N o tic ias e s ta d is t ic a s d e l e s ta d ode Sonora (M exico: 1850).

3 . M cG ee, p . 83 .

4„ Ib id . , p . 88 .

5 . J . R. B artle tt, P ersonal N arrative of E xplorations and In c i­d en ts in T exas, New M ex ico , C a lifo rn ia , Sonora, and C hihuahua connected w ith the U .S . and M exico Boundary C om m ission during they ears 1850 ,5 1 ,5 2 , and 53 (New York: D . A ppleton & C o ., 1854), Vol. 1, p . 465 .

14

As B artle tt had d isc u s s e d the S eris w ith Jose F ran c isco V elasco,

i t is very lik e ly th a t from the la t te r cam e th e inform ation B artle tt g ives

concern ing an a tta c k on the Guay m as ro ad :

The la s t se rio u s a tta c k of th e s e people w as made upon a gentlem an tra v e llin g to Guay mas in h is carriag e w ith h is fam ily and a t te n d a n ts , em bracing 16 p e r s o n s . They w ere su r­p rised in an in frequen ted p lace and every sou l put to d e a th .1

H ere th e re fe ren ce is to a "gen tlem an tra v e llin g w ith h is fam ily" w hich

would agree w ith the d e ta il in Laureano C alvo B erber's a cco u n t w hich

. say s th a t a b ro ther of Don J o s ^ F ran c isco V elasco d ied in the a tta c k .

The name of th e m other of Ramon and D olores C asan o v a is g iven in the

le tte rs of C o lonel N avarro as Dona Anita V elasco de C a sa n o v a . P o ss ib lyr ' .

i t w as V elasco 8s s is te r , no t b ro ther, who w as k ille d . A lso , the C o lo n e l 's

m entioning a n iece of Ramdn C asan o v a among the v ic tim s conform s w ith

th e inform ation given by V elasco th a t one of the dead w as a g irl of nine

y e a r s .

S pecific figu res for th e number of p erso n s k illed in th e in itia l

a s s a u l t v a ry , w hich is not su rp ris in g owing to poor com m unications as

w ell a s con fusion regard ing the number tak en cap tiv e a t th a t t im e . This

con fusion is com pounded by the fa c t th a t figh ting in sp o rad ic ra id s

con tinued from February to a t l e a s t the end of April 1850, and th a t som e

of the c ap tiv e s re le a se d by C o lo n e l N avarro accord ing to h is inform ation

of April 24, 1850, p o ss ib ly w ere not cap tu red by the S eris in the o rig ina l

1. Ib id .

in c id en t on the G uaym as road on February 23. The number of dead re ­

ported by C olonel C ay e tan o N avarro is 13 w ith 7 cap tu red , th ree of

whom w ere w om en, inc lud ing D olores C a sa n o v a . If the o ther tw o w ere

indeed Zulema Rodriguez and Biviana Rom andia, th en th e se c a p tiv e s ,

recovered a fte r the ac tio n a t B atam ote, w ere tak en February 23 in the

o rig ina l a s s a u l t . It is in te re s tin g to note th a t the figure of 7 c ap tiv es

w ould then conform: th ree women in c lu d in g Lola who w as k illed in

re p r is a l , the two ch ild ren of Zulema Rodriguez and V iviana Rom andia,

recovered w ith th e ir m other, the youth A gustm Arreguiber surrendered

by C oyote Iguana on Tiburdn is la n d , and the g irl E lena I s la s who w as

not reco v e re d , hav ing been tak en off to Tepoca and adopted by an old

Seri wom an.

Laureano C alvo Berber arrived a t th e figure of e lev en d ead ,

u s in g the figure reported in N avarro 's le t te r s . The d isc rep an cy prob­

ab ly a r is e s from d iffe ren t co n c lu s io n s regard ing c a p tiv e s and w ounded.

Jo se ' F ran c isco V elasco , who had contem poraneous inform ation and may

w ell have been p e rso n a lly concerned a s a re la tiv e of the C asan o v a fam ily ,

rep o rts e lev en d e a d , four women and sev en m en, and sa y s no th ing of

c a p tiv e s . J . R. B artle tt, who probably got h is inform ation from V elasco ,

g ives the number of dead a s s ix te e n . The d a te he w rote th is is la te r ,

D ecem ber 1851, and p o ss ib ly he included th o se who d ied or v an ish ed

a s c ap tiv e s and any who may have p e rish ed during the sk irm ish es during

the en su in g m on ths, though the w ording s ta te s c le a rly th a t the party

16

am bushed on the G uaym as road included 16 p e rso n s . Perhaps the l i s t

of v ic tim s had m erely been expanded during re te llin g by D ecem ber 1851.

Another tra v e le r in Sonora, H err C lem ens A. P a jeken of Bremen,

G erm any, and C a lifo rn ia , w rote in h is book pub lished in Bremen in

1862 in the se c tio n devo ted to a d e sc rip tio n of the Seris:

This is a. sm all trib e , th e ir number not ex ceed in g 400 s o u ls , or ra th e r head; y e t the governm ent of the S tate could not re s tra in th is l i t t le band of robbers and m arauders th a t for more th an tw en ty y ea rs have p e rp e tra ted th e ir a tro c itie s on tra v e le rs be tw een th e port of Guaym as and the c ity of H erm osillo , the m etropolis of the s t a t e . ^

The nex t re fe ren ce to a tta c k s on tra v e le rs on the Guaym as road ,

and to Seri c a p tiv e s is by h is to ria n Don Ramon C orral in Las ra z a s

in d iq en as de Sonora w hich w as p u b lish ed in 1885 in "La C o n stitu c io n "

in H erm osillo . This work w as la te r included in Obras H is to r ic a s pub­

lish e d in 1959 a s N o. 1 in a s e r ie s of p u b lica tio n s of the B ib lio teca

Sonorense de G eografia e H is to r ia , H erm osillo , Sonora.

No h ace muchos anos_ que a s a lta b a n muy a menudo en e l cam ino de e s ta c iudad /H e rm o s i l lo / a Guaym as a tod os lo s v ia je ro s a se s in a n d o lo s desp iad ad am en te la mayor parte de la s v e c e s , y o tras llev an d o se lo s cau tiv o s a sus m adri- gueras , en donde lo s h ac ian su frir h p rrib lem en te . %

1. M cG ee, p . .100 .

2 . Ramon C o rra l, O bras h is td r ic a s , R esena h is to r ic a d e l e s ta d o de Sonora, 1856-1877 , Bioqraffa de lo se M aria Leyva C a jem e , Las ra z a s in d iq en as de Sonora (H erm osillo , Sonora: B ib lio teca Sonorense de G eografia e H is to r ia , 1959), p . 257.

17

O rigin of Folklore V ersion Around 1879

The origin of the rom antic legend b ased on the h is to r ic a l fa c ts

may be sought in und iscovered new spaper acco u n ts of around 1879. This

da te is g iven by C arm ela Reyna de Ledh for the p u b lica tio n of new spaper

a r tic le s nam ing Lola C asan o v a as queen of the Guaym as c a rn iv a l. The

y ear 1879 a lso m arks the end of a re la tiv e ly q u ie t period be tw een the

Encinas w ars of 1855-65 and the cam paign in 1880 w hen 150 of the tribe

w ere r e s e tt le d in Pueblo de S eris near H erm osillo . Events in 1880 m ight

have rev ived in te re s t in ta le s of e a r lie r Seri u p r is in g s , inc lud ing the

d isap p e a ran ce of Lola C a sa n o v a . The rom antic legendary e lem en ts such

as the love s to ry , Lola8s p o s itio n as a queen or a n c e s tre s s of a c la n ,

and tr ib a l s tr ife of ra c ia l orig in m ight have been tak en from oral trad itio n

th a t a lread y e x is te d , or have been added from the w rite rs ' own know­

ledge of s im ila r s to r ie s .

M cG ee 's re fe ren ce in 1894 to new spaper acco u n ts of the legend

w as made in co n n ec tio n w ith h is th e o rie s of Seri " race s e n s e ." He re ­

je c te d the s to ry both on th e o re tic a l grounds as w ell a s i ts im probable

rom antic a s p e c ts . H is rem arks a lso in d ica te there may have been more

th an one pub lish ed v e rs io n of the le g e n d .

There are lo o se t ra d it io n s , to o , of the cap tu re and en ­slavem en t of Ind ian and C a u c a s ia n women in Seriland; y e t th e g rea t fa c t rem ains th a t not a s in g le m ixed-blood Seri i s

1 . C arm ela Reyna de Ledh, D olores o la re in a de lo s Kunkaaks (P itiqu ito , Sonora: P rin ted by Im presa Econdm ica, C an a n ea , Sonora:1943), p . 1 .

18

known to e x is t , and th a t no more than tw o of the blood (Kolusio and perhaps one other) now live v o lu n ta rily b e­yond the te rrito ry and co n san g u in ea l con fines of the t r ib e . The rom antic s to ry of a w hite s la v e and a n c e s tre s s of a Seri c la n , som etim es d iffu sed through p ern ic io u s rep o rto ria l a c tiv ity , is w ithout shadow of proof or p robab ility ; the: tra d i­tio n of a c a p tiv ity of a Papago b e lle w as corroborated , a lb e it in d e fin ite ly , by M ash em 's naive ad m issio n th a t an a lie n woman w as once kep t a s a s lav e to a c h ild le ss d ea th due to h er in ap titu d e for long w anderings; and th ere is not a s in g le known fa c t in d ica tin g even so much as m isc ib ili ty of the Seri blood w ith th a t of o ther v a r ie tie s of genus Homo. 1

Fusion of Legend and H isto ry in 1902

The s to ry of Lola C asan o v a in i ts M exican rom antic v e rsio n

w as f ir s t p u b lish ed a s h is to r ic a l fa c t in 1902 by D r. Fortunato H ernandez

in Las ra z a s indxgenas de Sonora v la guerra d e l Y agui. H ernandez , a

h is to r ia n as w ell a s a m ed ical docto r w ith so c io lo g ica l in te re s ts , w as

in te re s te d in i ts ap p lic a tio n to the problem of so c ia l c h a n g e s , e sp e c ia lly

the a s s im ila tio n of the In d ia n . A ccepting M cG ee 's th e o rie s regard ing

Seri c u ltu re , he a lso took in large p art the m ate ria l abou t th e Seri d ire c t­

ly from M cG ee 's p rev ious work and acknow ledged th is so u rc e .

El lib ro de M cGee pub licado en W ash ing ton por e l gobierno am eficano , co n tien e p re c io so s d a to s que he podido ra tif ic a r du ran te mi la rga perm anencia en Sonora y mis rep e tid o s v ia je s a l te rrito rio S e r i . 2

This fu sio n of the legendary d e ta ils of L o la 's life among the Seri w ith

M c G e e 's an th ro p o lo g ica l th eo rie s w as to have a profound e ffe c t on la te r

w r ite rs , inc lud ing F ran c isco Rojas G o n za lez .

1. M cG ee, p . 132.

2 . H ern d h d ez , p . 30 .

I

. ' 19

H erndjidez m entions sp e c if ic a lly th ree lo ca tio n s v is i te d on c e r­

ta in of th e se tr ip s : Rancho San V icente owned by the D esen s fam ily , a

ran ch eria a t Rada B a llen a , and the c o a s t of Kino Bay. 1 M cG ee 's longer

se c tio n on the h is to ry of the Seri is g rea tly condensed and sum m arized

in H erncm dez, w ith th e om ission of the volum inous foo tno tes and qu o ta ­

tio n s from e a r lie r w r i te r s . M iss in g are the s c a n t re fe ren c e s to the a tta c k

a t La P alm ita on the G uaym as-H erm osillo ro ad . In 1901 the le tte rs of

C o lonel N avarro ap p aren tly w ere not know n, and the re fe ren ces to th e

in c id en t are su ffic ien tly sho rt and vague as to be ignored in p a s s in g by

one sum m arizing th is h is to ry s e c tio n . I t w as only one in a long se rie s

of in te rm itten t sk irm ish es w ith the S e r is . Bancroft d a te s the beginning

of th e se Seri w ars in 1700 w ith the in v asio n of Tiburdh Is lan d by Sgt.

Juan B au tis ta E sca lan te in M arch of th a t y e a r . 2 The number of Seri up­

r is in g s w as put a t forty by Jo s£ F ran c isco V elasco , 3 and a t fifty by

ano ther h is to r ia n of Sonora, F. T. Dcfvila in h is book Sonora h is td fico

v d e s c r ip t iv o , p u b lish ed in N ogales in 1894 .^ A lso, Herncfndez m ight

have m issed the re fe ren ces to th is a tta c k s in ce th ey are identified , in

1. I b id . , pp . 57 , 62, 64.

2 . H ubert Howe B ancroft. The N ative Races (5 v o ls . ; San F rancisco : A. L. Bancroft & C o . , 1882), quoted by M cG ee, p . 60.

3 . V elasco , B oletih de la Sociedad M exicana de G eografia y E s ta d is t ic a , tomo XI> quoted by M cG ee, p . 94.

4 . F. T. Ddfvila, Sonora h is td r ic o v d e sc rip tiv o (N o g ales , Sonora: 1894), p . 319.

20

the p a s sa g e s quoted by M cG ee by d a te .an d lo c a tio n , not by the nam es

of the v ic t im s . H ernandez b e liev ed the d a te of L o la 's ab d u c tio n to be

la te r , around 1 8 5 4 .^

Follow ing the summary of Seri h is to ry are found d isc u s s io n s

of Seri iso la tio n and cu ltu ra l ad ap ta tio n s to th is iso la tio n , a s con ta ined

iii M cG ee and fo llow ing h is th e o r ie s . Then, in se rted in the narra tive

im m ediately follow ing the acco u n t of the o ther c a s e s of adoptionnm en-

tioned by M cG ee, is the fu ll s to ry of Lola C asan o v a (see Appendix C ) .

Los casos-.de adopcion .m as n o ta b le s , son e l de un cau tiv o que lie go' a s e r Jefe de la trib u , bajo e l nombre de C o y o te -Ig u an a , y e l de Lola C a sa n o v a , una joven de d iec io ch o anos que fue a rreb a tad a a su fam ilia por lo s S e ris , du ran te un com bate so s ten id o con tra e s to s en e l cam ino de G u ay m as^H erm d sillo , por e l ano de 1854.

Ya v a r ie s an c ian o s so n o ren ses me h ab ian re ferido e l a trev ido rap to y n o v e le sca h is to r ia de Lola; pero ninguno de e llo s me aseg u ro h ab erla c o n o c id o .%

H ernandez here s ta te s h is so u rces for th e s to ry and re fe rs to no w ritten

reco rd s of any kind . An im portant ad d itio n a l so u rc e , a lso from oral tra -

d itio n , is the sto ry to ld him by an old se rv an t named M aria who claim ed

to have se en Lola C asan o v a and ta lk ed w ith her:/ / /

D urante mi u ltim a ex p ed ic io n a l te rrito rio S e ri, encontreen e l Rancho de San V icen te , prop led ad de lo s S re s . D esens,una an tigua s irv ien te llam ada M arla , que conocio a Lola •C asan o v a y que me re firio lo s ig u ien te :

H ara como unos d ie z y ocho anos que M arfa, ya en to n cesa l se rv ic io de la fam ilia D e se n s , se encon traba con su e sp o so ,Antonio V aldes, en un rancho conocido con e l nombre de ElP a ria n . ^

1. H ernandez , p . 62.\

2 . Ib id . 3 . Ib id .

/

21

Follow ing a Seri a tta c k a t daw n in w hich her husband and the only-

o ther perso n liv ing a t El P arian w ere k i l le d , M arfa fled to a nearby

ra n c h . Some m onths la te r some Seri women cam e to the w ell to get

w ater and M arfa no ticed th a t one w as w h ite . She q u estio n ed the woman

who answ ered th a t h er name w as Lola C a sa n o v a . "The supposed Seri"

th en to ld M arfa her s to ry .

/ ' ' ' fThe a tta c k a t Rancho d e l P arian is referred to by Ramon C orral

in Las ra z a s indfgenas de Sonora , 1885.

Eh ju lio d e l ario proxim o pas ado atacaron^/Tos s e r i / e l rancho d e l P arian y m ataroh a dos p e rso n as . . . En d iciem bre d e l mismo an o , con m otivo de que habfan robado algunos an im ales en e l rancho de C o sta R ica , propidad de Don P ascu a l E n c in as, a lgunos vaqueros de e s te y d e l rancho San Fernando sa lie ro n a p e rse g u ir lo s , logrando encon trar un grupo co n s id e rab le de ind ios con • q u ien es so stu v ie ro n una lucha de dos h o ra s . Los s a lv a je s huyeron de jando c in co m u erto s .%

In the acco u n t by H ernandez of M arfa 's s to ry are found a ll th e im portant

e lem ents of th e ,M ex ican v e rs io n of the tra d itio n . The fo llow ing po in ts

of s im ila rity are found among th e M ex ican v e r s io n s . C oyote Iguana w as

not a S eri, but a Pima In d ia n . Lola C asan o v a w as the b eau tifu l 18 y ea r

old daugh ter of a Spanish m erch an t. H er fam ily w as rea so n ab ly w e ll- to -

do and liv ed in G u ay m as. C oyote Iguana knew some Spanish as demon­

stra te d by h is sp e e c h to h er during the figh ting a t La P a lm ita . Coyote

Iguana w as a c h ie f , and he made Lola queen of the S e r is . Lola and

1. Ib id . , p . 63

„ 2 . C o rra l, pp . 258-259 .

22

C oyote Iguana had two or more ch ild ren , and her two sons re igned a s

su c c e sso rs to th e ir fa th e r a s lo rds of the Seri tr ib e . S trife ensued in

the trib e a s a re s u l t of the m arriage of Lola and C oyote Iguana and h is

in s is te n c e th a t she be accorded re sp e c t a s an honored m atron or even

q u e e n , in some v e rs io n s . C oyote Iguana d ied in one of th e se in te rtr ib a l

fig h ts over th e adop tion of L ola, bu t Lola con tinued to liv e w ith the

Ind ians a fte r C oyote Ig u an a 's d ea th and her ch ild ren w ere ra ise d and

lived a s S e ris . She h e rse lf w as se e n a number of tim es am ong a group

of Ind ians on v is i t s to H erm osillo and Guay mas a s w e ll a s a t p o in ts

a long the c o a s t such a s the ranch w here M aria , inform ant of H ernandez,

liv e d . F in a lly , she d ied and w as b u ried among th e S eri. I t should be

added th a t in a l l M ex ican v e rsio n s of the s to ry , Lola and C oyote

Iguana ap p ear un ited by strong .m utual rom antic p a s s io n , and h er d e c i­

s io n u ltim ate ly to rem ain w ith the In d ian s w as v o lu n ta ry .

For th is a ttitu d e on the p a rt of hero and hero ine , th e re are a

number of a n te c e d e n ts in the lite ra tu re and legend of H ispanoam erica:

the poem "T ab a re ," p u b lish ed in 1888 by Juan Zorilla de San M artin of/

U ruguay, and the rom antic novel C um anda, pub lish ed in 1894 by Juan

Leon M era of E cuador. From C alifo rn ia com es the rom antic sto ry of

Ramona. Alberto Almada of N avo joa, Sonora, repo rts in a d d itio n a sto ry

abou t a Yaqui c h ie f , S ibalaum e, and a b eau tifu l w hite g irl named

M arce lina * No w ritten record of th is la s t tra d itio n a l s to ry has been

1 o L etter from Alberto Almada to th is w rite r, July 30 , 1964»

23

found , bu t i t is ap p aren tly lo ca lly known in Yaqui te rrito ry .

Hernctndez recu rs to th e sto ry of Lola C asan o v a a t th e co n c lu ­

s ion of the p art of h is book th a t d ea ls w ith the S eri. H ere he c o n tra s ts

Lola C asan o v a8 s adop tion by the Seri and h er becom ing a b arbarian w ith

1the s to ry of a young Seri g irl who becam e c iv il iz e d . A side from th e se

two re fe re n c e s , no further m ention is made of the sto ry of Lola C a s a ­

nova in the book of H ern an d ez , sav e in the in troductory a r tic le by

Juan de D ios P e za . He d e sc r ib e s the co n ten ts of the c h ap te r on so c ia l

o rgan iza tion and sa y s in part:

. . . a l l f e s ta la h is to ria de la fam osa Lola C asan o v a herm osa muyer de la raza b lan ca sono ren se y cf qu ien su am ante C o y o te -Ig u an a , Jefe de la N acion S e ri, im puso a la tribu como R eina. Fue madre de C oy o te-Ig u an a II y de C o y o te -Ig u an a III en cuyo re in ad o murio h ab ien d o se les tribu tado grande s honores . ^

Juan de D ips Peza ap p ears to have added some in te rp re ta tio n of h is own

th a t se rv e s to h e ig h ten the rom antic tone of the tra d itio n a l s to ry . H er-

napdez u se s the word "queen" in the sp eech C oyote Iguana m akes to

Lola im m ediately a fte r cap tu ring h e r , and ag a in in d e sc rib in g her p o s i­

tio n from a rom antic p o in t of v iew , som ew hat p o e tic a lly . He re fe rs to

C oyote Iguana a s "ch ief" in the words he a ttr ib u te s to Lola C asanova

h e rse lf : "E ntonces com prendf que de D olores C asan o v a no quedaba ya /

en e l mundo mas que un tr is te recu erd o , y q u e , en lo s u c e s iv o , yo no

se ria ya mas que la poderosa m atrona S eri, e sp o sa d e l tem ido y v a le ro so

1. H ern an d ez , p . 71. 2 . I b id . , P re fa c e .

/ 24/ 1

je fe de la nacion K unkaak„" Juan de D ios P eza a lso ap p ears to in d ica te

th a t the s to ry of Lola C asan o v a w as p rev io u sly known by re fe rrin g to her

a s " the fam ous Lola C a s a n o v a ,11 w hich may be a fu rther in d ica tio n of

tra d itio n cu rren t in Sonora in the la te 1 8 0 0 's , referred to sca th in g ly by

M cG ee as " lo o se tra d itio n s" spread by " pern ic ious rep o rto ria l ac tiv ity "

a s c ited p re v io u s ly .^

In the y e a rs fo llow ing the p u b lica tio n of Las ra z a s indfgenas

de Sonora y la guerra d e l Yaqui by H ern an d ez , v ir tu a lly noth ing has b een

w ritten in M exico about th e Seris th a t h as not been s trong ly in fluenced

by th is w ork. As h a s been p rev io u sly n o te d , much of the h is to ry and

an th ropo log ica l d a ta was-.- tak en more or le s s li te ra lly from the e a r lie r

work pub lish ed by M cG ee. H e rn an d ez 's in fluence ex tends to d e ta ils of

th e sto ry of Lola C asan o v a .

Thus we find in Eduardo W . V illa 's h is to ry of Sonora the d e ta ils

th a t D olores C asanova w as abducted in 1854, the d a te g iven by H ernan­

dez; th a t she w as th e daugh ter of a Spaniard re s id e n t in Guay m a s . The

a tta c k took p lace a t La Palm ita on the H erm osillo -G uaym as ro ad . The

w ords.o f Coyote Ig u an a 's sp eech are reproduced a s they ap p ear in

H ern an d ez 's v e rs io n . The couple w as un ited by a v io len t p a s s io n . They

had th ree ch ild re n , and Lola cam e to H erm osillo many tim es d isg u ise d

a s a S eri. C oyote Iguana w as k illed in a figh t over a c c e p tin g Lola

1. I b id . , p . 63 . 2 . M cG ee, p . 132.

25

C asan o v a as a member of th e tribe. F in a lly , her two sons w ere crowned

k ings follow ing th e ir fa th e r 's d e a th . V illa adds th a t the d isap p e a ran ce

of D olores C asan o v a and her life among the Seris is " tru e , a s b e s t can

be determ ined" ("verid ico a tod a p ru e b a " ) . •*"

C h ro n o lo g ica lly , the recen tly p u b lish ed h is to ry of Sonora ,

N ociones de h is tor la de S onora, by Laureano C alvo Berbery com es n e x t.

Owing to i ts re c e n t d a te of p u b lica tio n , the le t te rs of C o lonel N avarro

w ere a v a ila b le to th is a u th o r , and h is re fe ren ces to them are quoted

a b o v e . In the se c tio n devoted to d esc rib in g th e Ind ian trib e s of

Sonora , the an th ropo log ica l m ateria l is c le a r ly tak en from H ernandez

and M cG ee.

In 1959 an an th ro p o lo g ica l s tu d y of the Seris w as p ub lished

by W illiam B. G riffe n ,N otes on Seri Ind ian C u ltu re , Sonora, M ex ic o .O

b ased on a m onth 's fie ld work done in 1955 and 1956. The name of

C oyote Iguana ap p ears se v e ra l tim es in d a ta co lle c ted by G riffen who

re fe rs to him as the " sem i-m y th ica l C oyote Ig u a n a . "^ This s ta tu s may

have been a ttrib u ted to him b ecau se of the many co n trib u tio n s to tr ib a l

know ledge of songs and d an ces sa id to have been made by him , and

a lso b ecau se of h is pow ers a s a sham an rem em bered in modern Seri

1. Eduardo W . V illa , Com pendio de h is to ria d e l e s ta d o de Sonora (M exico: E d ito ria l P a tria N ueva, 1937), pp . 31-35 .

2. W illiam B. G riffen . N otes on Seri Indian C u ltu re , Sonora, M exico ("Latin American M onographs," N o. 10; G a in sv ille , F lorida: U n iv ersity of F lorida P re s s , D e c . 1959),

3 . I b id . , p . 16.

26

tra d itio n . C oyote Ig u a n a 's name w as f ir s t m entioned in co n n ec tio n w ith

11 da nee ab le m u s ic ," w hich w as sa id to have been learned from him . He

is thought to have e ith e r made i t up h im se lf or learned i t from the Y aq u is . ^

He w as a lso sa id to have in troduced se v e ra l d a n c e s , in one of w hich a

p erso n d an ces on a p lank drum w hile ano ther s in g s and shakes, a p a ir

2of r a t t le s . Another of the d an ces learned from him- is a d ee r d a n c e .

As a sham an, he cured by dancing on an overturned o lla (pottery v e s -

s e l ) . He w as reported to have gone "up to the s u n ," the Seri land of

the d e a d .^ That C oyote Iguana w as only " s e m i-m y th ic a l," w as e s ta b ­

lish e d by abaundan t b io g rap h ica l d a ta fu rn ished G riffen . 5 These d a ta

agree w ith the d e ta i ls of the life of C oyote Iguana fu rn ished the p re sen t

w rite r, a ided by M r. and M rs . M oser, in June of 1964 by th e S e ris .

Follow ing the sk e tc h of C oyote Ig u an a 's l i f e , an acco u n t is

g iven by G riffen of the Seri v e rs io n of the s to ry of Coyote Iguana and

Lola C a sa n o v a . It is referred to a s " s tr ic tly a Seri version" by G riffen,

who re fe rs read ers to Eduardo W . V illa for a " modern M exican v e rs io n .

D e ta ils of th e Seri v e rs io n a s told to G riffen co inc ide c lo se ly w ith the

sto ry to ld the w rite r in D esem boque by two Seri inform ants in June 1964.

I t is a lso in te re s tin g to note many po in ts of agreem ent w ith the sto ry

con ta ined in D olores o la re in a de lo s K unkaaks, by C arm ela Reyna de

1 . Ib id . 2 . Ib id ., p . 18.

3 , I b id . , pp . 20, 51 . 4 . Ib id .,.p . 20. ,

5 . I b id . , pp . 1 9 -20 . 6. Ib id ., p . 20.

27

Le6n of P itiq u ito , Sonora, p rin ted in C an an ea , Sonora, in 1943. C le a r­

ly , there are two d is t in c t v e rs io n s of the s to ry cu rren t in th e la s t sev e ra l

d e c a d e s , a t l e a s t .

The m ost re c e n t record of the tra d itio n a l Seri v e rs io n of the

sto ry of Lola C asan o v a is found in the work of Edward M o ser. M o se r 's

inform ation h as been co lle c te d from the S eris during the co u rse of h is

lin g u is tic re se a rc h over the y ears 1952-1965 . The background biograph­

ic a l inform ation , a s w ell as the genealogy com piled by them , m akes

the Seri v e rs io n as known by M r. and M rs . M oser the m ost com plete

acco u n t a v a ila b le .

There are se v e ra l in s ta n c e s w here in v e s tig a to rs who w rote

com prehensive rep o rts abou t the Seri fa iled to record hav ing heard any­

th in g of Lola C asan o v a or Coyote Ig u an a .

A study of the S eris made in 1931 by Alfred L. Kroeber, who

v is ite d Tiburdn and devo ted a period of le s s th an a w eek to th e p ro je c t,

d o es no t m ention the s to ry of Lola C asan o v a a t a l l .^ Nor does he men­

tio n C oyote Iguana , though he d o es d e sc rib e so n g s , d a n c es and

sham anism . C oyote Iguana is re c a lle d by the Seris today a s a strong

1. C arm ela Reyna de Ledn, D olores o la re in a d e lo s Kun- k aak s (P itiquito , Sonora: Printed by Im presa E condm ica, C an an ea ,Sonora: 1943).

2 . M o ser. The K iva, XXVIII. 23.

3. Alfred L. Kroeber, The Seris ("Southw est M useum P a p e r s ," N o, 6; Los A n g e les , C alifo rn ia : Southw est M useum , 1931).

28

sham an, and proofs of h is e x is te n c e seem to be c le a r ly e s ta b lish e d by

the le tte rs of C olonel N avarro . K roeber's om ission may be a negative

in d ica tio n regard ing the tru th of the s to ry Lola C asan o v a liv ed among

the Seri and had ch ild ren who w ere h a lf S eri. K roeber's inform ant w as

C hico Romero who w a s , by contem porary Seri acco u n t, the second

husband of P e tra . She had p rev io u sly been the w ife of V ictor A vila,

son of Coyote and L o la , and m other of four ch ild ren by h im . Kroeber

repo rts th a t C hico Romero den ied the p resence, of e ith e r v e n e re a l d is ­

e a s e or h a lf -b re e d s , and no tes th a t he saw no ev id en ce of e ith e r .

Another p o ss ib ly s ig n ifican t om ission is found in the h is to r­

ic a l d ic tio n ary of F ran c isco Almada.-*- No re fe ren ce is made to the

tra d itio n a l rom ance or even to the a tta c k on the G uaym as road under

any p lace nam es a s so c ia te d w ith the s to ry or under the nam es C a s a ­

no v a , Coyote Iguana , or Je su s A vila, C o y o te 's Spanish nam e. Nor

is there any m ention of the s to ry under the name of the Seri tr ib e .

. Another p u b lish ed work w here no redord is found of e ith e r

Coyote Iguana or Lola C asan o v a is The L a st of the S eris by D ane

C oolidge and M ary Roberts C o o lid g e . This book is b ased on a v is i t to

Kino Bay, Sonora, in 1932. One of th e ir inform ants is recorded to have

been nam ed "M anuel E ncinas . " From th is man the C oo lidges got

1 . F ran c isco Almada, D icc io n ario de h is to r ia , g eo g ra fia , y b iografia so n o ren ses (Chihuahua: Im presora Ruiz S andoval, 1952).

29

inform ation concern ing m arriage c u s to m s . 1 P e tra , w ife of the son of

C oyote and Lola w as " th e s is te r of M anuel E n e m a s .11 ^

Luis Arturo G onzalez Bonilla om itted a ll re fe ren ce to Lola

C asan o v a from h is repo rt of 1 9 4 1 . 3 H is s tudy of the Seris is s ig n if ic an t

b e c au se he could have fu rn ished to F ran c isco Rojas G onzalez both an

in troduction to the work of H ernandez and a p o ss ib le sou rce of d e ta ils

of the Seri v e rs io n of the le g e n d . H is p rin c ip a l inform ant w as C hico

Romero, second husband of P etra (see Appendix B).

Two gaps in the inform ation c o lle c te d p reven t draw ing any con­

c lu s io n abou t the tru th of th e s to ry th a t Lola C asan o v a liv ed among the

S e ris , in th is w rite r 's op in ion . One gap is the m iss in g ev id en ce for the

orig in of rom antic d e ta ils added to the h is to r ic a l record in the M exican

v e rs io n . The o ther gap concerns th e o rig in of the Seri v e rs io n , the

e a r l ie s t d a te d isco v e red being 1943. P o ss ib ly the Seri v e rs io n re p re se n ts(

th e ir ad ap ta tio n of new spaper v e rs io n s from around 1879. Their sto ry

grafted onto the h is to r ic a l fa c ts from 1850-51 is su ff ic ie n tly c re d ib le ,

d e sp ite d isc re p a n c ie s in d e ta i l s , bu t i t r e s ts en tire ly on o ral tra d itio n .

1. D ane and M ary Roberts C o o lid g e , The L ast of the Seris (New York: E. P . D utton and C o . , 19391, p . 38.

2 . In te rv iew w ith Roberto H errera (Thompson) and Je su s M o ra le s , June 10, 1964.

3 . Luis Arturo G onzalez B onilla , "Los S e r is ," Re v is ta M exicana de S ocio log fa , In s titu te de In v es tig ac io n es S o c ia les de la U niversidad N a tio n a l Autdhoma, Vol. I l l , N o. 2 , (1941).

CHAPTER II

SERI VERSION

Upon co n s id e ra tio n of the testim o n y of the modern S erfs, many

in te re s tin g d iffe ren ces are found be tw een th e ir tra d itio n and M exican

v e rs io n s of the s to ry e ith e r as recoun ted by H ernandez in 1901 or by

m odern re s id e n ts of Sonora. The M exican v e rs io n h as b een w idely c ir ­

cu la ted s in ce 1947 by the novel and the movie based on i t .

The Seris have a lso read the n o v e l, or a few of them h av e ,

acco rd ing to W illiam N. Sm ith, who le n t i t to them . The Ind ian read ers

laughed a t some sc e n e s d ep ic tin g th e ir custom s and mode of l i fe ,

acco rd ing to Sm ith. .

I t is p ro b ab le , to o , th a t some Seris saw the movie in Herm o-

s i l lo . They v is i t H erm osillo and are in te re s te d in a ll acco u n ts or por­

tra y a ls of th e m se lv e s . Their co n c lu s io n s regard ing the accu racy of

th e se po rtray a ls are very un favo rab le . As a r e s u lt , Seri op in ion is

c r itic a l of the p r e s s , and th e ir name for i t i s " The Lying P a p e rs ,"

2acco rd ing to Edward M o ser.

1 . In terv iew w ith W illiam N . Sm ith , June 6, 1964.

2 . , In terview w ith Edward M o ser, June 10, 1964.

30

31

The 1941 repo rt of the ex p ed itio n by the In s titu te de In v e s ti-

gac iones S ocia les w as co n su lted by Rojas G o n za lez . It is p o ss ib le th a t

he might have heard the Seri v e rs io n of the tra d itio n from a member of

th is ex p ed itio n , though i t is not m entioned in the re p o r t . H ow ever, s in ce

th is fie ld work ra is e s the p o s s ib ili ty th a t the au thor m ight have heard

i t , i t i s d e s ira b le to record here the fu ll acco u n t of the Seri v e rs io n ,

w ith a l l corroborative d a ta and re la ted inform ation a v a i la b le . All of th is

m aterial, h as been co lle c te d w ith the aid of Edward and M ary Beck M oser

or co lleq ted by them and com m unicated to the. w rite r e ith e r p e rso n a lly

or by le t te r .

D esem boque, Sonora, w as v is ite d on June 10, 1964. M ost of

the approxim ately 280 p e rso n s who now com prise the Seri trib e w ere

liv in g a t D esem boque a t th a t t im e . A few fam ilies w ere liv in g a t Punta

C hueca and w orking a t th e M ex ican fish in g v illa g e on the shore of the

In fie rn illo . A lso, some men w ere sa id to be a b se n t f ish in g along the

c o a s t . Turtle f ish in g is good in June, and four Seri men w ere m et June

11 tu rtle f ish in g a t Puerto L ib ertad , north of D esem boque. The sea

tu rtle is sa id by G riffen to be th e m ost im portant an im al in Seri fish in g

Thanks to the in v alu ab le a s s is ta n c e of the M o se rs , i t w as

p o ss ib le to h ea r the Seri acco u n t of the s to ry of Lola C asan o v a as w e ll

as ad d itio n a l d e ta ils concern ing the liv e s of Coyote Iguana and h is

1. G riffen , p . 10.

32.

d e s c e n d a n ts . The two inform ants w ere Roberto H errera (Thompson) and

Jesifs M o ra le s . Roberto H errera appeared to be about 40 y ea rs old and

wore a khak i uniform and a gun, a s he is th e po licem an a t D esem boque„

He w as su ffering from a cough w hich som etim es in terrup ted h is n arra tiv e .

He rep ea ted the s ta tem en ts of Je su s M orales in S p an ish . Jestis M orales

appeared to be co n s id e rab ly o lder than Roberto H erre ra , perhaps about

60 y ea rs o ld . He and Ram ona, w ife of Roberto H e rre ra , ap p ear in the

genealogy generously fu rn ished by M ary Beck M oser from her d a ta and

are sa id to be d escen d ed from Lola C asan o v a (see Appendix B).

No id ea of Shame is involved in the a ttitu d e of th o se who today

claim d e sc e n t from Lola C a sa n o v a . This could be observed from th e ir

e a g e rn e ss to claim the re la tio n sh ip , and th e ir happy sm iles a s they

p a tted th em selv es on th e c h e s t or po in ted to som eone e ls e in th e group

w hile rep ea tin g ano ther of the nam es show n on th is g en ea lo g y .

Jestfs M o ra le s , the o lder in fo rm an t, understood Spanish and

answ ered q u es tio n s a sk ed in th a t la n g u a g e , a lthough he preferred to

sp eak S eri. Roberto H errera sp eak s both e a s i ly , and tra n s la te d the Seri

to S p an ish . As M r. M oser w as p re se n t, th e re w as a lso th e opportunity

to c le a r up some q u es tio n s by co n sid e rin g both Spanish and Seri ex p lan ­

a tio n s . I t w as co n sid e red th a t J e su s M o ra le s , being o lder and h im self

a d e sc e n d a n t of Lola C a san o v a , w as b e tte r informed abou t d e ta ils of

the s to ry , and he w as ask ed to te l l i t . Roberto H errera w as a lso very

fam ilia r w ith the tra d itio n , add ing some d e ta ils and a sk in g some

33/

q u es tio n s of Je su s M o ra les to e l ic i t fu rther p ie c e s of inform ation as he

tra n s la te d i t to S p an ish . Indeed , every Seri who cam e to find out w hat

w as going on seem ed to be very fam iliar w ith the name of Lola C asanova

and to tak e a friend ly and ch eerfu l in te re s t in the w hole p ro ceed in g .

Both inform ants spoke vo lub ly and d ram a tica lly , w ith g e s tu re s , som e­

tim es even e n ac tin g b its of the d ia lo g u e , a s if th ey knew th e sto ry very

w ell and had to ld i t many tim e s .

F irs t po in t tak en up w as th a t of the tr ib a l o rig in of C oyote

Iguana , who M exican tra d itio n say s w as a Pima or an O p a ta . The Seris/

are p o s itiv e he w as born a S eri, Je su s A vila, son of M ariana Sanchez

and Juan A vila, a t a cam p "Xnittom" in th e n o rth east corner of San

E steb an Is la n d . H is p a ren ts belonged to th a t band , and w hen the baby

w as s t i l l very young , about a month o ld , they moved to a sm alle r is la n d ,

th a t of San L orenzo. There th ey lived for a y ea r , moving a t the end of

th a t tim e to a p art of Tiburon Is lan d w hich w as th e ir band te rrito ry , a

s tr ip of c o a s t fac in g San E steb an Is la n d . W hen Coyote Iguana w as abou t

12 y e a rs o ld , th e fam ily moved to the m ain land , to T a s tio ta , sou th of

Kino Bay. This w as the band te rrito ry of C o y o te 's m other who w anted to

re tu rn to her r e la t iv e s . They w ere accep ted by th e "T astio ten o s" and

rem ained th ere for a few y e a rs „

. A group of Yaqui cam e to the sam e c o a s ta l reg io n , s te a lin g .

C oyote Iguana w as by now a youth of 16 or 17. At so c ia l ga th erin g s

C oyote becam e very good friends w ith th e Y aquis, lea rn in g some d an ces

34

and s o n g s . He a ls o accep ted from them the id ea of a tta ck in g tra v e le rs

on the road from H erm osillo to Guaym as „

O nce w hen he w as w ith the Y aq u is , th ey saw a ca rriag e com­

in g . In i t w ere Lola and her fa th e r , a lo n e . L o la 's fa ther w as a m erch an t.

He w as going to H erm osillo for m e rch an d ise . The coach w as s to p p ed .

The Yaquis w anted th e gold and the c lo th e s . H er fa ther w as k i l le d , and

Lola fa in te d . The Yaquis. fe ll to loo tin g the ca rriag e . The youthful

C oyote Ig u an a , for h is p a r t, w as struck by th e beau ty of the g irl and

s e iz in g h e r, fled on one of the h o rses 6 He headed for the c o a s t , going

through a p a s s so u th e a s t of Kino Bay to Sari N ico las P o in t.

He had a b a ls a (raft) h idden a t a camp known in Spanish a s

"H ueso B allena" and in Seri a s "Kanx "im e/" or " s e a b a s s h o m e."

There he k illed the horse and load ing the m eat and h is cap tiv e in to h is

b a ls a , w ent a c ro ss the w ater to th e sm all is la n d of A lcatraz in Kino Bay.

At th e foot of the p e a k , there is a cave fac in g the shore of th e m ain land .

It is th e only o n e . O nce on A lcatraz is la n d , Lola begged C oyote to k il l '

her a s they had h er fa th e r . "Kill m e, k ill m e, t o o . " This he had no

though t of do in g . He hid h er in the c a v e , and th ere th ey s tay ed u n til

he w as forced to go looking for w a te r . He le f t Lola tied to a rock and

w en t back to th e m ainland looking for w a te r . He retu rned to th e c a v e ,

and they s tay ed on u n til th e m eat w as g o n e . This tim e he em barked

w ith Lola in th e b a lsa for Tiburon Is la n d . W hen they got to the is la n d ,

he did no t say any th ing abou t w here he had g o tten th e g irl. Not a ll the

35

Seris liv in g on the is lan d knew the w hite p eo p le , and th ey m arveled a t

h e r . N either had th ey heard of the a tta c k on the ro ad , or th a t Coyote

Iguana had b een tak in g p art in th e se a t ta c k s .

Lola suffered and w e p t. F in a lly , she forgot every th ing and

accep ted C oyote Iguana a s h er h u sb an d . She w as happy to se e him

w hen he retu rned follow ing a b sen ce s from the is la n d . She w as s a tis f ie d .

She w as not a s lav e ; ra th e r she w as C o y o te 's w ife . D uring th e se five

y e a rs , more or l e s s , she never le f t Tiburon Is la n d . E v en tu a lly , the

governm ent cap tu red some of the Y aq u is . $he so ld ie rs a sk ed the Y aqu is ,

"In w hose hands is sh e ? W ho h as Lola C asa n o v a ? " The Yaquis to ld

them she w as tak en aw ay on a h o rse by a S eri. Then the so ld ie rs

thought she m ust be on Tiburon I s la n d . The governor se n t an ex p ed i-

t io n to Tiburon. The Seri w ere to ld the ex p ed itio n had come to give them

p re s e n ts . Those in charge of th e ex p ed itio n req u es ted th a t a l l the Seris

a ssem b le to get th e se th in g s . C oyote Iguana p re sen ted h im se lf la s t of

a l l . Then the Soldiers in s is te d th a t Lola com e, too . She w as p regnant

a t the tim e and a lread y had one sm all so n , V ictor. She ap peared and

saw th a t the so ld ie rs had se iz e d C oyote Ig u an a . She to ld them not to

k ill him and in s is te d th a t she consid e red him h er h u sb an d . Because of

L o la 's p le a s they le t him go free and took her aw ay w ith them . V ictor,

h er l i t t le boy, w as not tak en aw ay b ecau se C oyote Iguana had asked

h is s is te r , C a ta lin a , to h ide him . The Seri never heard abou t w hat hap ­

pened to Lola or h er unborn c h ild .

36/

Victor Avila grew up fa ir w ith lig h t brown h a ir . He w as a hand­

some y o u th . He m arried the s is te r of M anuel E n c in as, P e tr a . They had

four c h ild re n , th ree d au g h te rs and one so n , Jo se A vila, who w as drowned

in the sea., ap p aren tly under su sp ic io u s c ircu m stan ces : " lo ahogaron en

e l m ar." One of the d au g h te rs , Jo se fa , d ied during an ep idem ic in 1926., z

Of the o ther tw o d a u g h te rs , one, M aria Avila (Casanova) w as the m other

of Je su s M o ra le s , the o lder inform ant. The Other d au g h te r, R osa, w as

th e m other of Ramona, w ife of Roberto H e rre ra , the second inform ant

(see Appendix B).

C oyote Iguana m arried a second t im e . H is second w ife w as

one of the T astio teno S eris , h is m other’s p eo p le . He s e tt le in the T as-

tio ta reg ion south of Kino Bay. One n igh t during a party sh o rtly a fte r

th is m arriag e , h is b ro th e r- in -la w w as k il le d . C oyote w as aw akened

by h is w ife and to ld the n ew s, w hereupon he k illed the gu ilty o n e , cu t

off h is v ic tim 's head and threw it in the s e a . Then he had to flee and

sp en t many y ea rs w ith Other Ind ian g ro u p s . For a w hile he s tay ed w ith

the Pim as in the Guay mas a r e a , w hich gave r is e to the sto ry he h im self

w as a P im a. He a lso sp e n t some tim e liv in g on the C erro de la C am pana,

or ? a s t K istox (mountain ears) in the c ity of H ern iosillo , from w hence

h e made ra id s in to the tow n a t n ig h t. F in a lly , he re tu rned to Tiburon

Is lan d and the T astib ta a rea sou th of Kino Bay where he liv ed to an ad ­

vanced a g e .

37

W hen he w as a v ery old m an, he w as a t a camp north of Camp

Ona c a lle d "X aasx Pae se Kkae i t i t Kpoouui" (sahueso sm all i ts head

ro u n d ed ). People cam e to the cam p to w arn Coyote and the o thers th a t

the so ld ie rs w ere com ing , Some of the S eris who had b een a t th is campy

fled to Tiburon Is la n d , bu t he s tay ed to e a t som e se a tu r t le . The so ld ie rs

cam e and k illed m any, inc lud ing C oyote Ig u a n a . He d ied in a th ic k e t of

me sq u ite s nearby „ x

A dditional inform ation c o lle c ted by the M osers from the Seris

on im portant po in ts in the sto ry and a lso abou t th e liv e s of C oyotez

Iguana and h is son Victor Avila h as b een made av a ilab le for th is s tu d y ./ /

The p a ren ts of C oyote Iguana, or of Je su s A vila, w hich w as h isz

Spanish nam e, w ere M ariana Sanchez and Juan A vila. They belonged to

Band VI, th e fa th e r 's b an d .^ Band VI, or X i'ka ? a s t ano Koii* ( th ey

who liv e in the m ountains) w as the band w hich in hab ited San E steb an

Is lan d and much of the c o a s ta l s trip a long th e sou th end of Tiburon I s ­

lan d . This group spoke a d ia le c t . D ia le c t 3 , ch a ra c te r iz e d a s m u sica l

and referred to by the S eris a s " sing ing ta lk ." This d ia le c t is now ex ­

t in c t . An in te re s tin g su p p o sitio n is th a t h is Band VI orig in w ith i ts

"s in g in g ta lk " he lped C oyote Iguana acqu ire h is rep u ta tio n as a sham ano

who in troduced se v e ra l songs and d a n c e s .

1 . In terv iew w ith Edward M o ser, June 10, 1964.

2 . M o ser, The K iva, XXVIII, p p . 16 -18 .

3 . G riffen , p . 16.

38

P o ss ib ly th is sam e background p lus h is na tu ra l in c lin a tio n

con tribu ted to h is ap titu d e for lea rn in g songs and d an ces from the

Yaquis in Band II te rr ito ry , a s reported by the Seri in form ants J e su s

M orales and Roberto H e rre ra .

F irs t in im portance to the them e of the novel is the q u es tio n

of Seri r e s is ta n c e to in term arriage w ith a lie n s or adop tion of o u ts id e rs .

On the o c ca s io n of my v is i t to D esem boque, i t w as c le a r ly observed

th a t th e modern Seri have no id ea of sham e in co n n ectio n w ith C oyote

Ig u a n a 's m arriage to an a lie n w om an, nor did they repo rt any r e s i s ­

tan ce to h er ac ce p ta n c e by the S eris a s h is w ife . Edward M oser

inquired abou t th is po in t d ire c tly w ith Roberto H e rre ra , who s ta te d

d e fin ite ly " th a t th ere c e r ta in ly w as no fee lin g of sham e involved in

h is a c t of hav ing m arried a w hite w om an ."^ M oser added further th a t

h is inform ants sa y Lola w as tre a ted ra th e r w ell by the S eri. He sug­

g es ted one re a so n for th a t m ight be th a t th ey w ere afra id of Coyote and

h is Shaman pow er, a s p re se n t-d a y inform ants a s s e r t re p e a ted ly th a t he

w as a strong sham an. W ith regard to a c tu a l co n flic t w ith in th e trib e

over h e r , i t is M o se r 's opinion th a t " the Seri women could have k illed

Lola if they had ch o sen to do s o . They w ere ce rta in ly c ap a b le of doing

s o . " %

l i - L e tte r from Edward M oser to th is w r ite r , July 27, 1964.

2 . Ib id .

I

39

Seri re ac tio n regard ing in term arriage w ith o u tsid e rs is touched

on in K roeber's repo rt of 1931. He rep o rts th a t h is inform ant, C hico

Rom ero, a s se r te d th a t th ere w as no v e n e re a l d is e a s e among the Seri,

and no h a lf -b re e d s . Kroeber noted th a t he saw no ev id en ce to the con­

tra ry , bu t s ta te d a lso th a t th e s to ry , found in M cG ee, abou t a Papa g o .

cap tiv e who w as shunned and who d ied c h ild le s s w as no t t r u e , acco rd ­

ing to h is in fo rm ation . He s ta te s th a t the Sdris w ould and did in te r­

marry w ith th e ir c a p t iv e s .

D ave and M ary Roberts C oolidge rep o rted , b ased on m ateria l

c o lle c te d in 1932, th a t th e Seri women w ere a g in s t p lu ra l m arriage and

m arrying o u tsid e th e t r ib e . I t is ap p aren t th a t the C o o lid g es w ere

s trong ly in fluenced by the M cG ee p a p e r . They a lso w ere fam ilia r w ith

the sho rt s tu d y of the Seri by A. L. K roeber, bu t W . J . M cG e e 's paper

i s much longer and more d e ta ile d , and i t is c ited frequen tly by th em .

T herefore, i t is lik e ly th e ir o b se rv a tio n s on m arriage custom s were

made w ith M cG ee 's find ings and th eo rie s in m ind. In c o n c lu s io n , i t

c an be s ta te d th a t w hile modern Seri a cce p ta n c e of in term arriage w ith

o u ts id e rs m ight no t be co n stru ed a s proving anyth ing abou t former

a ttitu d e s w hen th e ir cu ltu re w as more in ta c t , s t i l l i t is s ig n if ic a n t.

A cceptance of in term arriage w ith a lie n s by the Seri is a ls o in d ica ted

1 . K roeber, p . 25

2 . C o o lid g e , p . 14°3.

• 40

by: the re lia b le inform ation c o lle c te d by A. L. Kroeber to the e ffec t th a t

th ey d id , in fa c t , in term arry w ith Papago c a p tiv e s „

It should be noted here th a t no in d ica tio n s of C a u c a s ia n tra its

w ere observed in th e in d iv id u a ls who do c la im d e sc e n t from L o la , by

the w rite r or by any of th e o ther o b serv ers c o n s u lte d . This ab sen ce of

o bservab le European c h a ra c te r is t ic s would not n e c e s sa r ily prove or

even in d ic a te th a t th e ir c la im s could not be true a fte r th ree generations

and in the ab sen ce of a p h y s ic a l d e sc rip tio n of D olores C asan o v a h e r­

s e lf . I t m ust be concluded th a t here the in v e s tig a to r draw s a b la n k .

The p o s s ib ili ty for observ ab le ev idence in the form of p h y s ic a l tra its

to support a sto ry b ased e n tire ly on o ral tra d itio n y ie ld s no such e v i­

d e n c e .

Though none of the d e sc en d a n ts liv ing to d ay show any s igns

of European ra c ia l o rig in , th e S eris say th a t Victor A vila, L o la 's son ,

did have lig h te r co lo rin g . Both h is h a ir and h is sk in w ere sa id to be

fa ire r th an th a t of the fu ll-b lo o d ed S e ris ./

Further inform ation concern ing Victor Avila w as c o lle c te d by

’ Edward M oser from an old woman named L o re ta . L o re ta 's fa th e r w as a

c lo se re la tiv e of V ictor. Both men lived m ost of th e ir liv e s and died

w ith in su b d iv is io n 2, KiaSSin, of Band III , accord ing to h e r .

Roberto H e rre ra , one of the tw o inform ants who re la te d the .

s to ry of Lola C a san o v a , i s a s s ta te d a b o v e , m arried to Ram ona, a

d e sc e n d a n t of Lola C a s a n o v a . R am ona's m other, Rosa A vila, lived

f

41

w ith h er daugh ter and so n - in - la w for n ine y e a rs a fte r th e y w ere m arried/

in 1937 . She is reported to have sa id th a t h er fa th e r, V ictor A vila, had

w hite sk in and h a ir w ith a re d d ish t in g e , a s w ell a s fin e ly formed fin ­

g e rs . She a lso sa id th a t her fa th er rem em bered l i t t le or no th ing of h is

m other b ec au se he w as too young w hen she w ent aw ay .

The other inform ant who told the s to ry in Seri w as Jesu s

M o ra le s , son of M aria C a sa n o v a > ano ther of V icto r's d a u g h te rs . The

th ird d au g h ter, Jo se fa , m arried M anuel Avila (no relation) who d ied in

a sm allpox ep id em ic . This M anuel w as h a lf-b ro th e r to Vaquero who s t i l lI

l iv e s . Jo sefa h e rse lf w as reported to have d ied of s ic k n e ss in 1926.

V ic to r 's only so n , Jo se A vila, w as sa id to have b een drowned

in the s e a . P o ss ib ly i t w as th is d ea th th a t W illiam N. Smith heard o f.

Smith s ta te d he had b een to ld th a t Lola C asan o v a had tw o ch ild ren ,

one of whom w as m urdered during the ,1 8 9 0 's .

V ic to r 's life w as an even tfu l o n e , accord ing to inform ation

fu rn ished by Edward M oser who w rite s :

V ictor w as som ew hat of a ch a rac te r and ra th e r rough a t t h a t . He sim ply took P etra for h is w ife and never bothered to pay the bride p r ic e . That happened a t camp Yatix Kienno "san d d u n e-en d of" w hich is th e m ountainous po in t ju s t to th e e a s t and sou th of Kino Bay. The sand dune is in land se v e ra l m ile s . Becky and I have s e e n .i t .

V ictor drank a lo t . Once, he w as w alk ing a lo n g the b each w ith G uadalupe A sto rga , and both of them w ere drunk and arm in arm . Victor took h is p is to l and s tu ck i t under G u ad a lu p e 's ch in and sh o t h im . The b u lle t w ent through

1. L e tte r from Edward M oser to th is w rite r, July 27, 1964.

< 2.

p art o f the Adam' s a p p le , and G uadalupe w as unable to ta lk p la in ly for the r e s t of h is l i f e . Roberto H errera sa id v th a t he saw the wound w hich w as c le a r ly v is ib le . After th a t in c id e n t, V ictor d isap p eared s in c e he knew th a t h is life w as now in jeo p a rd y . He w ent to the m ainland and the peop le soon b e liev ed th a t he had d ie d . The shoo ting in c id en t took p la c e .a t camp SoSni ? eekke "a camp nam e- sm all" w hich is on Tiburon Is lan d a c ro ss the ch an n e l from Punta C h u e c a .

- About a y ear l a t e r , the people in one of the cam ps on the Is lan d one n igh t no ticed th a t a sm all tre e w as moving around n ea rb y . They checked and found th a t i t w as V ictor who had tie d b ranches on h im se lf so th a t he could sn eak in c lo se to cam p. The shoo ting in c id en t w as . by th en fo rg o tten .

C ontem porary opinion in Sonora concern ing Lola C asan o v a

is in te re s tin g ly d iv id e d . Among modern M ex icans fam iliar w ith the tr a -

d itio n a l rom antic v e rs io n a s s e t forth by H ernandez and w idely d iffused

by the p u b lica tio n of the novel Lola C asan o v a and th e movie b ased on

i t , the b e lie f is w id esp read th a t i t is only a leg en d .

Some, like Fernando P esq u e ira , who d isco v e red the le t te rs

from 1850 d e sc rib in g the abduction of D olores C asan o v a , have h e s ita te d

to p u b lic ize th e ir opin ion b ecau se of a re lu c ta n ce to s tif le an ap p ea lin g

tra d itio n . As may be se e n from the cover of the file from the Sonora

a rch iv es w here the le tte rs of C o lonel N avarro are k e p t, o th ers who have

read th e se le t te rs agree w ith P esq u e ira regard ing the d ea th of D olores

C asan o v a fo llow ing h e r abduction (see Appendix D) „ The rep o rt of her

/d ea th co n ta in ed in the le t te rs is a lso referred to a s " la verdadJh isto rica"

1.: Ib id .

43

re sp e c tin g th e fa te of D olores C asan o v a by the modern h is to r ia n ,

Laureano C alvo Berber, a s h as been p rev io u sly n o te d . 1

Armando Q uijada H ernandez b e lie v e s th a t the tra d itio n of her

life among the Seri is f ic t i t io u s . He fe lt it w as s ig n if ic an t th a t the

D icc ionario de Sonora by Almada om itted any m ention of the s to ry .

Alberto Almada of Navoj o a , Sonora / who c o lle c ts Sonoran

tra d itio n and h is to ry , is fam ilia r w ith H ern an d ez 's acco u n t of L o la 's

s to ry and b e liev e s i t to be a rom antic legend in the tra d itio n of T a b a ri

by Zorrilla de San M artin .

Local opinion in the Kino Bay reg ion ex p ressed in June 1964,

supports the sam e v iew . In the Kino Bay se ttle m e n t i t s e l f , a re so rt

owner from H erm osillo a s se r te d th a t Lola w as a lso from H erm osillo ,

and named the d is tr ic t w here he claim ed she had liv e d . He laughed a t

m ention of the s to ry , though he fu rn ished th e tra d itio n a l d e ta i ls th a t

she lived among the S e r i, had ch ild ren , and d ied th e re . A s to re k e e p e r 's

w ife w as more candid in h er d isb e lie f . She knew it; she had read i t .

She made the fu rther in te re s tin g s ta tem en t th a t "m any w rite rs have come

around ask in g abou t t h i s . 11 She a s se r te d th a t " lo s se r is au t£ n tico s" do

. no t te l l th is s to ry , only th o se who are try ing to ex p lo it p e o p le . Some

lo c a l c o n flic t of in te re s t may be su sp e c te d w ith regard to th is op in ion .

The s lig h t h o s ti l i ty ev id en ced by th is re s id e n t of the Seri country is in

1. C alvo Berber, p . 165.

44

c o n tra s t to the a ttitu d e of fondness fo r the tra d itio n shown by m ost of

th o se who ex p re sse d d isb e lie f in i ts l i te ra l tru th „. A th ird opinion noted

in th is lo c a l a re a , a t Punta C hueca north of Kino Bay, w as g iven by an

old M exican fisherm an who knew th e s to ry . Indeed , no one w as en ­

countered who did n o t . He d e a lt w ith p e rcen tag es : 60 per c e n t f a ls e ,

40% true w as h is v e rd ic t . He ex p la in ed th a t the old Seris knew and

to ld the sto ry and ad v ised a sk in g about i t in D esem boque, the Seri

v illag e to the n o r th . This man w as fam iliar w ith the Seri; th ere w ere

se v e ra l fam ilies liv in g out on the end of the sand p o in t a t th e tim e to

e sc a p e the b itin g gn a ts w hich w ere to rm enting th e M ex ican re s id e n ts '

who lived along the road by the s h o re , in c lu d in g the fisherm an in te r­

view ed . These Seris w ere em ployed by th e M exican fisherm en in the

cam p .

It is ev id en t th a t th ere is a liv e ly in te re s t in the sto ry in

Sonora, even in the m idst of a gen era l doubt a s to i ts foundation in

fa c t . Q uijada b e lie v e s th a t know ledge of the tra d itio n w as by no m eans

so w id esp read prior to c irc u la tio n of Rojas G o n z a lez 's novel and the

isu b seq u en t m ovie.

I .

A d ifference of opinion concern ing the tru th of th e b a s is of

the tra d itio n a l sto ry is found among th o se who know the Seri v e rs io n .

W illiam N. Smith ra ise d doubts concern ing the tru th of th e sto ry b ecau se

1. In terv iew w ith Armando Q uijada H ern an d ez , O c t. 25 , 1964.

45

of the h is to r ic a l rep o rts of her d e a th . A lso, h is g en ea lo g ica l inform a­

tio n seem ed to have a gap in i t behind M aria C asan o v a , w ho he g u essed

had been born in the e ig h tie s . He a lso d is c u s s e d the lack of observab le

C a u c a s ia n c h a ra c te r is t ic s in th o se who c laim d e s c e n t from Lola C a s a ­

nova and the ab sen ce of any record of L o la 's re s to ra tio n to h e r hom e.

He sp e c u la te d , how ever, th a t th is fa c t m ight be exp la ined by effo rts

on the p art of h e r fam ily to avoid any s o c ia l stigm a th a t m ight have

been a tta c h ed to a retu rned Ind ian c a p t iv e . •*•

, The Seris b e liev e the s to ry is true and th a t some of them are

d escen d ed from D olores C a san o v a . There seem s to be no re a so n to

q u es tio n th e a u th e n tic ity of the inform ants in sp ite of th e rem arks of

the Kino Bay s to re k e e p e r 's w ife . Their s in c e rity and the ap paren t

accu racy of d e ta ils th ey furn ished concern ing p lace nam es, band a f f i l i-

a t io n s , and b io g rap h ica l d a ta for C oyote Ig u a n a , Je su s A vila, and h is

so n , V ictor A v ila , is im p ressiv e .

C a lcu la tio n s b ased on the genealogy and other inform ation fur­

n ish ed by the S eris f i t w ith the h is to r ic a l d a te of 1850 for the abduction

of Lola C a sa n o v a , acco rd ing to Edward M o ser. The gap in th e genealogy

reported by Smith be tw een C oyote Iguana and M aria C asan o v a is f illed

by Victor A vila , a perso n abou t whom inform ation is a b u n d a n t. He is

rem em bered by a number of M oser" s in fo rm an ts , w hich led him to w r ite ,

1 . In terv iew w ith W illiam N . Sm ith, June 6 , 1964.

' 1 "Victor Avila is c e rta in ly not a shadow y figure to the S e r i. " x If V ictor/ . " ■

Avila can reaso n ab ly be presum ed to have lived as the S eris rem em ber,

the q u es tio n rem aining is w as Lola C asan o v a h is m other? To answ er

th is , we have th e Seri re c o lle c tio n s th a t he w as fa ire r th an the r e s t of

the tr ib e , a s w ell a s the d e ta ils of how he w as h idden from the so ld ie rs

by C a ta lin a , C o y o te 's s is te r .

The M o sers fe e l th a t the Seri v e rs io n is p artly tru e . Their

inform ation is unique in th a t th ey are ab le to u se the Seri language in

th e ir in v e s t ig a t io n s , w hereas a ll o ther s tu d en ts of the Seri co n su lted

have to work p artly in S p an ish .. The M osers u se Spanish a ls o , w hich

prov ides them w ith a double ch eck , should th ere be doubt concern ing

w hat is m ean t.

This d iffe ren ce of opin ion concern ing th e tru th behind th e

legend e x is ts probably b e c au se th e Seri v e rs io n is much more cred ib le

th an th e rom antic M exican leg en d . In the former there a re no ro y a lty

and no. h e ro ic s . Lola liv e s among th e Ind ians only a few y e a r s , perhaps

'f iv e , is tak en aw ay by M exican s o ld ie rs , and d isa p p e a rs . A baby,

w hich h as b een h id d en , is le f t b eh ind . In s tea d of a leg en d ary war

c h ie f , a sav ag e k ing , a t the fe e t of the b eau tifu l h e ro in e , the hero of

th e Seri v e rs io n is an e ig h te e n -y e a r-o ld w ild youth who ru n s off w ith

a g irl h is own a g e . B ecause he is fu ll of im agination and d a rin g , he

1. L e tte r from Edward M oser to th is w rite r J # ly 27, 1964.

47/ •

m anages to k eep .h e r u n til the so ld ie rs come to Tiburon Is la n d . There are

no w ars of s u c c e s s io n , no trib a l s p lits from s tr ife over the w hite queen ,

no trip s by Lola in d isg u ise to H erm osillo or G uaym as. She' te ac h e s the

Seri nothing; she could no t have done i t in th o se few y e a r s . W hat the

sto ry lo se s in rom antic q u a l i t ie s , i t ga ins in c re d ib ility .

Some p e rs is te n t questio n s rem ain . If the repo rt of D olores

C a sa n o v a 's d ea th a s re p r is a l for the d ea th of a Seri woman is tru e ,

th ere is the q u es tio n of why the Ind ians sing led h er out to k i l l . She

w as young and b eau tifu l and w ithou t the encum brance of sm all c h il­

d ren . Yet th ey k illed her and retu rned to th e pu rsu ing so ld ie rs the

women c ap tiv e s w ith ch ild ren named in C alvo B erber's qu o ta tio n s from

C olonel N av arro 's le t te r s . P o ss ib ly she d ied anyw ay as a re su lt of

h a rsh e r tre a tm e n t, p o ss ib ly th ey sa id th is to avoid su rrendering her;

p o ss ib ly the repo rt w as tru e . I t c an be noted th a t the e x is te n c e of th e se

reco rds docum enting the p re sen ce of sea rch p a r tie s even on Tiburon

Is lan d does re fu te the Seri s ' s ta tem en t th a t the M exican au th o ritie s

thought th a t the m arauders w ere Yaquis and did n o t, a t f i r s t , sea rch

for th e cap tiv e among the S eri. N av arro 's le t te rs a lso in d ica te th a t

the In d ian s adm itted th a t a sm all g irl w as s t i l l in Seri h a n d s , having

b een tak en aw ay to a d is ta n t camp and a d o p te d . The fa c t rem ains th a t

. I .... ■' . . .

48

D olores C a sa n o v a 's d isap p ea ran ce and not d ea th w as a c tu a lly known

f irs t-h a n d to C olonel N av arro . ^

The p o s s ib ili ty of her su rv iv a l c an be q u es tio n e d . The exposure

su ffe red , to g e th er w ith th e p h y s ica l effo rt requ ired to keep up on Seri

e x c u rs io n s , a s w ell a s th e ir d ie ta ry h a b its would ce rta in ly be an ordeal

to one unaccustom ed to th e ir l i f e . H ow ever, g iven fa irly good trea tm en t

by the In d ia n s , a p erso n who w as young and h ea lth y m ight su rv iv e .

Another q u es tio n rem ain ing is th a t of the e x is te n c e of records

of L o la 's re tu rn to c iv iliz a tio n around 1855 or 1860. F igh ting during th e

E ncinas w ars la s te d from 1855 to 1865, and Band. II w as m assac red n ea r

Kino Bay a c ro ss from Tiburon Is lan d during th o se y e a r s . Sometime la te r ,

a sh ip took the members of Band VI off San E steb an Is lan d and Tiburon

I s la n d . If th is took p lace a fte r 1865, i t would seem no t to f it c a lc u ­

la tio n s a s to w hen Lola w as ta k e n aw ay from Tiburon by the s o ld ie rs .

Both C orral and V illa m ention cam paigns a g a in s t the Seri in 1880 w hen

150 Ind ians w ere brought to Pueblo de S eris n ear H erm o sillo . ^ This

d a te a lso appears to be too la te to include the in c id en t of th e recovery

of the cap tiv e Lola C a sa n o v a . As far a s can be le a rn e d , no record e x is ts

of her re tu rn to c iv i l iz a t io n .

1 . N avarro to A guilar, le t te r of April 24 , 1850.

2 . M o ser. The K iva, XXVIII, 2 5 -2 6 .

3 . C o rra l, p . 257; V illa , p . 37. .

49

The sto ry m ust s tan d th e n e n tire ly on the oral trad itio n th a t

e x is ts among the S eri, supported only by th e ta le of the w hite queen of

M ex ic an .trad itio n reported from the end of the n in e teen th cen tu ry . Behind

th is rom antic t ra d it io n , brushed off sum m arily by M cG ee a s being "w ith -I

out a shred of proof or p ro b a b ility ," there l ie s the docum entation of the

a tta c k a t La Palm ita and the abduction of D olores C a sa n o v a , w hich ends

w ith the o ffic ia l repo rt of h er d ea th acco rd ing to Seri Ind ians in te rro ­

g a ted by the so ld ie rs under th e command of C o lonel N avarro .

Did she d ie , or w as she h idden for the b rie f period of y ea rs

the S@ris c la im , long enough to becom e the m other of V ictor A v ila? W hat­

ev er u n ce rta in ty e x is ts abou t th e answ er to th is q u es tio n , i t h a s been

enough to allow for the growth and su rv iv a l of L o la 's legend in Sonora,

and for a d iffe ren ce of opinion regard ing the tru th of the s to ry to p e rs is t

to the p re se n t tim e .

P. M cG ee , p . 132.

CHAPTER, III

USE OF THEME BY OTHER WRITERS

C aiem e

One ch ap te r of Caj erne by Armando C havez C am acho te l ls the

s to ry of Lola C asan o v a a s "The G reat Love of C o y o te -Ig u a n a . " H ere

the d e ta ils of th e s to ry are th o se u su a lly found in the M exican v e rs io n ,

w ith C o y o te 's sp eech to L ola , once ag a in in " fa ir S p a n ish ," having aO

fam iliar ring: "I am C o y o te -Ig u an a , k ing of the S e r is ." He vow s a

thousand tim es he would ra th e r d ie th an lo se h er and prom ises the lion

sk in c a rp e ts and p e lic a n fe a th e r- lin e d c rad le s offeren in h is p ro p o sa ls

a s con ta ined in the w orks of H ern an d ez , Rojas G o n za lez , and V illa .

The o rig ina l au thor of th is sp eech seem s to have been no t C oyote

Iguana but D r. Fortunato H ernandez . The Seri le a d e r 's p ro p o sa l w ith

key w ords unchanged in d ic a te s e ffec tiv e ly w hich au thors have b ased .

S'th e ir v e rs io n of the sto ry on the acco u n t g iven by H ern an d ez .

This co n c lu s io n w ith regard to the im portance of H ernandez as

a source to C havez C am acho is s tren g th en ed by th e fa c t th a t th e f irs t

1. Armando C havez C am acho , Caieme (M exico: E d ito ria l Ju s ,1948).

2 . I b id . , p . 247.

50

51

of two p refatory c ita tio n s in C aiem e is from H ern an d ez . The author

w rite s regard ing the orig in of h is them e: "El c a so de Lola C asan o v a es

h is td r ic o . Aquf figuran los d a to s e s e n c ia le s de su v id a , p ero , bordando

en torno de e l lo s , e l au to r se ha perm itido a lg u n as lic e n c ia s ."1

There is agreem ent among c r i t ic s th a t th ere w as no in fluence

by e ith e r Rojas G onzalez or ChcfvezC am acho on one ano ther w ith re ­

sp e c t to the use of th is them e. Their novels appeared a lm o st a t the

sam e t im e , Lola C asan o v a in 1947 and C aiem e in 1948. The la t t e r ,

how ever, w as aw arded a p rize w hile in m anuscrip t form in 1947 by the

s ta te of Sonora, hen ce could not have been w ritten a fte r the p u b lica tio n

of the novel by Rojas G o n z a le z . This n ea r-s im u ltan eo u s ap p earan ce

h as been lab e led "a cu rious co in c id en ce" by M anuel Pedro G onzalez

who com pares the two v e rs io n s : "El tra ta rh ien to d e l tem a co in c id e en

lo fundam ental en am b o s , s i b ien Rojas Gonzcflez se ap arta mas de la

tra d it io n y se per m ite mayor lib e rtad en su d e s a rro llo ." 2

In h is d o c to ra l d is s e r ta tio n , Jo seph Sommers s ta te s h is b e lie f

th a t the h is to r ic a l work by H erndhdez w as an im portant sou rce for both

C aiem e and Lola C a s a n o v a . 3 He re fe rs to the fa c t th a t the Lola them e

is seco n d ary to the Yaqui reb e llio n :

1. Ib id .

2 . M anuel Pedro Gonzcflez, T ravectoria de la novela en M exico (Mdxico: E d ic iones B o tas , 1951), p . 325.

3. Joseph Sommers, "The C ontribu tion of F ran c isco Rojas G onzalez to M exican L ite ra tu re ," (unpublished P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n , U n iv ersity of W isc o n sin , 1962), p . 104.

52

H ow ever, i t /Gajerne/ d ev o tes one ch ap te r to a f ic ­tio n a l re -c re a tio n of the legend of Lola C a sa n o v a , qu ite d iffe ren t in tone and trea tm en t from the work of Rojas G onzalez . C r itic s agree th a t the tw o au thors worked in ­dep en d en tly . 1

An in te re s tin g d e ta il concern ing th e S eris found in C ajem e is

th e a s se r tio n th a t the Seri language is a b so lu te ly lack in g in term s of

n eg a tio n . This is referred to during th e recoun ting of the p ro cess of

L o la’s ad ap ta tio n to b arb arism . She knew and p a rtic ip a te d in a ll p h a se s

of Seri l i f e . "Todo lo supo y todo lo p ra c tic d . H as ta e l pobre v o cab u -

la rio s e r i , d e sp ro v is to en ab sd lu to de term inos de n e g a c io n ."% She

b ecam e , in th is v e rs io n , re a lly an In d ia n « "Ya era una se r i m a s . " ^

I t can be noted th a t in C aiem e p e c u lia r itie s of language are u sed to

c h a rac te r iz e the d iffe ren t tr ib e s p re sen ted a s w ell a s to a ttem pt to

p en e tra te th e Indian w o rld , w ith co n s id e rab le s u c c e s s . For in s ta n c e ,

the sm all b en t-b ack ed sym bol of h is race w hose journey through Sonora

u n ifie s th is novel is a Pim a, who can n o t say " y e s ." He e x p la in s th a t

th e name "Fim as" m eans " th e peop le who sa y ’N o'" ("decidores d e n o "),

and th a t th e y sa y every th ing in re v e rs e .^

This p a rtic u la r l in g u is tic oddity se rv es to em phasize the appro­

p r ia te n e ss of the ch o ice of the Pima hunchback to make th is s e c re t

1. Ib id .

2 . Chctvez C am acho, p . 257.

3 . Ib id .

4 . I b id . , p . 24.

' 53

jo u rn ey , unnoticed b ecau se he is b en ea th n o tic e , p ecu lia rly qualified

by h is dev ious na tive sp eech p a tte rn s to keep h is s e c re t . This is used

a s an a r t is t ic d ev ice of the w rite r, but th e se lin g u is tic d e ta ils a lso

rev ea l w hat m ust have b een ano ther sou rce for C havez C am acho in

w riting Cai e rne .

This source is the le t te rs of a J e su it m issio n ary among the

S e ris , Adamo G ilg . F ather G ilg re ac tiv a te d the Seri m iss io n Santa

M aria d e l Populo in 1688 and carried out h is re lig io u s work th ere u n til

h is d ea th be tw een 1708-1714 . This m iss io n w as one of th o se referred

to a s " the in land m is s io n s ," w hich w ere b u ilt along th e San M iguel

River (see Appendix A). Father G ilg8 s work w as d irec ted by F ather K ino.

Father G ilg w rote sev e ra l le t te rs and drew a map of the reg io n , rep ro ­

duced in the work of D iPeso and M atso n . This e a rly m iss io n ary w as a

ta le n te d and in te re s te d observer', and h as le f t in h is le t te rs the e a r l ie s t

known com prehensive s tudy of the S e ris . All of h is o b se rv a tio n s a re ,

th e re fo re , e s p e c ia lly in te re s tin g , and among them are found the lin g u is -

t ic d e ta ils u sed by C havez C am acho. F a ther G ilg s ta te s sp e c if ic a lly

th a t the S eris do not u se a word eq u iv a len t to " not" or "no" but ra th e r

a word th a t h as an o p p o site m ean in g . He c o n tra s ts th is u sag e w ith the

1. C h arles C . D iP eso and D an ie l S. M atso n , " The Seri Ind ians in 1692 as d esc rib ed by Adamo G ilg , S. J . , " Arizona and the W e s t . Vol. VH, No. 1, (Spring, 1965), p . 38.

54

P im as , who he say s "a lw ay s have ’no” in th e ir mouths „11 He ch a ra c te r iz e s

the la t te r trib e a s th e " n o -e r s ,"

A fu ll d is c u s s io n of the u se of term s of negation in the Seri

language is beyond the scope of th is in v e s tig a tio n , bu t th e Seri language

is not " to ta lly lack in g in term s of n e g a tio n ," a s s ta ted in C a ie m e . acco rd ­

ing to l in g u is t Edward M o ser. F ather G ilg d o es not report a to ta l lack

of Seri term s of negation in h is le t te r . He seem s to say ra th e r th a t nega­

tio n is e x p ressed in d irec tly in the Seri lan g u ag e . The n o v e lis t C havez

C am acho perhaps in te rp re ted F ather G ilg 's s ta tem en ts for a r t is t ic re a ­

so n s , to provide a stronger c o n tra s t in h is d esc rip tio n s of th e se two

d iffe ren t Ind ian groups, the Seri and the P im a.

C havez C am acho 's u se of th e se lin g u is tic o b se rv a tio n s is noted

b e ca u se i t i s in te re s tin g to com pare the u se of Indian lan g u ag e , or w hat

purports to be Indian lan g u ag e , to he lp c re a te an a tm osphere of Indian

life in the tw o n o v e ls , C aiem e and Lola C a sa n o v a . C havez Cam acho

m akes no a ttem pt to u se d ia logue or even p h ra se s in S eri, nor does he

u se d ia logue in w hich Spanish is a lte red to in d ica te a re p re se n ta tio n of

l i te ra l Seri sp e e c h . The p a rt of the ep iso d e w hich tak es p la c e in Seri

country is to ld in the th ird p erso n e n tire ly , ex cep t for L o la 's "thoughts

to h e rse lf and C o y o te 's p roposa l to h e r , w hich is a lso sa id to be

1. Ib id . , p . 49 .

2 . In terv iew w ith Edward M o ser, June 10, 1964.

55

spoken in S p an ish . All d ia logue is re s tr ic te d to e a rly s c e n e s d ep ic tin g

L o la 's life w ith h er fa th er iri G uay m a s . The re su lt is smooth and e ffec ­

tiv e , and the s ty le h e lp s to h e ig h ten the c o n tra s t betw een the c iv iliz e d

life and the sav ag e one .

Thoughtthe s to ry to ld is b a s ic a lly the sam e, th e a rea in w hich

Rojas G onzalez d ep arts from the tra d itio n and ta k e s the g re a te s t freedom

in develop ing the sto ry is in the outcom e w here Lola is p ic tu red a s h av ­

ing co n s id e rab le s u c c e s s in lead in g her fellow Seris tow ard c iv iliz a tio n .

On th is p o in t, C havez C am acho follow s H ernandez and trad ition ,m ore

c lo se ly . H ow ever, w hile fo llow ing the tra d itio n c lo se ly .a n d tak in g h is

d a ta la rg e ly from H ern an d ez , th e au thor of C aiem e s ti l l m akes an impor­

ta n t change in the te ll in g of the story: gone is the rom antic tone and

rh e to ric so c h a ra c te r is t ic of the ta le a s to ld by both H ernandez and

Rojas G o n za lez . In C aiem e the ev en ts and ch a rac te rs are p resen ted

stra igh tfo rw ard ly in a conv incing s e tt in g . W hile not p re c ise ly r e a l is t ic

b ecau se the atm osphere is ra th e r lik e th a t of a folk ta le or Ind ian m yth,

s t i l l the read e r is convinced th a t i t is about a re a l land liv ed in by re a l

In d ia n s . M anuel Pedro G onzalez o b serv es th is w hen he sa y s :

El au tor debe se r sono ren se porque en la s p ag in as de e s te lib ro rev e la un en tran ab le carino a d icha reg ion y un conocim ien to d e ta lla d o de la h is to r ia , la v id a , la len g u a , la s co stu m b res , trad ic io n es y p s ico lo g fa de la s d iv e rsa s trib u s in d ia s que la h a b ita n . 1 ’

1. G o n za lez , p . 324.

56

He re p e a ts th is id ea l a t e r , " . . . e s ta obra tien e un m erito e x c e p tio n a l

como docum ento porque su au to r e s un profundo conocedor d e l am biente

1que r e t r a ta ."

A s tudy of the legendary them e in both C aiem e and Lola C a s a ­

nova and th e ir com parison w ith the v e rs io n in H ernandez in d ic a te s th a t

the rom antic tone of the H ernandez v e rs io n w as d isca rd ed by C havez

C am acho but w as adopted and exag g era ted by Rojas G onzalez in h is

longer v e rs io n .

D olores o La Reina de lo s Kunkaaks

Another f ic tio n a liz ed acco u n t of the them e is found in D olores

o la re in a de lo s K unkaaks, 1943, by C arm ela Reyna de Leon of P itiq u ito ,

Sonora . This p u b lica tio n d a te is five y ears before the appearan ce of the

novels Lola C asan o v a or Caiem e or of the movie b ased on Lola C a sa n o v a .

The author d e sc rib e s her v e rs io n a s a "H is to r ic a l N ovel (Novela H is to r i-

c a ) , Based on the Abduction of D olores C asan o v a tow ard the End of the

L a s t C e n tu ry ." R ather than a n o v e l, i t ap p ears to be a sh o rt p lay or

d ram atic n a rra tio n . I t c o n s is ts of fo rty -n in e p a g e s , approx im ately o n e-

th ird to o n e -h a lf of w hich is a n arra tio n to accom pany the r e s t w hich is

in d ia logue form . M uch of the narra tion appears to be s ta g e d irec tio n s

or background su p p lied by a n a rra to r , who a lso ly r ic iz e s and m ora lizes

a s in some se ria liz e d rad io p la y s .

1. Ib id .

- . 57

L ittle inform ation concern ing the author is a v a i la b le . Fernando

PesQ ueira sa id in O ctober 1964 th a t i t w as thought she had been a

te a c h e r in P itiq u ito , Sonora, and a re s id e n t of th a t tow n. This tow n is

w ith in the te rrito ry w here Seris have liv e d . Today th ey do not range so

fa r in lan d but liv e along the c o a s t w ith in 80 m iles of P itiq u ito . A ccess

by road is through th is tow n, and the S eris are known there a t the

p re se n t time la rg e ly through a s so c ia tio n w ith M exican fisherm an a t

P uerto L ibertad on the c o a s t .

. M cG ee reported he heard of an o u tc a s t from the tr ib e , a former

p ro tege of the ran ch er E n c in as, who liv ed in the v ic in ity of P itiq u ito

during the decad e of the E ncinas W ars , 1855-1865 . This Seri o u tc a s t

su b seq u en tly dropped from v iew and w as thought to have gone to the

s ta te of C a lifo rn ia .

Therefore, i t m ight be ex p ected th a t the au thor w as fam iliar

w ith th e Seri v e rs io n of the tra d itio n . In h er sto ry the fo llow ing po in ts

of s im ila rity w ith th e Seri v e rs io n are fo u n d .

1. Lola is abducted a lone on h o rseb ack by Coyote Ig u an a .

. 2 . They go to P e lican Is lan d in Kino B ay.

3 . He le a v e s her tied to a rock w hile he goes for w a te r .

4 . She begs him , d is tra u g h t, "Kill m e, you k illed my fa th e r ."

5 . She w as trav e lin g w ith h er fa th er (co inc ides w ith M exican

1. M cG ee, p . 109.

58

v e rs io n ).

6 . She is tak en off Tiburon Is lan d by M exican s o ld ie r s .

7. The in s tig a to rs of the ra id s on tra v e le rs on the G uaym as-

H erm osillo road are Y aq u is .

I t is s ig n if ic a n t th a t so many d e ta ils found in the Seri acco u n t should

be p re se n t, a ll bu t one d iffe ren t from the M exican v e rs io n . This s im i­

la r ity po in ts to a know ledge of th e Seri v e rs io n by the a u th o r . Thus,

if th e Seri v e rs io n of th is tra d itio n h a s grown up as a byproduct of the

M ex ican trad itio n in Sonora, i t developed w ell prior to the w idesp read

p u b lic ity g iven th e sto ry in the la te fo rtie s of th is cen tu ry .

There w as probably a c o n sc io u s effort to com bine th is know­

led g e w ith the fam ilia r M exican tra d itio n , a s i t is a lso in d ica ted th a t

th e au thor w as fam ilia r w ith H e rn a n d ez 's book. C o y o te 's sp eech to

Lola a fte r he cap tu re s her is d e liv ered in f lu en t Spanish and co n ta in s

th e fam iliar d e ta ils about h is e x a lte d p o s itio n in a proud t r ib e , the

fea th ered c ra d le , and the offer to make her a q u een . ^

O ther d e ta ils th a t p o in t to H ernandez or the M exican tra d i­

tio n a l v e rs io n a s a source are th a t D o lo res , a s the hero ine is c a lle d

h e re , v is i ts H erm osillo in d is g u is e , and th a t C oyote Iguana who cap ­

tu re s h er is sa id to be an (Dpata Ind ian ra th e r th an a S eri.

Perhaps th e m ost in te re s tin g fea tu re of th is a c c o u n tvby Reyna

1. Reyna de Leon, p . 5 .

de Leon is the note of sym pathy for the Seri Ind ians p erce iv ed in a

number of d ev ic e s u sed by the au thor to keep the Seris and th e hero

in a good l ig h t . In th is co n n ec tio n , she adds an ingen ious o rig ina l

to u c h . The o rig in a l C oyote Iguana 1> who ab d u c ts D olores C a san o v a ,

is rep laced ea rly in th e ac tio n by a new c h a ra c te r , V a lien te , who a s ­

sum es the t i t le C oyote Iguana II , fo llow ing the d ea th of the m arauder

w ho is p ic tu red a s an O pata adopted in to the trib e „ V aliente is a Seri

ed u ca ted in a m iss io n schoo l in H erm o sillo . The d a te h as been changed

from 1854, g iven in H ernandez , to 1879., su p p o sed ly the d a te of an

a r tic le in the new spaper C ofreo de Sonora d e sc rib in g a ca rn iv a l in

G uay mas where D olores re igned a s Q ueen shortly before her ab d u c tio n .

The y ears of V a lie n te1 s schoo ling in H erm osillo are g iven as 1870-

1875. At the tim e of the opening a c tio n of D olores o la re in a de los,

K unkaaks, V aliente h a s retu rned to Tiburon Is lan d w here h is m other

l iv e d . Throughout th is v e rs io n , V aliente (la ter c a lle d C oyote Iguana I I ) ,

a id ed by D o lo res, tr ie s to ex e rt a c iv iliz in g in flu en ce on the tr ib e ,

w hose members a re p ic tu red a s am enable to te a c h in g and w orth sav in g .

V aliente a lso m akes an effort to com bat the in im ical in fluence of a band

of Yaqui re b e ls w ho lure some S e ris , inc lud ing C oyote Iguana I , in to

p a rtic ip a tin g in th e f ts and a s s a u l ts th a t bring c ru e l re p r is a ls down on

th e h ead s of a l l . V aliente sav es D olores from C oyote Iguana I in one

of th o se co n flic ts be tw een the law -ab id in g S eris and the re b e ls who

w an t to j oin the Y aq u is . In te rtr ib a l c o n flic t here is cen te red about th is

60

quarre l and not over re s is ta n c e to D olores who re tu rn s V a lien te 's love

and m arries him in a cerem ony th a t in c lu d es the paym ent of a bride

p r ic e , paid d ire c tly to D olores by V a lie n te 's m other s in ce the cap tiv e

had no re la tiv e s in the tr ib e .

The w edding cerem ony d esc rib ed here in c lu d es songs and

d a n c e s , new c lo th e s bought w ith th e p roceeds of p ea rls so ld a t M u leg e ,

and the s e c lu s io n of the b rida l couple in a h u t for the four days of the

cerem ony . Apart from the bride p r ic e , w hich is an im portant fea tu re of

Seri m arriages to d a y , d e ta ils of the m arriage cerem ony are d iffe ren t

1from any Other repo rt of Seri m arriage c u s to m s .

The d iffe ren t d a te of 1879 a s opposed to 1854 or 1850 encoun­

tered in known re fe re n c e s , m ight re f le c t effo rts of the au thor to fix the

d a te by c a lc u la tio n s b ased on incom plete or d iffe ren t g en ea lo g ica l in ­

form ation . S p ecu la tio n s can be made a lso th a t the au thor had s e e n a

n ew spaper acco u n t pub lished during th e e ig h tie s or n in e t ie s , such as

th o se m entioned by M cG ee, and e ith e r inferred a d a te around 1879 for

the in c id e n t, or a c tu a lly found th e d a te 1879 g iven in such a re p o rt.

O ther new ad d itio n s to the s to ry found in the work of. Reyna

de Leon include. L ola1 s retu rn to the is la n d to re jo in h er husband and

c h ild in a happy end ing th a t would allow for h er liv in g out h er life a s

V a lie n te 's w ife among the S eri, and for the p o ss ib le b irth of ad d itio n a l

1. Griffen, p . 25.

ch ild ren in the future „ All other v e rs io n s include a t le a s t tw o ch ild re n ,

and in th is one th ere ap p ears only l i t t le Juven tino , a son born during

h er f ir s t e ig h t y ea rs on Tiburdn Is lan d before the so ld ie rs cam e. C arm ela

Reyna de Leon adds one more im portant ch a rac te r to the u su a l ro s te r:

N ila , a Seri g irl who com m its su ic id e in je a lo u s d e sp a ir b ecau se of her

love for V a lie n te . The am orous co n flic ts are not so sim ple a s a t r ia n g le ,

ev en exem pting th e lu s tfu l a sp ira tio n of the so o n -d e c e a se d C oyote

Iguana I. N ila is loved by a Seri yo u th , Jose de la Luz, fa ith fu l friend

of V alien te , and D olores le a v e s a su ito r , Roberto A lm ada, in Guay m a s .

From th e d iffe ren t d a te a s w ell a s from th e nam es given to

Other members of th e C asan o v a fam ily (Dona M e rce d e s , h er m other,,

and Don F ran c isc o , her fa th e r) , i t is ap p aren t th a t th e au thor w as un­

fam ilia r w ith the report of the P re fec t of Guay m a s . This d isc rep an cy

i s to be ex p ec ted s in ce N avarro 's le t te rs w ere fo rgo tten for many y e a rs .

Language u sed by the Ind ian ch a rac te rs i s a problem for th is

au thor a ls o . O nly two w ords, ap p aren tly e x c lam a tio n s , of Seri are u se d .

O th e rw ise , a broken Spanish in w hich in fin itiv e s are u sed in p lace of

c o rrec tly in flec te d verbs is em ployed by the Ind ian s p e a k e rs . For in ­

s ta n c e , Coyote Iguana I exo rts the S eris to ignore V alien te ' s p eace fu l

c o u n se ls and jo in him and th e Yaquis in th e ir d ep red a tio n s: " Tu d ec ir

v e rd a d , n o se tro s i r , no le a s e V a lien te , no q uerer. Ese V alien te cobarde

ahora."-*- E lsew h ere , C oyote Iguana I and V alien te , a s w ell a s th e

1. Reyna de Leon, p . 4 .

62

M ex ican c h a ra c te r s , use co rrec t S p a n ish , and the re su lt seem s som e­

w hat awkward in i ts abrupt c h a n g e s . The few words of Seri seem ex tra ­

neous and do not add rea lism to the s to ry .

In so sh o rt a p re se n ta tio n , fo rty -n in e pages of com bined d ialogue

and narra tive p a s s a g e s , g eog raph ica l and h is to r ic a l se ttin g rec e iv e scan t

a t te n tio n . C h a rac te rs are la rg e ly draw n in b road , s te reo ty p ed l in e s . The

tone is rom antic in the unmixed n o b ility and purity of the good c h a rac ­

te rs and un relieved w ick ed n ess of th e bad ones.. The d ia logue is exchanged

in a h ig h -p itch ed em otional to n e . P o stu res and g e s tu re s are ex ag g era ted

in th e m anner of a ta b le a u . There is ev id en t s e n tim e n ta lity . I t should be

observed th a t , to a d eg ree , th is rom antic atm osphere and sen tim en t su c ­

c e e d s in ex p re ss in g a fee lin g of s in c e rity an d sym pathy for the c h a ra c ­

te rs and for the S e ris , com m unicated to the re a d e r. D olores and V aliente

w orry about how to help th e o ther Seris:

/ XD olores: Que la s tim a , s i e s ta gente lleg a ra a c iv i l iz a r s e ,a a c e p ta r en todo la s costum bres que no so tro s pudieram os in c u lc a rle s se ria e s to muy herm oso .

V aliente: Pero e s en vano todo cuan to hag am o s, nada co n -seg u irem o s, n oso tros v iv irem os a n u estro gusto y d e jem o sles a e llo s v iv ir su v id a . Son buenas gen tes , re sp e tu o sa s y h o n rad as , ya v e ra s . En o tra s c o sa s s i h acen c a so de m is co n se jo s ya v e z /_sic/ como no han v u e lto a ten e r e l mas mfnimo co n tac to con lo s y a q u is . 1

1. I b id . , p . 33.

\ . •

- . " ' ' ' . «

It is p la in th a t the sym pathy and w ish to he lp are dam pened

by the fear th a t the Seris w ill no t l is te n and w ill rev ert to the ra id in g

th a t w ill re su lt in the fa ilu re of th e se h o p e s . This la w le s sn e s s is

blam ed on the Yaqui in f lu e n c e , a d e lib e ra te effort to keep the Seris

in a favorable l ig h t , favorab le enough to in s i s t th a t the S eris are not

the h o p e le s s ly depraved sav ag es a s w as g en era lly b e lie v e d .

The outlook for im provem ent, h o w ev er> w as b le a k . At news

of ano ther ra id in w hich Seris p a rtic ip a te d a g a in s t h is a d v ic e , V aliente

c r ie s , in anger and d e sp a ir , " Im b e c ile s , nuevam ente lo s yaqu is lo s

h an a rras trad o a su s v ile s c o r re r ia s . E sto e s in fam e, nos va a p e rju -

d ic a r a tod os como a n te s . 11 Though d isc o u ra g e d , he d id not give up

hope or abandon h is e ffo r ts . He hoped to draw the rem nant of the bands

to g e th e r and co n cen tra te them in an a rea where: th ey could be educated

and tau g h t to a c c e p t c iv iliz ed custom s and e sca p e the b e llic o se Yaquie

in fluence:

Lo prim ero que hay que h ac e r e s reu n irlo s en cuan to sea p o s ib le para tra ta r de u n ifica rlo s pues unos andan por L ibertad o tros p o r T a s tio ta de San J o s e '. . . Es n e c e sa rio ap a rta rlo s a toda re su lta de la reg ion d e l Y aqui. %

T his, th e n , is the view of one who sh a re s th e fee lin g of Rojas

G onzalez th a t th e Ind ian should be absorbed in to M exican so c ia l and

econom ic l i f e . Reyna de Leon com m unicates a long w ith h er hopes for

1. Ib id , p . 37.

2. Ib id , p . 38.

64

th is id e a l so lu tio n some of the p essim ism of th o se who have t r ie d , p er­

h aps p e rso n a lly , to im plem ent th e ir h o p e s . P ra c tic a l d iff ic u ltie s are

reco g n ized , such a s the p o s s ib il i ty th a t re p risa ls cau sed by ra id s

and c a ttle s te a lin g w ill ex term ina te the Seris before th ey can be edu ­

ca ted and a s s im ila te d , an is s u e w hich is s t i l l in do u b t, though the

figh ting is over.

C havez C am ach o 's in te rp re ta tio n , a r t is t ic a l ly s u c c e ss fu l and

perhaps an th ro p o lo g ica lly sound, in d ica ted he b e liev ed i t much more

lik e ly to conclude th a t th e p ro cess of acc u ltu ra tio n would work in

reverses Lola becam e " one more S e r i," and the trib e rem ained as is o ­

la te d as b e fo re , c u ltu ra lly . H ern an d ez , to o , in d ica ted h is a c c e p ta n c e

of th is re v e rsa l in h is co n tra s t of L o la 's ad ap ta tio n to sav ag ery w ith

h is Seri p a t ie n t 's com plete transfo rm ation in to a c iv iliz e d young la d y .

He a ttrib u ted th is change to fem ale p sy ch o lo g y 's being p ecu lia rly

o rien ted tow ard m otherhood, w hich in L o la 's c a s e made h er e s p e c ia lly

a c c e s s ib le to co n v ersio n to barbarism , once sh e had a ch ild born in

th a t c u ltu re .

PART II

THE NOVEL LOLA CASANOVA

CHAPTER IV

SOURCES USED BY FRANCISCO ROJAS GONZALEZ

The name of the hero ine and tra d itio n a l M exican v e rs io n of the

s to ry becam e w idely known beyond the lo c a l Sonora reg ion w here the

e v e n ts of her d iap p earan ce took p lace only a fte r the p u b lica tio n in 1947

of the novel Lola C asan o v a bv F ran c isco Rojas G o n z a le z . ^

H is m ain source w as Las ra z a s indfgenas de Sonora y la guerra

d e l Yagui by D r. Fortunato H ern an d ez , a p h y s ic ian and h is to r ia n of

H erm o sillo , Sonora. Two paragraphs' from th is h is to ry are reproduced

on a page p reced ing page one of the n o v e l. These paragraphs re la te the

adop tion of both C oyote Iguana and Lola in to the Seri t r ib e , and serve

to in troduce the them e of the novel:/

Los c a so s de adopcion m as n o tab les son e l de un cau tiv o que lie gif a se r Jefe de la trib u , bajo e l nombre de C o y o te -Ig u a n a , y e l de Lola C a sa n o v a , una jo v en de d ie c i- ocho anbs que fue a rreb a tad a a su fam ilia por lo s s e r i s , duran te un com bate so s te n id o con tra e s to s , en e l cam ino ... de Guay mas a H erm osillo , por e l ano de 1854.

Ya v ario s an c ian o s so n o ren ses me h ab ian re ferido e l a trev ido rap to y la n o v e lesca h is to r ia de L ola, pero ninguno de e llo s me a seg u ro 'h ab e rla c o n o c id o . %

Another in d ica tio n th a t Rojas G onzalez re lie d on H ern an d ez 's

1. F ran c isco Rojas G o n z a le z , Lola C asan o v a (M exico: E dicion y D is trib u c io n Ibero Am ericana de P u b lic a c io n e s , S .A . , 1947).

2 . H ern an d ez , p . 62.

66

67

a cco u n t of the s to ry for d e ta ils is found in the sp eech th a t C oyote

Iguana m akes to Lola C asan o v a a fte r he d isco v e rs her during the a tta c k

on th e trav e le rs a t La P a lm ita . A com parison of th is sp eech as g iven in

bo th acco u n ts is in te re s tin g . F irs t , th e o rig inal v e rs io n reported by

H ernandez to have b een made in fa irly ,good Spanish ("b astan te buen

c a s te lla n o " ) :

"Soy, le d ijo , e l je fe de la n ac io h S eri, cau tiv o de la trib u , d esd e muy joven ; mis p a d re s , que eran F im as , m urieron en e l com bate y yo quede p ris io n ero de lo s Seris . A su lado c r e c i^ / s ic / mi d e s tre z a en la c a z a y en la p e sc a y mi valor, en los cam pos de b a ta lla , me e lev aro n a l rango que hoy ocupo .

"Te a rreb a te ' d e l carro en que e s ta b a s , d esm ay ad a , por- que e res muy h e rm o sa , porque te quiero mas que a mis verdaderos d io se s y mas que a l recuerdo de mis p ad res; an tes que p e rd e rte , perderfa mil v e c e s la v id a .

" Tengo una is la llen a .d e te s o r o s , soy e l rey de la nacion mas v a lie n te y mas a ltiv a d e l mundo; mi nombre es e l mae temido en tre to d as la s trib u s y har£ d e t i la re in a de mis dom inios y d io sa de mi corazdm .

"Luchare^ con la s tem p estad e s y a rran ca re a l O ceano p e rla s para adornar tu c u e llo , p ie le s a los leo n es para alfom bra de tu s p ie s y plum aje a la s av es m arinas para formar la cuna de tu s hij os '

• 3 - _

The v e rs io n of th is sp eech ta k e n from the novel Lola C asan o v a

fo llo w s . Here a lso C oyote is sa id to ad d ress the hero ine in p a s sa b le

S pan ish ("rom ance ac ep tab le " ) :

— Te h a b la , hem bra b la n c a , C o y o te , e l je fe de la nacion s e r i . Yo soy e l que d e s tro z c fa tus c u n a d o s , en venganza de lo s mas negros a g ra v io s . . . M uy tie rno to d a v fa , fui cau tiv o de lo s kunkaaks cuando e llo s m ataron a mis. p a d re s , que e ra n p im a s . . . D esde e n to n c e s , m ujer y o ri, v ivo con lo s s e r is , q u ienes en prem io a mis fu e rzas

1. I b id . .p . 63.

68

me han hecho seno r de la p e l e a . . . .— Eres tan b o n ita , m ujer b la n c a , que la flor d e l

pitay.o se m irarfa d esco lo rid a fren te a t i , y en tu s ojos hay mas b rillo que en la s hondas aquas de T e p o p a .. . For e so C o y o te , e l ven ced o r de tu s c u n a d o s , te quiere y , a n te s de p e rd e rte , s e ria cap az de irs e a en tregar en manos de e l l o s , para que h ic ie ra n co rreas de su negro cuero de yoreme y d ie ran su corazdm de com ida a lo s p e r ro s .

— C o y o te , P erla de G uaym as, 6s e l senor de la nacidm mas v a le ro sa y mas r ic a de la t ie r ra . „. y tu , con so lo q u e re rlo , s e r ia s re in a d e l co razdn de e s te dueno d e l co ra je d e l tibu ron , de la ag ilid ad d e l p e z , de la sabidurxa d e l pelxcano, de la a s tu c ia d e l venado y d e l v a lo r d e lh om bre. . .

— C o y o te—-se g u ia en tus la s mad o e l In d io --p e le a ra con tra la s te m p e s ta d e s , como e l gav ilan ; nadara ba jo la s a g u a s , ig u a l que la to r tu g a , h a s ta encon trar la p erla s o l- fe rina que guard a la m ar, para co lg a rla a l cu e llo de la m ujer b lanca; a rran ca ra la s p ie le s a lo s pum as y hara de e l la s

■ ta p e te s d ignos de e so s p ie s , ch iq u ito s como e l cap u llo de la b izn ag a . Luego, p ed ira su s p lum ajes a la s a v e s , que se ra n cun as b lan d as para e l abrigo de lo s n inos que vengan. . o 1

The g randiloquen t s ty le is s im ila r , though more ex ag g era ted

in the n o v e l> w hich m akes the p a s sa g e longer, even w ithou t L o la’s, h a lf

of the d ia lo g u e . The cerem onious language u sed to approxim ate the

sp e e ch of the Ind ians is il lu s tra te d in th is p a s s a g e , a s w ell a s the lo fty

rom antic tone of the In d ia n 's a t t i tu d e . I t c an be s e e n th a t a rom antic

s ty le w ith s im ila r p a ra lle lism is u sed by H ernandez , and indeed c h a ra c ­

te r iz e s a ll known M ex ican acco u n ts of th is s to ry e x c ep t th e ch ap te r in

C aiem e by Armando C havez C am acho . The portrayal of the Indian as a

k ing or noblem an is ty p ic a l of the in d ia n is ta w ritings of th e period of

1. Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , pp . 152 -153 .

69

reco n stru c tio n or re iv in d ica c io n of the Ind ian during the n in e teen th c e n -

tu ry and s tan d s in a d ire c t line of d e sc e n t from A tala of C h a teau b rian d .

The con tem poraries of D olores C asan o v a in 1850 probably could not

h ave im agined th e s to ry w ithout th e se tra d itio n a l ro le s of c h ie f and

q u e e n . Their adop tion by Rojas G onzalez marks h is work as hav ing its

source in th is M ex ican trad itio n and not in the S eri.

S' 'H ernandez a lso recorded in h is w ell-know n work a h is to ry of

Seri v o cab u la rie s known up to th a t t im e , includ ing th o se co lle c te d by

L au stau n au , P in a r t , and M cG ee. In th is one so u rc e , th e n , are found

th e an th ropo log ica l d e ta ils tak en in la rg e part from W . J . M cG ee 's re ­

port of 1896, the ou tline of the p lo t, the words of the p roposa l made

to Lola by C oyote Iguana , inform ation abou t the Seri la n g u a g e , and

d e ta i ls w hich stam p a, flavor of rom anticism on the ch a rac te rs and p lo t.

In h is summary of the so u rces used by Rojas G o n za lez , Joseph

Sommers n o tes th a t "h is to ry books" fu rn ished the b a s is for Lola C a s a ­

n o v a . The novel he a d d s , w as tak en "from the legend c ited in the h is ­

to r ic a l tome of D r. Fprtunato H e rn an d e z ." % Later M ex ican h is to ry books

p u b lish ed prior to the w riting of the novel follow H ernandez w ith regard

to th e sto ry of Lola C asan o v a . This can be n o te d , for in s ta n c e , in the

h is to ry pub lished by Eduardo W . V illa in 1937, w here the w ords of

S’1. H ern an d ez , p . 237.

2 . Sommers, p . 241.

70

C oyote to Lola a t th e tim e of her cap tu re beg in w ith the fam ilia r "I am

the ch ief" (¥b soy e l jefe) of the H ernandez v e rs io n . ^

I t is p o ss ib le th a t Rojas G onzalez co n su lted V illa , but the

p refa to ry c ita tio n is from H ern an d ez , w hich is a lso the only re fe ren ce

in S panish p re -d a tin g the novel co n ta in in g abundant background m ateria l

on Seri custom s and la n g u a g e . H ern an d ez 's se c tio n giving the h is to ry .

up to 1902 of s tu d ie s of the Seri language a lso co n ta in s more inform ation

on Seri v o cab u la rie s th an does the e a r lie r work of M cG ee. F ran c isco

R ojas G onzalez found an ad d itio n a l source of inform ation abou t the Seris

and geograph ica l background in the rep o rt of a 1941 ex p ed itio n to Kino

Bay by the In s titu te de In v es tig ac io n e s S o c ia les de la Uni vers id ad

N a tio n a l Autonoma de M exico by Luis Arturo G onzalez B o n illa . ^

Rojas G onzalez re fe rs to th is exp ed itio n in h is monograph on

the Seris pub lish ed a fte r h is d ea th in E tnografia de M e x ic o , 19 5 7 .^

From th is report by G onzalez B onilla , the n o v e lis t ap p aren tly took the

Seri w ords used in C hap ter 22 of Lola C a sa n o v a . The vocabu lary c o l­

le c te d by G onzalez Bonilla is very sm a ll, few er th an a dozen te rm s , so

it ap p ears s ig n if ic a n t th a t th e four p h ra se s u sed by th e n o v e lis t co n ta in

1. V illa , p . 35.

2 . Gonzcflez B o n illa , R ev ista M exicana de S o c io lo g fa , III,N o. 6 .

3 . F ran c isco R ojas G o n za lez , " Seris o K unkaks," E tnografia de M ex ico , s in te s is m o n o g ra ficas , In s ti tu te de In v e s tig a c io n e s S o c ia le s , U niversidad N a tio n a l Autdhoma (M exico, 1957), p . 32.

71

a lm o st air these, te rm s , sp e lled e x a c tly the sam e w ay . Since th ere are

m any v a ria tio n s u sed by people o ther th an lin g u is ts in rendering the

sounds of the Seri language in our a lp h a b e t, th is u se of the sam e le tte rs

to s p e ll the sam e p h ra se s by th e n o v e lis t and by the au thor of the 19.41

rep o rt seem s v irtu a l proof of th is rep o rt being th e ir source for Rojas

G o n z a le z . Another p iece of ev id en ce to confirm th is re la tio n sh ip is the

fa c t th a t there is no word g iven for " mother" in G onzalez B onilla’s

v o cab u la ry , bu t th e word for "woman" is g iv en . H ence the n o v e lis t 's

rendering of "Tengo ham bre , madre" in Seri as "P.sakepna k 'm a n ,"

w hich m eans "I'm h ungry , w om an.

G onzalez B onilla’s repo rt co n ta in s frequen t re fe ren ces to the

e a r lie r work by H ern an d ez , and so w ould have served to confirm for the

m ost p a rt the n o v e lis t 's inform ation on the an th ro p o lo g ica l background

ta k e n from H e rn a n d e z .

There rem ains to be exam ined the q u es tio n of the im portance of

R ojas GbnBctlez's v is i t s to S onora . In 1931, he w as in N o g a le s , Sonora,

to in te rv iew a lie n s being deported from A rizona. This a r t ic le , e n titled

"Los D ep o rtad o s ," appeared in the m agazine C riso l in 1931. %

Any o ther tr ip s through Sonora may have been only p a rt of longer

jo u rn ey s to and from p o s ts w ith the co n su la r se rv ice in the w este rn

1. L e tte r from Edward M oser to th is w rite r, Ju ly 27, 1964.

2 . Som m ers, p . 6 .

72

U nited S ta tes a s p art of h is work in the S ec re ta ria .d e R elac iones Ex-

te r io re s before 1925. He w as a ss ig n e d to p o s ts .in Salt Lake G ity ,

D enver , and San F ran c isco and may have trav e led through Sonora on

1o c c a s io n .

It can be concluded th a t h is p erso n a l ex p erien ce and o b se rv a ­

tio n of Sonoran la n d sc a p e s and c lim ate w ere very lim ited . T herefore,

i t seem s un like ly th a t he heard th e .tra d itio n a l s to ry of the Seri cap tiv e

in Sonora.

It seem s strong ly in d ica ted th a t any p e rso n a l in v e s tig a tio n s

or co n v ersa tio n s he may have had in co n n ectio n w ith the them e of the

n o v e l, or any in te rp re ta tio n s made of fie ld d a ta co lle c te d by the e x p e d i - .

tio n of 1941, w ere e ith e r in fluenced by p reco n cep tio n s derived from the

d e ta ile d and p re s tig io u s work of H ernandez , or w ere no t s ig n if ic a n t a t

a l l . A ll.im portant e lem en ts of p lo t or background are p re se n t in

H ern an d ez 's book, and the only o ther s ig n if ic an t source is found in the

a r t is t ic im agination and so c io lo g ic a l and p o lit ic a l background of th e

n o v e lis t .

1 . I b id . , p . 6.

CHAPTER V

USE OF THE THEME BY FRANCISCO ROJAS GONZALEZ

The u se of th e fo lklore them e to p re se n t a th e s is concern ing

so lu tio n of the Ind ian problem se e n in v e rs io n s by various w rite rs is

m ost s ig n ifican t in the c a se of the novel by Rojas G onzalez; for in h is

w ork, i t is the th e s is —-the need for ra c ia l and c u ltu ra l b lend ing w ith

n a tiv e Indian groups—-that is the re a l them e of the n o v e l. T herefore,

i t is n e c e s sa ry to p fe se n t the end ing as he d o e s . The w rite r d ep arts

from the tra d itio n a l s to ry to a llow the hero ine to su cceed in bringing

abou t th is ra c ia l and cu ltu ra l b le n d . Bloody re s is ta n c e to h e r , both

a s a l ie n in blood and a s a p ro se ly tiz e r for the surrounding advanced

c u ltu re , does not p rev en t h er from m ain tain ing h er m ixed-blood sons

in pow er as le a d e rs in the t r ib e . She overcom es sim ilar r e s is ta n c e as

w e ll a s natu ra l env ironm ental o b s ta c le s to found the farm ing v illag e of

Pozo C oyote w here p eace fu l c o n ta c t w ith the surrounding M ex ican so c i­

e ty is p o ss ib le and p rog ress in a s s im ila tio n of the iso la te d Ind ian group

c o n tin u e s .

The end ing is a dev ice p lanned by the au th o r, probably more

from the n e c e s s ity to i l lu s tra te h is th e s is for m estiz a je and ab so rp tio n

a s a so lu tio n of the Ind ian problem , ra th e r th an from any a r t is t ic

73

74

in tu itio n regard ing e ffec tiv e so lu tio n of the co n flic ts a r is in g from s itu ­

a tio n s or fe lt by the ch a rac te rs .

' y •M anuel Pedro G onzalez W rites in h is d is c u s s io n of the novel:

El c ap itu lo f in a l—y a c a s o la novela to d a— con tiene una ev iden te in te n s io n s im bolica y a lecc io n ad o ra : la adm i- s io n palm aria y s in com plejos de in ferio ridad de que M exico e s e tn icam ente m estizo ; la s a lv a c io n de M exico e s tr ib a ra en e l trab a jo honrado y fecundo , en la a s im ilac io n por su pueblo ind io y m estizo de la t^ cn ica y la cu ltu ra que h ic ie ro n a lo s " y o r is ," e s d e c ir , a lo s b la n c o s , duenos d e l p a i s .

Pozo C oyote e x i s t s , and is an old Seri cam p , bu t i t never resem bled

th e se ttlem en t d esc rib ed in the n o v e l, and the au thor m ust have known

i t . He may have c h o sen i t b ecau se of the name C o y o te , p o ss ib ly from

a m ap, ju s t a s he ch o se to give the l a s t h a lf of C oyote Ig u an a 's name

to Lola w hen she w as adopted in to th e t r ib e , d e s ig n a tin g th e hero a s

"C o y o te ," the hero ine as "Ig u an a , " and the new m estizo c la n a s C oyote

Ig u a n a ." All th is w as probably done from a g rea t d is ta n c e , and books

and repo rts w ere h is only im portant so u rc e . At th is d is ta n c e , the tem p­

ta tio n to be d o c trin a ire overcam e th e a r t i s t 's c rea tiv e in s t in c ts , and

th e novel is com plete ly y ie ld ed up to th e th e s i s . The h e ro in e 's w ay is

th e w ay of p ro g re s s , the w ay of th e fu tu re .

Once i t becom es c le a r th a t the sto ry h as p ro g ressed from a

leg en d to a dream , a change of s ty le can be n o te d . The fin a l sc e n e s

a re of everyday life in a sm all tow n . The ac tio n s of the c h a ra c te rs are

1. G o n za lez , p . 365.

75

sim ple and th e ir c o n v e rsa tio n more n a tu ra l th an in the e a r lie r sc e n e s of

c o n f lic t, a s can be see n in the fo llow ing co n v ersa tio n be tw een Lola and

h e r old friend Burro E chado .

G erca de la m atrona ha d e ten id o su p a so un yoreme v ie jo y cenceno ; la sa lu d a con mil m iram ientos que e lla corresponde con am abilidad y se n o rio . Luego, lo s dos en tran en un s ile n c io la rg o , qu iza a tad o s por e l lazo de un recuerdo com un. El v ie jo se ha sen tad o en c u c li l la s a la vera de su a m ig a .

P asa fren te a e llo s una m uchcha arriando un par de v acas gordas; e l cam paneo de la s ubres lle n a s en to rp ecen su p a so .

—H ace a n o s , m uchos, v ie jo Burro E chado, n u es tro s herm anos no hub ieran d e jad o y iv ir a e so s a n im a le s , por- que g u staban m as de la carne cruda que de la lech e transform ada en q u e s o . . . [ Somos ya otra gente l - - d ic e la v ie je c i ta , m ien tras un su sp iro d is tien d e su p ech o .

El hombre c o n te s ta gravem ente:— Si, som os o tra gente porque tu. lo h a s querido .

. La tu y a , s e n o ra , fue voz de n u es tro s d ifu n to s . . .De nuevo se in terpone e l s ile n c io en tre lo s dos."*"

In th is s c e n e , d ed ica ted as i t is to ex p la in in g the w ay the tra d itio n a l

them e h as been in te rp re ted acco rd ing to the au tho r1 s th e s is , th e two

old people seem qu ite re a l , and th e ir rem arks n a tu ra l.

The im portance of the In d ia n s1 pride in th is p ic tu red u top ia is

s e e n w hen Lola rem inds the M exican m erchant th a t th e tow n had been

rec la im ed by the S eris from the d e s e r t , and then shared w ith the M exican

s e tt le r s : " / Los yorem es no hem os ido h a c ia M ex ico , e l ha ven ido h a s ta

n o s o tro s !" Even if not true of Pozo C o y o te , the dream p ic tu re s the

1. Rojas G onzcilez, Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 272.

2. Ib id . , p . 274.

.76

the so c ie ty the au thor im agines a s a re su lt of the ch an g es he has pro­

posed in the n o v e l. "La e sq u ila de la erm ita llam a pbr ig u a l a yoris y

y o re m e s . Se reza en e sp an o l y se p ie n sa en ind io

Ample tim e is n e c e s sa ry to re a liz e the d ream , and the novel

p rov ides 50 y ea rs :

Los v ie jo s m ueren s in d e ja r de se r s e r is ; lo s ad u lto s e n v e jecen tiran d o h a c ia yo ris ; lo s ninos m aduran como m estizo s . . . Sin em bargo, la t ie r r a , "ab u e la de lo s kunkaaks" y la "com adre" luna co n serv an re sp e c ta b ilid a d y aca tam ien to porque s i la gente h a b la , v is te y come como y o ri, en cam bio no ha dej ado de s e n ti r e , de gozar y de su frir como s e r i . ^

The follow ing paragraph seem s to echo Jos£ V a sco n ce lo s 's

dream of a C osm ic Race:

Pero a p e sa r de todo , hay a lgo como un so p lo , comp un cdliento, como un jad eo m iste rio so de a lg u ien que se a g a z a p a , v ig ila y e sp e ra la oportunidad de rev o lv erlo todo , de am algam arlo to d o , para p la s mar un hombre n u ev o , y con e l , c rea r un m undo, y tra s de e l y para e l , un d e s tin o .^

This th e s is is not lim ited , how ever, to the end ing . I t c a n be traced

from th e f ir s t page of the te x t w here the facad e of the C asan o v a m ansion

is sa id to show a fu sio n of the a rt of two peo p les :

A quella fachada re p re sen tab a en s i misma un dram atico e p iso d ic de la fu sio n de dos a r te s le g e n d a rie s , de dos m aneras de v er y de operar la lin e a y de c a la r en e l volum en, para o frecer lugar a una nueva p l^ s tic a m estiza y so rp ren - d e n te .4

1. Ib id . , p . 268.

2 . Ib id . , p . 269.

3 . Ib id .

4 . Ib id . , p . 11.

77

An in te re s tin g fac t th a t in d ic a te s the im portance of th is th e s is is th a t

th e n o v e lis t h as inven ted a ll th ree c a s e s u sed as ev id en ce to docum ent

the S e r is9 s u sc e p tib ili ty to becom ing c iv i l iz e d . The f ir s t ex am p le , the

s u c c e ss fu l m iss io n colony of Fr„ S a lv a tie rra on Tiburdh Is lan d is an

e lab o ra tio n of h is more lim ited c o n ta c t w ith the tr ib e . The second

exam ple , th a t of Fr. D am iin Trueba a t M isidh Felipe a p p e a r s , as far

a s can be a sc e r ta in e d , only in the n o v e l. The th ird exam ple is fu rn ished

by th e novel i ts e l f w hich is d ire c te d , from f ir s t to l a s t , to the id ea liz e d

com m unity of Pozo C o y o te . There is harm ony and un ity in th is one a s ­

p e c t of th e n o v e l, though i t does not enhance i t a s l i te r a tu r e .

P art of the purpose of Roj a s G o n za lez8 s ad ap ta tio n of the legend

of Lola C asan o v a w as to p re se n t a f ic tio n a liz e d c a s e h is to ry of the m eans

of p rog ress in cu ltu ra l a s s im ila tio n of the In d ian . I so la tio n is a barrier

to a s s im ila tio n , and a ttack in g iso la tio n by m eans of com m erce is one

m eans su g g es ted in the novel of ach iev in g th is a s s im ila tio n . The m ost

im portant m eans is in te rm arriag e , and in th e s to ry , the two are re la ted in

Lola°s effo rts to sav e h e r tribe by e s ta b lish in g m utually p ro fitab le trad e

w ith the w hite com m unity, f ir s t a long the ro ad s and la te r in Pozo C o y o te .

She re fe rs to " la c iv iliz a d o ra ac tiv id ad c o m e rc ia l ." Through productive

work would come eq u a lity :"L o s yorem es cam biarem os con lo s b lancos lo

que tenem os por lo que e llo s ten g an . E ntonces ind ios y b lan co s nos

1. I b id . , p . 244

pondrem os a la misma a l tu r a . 11 To the c ra ft in d u s tr ie s ag ricu ltu re is

added a t Pozo C o y o te . This la s t c iv iliz in g touch is an o th er inven tion

of the n o v e lis t . A ccording to Edward M o se r , th e Seris have lived thereO

but never farmed there on th e ir own in i t ia t iv e .

The tra d itio n i t s e l f as p resen ted by H ernandez is genuinely

ap p ea lin g and the se ttin g provided an opportunity to ex p lo it Rojas

G o n z a le z 's in te re s t in the s c ie n tif ic stu d y of M exican In d ia n s . These

a s p e c t s , a s w e ll a s the il lu s tra tio n i t provided for h is th e s is , would

have made: the s to ry seem a good b a s is for the p lo t of the n o v e l.

The love s to ry be tw een Lola and Coyote can n o t be the m ain

in te re s t in th is narra tive b ecau se i t does not begun u n til the middle

of the n o v e l. It d o e s , how ever, con tribu te to the rom antic a tm osphere .

O ther rom antic a s p e c ts of th e p lo t are L o la 's vo lun tary re je c tio n of a

modern c iv iliz a tio n she h as come to d e s p is e , and h er c o n sc io u sn e ss

of the hand of fa te in h er life a s w e ll a s the p ic tu re of m an 's s trugg le

w ith n atu re .3

L o la 's answ er to Don C a rb o n a te 's rem o n stran ces before her

proposed m arriage to h er rich su ito r , Don N esto r A riza, i l lu s tr a te s th is

s e n se of th e im portance of fa te . "C ada qu ien tien e un s in o , am igo mio

que nunca podrem os e v ita r . Yo voy a l encuen tro d e l mfo,

1 . Ib id . , p . 242.

2. L e tte r from Edward M oser to th is w rite r, July 27, 1964.

3 . Sommers, p p . 105-106 .

79

se n c illa m erite . 11 R ejec tion of d ecad en t so c ie ty is found in L o la 's

th o u g h t, " la ru s tic id a d no e s a sq u e ro sa ; lo s v ic io s son repugnan tes . " ^

Time is im portan t to the p lo t, and its p a s sa g e is sparin g ly

but ca re fu lly in d ica ted . The ac tio n b eg in s in the summer before

D o lo re s 's cap tu re by th e Seri b a n d , or in the summer of 1853, acco rd ­

ing the H ern an d ez 's 1854 d a te for her ab d u c tio n . That f a l l , the tr ia ls

to s e le c t th e w ar c h ie f are held a t Kino Bay, and the sh ip carry ing

L o la 's fa th e r 's goods is lo s t a t s e a . Late the follow ing sp rin g , the

carav an le a v e s G uaym as for H erm osillo , only to be am b u sh ed . She

spends the summer a cap tiv e in th e ir cam p. The w edding and storm a t

Kino Bay are in the f a l l , s t i l l 1854.

Two y ea rs are p a s se d over u n til the tim e of th e b irth of L o la 's. f '

second c h ild . In d a le c io , L o la 's Seri w ard , is sa id to be 6 y ea rs old in

1853. Two y ea rs a fte r h is b e n e fa c tre s s 's ab d u c tio n , he jo in s the Seri

w arrior band a s a sp y , ap p aren tly a t the age of 9 . After an undeterm ined

in te rv a l, w hile h er second ch ild is s t i l l a babe in arm s, In d a lec io is

hanged by the " y o ris11 w hen h is spy ing is d isc o v e re d , a 1 0 -y ea r-o ld

victim of the Seri w a rs . W h a tev er.h is a g e , h is d ea th prom pts Lola to

a c t to make peace and e s ta b lis h u se fu l c o n ta c ts w ith the c iv iliz ed

w orld . Thus p a s s e s perhaps a y e a r , m aking i t about 1858 w hen the

1. Rojas G o n za lez . Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 130.

2 . Ib id . , p . 203.

80

Seri tribe v is i ts G uay m a s . The b a ttle w ith the h o s tile reac tio n a ry fa c ­

tio n occurs upon th e ir re tu rn from Guay m a s , and C oyote is k i l le d . Lola

lived w ith him th en only four or five y e a rs .in the n o v e l, a s in the Seri

v e rs io n , a tim e perhaps c a lc u la te d in both c a s e s by the repo rt of two

or th ree ch ild ren born . D uring the y ea rs 1859 - 1900 ± the work to

e s ta b lis h Pozo C oyote would have tak en p la c e , a s w ell a s the w ars

be tw een th e c o n se rv a tiv e s and p ro g re ss iv e s in w hich C oyote Iguana II

i s k ille d , to be su cceed ed a s c h ie f by h is younger b ro th e r . One of her

g rea t-g ran d so n s h as to te a c h Lola how to speak Spanish a g a in , so

com plete h as been h er ab so rp tio n in h er ta s k . She d i e s , a t an advanced

a g e , in Pozo. C oyote a t the end of the b o o k .

The au thor m an ipu la tes tim e during th is sp an of over fifty

y ears to produce the dynam ism of the p lo t. A lternating ch ap te rs w ith

s c e n e s f ir s t w ith th e S e ris , th en in Guay m as, are u sed up to the mid­

po in t of th e novel w hen the hero ine is ca rried off to the Ind ian w o rld .

From th ere on, the scen e rem ains in th is Seri world a s th e p ro cess of

ac cu ltu ra tio n b e g in s , f ir s t w ith L ola , then w ith the p ro g ress iv e fac tio n

among the S e r is . Time in the la t te r h a lf of th e novel runs co n se c u tiv e ly ,

bu t ir re g u la r ly . A "c lo seu p " techn ique rem in iscen t of c in em atic m ethods

of in d ica tin g la p s e s of tim e punctua ted ,by sc en es show ing the changes

th a t have tak en p lace is u sed throughout the second h a lf .

For ex am p le , the buildup of te n s io n betw een h o s ti le fac tio n s

a t Kino Bay, L o la 's d e c is io n to aw ait the b irth of her f i r s t ch ild in the

81

Seri v il la g e , and C oyote Ig u an a 's f ir s t d e fe a t in h is w ar w ith the w h ites

are a ll recoun ted b rie fly in th e tw en ty -seco n d c h a p te r , "La G r ie ta ."

P a s sa g e s d esc rib in g th e se ep iso d e s are s h o r t„ There is much d e sc rip tio n .

P a s t te n se is u sed th ro u g h o u t. The ch a rac te rs do not co n v erse w ith one

an o th e r. All is p ic tu red from the po in t of v iew of a d is ta n t o b se rv e r .

In c o n tra s t , the tw en ty -th ird c h a p te r , 11 C o y o te -Ig u an a , " is a

c lo se u p scen e of life in the Seri v illa g e w hen Lola g ives b irth to her

second ch ild . A lso p ic tu red is the scen e w hen she h ea rs of the d ea th

of h er former w ard , In d a le c io . These p a s sa g e s are sh o rt, bu t there are

sev e ra l s c e n e s w ritten as d ia lo g u e s . 'Serbs are in the p re se n t te n s e ,

both in the d ia logue and in the d e sc rip tiv e p a s s a g e s . The e ffe c t is one

of a sw itch in v iew p o in t. The read e r fe e ls he has come c lo se r to the

sc e n e , and can n o te .b y th e d e ta ils now v is ib le w hat ch an g es have

occurred during th e re la tiv e ly rap id p a s sa g e of tim e in the p reced ing

c h a p te r . L o la 's p h y s ica l d e sc rip tio n in the seco n d , or "c lo seu p " ch ap ­

te r , show s the ch an g es th a t have ta k e n p lace in h e r looks during the

in te rv a l of tw o or th ree y e a rs . These ch an g es re f le c t h er ad ap ta tio n to

Seri liv in g h a b i t s .

The p ace of th is p a ssa g e of tim e is marked by in c id en ts in d i­

ca tin g irrevocab le d e c is io n s such as L o la 's w hen she re tu rned to the

Seri camp a t the re a liz a tio n she is p reg n an t, and la te r w hen she throw s

1. I b id . , p . 226.

■ 82

flow ers in to the cem etery in a f in a l fa re w e ll, a s the v is i t in g Seri band

le a v e s Guay mas „ The read er knows th e n th a t she w ill never leav e the

S e ris , even a fte r C o y o te 's d e a th . S im ilarly her s trange sym pathy for

th e Seris in the beg inn ing s c e n e s in Guaym as as w ell a s h e r s ta tem en t

to Don C arbonato w ith re sp e c t to going to m eet her f a te , p repare the

read er for w hat fo llo w s.

Som ething c lo se to a d ram atic c r is is occurs a t th e tim e a

flam ing arrow s tr ik e s a mule pu llin g L o la 's carriag e and c a u s e s the

runaw ay th a t d e liv e rs h e r to the S eris : "U na flech a d e sc e n d io con e l

m as tra g ic o d e s ig n io .

The w hole ch a rac te r of In d a lec io seem s som ew hat sym bolic

of tim e in L o la 's d es tin y : f ir s t he in d ic a te s h er com ing a s so c ia tio n w ith

th e Seris , and in h is d ea th he in d ic a te s the need to e s ta b lis h p eace fu l

re la tio n s w ith surrounding c iv iliz e d s o c ie ty . Symbolism involv ing tim e

is rep ea ted in a p a s sa g e w here tw o d iffe ren t c en tu rie s re p re se n t the

lovers to in d ic a te th e ir d iffe ren t b ack g ro u n d s .

Some su sp e n se is c rea ted b y the in terrup tions of the chain of

ev en ts in the se p a ra te se ttin g s of G uaym as and the Seri cam p. This

w hole re la tin g of tim e w ith the ev en ts of the p lo t and w ith th e i l lu s tra ­

tio n of the th e s is show s care and though t on the p art of the au tho r.

1 . Ib id . , p . 146.

2 . I b i d . , p . 218 .

83

These factors-, to g e th er w ith the am ount of re se a rc h involved for the

so c io lo g ica l and geograph ica l s e ttin g , in d ic a te th a t the novel m ust

have requ ired tim e in the p lann ing s ta g e .

A dditional dram a is produced by the c o n flic t th a t a r is e s in. the

Seri trib e over th e a c c e p ta n c e of L o la . The read er is p repared for th is

co n flic t by background inform ation on Seri " race se n se " and by the

je a lo u sy and tre ach e ry of th o se who w ill la te r le a d the reac tio n a ry Seri

fa c tio n . A se n se of foreboding is p re se n t in the id y llic s c e n e s follow ­

ing C o y o te 's and L o la 's m arriage , as h in ts are p laced by the author a t

th e beg inn ing of each s u c c e ss iv e p h ase of th is develop ing co n flic t.

CHAPTER VI

THE SETTING OF THE NOVEL

G eograph ical Background

The geograph ica l s e ttin g d oes not draw th e r e a d e r 's a tten tio n

in the n o v e l„ The port c ity of G uaym as, the d e s e r t , and the s e a are

portrayed in a som ew hat perfunctory fa sh io n . The scen e is s e t in a few

paragraphs each tim e the lo ca le s h if ts , bu t none of th e se se ttin g s is

d eveloped to provide any re a l s e n se of atm osphere th a t w ould pervade

th e ac tio n and re la te i t to a p a rtic u la r geograph ical background . The

d e sc rip tio n s of scen ery or of th e w ea th e r seem a r tif ic ia lly in se rted in

the n a rra tiv e .

The s tr ik in g c o n tra s ts of th is d e s e r t c o a s tlin e are no t graph-

ic ly d e p ic te d . The abundance of life in g en io u sly adap ted to surv ive is

not p a rt of the p ic tu re . Rojas G o n z a le z 's re ac tio n to the d e s e r t is th a t

i t is in v ariab ly h o s ti le . The b arren n ess and th e h e a t th re a te n m an. Even

the na tive p lan ts su ffe r, th e ir b ranches ap p ear "ram azones a to rm en ta-

t 0d a s ." -1 The sun is sa id to " e a t aw ay th e shoo ts of th e s a h u a ro ." In

ano ther p a s sa g e the d e s e r t p lan ts are com pared to b eg g ars: "Las horas

1. Ib id . , p . 169.

2 . Ib id . . p . 228.

84

85

ib an quedando a t r a s , a tro p e lla d a s a l p a so del- convoy entxe a ren a le s

r e s e c o s , s a lp ica d o s por e s c a s o s e jem plares de una v eg e tac id h pun-

z a n te , que sa lfa n a l p a so como m endigos que im ploraran con su mano

tend ida la dad iva d e l p e re g r in o .11 In one scen e re fe ren ce is made to

"fru tas a g u a n o s a s ." Such fru its do n o t grow w ild in th is arid r e g io n .%

The face of the lan d sc ap e is forb idding , " la faz to rva d e l

panoram a. The d e s e r t , e a r th , and sk y are d esc rib ed a s frigh ten ing ly

dry and barren and a lw ays s te r ile : "El su e lo infecundo y s e c o , sem e-

ja n te a la pro longada ex te n s io n que e l ojo hum ano no a lc a n z a a re b a sa r

en to d as su s d im e n s io n e s . " ^ Eyes u sed to the green h il ls and so fte r

lig h t of J a lis c o saw no su b tle co lo rs in a sand dune by th e s e a , only

b le a k n e ss : "Su co lo r sep ia se m etia por lo s o jo s , la d e so la c id h

oprim ia e l pecho y abochornaba lo s c ora zones . The d e s e r t e a ts

p e o p le . " |E1 d e s ie r to y e l c ie lo ! Dos p ian o s impctvidos que acab ab an

por fund irse en un horizon te an g u la r, q u ijad as de te n a z a s que c e rra -

b an se sobre la s c a b e z a s h u ecas de ru m b o s."6 This th re a t is made more

e x p lic it by s c e n e s d e sc rib in g custom s surrounding d ea th and b u ria l.

H a rd -p re sse d during th e trek from the Guay mas area to th e se a a t Kino

Bay, the S eris re so r t to th e ir old custom of abandoning the a g ed . "N adie

1. I b id . , p . 143. 2 . I b id . , p . 62

3 . I b id . , p . 143. 4 . I b id . , p . 264.

5. I b id . , p . 194. 6. I b id . , p . 33.

86

volv io la ca r a para m irar como e l d e s ie r to se iba tra g a n d o , poco a poco ,

a l cu e rp ec illo de la v ie ja s e ri „ „ „" She is la te r referred to a s having

b een "devoured by th e d e s e r t . " D uring th e sam e march from the G uay-

mas a rea to Kino Bay ano ther S eri, a m an, d ie s . He is afforded the

honor of a c a c tu s b u r ia l, h is body f irs t w rapped in a h b rseh id e and th en

d ep o s ited high in a sahuaro to be th e prey of the su n , ju s t a s the ab an ­

doned woman w as consum ed by the d e s e r t . "A lljfquedo para alim ento

d e l s o l , como lo fue Flor de Biznaga para e l d e s ie r to . The sky is

' ' ' / od esc rib ed not to be a p re tty b lu e , bu t an " azu l c o le r ic o . 11 °

D escrip tio n s of the c ity of Guay mas are s c a rc e ly more su c ­

c e s s fu l th an th o se of th e d e s e r t . The port of Guay m as is portrayed a s

any M exican tow n w ith l i t t le sp ec ific d e sc rip tio n . W here p re se n t, th is.

d e sc rip tio n is not very co n v in c in g . For in s ta n c e , i t is doubtfu l th a t the

consp icu o u s landm ark , the peak s "Las T etas de C a b ra ," could be se e n

from a p a tio in the c ity of Guaym as i t s e l f s in ce th ey are m iles aw ay on

ano ther la rg e bay ad jo in ing G uaym as Bay and hard ly high enough to

p ie rce even low clouds a s th ey are d esc rib ed in an e a rly chap ter:

, 4" . . . e n h ie s to s p icach o s gem elos que rom pian lo s v e lo s de nubes b a j a s ."

The nam ing of th e se p e a k s , as w ell a s the u se of o ther lo c a l p lace

nam es such a s S ierra S eri, S ierra Ana core t a , I s la P e lic a n o , Pozo C o y o te ,

1. Ib id . , p . 5 1 . 2 . Ib id . , p . 51 .

3. I b id . , p . 194. 4 . I b id . , p . 39.

87

D esie rto de E n c in as, e t c . , in d ica te th a t th e au thor did s tudy maps and

lo c a l geography . O ther reg io n a l term s ap p ear o cc a s io n a lly to em phasize

th e lo ca l a tm o sp h ere . Among th e se are re fe ren ce s to the d rink ing of the

f ie ry .sp e c ia lty of Sonora, Bacanora."^

A storm , blow ing from the so u th , is d esc rib ed a s " th e c h u b a sc o ,"

2a term lo c a lly u sed to d e sc rib e a p a rtic u la r type of wind s to rm .

S pecia l s ty le s of furn iture and d ish e s are noted a s c h a ra c te r is -O

t ic of th is northern fron tier reg ion

As in the c a s e of the d e s e r t , the author seem s to have had an

exag g era ted im p ressio n of one p h ase of the c lim a te , the h e a t . The

w ea th er is in ac c u ra te ly portrayed as be ing a lm o st a lw ays h o t. It may

seem so to th e v is i to r , bu t re s id e n ts of th is reg ion know i t becom es

uncom fortably cold a t tim es , a co n d itio n th a t never d ev e lo p s in the

n o v e l. W indy w eath er is d esc rib ed during the. tim e of the " chubasco"

in Guaym as and during th e storm a t Bahia Kino la te r in the n o v e l, bu t i t

never g e ts c o ld . On the f ir s t page of the novel the w ea th er in Guaym as

is d esc rib ed as "h o t, m ost days of the y e a r ."

This h e a t is p ic tu red a s p a rt of the d e s e r t 's c ru e lty to m an.

"El so l com enzcf a c a la r la d e lic a d a te z de la c r io lla y , p ron to , e l ca lo r

h izo clim a d e s e s p e ra n te , am biente in h o sp ita la r io , re fu lg e n c ia s

1. I b id . , pp . 38, 86, 2. I b i d . , p . 61

3. I b id . , pp . 12, 86 .

88I

h ir ie n te s . I t i s c ru e l to Indian a s w ell a s European m an, a s when the

w hole Seri: tribe is sea rch in g for po isonous in se c ts and re p tile s to u se

in m aking poisOn for th e ir arrow s: "La e x te n s io n m aculada por m oviles

pun tito s e s un reverbero que rech aza la luz fragm entada en a s t i l l a s ,

que se d a van en lo s o jos para h e rir e l cereb ro con c ru e le s a g u je ta s „"

The p re sen ta tio n of the h e a t , the g la re , and the b a rren n ess w ithout th e

n a tu ra l c o n tra s t of c o o ln e ss of the n igh ts and sh ad o w s, the su b tle

changing c o lo rs , and the v a r ie tie s of hardy life th a t do surv ive in the

d e s e r t m akes the background seem u n rea l,

. .Ferhaps th e m ost su rp ris in g d e sc rip tio n s are th o se of the G ulf

of C alifo rn ia w ith its sc e n ic c o n tra s t of c le a r , blue w a te rs bordered by

d e s e r t h il ls and b e a c h e s . In the n o v e l, th e se a is ra re ly b lue but u su a l­

ly c o lo r le s s , burn ished by the sun like a " f la sk of o i l . " " . . at r as

quedaba e l roquerfo cenudo y , fren te a lo s ojosy la mar en so s ie g o ,

como una redom a de a c e i t e . " 3 The c h a ra c te r is tic co lo r of the Gulf w hen

i t is calm is a deep b lu e , but during th e c o n te s t b e tw een .th e four a s p i­

ra n ts for the t i t le of w ar ch ie f and the shark in the la rg e bay a t Tepopa,

the au thor ag a in com pares i t to oil: "La en sen ad a de Tepopa era una

ta z a de a c e i te . La calm a de la s ag u as perm itia observar d e sd e la borda

de la s p iraguas e l p a so de un p e z , a v a ria s b razas de p ro fu n d id ad . " ^

1. I b id . , p . 157. 2 . I b id . , p . 11-2..

3 . I b id . , p . 157. 4 . I b id . , p . 77. .

The b each a t Kino Bay, a c tu a lly w hite sa n d , ap p ears dark and b leak in

the novel, " e l m anto pardo de la e x te n s io n 6 The d e sc rip tio n of P e lican

Is lan d (Isla A lcatraz) in Kino Bay g ives an im p ressio n un like the re a l

is la n d w hich does not re f le c t the sun so b righ tly . Real p e lic a n are more

brown th an w hite s e e n from a d is ta n c e .

Frente a la p u n ts d e tie rra . . . d e san fian d o la con su e sp in a z o de r o c a , b r il la b a , fa n ta s tic a gem a, la i s la d e l P e lican o , de c o s ta s c a s f in a c c e s ib le s , por los p e n a sc a le s que la co n to rn eab an . Sobre la su p erfic ie d e l i s lo te , un h irv ien te m anchon b ian co , d e l que sa lta b a n , de v ez en v e z , partxcu las a lb a s tam bien . . . Eran los p e lic an o s o a lc a tr a c e s , que h ab ian en tregado su nombre a la i s la . . .

L a te r , in sp ite of th e crags and c liffs p ic tu red a b o v e , re fe ren ce is made

to oozy mud a long the is la n d 's sh o re s , "Las a lg a s y la lam a o r i l le ra s ."3

Sim ilarly con trad ic to ry are d e sc rip tio n s of the s tra its be tw een Tiburdn

Is lan d and the m ainland north of Kino Bay. In C hap ter 7 during the tr ia ls

w ith th e s h a rk , th e se s t r a i t s , the " In f ie rn i llo ," are d esc rib ed as being

of g rea t d e p th s , " c a n a l de a lto s fu n d o s ," w hile la te in th e novel the re ­

ac tio n ary fac tio n f le e s from the old camp a t Kino Bay a c ro ss th e s tra its

on foot a t low tid e : "ap rovecharan la b a ja mar para c ru z a r, a p ie , e l

e s tre c h o d e l I n f i e r n i l l o ^ Admiral D ew ey 's com m ents on c ro ss in g the

In fie rn illo are quoted by M cG ee. D ew ey observed i t to be "unsafe for

n av ig a tio n by any ex cep t the sm a lle s t c la s s of v e s s e l s . "5 M cG ee

adds from h is own o b se rv a tio n s , " It is s a fe , in d e e d , only for portab le

and in d es tru c tib le c ra ft like the Seri b a ls a s , w hich may be pu t off or

2 . I b i d . , pp . 49-50r - 'V

4 . I b i d . , pp . 76 / 260 .

1 . I b i d . , p . 48 .

3. Ib id . , p . 55 .

5. McGee, p. 48.

90

carried asho re a t w ill by craftsm en w illin g to w a it for w ind and tide and

u n p o sse sse d of im pedim enta of a so rt to be in jured by w e tt in g . 11

The d a te of the tu rtle f ish in g s e a so n , of b a s ic im portance to

the S e r i, is in co rrec tly g iven in the novel a s s ta r tin g in Septem ber,

w hereas in r e a li ty , i t la s ts from M arch to O ctober. This error probably

in d ic a te s a lack of fie ld work e ith e r by Rojas G onzalez or by authors he

c o n s u lte d .- : . . : X

A re a l phenom enon som etim es see n in th is a rea appears in a

d is c u s s io n of Seri u se of fire w hich the au thor a s s e r ts to be alm ost

en tire ly lack in g , add ing i t w as not needed b ecau se of th e ir h ab it of

e a tin g raw m eat and b e c a u se of the long tw ilig h t: n o lo n e c e s i-

ta b a h , ni aun para alum brarse ba jo aq u el c ie lo que pro longaba sus

crep u scu lo s h a s ta confundir la luz so la r con la d e l v e s p e ro . " ^

F requen tly , the m ain d iff icu lty w ith the d e sc rip tio n s of the

lo c a l scen e is w ith the poor u se of co lo r. The Sonoran d e s e r t of Lola

C asan o v a ap p ears to be an im aginary p la c e , d reary and d a rk -to n ed ,

alw ays unbearab ly h o t. This in accu ra te p ic tu re d e tra c ts from th e rea lism

of the se ttin g ahd a ls o , by m aking th e se ttin g seem m iserab le and d u ll,

i t d im in ish es the s ta tu re of the Seri tr ib e , o therw ise id e a liz e d by th e ir

u se of lo fty language and th e e x is te n c e of im aginary kingdom s and

1. Ib id .

.2. Rojas Gonzalez, Lola Casanova, p. 53.

91 .

c h ie f s . I t would have added to th is im p ressio n to have p ic tu red them

in a b eau tifu l s c e n ic reg io n .

The p o rtrayal of the n a tu ra l s e tt in g is more s u c c e ss fu l in La

N egra A ugustias th an in Lola C a sa n o v a . The s c e n e s in th e fo res ted

m ountains of M orelos are not marred by a s e n se of a r t if ic ia l i ty in the

s c e n e ry . 1 The ra in -d ren ch ed jung le and the atm osphere of iso la tio n

produced by the storm harm onize w ith and ac ce n tu a te the ex o tic nature

2of the ch a ra c te rs and even ts, in the t i t le s to ry of El D jp se ro . Sommers

rep o rts th a t Rojas G onzalez used "fie ld o b serv a tio n s" in w riting ElO s*

D io se ro . In v iew of the s u c c e s s of Rojas G onzalez in c rea tin g geo­

g rap h ica l se ttin g s in h is o ther W ritings, the a r tif ic ia l i ty of th e na tu ra l

s e ttin g in Lola C asan o v a can n o t be assum ed to be th e sim ple re su lt of

lim ita tio n s of the w r ite r . H is p e rso n a l la c k of fam ilia rity w ith the d e s e r t

rem ains a s a p o ss ib le s ig n if ic a n t fac to r in h is fa ilu re to c rea te a su c ­

c e s s fu l geog rap h ica l background in L ola_C asanoya.

H is to r ic a l Background

The ev en ts of the novel are d a ted f ir s t by th e re fe ren ce to the

y ea r 1854 in the p refa to ry c ita t io n . S econdly , during a d e sc rip tio n of

1. F ran c isco Rojas G o n z a le z , La Negra A ugustias (2nd. e d . ; M exico: Ediciori y D is trib u c io n Ibero A m ericana, S .A . , 1947).

2 . F ran c isco Rojas G o n za lez , El D iosero (2nd. e d . ; M dxico: Fondo de C ultu ra Econdxmica, 1955), p p . 100-113 .

3 . Som m ers, p . 145.

92

the h e ro in e 's Guay mas home found in the opening parag raphs of the

n o v e l, the tim e is d es ig n a ted a s during the second h a lf of the n in e teen th

cen tu ry , " a lia en la segunda m itad d e l s ig lo XIX."-*- The ev en ts re la te d

span h a lf a cen tu ry , a s is in d ica ted in the opening lin e of the final

ch ap te r d esc rib in g life in the se ttlem en t of Pozo C oyote w here the d a te

is g iven a s ea rly in the tw en tie th cen tu ry / "a l ia 'e n lo s anos in ic ia le s

d e l s ig lo XX." W ith in the framework thus e s ta b lis h e d , th e au thor fur­

th e r d evelops the h is to r ic a l background by d esc rib in g c lo th e s , fu rn ish ­

in g s , and co n v eyances of the n in e teen th cen tu ry . M ost ca re fu lly d e ta ile d

are the c lo th in g s ty le s of both men and w om en. I t w as th e tim e of the

frock c o a t, even during the ho t Guaym as sum m ers, a s s e e n in the fo l­

low ing d e sc rip tio n of Don E steb an Valenzuela-, or " Don C a rb o n a te ,"

the sch o la rly d rugg ist: "V estia p u lc ram en te . Era de adm irar como don

C arbonato no a b an d o n ab a , aun en la ^poca de los mas rig u ro so s c a lo r e s ,

e l cu e llo alm idonado, a lto h a s ta la s q u ijad as; la cam isa p lan ch ad a de

lu s tre y su le v ita c ru z a d a ;. . . " D e ta ils such a s fancy v e s ts and w atch

ch a in s are som etim es a d d e d , " e l ch a leco con enorm es bo tones d o rad o s,

se rv ia d e e sc a p a ra te a la g ruesa cad en a que lo a tr a v e s a b a . 1,4 A reg io n al

s ty le in h a ts is d e sc rib e d , "un som brero gris de copa b a ja y ancha a la ,

ech ad a a trev idam en te sobre una c e ja .

1 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 11.

. 2 . ' I b i d . , p . 267. 3 . I b id . , p . 38

4 . I b id . , p . 87. 5 . I b i d . , p . 88.

93

Fem ale fash io n re c e iv e s eq u al a tten tio n a s in the p o rtra it g iv en

of the hero ine w hen she en te rs h er c a r r ia g e , or b e r l in a , to begin the

journey to H erm osillo where she ex p e c ts to be m arried .

. . . Ve s tia un tra je de h o la n d a , a lin ad o con t ira s bordadas co lo r crem a; una c h a q u e tilla ca fa ho lgada de su s hom bros, para ce fu rse a l ta l le y p eg arse a la c in tu ra a trac tiv am en te „La f a ld a , adornaba con p lieq u es y hondas d o n a iro so s , lleg ab a h a s ta e l to b illo y d e jab a d e sc u b ie rta s unas b o tita s caM s de fin is im a p ie l , m erecida envo ltu ra para lo s p ie c e c illo s m oviles y d e l ic a d o s . Se to cab a la Lola con un som brero d im inuto , prendido d e l mono con f is to le s de ca b e z a s c u a ja d a s de b r illa n te s ; sobre e l ro stro un v e lo caM . . . 1

C lo th ing s ty le s a ls o se rv e to in d ica te the p a s sa g e of tim e and changing

c u s to m s , a s w hen Lola ad ap ts the cu rren t s ty le of c iv iliz ed w om en's

d re s s for Ind ian u se a s p art of h er p lan to e s ta b lis h u se fu l co n tac ts w ith -

the M exican com m unity. Later d iv e rs ity of s ty le s of d ress ./is sp ec ified

a long w ith in term arriage and v a rie ty of occupation a s fe a tu re s of d a ily

life in the p ro g ress iv e com m unity of Pozo C o y o t e . ^

Some h e ig h ten in g of a s e n se of the h is to r ic a l period d e riv es

n a tu ra lly from th e rom antic s ty le em ployed . There is a lso u se of a r­

ch a ic or p o e tic w ords w hich in te n s if ie s the rom antic n in e teen th cen tu ry

atm osphere: an tro , s o la r , m edia c e n te n a , m esn ad as , c a n e s . The

G ulf of C a lifo rn ia is referred to a s " e l M ar Berm ejo," a n old name

1. I b id . , p . 140 -141 .

2. I b i d . , p . 239, 267.

94

a s so c ia te d w ith ea rly m apm akers and ex p lo ra tions „ U sed in the n ine­

teen th cen tu ry h is to r ic a l s e ttin g of th e n o v e l, th is name p rov ides a

rom antic touch in i ts ex ag g era tio n of a s e n se of a n tiq u ity .

No effort is made to re la te ev en ts of the p lo t w ith other fa c e ts

of Sonora h is to ry of the tim e s . The p o li t ic a l turm oil is only im plied by

the freedom o f the Ind ians to ra id and a tta c k c iv iliz e d o u tp o s ts . R ela­

tio n s w ith the U nited S ta te s , the G adsden P u rc h a se > and the su b seq u en t

boundary su rv ey , in c id en ts surrounding the efforts of th e French C ount

R ao u sse t to tak e p o s s e s s io n of p a rts of Sonora, do not ap p ear in the

h is to r ic a l background . Nor do la te r b a tt le s w ith French fo rces in Sonora,

or ra id s by the Apache In d ia n s . C oyote Ig u a n a 's f ir s t v ic to rio u s foray

out of Seri te rrito ry w as sa id to have b een a figh t w ith a band of Com an­

che In d ia n s . Perhaps th e se m ight have rep re sen ted an invad ing foreign

Ind ian band, w hich a lm o st su re ly would, have been A paches and not

C om anches who ranged ch ie fly over the p la in s of T exas. The only po l­

i t ic a l note found in th e novel co ncerns th e ty p ic a l v illa in o u s ro le of the

lo c a l c a c iq u e , the "yaquero" N esto r Ariza w hose d ep red a tio n s and

c ru e ltie s go unchecked by th e a u th o r it ie s . A p ic tu re is draw n of the■ . ; \ _ /

contem porary " Ind ian problem" during d is c u s s io n s a t one of the afternoon

1. C orneliu s W y tf lie t 's map of New G ranada and C a lifo rn ia , 1597, c ited and reproduced in G odfrey S yk es , The C olorado D elta (The American G eograph ical S o c ie ty > S pecia l P u b lic a tio n s , N o . 19; B alti­more; Lord B altim ore .P ress , 1937), p . 10, F ig . 2 fac ing p . 10.

2 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 118.

gatherings he ld reg u la rly a t the C asan o v a home „ In the co u rse of the

argum ent be tw een th e d ru g g is t and the. m erchan t, the d ru g g is t Don

C arbonate g ives a b rie f resum e of Seri h is to ry la rg e ly ta k e n from H er-

n a n d e z , but w ith some d ig re ss io n and en largem ent of the h is to ry of the

re la tio n s of Fr. Juan M aria S a lv a tie rra w ith the S e ri. I t i s a fa c t of h is ­

to ric a l record th a t th is Spanish m iss io n ary did stop the lo o tin g of a

sh ipw recked v e s s e l by th e Seri in 1 7 0 9 . The ad d itio n a l d e ta i l s , how­

e v e r , concern ing h is e s ta b lish m en t of a s u c c e ss fu l m iss io n colony on

Tiburdn Is lan d are not b ased on h is to r ic a l reco rd , and probably re su lt

from the au th o r 's d e s ire to lay the groundwork for D olores C a sa n o v a 's

la te r s u c c e s s fu l effo rts to in teg ra te a t l e a s t p art of the Seri trib e w ith

the r e s t of th e Sonoran com m unity. These effo rts of the hero ine canno t

be supported by fa c t and both s u c c e s s fu l c iv iliz in g e ffo rts i l lu s tra te

th e au th o r 's th e s is for the so lu tio n to th e Ind ian p rob lem . There are

many in s ta n c e s th roughout the book of the care fu l in tro d u c tio n of th is

them e of how b e s t to incorporate the Ind ian in to M ex ican so c ie ty , and

th e se in se rtio n s of im aginary ev en ts in to w hat is re p re sen ted to be h is ­

tory are more lite ra ry th an h is to r ic a l .

. Another im aginary ev en t is rep re sen ted as h is to ry , though in

th is in s ta n c e i t is g iven only a s the opin ion of one of the c h a ra c te r s ,

w hen th e su b je c t of p ea rl f ish e r ie s is m entioned during th e same

1. McGee, p. 67.

arg u m en t. Don C arbpnato say s th a t e a rly m iss io n a rie s brought back

a cc o u n ts of v a lu ab le p ea rls found by the S eri. He a s s e r ts th a t th e se

ac co u n ts s tim u lated the av arice of fo reign adven tu rers who th en p re s ­

su red the co lo n ia l a u th o ritie s to r e s e t t le the S eris in land a t C olon ia

P itic to make e x p lo ita tio n of the p ea rl f ish e r ie s e a s ie r I This c a se of

in te rfe ren ce by fore ign in v es to rs is no t only in accu ra te h is to r ic a lly

bu t re p re se n ts a co n v en tio n a l v iew p o in t, o ften b ased on f a c ts , th a t

fo re ign in v esto rs co n sp ired w ith lo c a l au th o ritie s to rob the Ind ians

of th e ir t r e a s u r e s „ In the c a se of th e S e r i , .how ever, there w as no

tre a su re ex cep t th e e x p lo ita tio n of the land for ran ch es and farm s.

P earl fish in g h as never been s u c c e s s fu l com m ercially in Seri te rr ito ry .

The s to ry of v a lu ab le Seri p earl f ish e r ie s is ano ther departu re from h is ­

to r ic a l fa c t to support the te n e ts of h is id eo logy .

A nthropological Background .

The c a s e of the an th ro p o lo g ica l background is s im ila r to

th a t of the h is to r ic a l . D eparture from fa c ts tak es p lac e in the d irec tio n

m ost lik e ly to provide m ateria l to support the au th o r 's th e s i s . The so c i­

o lo g ica l dogm a w as for him param oun t, no t th e accu racy of the s c ie n tif ic

p o rtray a l. He w as a w rite r , bu t he fe l t th a t a r t i s t 's ro le to be an ac tiv e

o n e , h e lp in g to shape so c ie ty . He had been c lo se ly involved in p o litic s

fo llow ing the R evolution of 1910, and could not support h im se lf and h is

1. Rojas Gonzctlez, Lola Casanova, p. 44.

97

so le ly by h is w riting a s m onetary re tu rn s w ere sm a ll. H is p o lit ic a l and

so c io lo g ic a l b e lie fs w ere d eep ly fe lt and s in c e re . Sommers d e sc rib e s

h is "d eep -ro o ted n a tionalism " and finds it re fle c ted in h is c rea tiv e

w ritin g . Sommers a ls o c h a ra c te r iz e s the w rite r Rojas G onzalez a s a

" com m itted so c ia l s c ie n tis t" who w as not u s in g the Ind ians m erely for

so c ia l p ro te s t, bu t ra th e r to re a liz e a fa r-re ac h in g dream of finding a

true s p ir it of M ex ican " n a tio n a lis m ." B as ica lly , h is in sp ira tio n is

p robably one of p a trio tism , mixed w ith h is deep concern for the poor

and the ig n o ran t. Sommers o b se rv e s , "One of the common denom inators

of th e lite ra ry work of Rojas G onzalez is h is p reo ccu p a tio n for the low er

c la s s e s of M e x ic o . " ^

W ith th is b a s ic purpose of the author in m ind, the com pli­

c a te d p ic tu re of Seri life a s portrayed in the novel can be c o n s id e red .

This d e ta iled p ic tu re , obv iously th e re s u l t of g rea t care and a tte n tio n ,

shou ld be an aly zed from se v e ra l v ie w p o in ts .

F irs t , i t m ust be acknow ledged th a t i t is m ainly in a c c u ra te ,

a fa c t of im portance in a s s e s s in g fin a l judgm ents of th e no v e l. N ext

m ust be consid e red the q u es tio n of w hether the au thor in tended the p ic ­

tu re of Seri cu ltu re to be accu ra te in the m ain, or if he d e lib e ra te ly

adop ted an im aginary background in th is n o v e l.

1 . Som m ers, pp . 18, 42.

2 . I b id . , p . 16.

. 98

To co n s id e r f ir s t the problem of errors in an th ro p o lo g ica l d a ta

on w hich many s c e n e s in th e novel are b a s e d , i t should be noted th a t .

m any of th ese e rro rs are firmly e s ta b lis h e d as fa c t in p u b lish ed a r tic le s

ab o u t the Seri from 1898 to 1958. The p u b lica tio n d a te of th e Bureau of

A m erican Ethnology rep o rt by W . J . M cG ee is 1898 and 1958 the d a te

of N ociones de h is to r ia de Sonora by L . G alvo Berber „

Iso la tio n is th e b a s ic re a so n th e se m isconcep tions abou t Seri

cu sto m s have p e rs is te d so lo n g . The h a rsh environm ent made tra v e l or

re s id e n c e among th e Seri d if f ic u l t , and th e ir te rrito ry l ie s in an a rea far

aw ay from any m ajor c en te r of p opu la tion and a lso aw ay from any im por­

ta n t ro u te s of tra v e l or t r a d e . Thus, the e a r l ie s t m ention of the Seris is

a lm o st alw ays in c id e n ta l, or ev en a c c id e n ta l, by tra v e le rs going som e­

w here e ls e who chanced to see or h ea r abou t them . H ea rsay made "them

g ian ts and endow ed them w ith tre a su re s of many v a lu ab le p e a rls and

ev en of buried go ld , s t i l l o cc a s io n a lly search ed for by people from Los

A n g e le s .

The fa c t th a t th ey w ere re la tiv e ly unknow n, iso la te d by th e

D e se rt of E ncinas or th e d esp o b lad o from the more fe rtile v a lley s of

S o n o ra , gave them a q u a lity of m ystery . Such c o n tac ts a s th e re w ere ,

invo lved m ostly s to c k s te a lin g w ith the re su lta n t r e p r is a ls by the. s e t -

l e r s . These c o n ta c ts only in c rea se d Seri sh y n ess and s u s p ic io u s n e s s ,

and stam ped them a s a se rio u s n u isan ce to the d ev elop ing ag ricu ltu re

and com m erce of S onora. The Seri never adopted w illin g ly any of the

99

ag ricu ltu ra l liv ing h a b its the m iss io n a rie s a ttem pted to in s t i l l in them

a t in land s e tt le m e n ts . They preferred a lw ays to rev e rt to th e ir roving

e x is te n c e along the c o a s t , liv ing from the products of g a th e rin g , hun t­

in g , f ish in g , and s to ck s te a lin g .

Seri r e s is ta n c e to the adop tion of sed en ta ry liv in g h ab its w as

m entioned by F ather G ilg in 169.2. He d esc rib ed them as "u n s ta b le , not

d il ig e n t, " and com pared them to g y p s ies ." The sam e com parison w as

u sed by A. L. Kroeber in 1931 in d esc rib in g the S e r is . "H ab its of ir re s ­

p o n s ib ility and u n se ttlem en t once e s ta b lis h e d , even through part of

ch ildhood only , a re no to riously d iff ic u lt to a l te r . W itn ess the gyp­

s i e s . " 2

S u sp ic io n , coupled w ith the iso la tio n afforded the Seri by th e ir

environm ent, gave an im p ressio n of im placab le re s is ta n c e by the Seri to

an y p eace fu l c o n ta c t w ith a l ie n s . That the o u ts id e rs w ere s te a d ily re ­

d ucing th e ir num bers from 2 ,000 to 280 may ex p la in th is e x c lu s iv e n e ss

on th e part of the S eri. In any c a s e , the id ea th a t th is r e s is ta n c e to con­

ta c t w ith ou tside groups w as a m oral b e lie f w ith the S eri, a p a rt of th e ir

" ra ce s e n s e ," and h en ce , ch ie fly an abhorrence of in te rb reed in g w ith

o ther r a c e s , w as b e liev ed ap p aren tly prior to M cG ee’s work in 1894-

1895. We find i t re ferred to by Ramon C orral in an a r tic le about Sonora

1. D iP e so and M atso n , p p . 43 , 45.

2 . K roeber, p . 53 .

100

Ind ian t r ib e s , "Las ra z a s in d ig en as de Sonora," p u b lish ed in the n ew s-

paper La C o n stitu c io n in 1885.

E s t o / l a g u e rra / y sus h ab ito s degradados > su m ala a lim en ta c io n , su d e sn u d ez , su m iseria y su r e s is te n c ia a c ru za rse con o tras r a z a s , son lo s m otivos porque se ha ido reduciendo co n stan tem en te su num ero, a l grado de que en

. la ac tu a lid ad e s seguro que no e x is te n n i 300 de todo sex o y e d a d .

This rep o rt c a n be la rg e ly d isco u n ted on the b a s is of ab sen ce of such

sen tim en ts by the modern Seri or of any support for th is id ea from in v e s ­

tig a to rs not in fluenced by M cG ee’s th e o r ie s . The re s is ta n c e to co n tac t

w ith o u tside groups can b e s t be ex p la in ed a s the re su lt of h o s tile e n ­

co u n ters w ith en cro ach in g c iv i l iz a t io n .

The re a l im petus for th is id ea of Serf " race se n se " cam e w ith

the p u b lica tio n in 1898 of the repo rt by M cG ee, who provided a th eo ­

re t ic a l b a s is for the b e lie f .

It would be w e ll here to tak e note of the ev a lu a tio n of M cG ee 's

work offered by A. L„ Kroeber a s a r e s u l t of h is s tu d y of the Seri pub­

lish e d in 1931. He o b se rv es th a t M cG ee had ou tlined th re e strong trends

in Seri C ulture: " th e p e d es tr ia n h a b it ;" "hand and too th se n se " w ith

accom panying ab se n c e of " too l s e n se " ; and "race se n se " w hich p re­

v en ted them from interm arry ing w ith a l i e n s , or in te rb reed in g w ith cap ­

t iv e s . From h is own in v e s tig a tio n s , he w as ab le to concur to a con­

s id e ra b le degree regard ing the f ir s t t r e n d . He d isag reed regard ing the

1. Corra l , p . 257.

a b sen c e of " too l se n se" to the ex te n t th a t he fe lt th a t the Seri p o s­

s e s s e d " e x c e lle n t p ra c tic a l m echan ical s e n s e . " W ith re sp e c t to the

rep o rted "race s e n s e ," he reported th a t he saw no ev id en ce of v en erea l

d is e a s e or h a lf-b re e d s during the w eek ’s fie ld w ork, bu t th a t the Seris

had in term arried w ith Papago c ap tiv e s . Kroeber observed th a t the fie ld

work on w hich M cG ee 's report w as b ased c o n s is te d of a w eek sp en t in .

1894 a t the E ncinas ranch in terv iew ing the Seris liv ing th e re . Another

few d ays in 1895 w ere sp en t in v is it in g Tiburon is la n d and d e se rte d Seri

cam ps along the s h o re , bu t ho Seris w ere en co u n te red . Kroeber rem arks:

" . . .th e /M c G e e 's 7 a c tu a l o b serv a tio n s are e x c e lle n t but s len d e r in

r a n g e . He h as in terw oven them w ith c o n je c tu re s , some of w hich areO

erroneous and o th ers unproved and doubtfu l." E lsew h ere , he d e sc rib e s

W . J . M cG ee, d is tin g u ish e d an th ro p o lo g is t, a s being an "ex trao rd in arily

good o b se rv e r, keen in see in g s ig n if ic a n t e v id en c e , but of uncontro lled

im ag ination and unco n sc io u s of h is p re c o h c e p tio n s .

C h arles C . D iP e so and D an ie l S. M atso n po in t out in th e ir

a r t ic le con ta in in g F ather G ilg 's le t te r of February, 1692, th a t the o b se r­

v a tio n s by the J e s u it m issio n ary confirm a large number of M cG ee 's

ob serv a tio n s made in 1 8 9 4 .^

1. K roeber, pp . 2 4 -2 5 .

2 . Ib id . , p . 5.2.

3 . Ib id . , p . 18.

4 . D iP eso and M atso n , footnote 2 , p . 36.

102

The problem lie s ch ie fly in some of M cG ee’s th eo rie s co n cern ­

ing so c ia l and p o lit ic a l o rgaM zation , and to a le s s e r ex ten t re lig io n

am ong the S eri. These are the a rea s w here h is work h as m ost in fluenced

th e n o v e l.

These th eo rie s w ere p art of the co n cep t of evo lu tion of cu ltu re

through a s e r ie s of s u c c e ss iv e s ta g e s beg inn ing w ith the m ost prim itive

and p roceed ing to the m ost advanced le v e l . C e rta in in s titu tio n s and

custo m s w ere fe lt to c h a rac te r iz e each s ta g e . The id ea th a t a l l hum an

groups have evo lved through th e se s ta g e s to reach w hatever le v e l they .

now occupy has b een d isca rd ed by modern a n th ro p o lo g is ts . These id e a s

w e re , how ever, w idely accep ted in th e la s t cen tu ry and formed the

background for M cG ee 's work among the S e r is . "In h is day cu ltu ra l

evo lu tion ism w as s t i l l in v o g u e . T h e s e p reco n cep tio n s included

" ra c e s e n s e ," "ab se n c e of too l s e n s e , ” and the e x is te n c e of the m atri-

a rch a te among the S e ri. "In 1894 the m atriarchate a s o rig inal andn

prim itive w as s t i l l s tandard an th ro p o lo g ica l d o c tr in e ." In the sam e

d is c u s s io n , Kfoeber d ism is se s the w hole p ic tu re of m atria rch al lin e ag es

and of to tem ic c la n s w ith m atron ru le a s a " f a n ta s y ," w hile no ting a t

th e sam e tim e th a t c la n s may w ell have e x is ted among the Seri a t an

e a r lie r d a te .

1. K roeber, p . 25.

2. I b id . , p . 26.

103

M oser quo tes Kroeber’s d is c u s s io n of the p o s s ib ili ty of some

form of c la n o rg an iza tio n in former tim es in .a note to h is co n c lu s io n

th a t th e s o c ia l s tru c tu re of Seri bands did in fa c t include c lan s in the

form of exagam ous .p a tr ilin ea l su b d iv is io n s w ith a p a tr ilo c a l re s id en ce

in a d es ig n a te d geograph ica l a r e a . In sum m ation, i t may be sa id th a to

Kroeber consid e red the Seris not to be unique in cu ltu re or la n g u a g e .

He re p o rte d > a ls o , th a t th ey are no t as ta l l a s the re la te d Yuma-

M ohave p e o p le s . ^ L in g u is tica lly , Kroeber found the Seri a llie d to the

Yuman speak ing g ro u p s , "though he p o s tu la ted long se p a ra tio n , perhaps

a thousand y e a r s , from the m ain body of Yuman sp eak e rs Though

cu ltu ra lly th ey have p reserv ed 11 many fea tu res of an o ld , n o n -a g ric u l-

tu r a l , d e se rt-a d a p te d c u ltu re ," th ey are not more an im a l-lik e than

o th er men in such an environm ent, bu t resem ble the Arizona d e s e r t

Y um ans, a s w ell a s the C ochim i peop le of Lower C a lifo rn ia .^ In broad

te rm s , Kroeber concurred w ith M cG ee in th a t Seri cu ltu re is a " b a s a l ,

lo w -le v e l, d e s e r t c u l tu re . 11 ®

Actual f ie ld work for K roeber's in v e s tig a tio n w as lim ited to

p a r t of a w eek , and he concluded h is rep o rt by em phasiz ing the need

for fu rther w ork .

1. M o ser. The Kiva, XXVIII. p p . 2 1 -2 2 .

2. K roeber, p . 36. 3 . I b id . , p . 52.

4 . I b i d . , p . 54. 5 . I b i d . . pp. 5 3 -54 .

6. I b id . , p . 26.

- . . 1 0 4

S ubsequent s tu d ie s have confirm ed K roeber's co n c lu s io n s

regard ing the e a r lie r m isconcep tions ou tlined a b o v e , such as the id ea

of a m atria rchal so c ie ty or Seri u n iq u e n e s s . M uch more is now known

ab o u t both the Seri language and Seri cu ltu re . Both Edward M oser and

W illiam G riffen in d ica te a need for ad d itio n a l w ork. In h is co n c lu s io n ,

G riffen no tes th a t Seri cu ltu re a t the p re se n t tim e is m arked by chang­

ing ro le s : the ro le of the w ar le a d e r is lo s t; th o se a s so c ia te d w ith

re lig io n (sham en), k in sh ip and m aking a liv ing (fishermen) are being

a lte re d to m eet new c o n d itio n s . He s ta te s th a t , a t the p re se n t tim e,

he fe e ls the s ta te of Seri cu ltu re m ight perm it a re tu rn to th e ir e a r lie r

mode of l i f e . G riffen"s s ta tem en t in d ic a te s the e x te n t of Seri a d ap ta ­

tio n to cond itions of modern so c ie ty surrounding th e m . P resum ably , as

th is ad ap ta tio n c o n tin u e s , a po in t w ill be p a s se d w here the old cu ltu re

w ill be too far lo s t for th e Seris to re tu rn to , or for an th ro p o lo g is ts to

s tu d y .

As a t the tim e of the d isa p p e a ran c e o f D olores C asan o v a , the

trib e would have num bered abou t 500, or a lm o st tw ice the modern popu­

la tio n , the cu ltu re may be presum ed to have been s im ilarly more in ta c t ,

a t l e a s t w ith in the memory of in d iv id u a ls then liv in g . P o ss ib ly a tti tu d e s

tow ards id eas such a s m arriage w ith a lie n s may have changed s in ce th is

tim e , but i t is i l lo g ic a l to assum e th a t any ra d ic a l change would have

1. Griffen, p . 54.

105

tak en p lace in b a s ic c u ltu ra l tra its o ther than th o se in d ica ted „

W hile K roeber's repo rt is known to an th ro p o lo g is ts , a s are

more re ce n t re lia b le s tu d ie s of the S eri, many m isconcep tions derived

from e a r lie r reports s t i l l p e r s is t . An im portant re a so n is th a t the m ater­

ia l abou t the Seri found in H ernandez w as tak en la rg e ly from the M cG ee

rep o rt. H ern an d ez 's w ork, pub lish ed in M exico in 1902, is a handsom e

volum e, w ell w ritten w ith many in te re s tin g i l lu s tr a t io n s . I t h as had a

fa r- re a c h in g in fluence on a lm o st every th ing abou t the Seri w ritten s in ce

1902 in M ex ic o . Among w orks in fluenced are the novel of Rojas Gon­

z a le z pub lish ed in 1947 and the h is to ry of Sonora by L aureano C alvo

B erber, pub lished in 1958 and u sed a s a te x t in Sonora sc h o o ls .

The in fluence of M cG ee 's p ioneering work can be traced in

much the same w ay a s the in fluence of H ern an d ez 's v e rs io n of the

s to ry of Lola C asanova: by the ap p e a ran c e , only s lig h tly a lte re d , of a

c h a ra c te r is t ic p a s s a g e . Ju s t as the sp eech of C oyote Iguana to the c ap ­

tu red Lola keeps reap p earin g in su c c e s s iv e v e rs io n s , so d oes a p a s sa g e

from th e M cGee rep o rt d esc rib in g the S eris a s fu rn ish ing an exam ple of

" s tirp icu ltu re" or the p ro cess of developm ent of a p a rtic u la r ra c ia l

ty p e . M cG ee b e liev ed Seri " race se n se " to be the p roduct of " lo n g -

con tinued s tirp ic u ltu ra l p ro c e s s e s , in i t ia l ly shaped by env ironm en t."

This co n cep t w as th e p roduct of the sam e early an th ropo log ica l th eo rie s

1. M cG ee , p . 163. 2 . Ibid. . p . 162.

106

a lread y d is c u s s e d , and the Seris seem ed to f it the re q u ire m e n ts , both

b e c a u se of th e ir iso la tio n and b e c a u se of th e ir supposed re s is ta n c e to

in te rb reed in g w ith a l i e n s . This id ea w as accep ted by H ernandez who

w rote:

C onfinado a una de la s m as a rid as y e s te r i le s com arcas geograficas de la T ierra, ex traord inariam en te v ig o rizad o s por la inc lem encia d e l medio y la d u reza ex cep c io n a l de la lucha por la v id a , y com pletam ente a is la d o s de la s dem as trib u s d e l C oh tinen te por los in v io lab les p recep to s de su re lig io n , y por e l desm edido orgullo de su r a z a , lo s S eris aunque in c o n sc ie n te - mente han v en ido d esd e h a ce muchos s ig lo s rea liz a n d o e l mas p erfec to y s in g u la r experim ento de e s tirp ic u ltu ra co nocido .

"S tirp icu ltu re" is the key word h e re , and h is to r ia n C alvo Berber ech o es

H ernandez:

. . . a p e sa r de no haber sid o nunc a num erosa e s ta fam ilia ZSetiZ / de su s a tra sa d a s costum bres y de su ta n ag itad a v id a , p reex is te h a s ta n u es tro s d ia s conservando incdxLume la pureza de su sangre y e l v igor de su s a n te p a sa d o s , p resen tan d o a l mundo c iv iliz a d o un a lto ejem plo de e s t i rp ic u ltu ra . ^

The im portance to the novel of th is re p e titio n of errors is c le a r .

R ojas G onzalez is co n sid e red by m ost c r i t ic s to be prim arily a w rite r of

r e a l is t ic f ic tio n , e sp e c ia lly sh o rt s to r ie s w ith so c ia l th e m e s . An impor­

ta n t a s p e c t of h is work is the e x te n s iv e trea tm en t of the In d ian , g enerally

su p p o sed to fa ll w ith in th e c la s s if ic a tio n tdgahdige n is ta w ritin g . C lea rly

d is tin g u ish in g contem porary in d iq e n is ta w riting from e a r lie r in d ia n is ta

1. H ern an d ez , p . v i i .

2. C alvo Berber, p . 44 .

3 . Som m ers, p . 6 .

107

w riting is d iff ic u lt . In g en e ra l, the d iffe ren ce appears to lie in the

g rea te r degree of re a lity e x p re ssed in in d iq e n is ta w o rk s. P resum ably ,

accu racy in p re se n ta tio n of d a ta concern ing the Ind ian cu ltu re in q u es­

tio n is n e c e s sa ry . The p o rtraya l of th e Ind ian in th e e a r lie r in d ian is ta

works is sa id to be " id ea liz ed " and be longs w ith in the rom antic lite ra ry■ ' ( ' '

tra d itio n , le s s accu ra te s c ie n tif ic a lly and le s s true to l i f e .

But determ in ing the accu racy of d e ta ils in an obscu re cu ltu ra l

s e ttin g can be d if f ic u lt , and a s s e s s in g th e degree to w hich the Indian

is id e a liz e d i s a h igh ly su b jec tiv e p ro c e s s .

Another v iew of th e q u es tio n is som etim es ex p re ssed b rie fly

to the e ffe c t th a t in the in d ia n is ta tra d itio n (indianism o) , one encoun­

te rs the rom antic Indian; and in the in d iq e n is ta tra d itio n (indigenism o)

th e d irty In d ian . This d e fin itio n im plies th a t the e s s e n t ia l d ifferen ce is

one of S ty le , and th a t i t should be p o ss ib le to w rite an in d iq en is ta book

w ith im aginary d a ta and an in d ia n is ta rom ance u sing fa c ts a s a b a s is for

the s e tt in g . That th is id ea is su p e rf ic ia l may w ell be dem onstra ted in

the c a se of the novel Lola C a sa n o v a , and i t is more u se fu l to re tu rn to

the p u rsu it of w hat c o n s titu te s the re a lity p erce iv ed in th e true ind ige­

n is ta w o rk .

Sommers co n sid e rs th is q u es tio n in a com parison of the cuen tos

of El D iosero w ith the novel Lola C asan o v a ;

„. .th e novel follow ed the tra d itio n of n in e teen th cen tu ry in d ia n is ta f ic tio n , w hile the cu en to s of El D io se ro , even w ith th e ir ten d en cy to id e a liz e the Ind ian , are in the stream

108

of contem porary in d iae n ism o . The d iffe rence l ie s in the re a li ty — not ju s t in th e custom s p o rtray ed , but in the hum an beings d e sc r ib e d . Lola C asan o v a and h e r minor ch a rac te rs w ere rom antic p o rtra its a g a in s t a r e a l is t ic fo lk lo ric backdrop . Kai-Lan and h is fam ily may be id ea liz e d Ind ians in th a t the au thor h as s tre s se d the cu ltu ra l a s p e c ts th a t lend them d ig n ity . But th a t d ig n ity is tru ly rooted in th e ir c u ltu re .

I t is th is in teg ra tio n of c h a ra c te r and cu ltu re w hich m ainly d is tin g u ish e s the in d ig en is ta sto ry from the in d ia n is ta n o v e l. 1

Of c r i t ic a l im portance here is th e fa c t th a t the fo lk lo ric s e ttin g is not

accu ra te nor true to life in the n o v e l. This f a ls e n e s s w as c lea rly p e r-

ce iv ed by M anuel Pedro G o n za lez , ap p aren tly on lite ra ry grounds:

La p in tura que de la v ida y m ilagros de lo s Kunkaaks en la Bahia Kino nos d e ja Rojas G onzalez no c o n v e n e s .D eja la im presion de que su conocim iento de e s ta trib u e s de segunda m ano, l ib re sc o , ho "vivido" y "re sp irad o " . d ire c ta m e n te . 2

L a te r, he com pares the novels of Rojas G o n za lez , La N egra Augusti'as

and Lola C a sa n o v a , and concludes th a t , though Lola C asan o v a re p re se n ts

a much la rg e r c rea tiv e e ffo rt, i t s t i l l fa ils to co n v in ce . H is co n c lu s io n

is im portant:

E sto p lan tea e l problem a de s i e s p o s ib le e sc rib ir una buena novela a b a se d e l am biente ind igena s in h a b e r- lo v iv ido y s in conocerlo d ire c ta m e n te . Estim o que n o . ^

1. I b id . , p . 209.

2. G onzcdez, p . 364.

3. I b id . , p . 366.

109

The tru th of th is co n c lu s io n seem s dem onstra ted by the c a s e

of Lola C a sa n o v a . M anuel Pedro G onzalez does not say above th a t one

can n o t w rite a good in d ig en is ta novel w ithou t firs th an d experien ce w ith

th e background but ra th e r a good novel w ith an ind igenous background .

The d ifferen ce is su g g es tiv e of the g en era lly u n sa tis fa c to ry nature of

the c la s s if ic a t io n sep a ra tin g in d ia n is ta s to r ie s from in d ig en is ta s to r i e s .

I t c an be c o n c lu d e d , how ever, th a t a good novel of ind igenous them e

m ust be true to life „

I t is d iff ic u lt to develop conv incing c h a rac te rs a g a in s t an

im p lau sib le b ackground . Truth can be p o e tic a s w ell a s p ro sa ic , bu t if

a d is tin c tio n is to be made betw een in d ia n is ta and in d ig e n is ta on the

b a s is of a re a l is t ic s ty le , i t is w ell to rem em ber th a t , as. Som m ers,

1o b s e rv e s , "v e ris im ilitu d e is im portant in a r e a l is t ic n o v e l. V erisim il­

itude is only the ap pearance of tru th , but i t is an im portan t b a s is for

be ing con v in c in g , and i t is v e ris im ilitu d e w hich M anuel Pedro G onzalez

ap p aren tly fe lt w as la ck in g in the an th ropo log ica l s e ttin g of the n o v el.

It c an be assum ed th a t s in ce Rojas G onzalez ap p aren tly a lso

u sed H ernandez as a source for h is monograph on the Seri in Etnografia

de M e x ic o , pub lish ed a fte r h is d ea th in 1 9 5 7 , th a t he b e liev ed th is

d a ta to be re lia b le . H is d e c is io n , th e n , regard ing the background of

1 . Som m ers, p . 67.

2 . Rojas G o n za lez , "S eris o Kunkak," E tnografia de M ex ico , p p . 3 1 -4 2 .

1 1 0

Seri cu ltu re w as th a t i t w as to be f a c tu a l„ He made a d d itio n s , h o w ev er,

w here there w ere gaps in the m ateria l he needed for a sce n e „ A lso, in

the c a se of the en d in g , the author dec id ed to a lte r the fa c ts to p re sen t

h is th e s is for im proving M exican so c ie ty . I t is th is w illin g n ess to make

th e fa c ts f it the m essage he w ish es to convey th a t marks th is book a

novela de t e s i s .

V ital to the dram a and to the th e s is of the novel is Seri " race

se n se " or re s is ta n c e to in te rb reed in g w ith a l ie n s . Early in the n o v e l,

Seri re s is ta n c e to acce p tin g m ixed-blood trib a l members is illu s tra te d

by the c a se of Buey G u tie rrez , v ictim of th e m assacre a t M isidn F e lip e ,

w hose "blood w as mixed w ith the d e sp ise d blood of the vori or w hite

m a n ." l

L a te r, w hen the ac tio n h as reach ed the po in t w here L o la 's :

s to ry h as m erged w ith th a t of the S e ri, Coyote Ig u an a 's re q u e s t to take

h is cap tiv e for h is w ife i s m et w ith re fu s a l by the governing m atrons

who answ er: "N o, tus h i jo s , [oh bravo je fe ! n ace rian d esco lo rid o s y

enferm os d e l mal de lo s y o r is . . . I t is made c lea r th a t such in te r­

breed ing h as never b een san c tio n ed ; " . . . n u n c a , tam poco, se ha re v u e l-

to , con n u estro acu erd o , sangre am arillen to de yori con sang re bermej a

de yorem e„ „ . At the end of the n o v e l, the m ixed-blood popu la tion of

1 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 50 .

2. I b id . , p . 167. 3 . Ib id .

I l l

the id e a liz e d se ttlem en t a t Pozo C oyote is d e sc rib e d , both as an end ing

for the s to ry , and a s an il lu s tra tio n of the so lu tio n to so c io -eco n o m ic

problem s through m estiza i e . "Poca g en te , pero v ariad a en su a sp e c to ,

en su v es tid u ra y en su adem an: p equenuelos de carne b ronceada y r is a1

a lb ean te o b ien de p ie l b lan q u in o sa y ca b e llo la c io , fuerte y n e g ro .'

There is a cond ition of v ita l im portance to th is m ixing of ra c e s : the

Ind ian m ust keep h is se n se of s e lf - r e s p e c t , or the com bination w ill

lo se its p o te n tia l s tre n g th . The w hite man is w elcom e if he a c cep ts th is

b a s is for e q u a lity , a s L ola8s words c le a r ly spec ify : "Bien ven idos lo s

yo ris a Pozo C oyo te , s i tra en d e se o s de tra b a ja r igual que n o s o tr o s . . .

El favor de su sangre no lo so lic itam o s ni lo agradecem os; pero no lo

d e sp re c ia m o s . 11 ? Seri re s is ta n c e to race m ixture here th e o re tic a lly b a l­

an ces the yori°s own se n se of su p e rio rity , and the two m eet a s e q u a ls .

A ccurate or n o t, h is to r ic a lly , i t is im portant to the novel®s m e ss a g e .

C onditions for ach iev in g any re a l su p erio rity in th is mixed so c ie ty are

to be o ther th an ra c ia l: "Los in d io s , s i a c a so son in fe r!o re s , lo son por

p o b re s / no por in d io s . . . Los d e sc e n d ie n te s .d e C oyote Iguana se ran

yoris a lgun d ia por su cond ic i^n y su nob leza . . . En cam bio , muchos

Perez se m antendran yorem es para s iem p re . "3 At the end of th e i l lu s ­

tra tio n of the ad v an tag es of m estiz a ie provided by the fo lk lore them e,

1. I b id . , p . 267. 2 . I b id . , p . 273.

3. Ibid . j

1 1 2

we arrive a t a p o s itio n c lo se to the tra d itio n a l H isp an ic a ttitu d e tow ard

ra c ia l d is t in c t io n s , w ith the added e lem en t of re sp e c t for the In d ia n 's

pride „

Second only, in im portance to a lleg ed Seri " race se n se " in the

n o v e l 's ind igenous background is the m atriarchal s o c ie ty . Though the

id ea th a t th is form of s o c ia l o rg an iza tio n ex is te d among th e Seri appar­

en tly o rig inated w ith M cG ee 's w ork, new a s p e c ts w ere added in

H ern an d ez 's h is to ry „ These ad d itions are in te re s tin g w hen con sid e red

to g e th e r w ith the trea tm en t of the them e by Rojas G o n za lez , a s w ell a s

the a u th o r 's u se of fem ale p ro tag o n is ts „

The novel p re se n ts Seri so c ia l and p o litic a l o rgan iza tion a s

s tr ic t ly fem ale dom inated ex cep t for le a d e rsh ip in hun ting and in w ar.

All o ther m a tte rs , le g is la t iv e and ju d ic ia l , were su p p o sed ly le f t to the

"co u n c il of m atrons" (consejo de m atro n as).

. . .com o lo sen a lab a la tra d ic io n . . . de d e ja r a la sab id u ria de la s v ie ja s la facu ltad de le g is la r por e l M en de cad a uno de lo s grupos q u e , conducidos por e l e sp ir itu tu te la r de una b e s tia , de un a rb o l, de una p ied ra o de un a s tro , co n s titu fan la e s tru c tu ra de la t r ib u . 1

This co n cep t of to tem ism , to g e th e r w ith the id ea th a t the

c h a ra c te r is tic face p a in tin g done by the Seris is re la te d to c lan member­

sh ip , and sym bolic of a p a rticu la r tu te la ry , is regarded by Kroeber a s

"d u b io u s ." R elig ious b e lie fs such as the "A ncient of P e lic an s" he finds

1. I b id . , PP. 72 -73 .

113

eq u a lly open to q u es tio n . 1 He s ta te s d e f in ite ly th a t the Seri face

p a in tin g s , in p a r tic u la r , are not sym bolic of to tem ic l in e a g e s , but

ra th e r are purely d eco ra tiv e and s im ila r to face p a in tin g s among the

M ohave In d ia n s . % In the n o v e l, Lola becom es the a n c e s tre s s of the

Iguana c la n , and is g iven a c h a ra c te r is tic face p a in tin g , w hich she

adopts to sym bolize the founding of the new m estizo l in e a g e . 3

F ather G ilg8 s o b se rv a tio n s from 1692 regard ing Seri custom s

of d re ss and d eco ra tio n are very in te re s t in g . He s ta ted th ey wore no

c lo th e s , ex cep t lo in c lo th s or aprons of s k in s , and d eco ra tio n s of p a in t

and f e a th e rs . W hen d esc rib in g the p a in tin g sp e c if ic a lly , he records

th a t the Seris pa in ted th e ir b re a s ts and b u tto ck s in many w a y s . ^ D eco­

ra tio n of the facfe w as sa id to c o n s is t of ta tto o in g around th e ey es and

mouth as w ell as. n ose p endan ts or sk e w e rs .5 In th is February 1692

le t te r F ather G ilg does, not say th ere is any h e red ita ry or to tem ic s ig n if­

ic an ce to any of th e se d eco ra tio n s .

I t is th is a s p e c t of Lola a s c lan m other and la te r a s le ad e r of

the co u n c il of m atrons th a t made the fo lk lore them e e s p e c ia lly u sefu l to

the n o v e lis t . T h eo re tica lly , Lola is ab le to becom e a more im portant fig ­

ure th an she would be in a p a tr il in e a l t r ib e » The im portance to her ro le

1. Kroeber, p . 19. 2i I b id . , p . 27.

3 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 209.

4 . Di P eso and M atso n , p p . 5 2 -5 4 . 5 . Ib id . , p . 51 .

114

in bringing abou t the so lu tio n to the problem acco rd ing to the n o v e l's

th e s is is c le a r .

M o st of the sc e n e s d e sc rib in g cerem onies and custom s are

b ased on d e ta ils from H ernandez . Exam ples are fish in g and hunting

te c h n iq u e s . Taking liv e f ish from a p e lic a n w as ap p aren tly p rac ticed

a lso among the Lower C a lifo rn ian s , but the d e ta ils of th e r itu a l su r­

rounding cap tu re of a liv e d ee r is sa id by Kfoeber to be fa ls e , a part of

the "hand and too th sen se" theory now d isc a rd e d . The p ic tu re of Lola

padd ling the b a lsa carry ing h er and C oyote off to th e ir honeym oon on

P e lican Is lan d is s im ila rly i l l- fo u n d e d . In re a lity , the m en, e x ce lle n t

n a v ig a to rs , paddled th e ir own b o a ts . % Seri arrow po iso n w as f ir s t re ­

ported to be made in the m anner d esc rib ed in th e s c e n e s of the novel

by L t. H ardy, quoted by M c G e e .0 This d e sc rip tio n ap p ears in H ernandez,

from w hence i t w as tak en by the n o v e lis t , in a l l p ro b a b ility .

The a s se r t io n th a t the Seri p ra c tic e abandonm ent of the aged

and s ick i s made in H ernandez , and forms a b a s is for ev en ts during the ■

exodus to the s e a fo llow ing the m assac re a t M is io n F e lip e . ^

The Seri language is sa id to have no re la tiv e s am ong Indian

tongues by th e sch o la rly Don C arbonate in the n o v e l. 5 This inform ation

1. Kfoeber, p . 26 . 2.. ,Ib id . , p . 20.

3 . M cG ee, p . 87 .

4 . H ernandez , p . 176 and Roias G onzctlez, Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 50 .

5 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 44 .

115

about the language w as fu rn ished by the se c tio n co n ta in in g the Seri

v o cab u la rie s a t the back o f H ern an d ez 's book. A h is to ry of the study

of the Seri language is provided from the work of L av an d era .in 1850 to

th a t of M cG ee in 1894. Six v o cab u la rie s are rep rin ted here , a long w ith

the id ea found in the novel abou t the u n iq u en ess of th e Seri tongue:

"Los c a ra c te re s de e s te id iom a, a ltam en te zo o g ld sico , j.u s tifican la

c las ificac id n . de P im entel y O rozco y Berra que co n s id e ran lo s Seris y

su s co lin g u a les como un grupo lin g h is tic o d is t in to ." 1 The n o v e lis t tr ie s

to convey the im p ressio n of the d iffe ren t sound of the Seri language a s

D olores C asan o v a l is te n s to C oyote Iguana sp eak in g S p an ish , " . . . la s

p a lab ras m oduladas de ex d tica m anera en a que 11a gargan ta h ech a a lo s

sonidos y a la h ila c id n ag lu tin an te de la lengua k u n k aak ." ^

Four p h rases in Seri ap p ear in C h ap te r 22 of Lola C asan o v a .

These p h ra se s w ere tak en from the sh o rt vocabu lary co n ta in ed in the

work of G onzdiez B onilla . The tra n s la tio n s are by Edward M o ser.

p . 230 — Rec ik dpak— JVii h ijo(No; how ever> ? e k — my d au g h ter, m ale speaking)

p . 230 — j1 E q u e p tl— Suegro (Yes)

. p . 230 — Amtaniko— la m adrugada(Yes; ? a n t ? a ik k o — 'lan d c lea r ')

1 . H ernandez , p . 238.

2. R ojas G o n zd lez , Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 152.

116

p . 231 — P sakepna k 'm an— Tengo ham bre, madre(No; kwaam m eans 'w om an' and not 'm o ther';,? i t ta p saak i ? pm ooxxi m eans 'm o ther, h u n g er-I 'm dying o f or 'm other, I'm hungry')

W hen checked a g a in s t the a c tu a l Seri e q u iv a le n ts , M oser

noted the follow ing regard ing language u sed by the Seris of the novel:

" tragcf sueno" — died (No)

"a bus ca r cunado" — to marry (No)

"to ro te p rie to" — in to x ica tin g drink (No)

" vara p rie ta " — a p lan t (Yes)

" la com adre" — moon (No)

" lo s d esco lo rid o s" — w hite peop le (No)

l a n ac id h "n ie to de la tie rra" — lo s Kunkaak (No) -

e l pueb lo "n ie to de la tie rra" — lo s Kunkaak (No)

("Kunkaak" m eans "the peop le" and noth ing e lse .) " 1"

Probably b e ca u se of the cerem onious n e s s of Seri cu ltu re por­

trayed in H ern an d ez , th e n o v e lis t endow s them w ith a lik in g for oratory ,

" aquel pueblo ta n dado a la s a rte s o ra to r ie s ."% W hile d is c u s s in g la n g u a g e ,

Hernctndez re p e a ts the im portance of the to tem ic a ff ilia tio n s he b e liev e s

c h a ra c te r is tic of Seri k in sh ip groups: " . . „que lo s m ism os S eris c la s if i -

c an como mcts fntim am ente lig ad as por c ons a nguine id ad con la s b e s tia s

1. L etter from Edward M oser to th is w rite r, July 27, 1964,

2 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 53 .

117

que v iven a so c la d a s a e l l o s , que con cu a lq u ie ra otra gente o tribu

e x tra n a . 1

This s e n se of k in sh ip to a tu te la ry anim al is developed by the

au thor a l l through the n o v e l. He does th is through the language used by

Ind ian c h a ra c te r s , the c lan n am es, in d iv id u a l Ind ian n a m e s , and the

d e sc rip tio n of re lig io u s b e lie fs about the c rea tio n of the w o rld .

C oyote te l l s C u e rn ica b ra , the t ra c k e r , w hen he offers him

m ountain goat m eat to ea t: "G am e de la tuya est^T, abuelo > come l a , y

a s i/ tend ras ag ilid ad y a s tu c ia , como la s tuv ieron tu s p a d re s , la s tien en^ o

tu s h ijo s y la s tendran tu s n ie to s ." H e n c e , to o , the to rtu re of the girl

Nube B lanca in re p r is a l for s te a lin g p e lic a n eggs in v io la tio n o f trib a l

custom w hich p ro tec ted th e eggs and the young b irds out of rev eren ce

for the c rea to r of the w orld , "El gran p e lic a n o .

The p ro tec tio n of the p e l ic a n 's young is ap p aren tly an inven­

tion of the n o v e lis t , bu t i t p ic tu re s Seri re lig io n in acco rd an ce w ith the

d e sc rip tio n g iven by H ernandez:

. „. ex c lu siv am en te z o o te is t ic a , de ta l modo que no e x is te un a c to , un p en sam ien to , una cerem onia , una le y , que no e s t i re lac io n ad a con c ie r ta s p o te n c ia s m is t ic a s , vagam ente co n ceb id as como un pan tedn de m alefic os d io s e s —b e s tia s ; y e s ta sombrfa y d e se sp e ra d a fe e s la que determ ine e l

1 . Hernctndez, p . 238.

2„ Rojas G o nza lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 30.

3 . I b id . , pp . 5 7 -5 9 .

. 1 1 8

c a ra c te r de la e s te t ic a y de la te c n ic a de la t r ib u .

The w hole p ic tu re of Seri life a s g iven by the novel is very

much a long th e se l in e s , and th is a tm osphere charged w ith em otional

su p e rs titio n se rv es to h e ig h ten the rom antic tone and a ir of u n re a lity .

I t is in te re s tin g to note here the opposing opinion of A. L. Kroeber,

who no tes f ir s t th a t th e ir s o c ia l cu ltu re ap p ears to be b e tte r p reserved

th an th e ir re lig io n . He goes on to s a y , " I do not know of a na tive

people th a t ap p ears so free from su p e rs titio n and so u n sp ir itu a l in i ts

a ttitu d e s ." % Kroeber"s o b serv a tio n finds corroboration in F ather G ilg°s

d e sc rip tio n from 1692. He s ta te s th a t one he lp fu l th ing to h is m ission

w as the ab sen ce of any strong na tive re lig io u s b e lie fs among h is c h a rg e s .

He did not have to b a ttle a g a in s t d eep ly en trenched id o la try . He d e s ­

c rib es the Seris a s "u n sp ir itu a l.

H ern an d ez 's v iew of Seri re lig io n c le a rly overem phasized th e

cerem onial a s p e c t w ith re su ltin g im portant e ffec t on the rom antic tone

of the n o v e l. Up to the c lo s in g c h a p te rs , th e au thor of the novel had

d ec id ed to p re se n t .what w a s , in h is opin ion a t le a s t , an indigenous

background b ased on f a c t . Some sc e n e s such as the m arriag e , puberty

r i t e s , and ch o o sin g a w ar c h ie f w ere inven ted p o ss ib ly on the b a s is of

1 . H ern an d ez , p . 70.

2 . K roeber, p . 4 .

3 . D iP e so and M atso n , p . 43.

119

w hat he knew of na tiv e custom s e ls e w h e re , y e t th e se s c e n e s harm onized

w ith the s u p e rs t i t io u s , cerem onious atm osphere of Seri cu ltu re found in

H ern an d ez 's w ork. The in ac c u ra c ie s in th e an th ro p o lo g ica l background

w ere u n in ten tio n a l and can be tra ced to H erndndez. But, for h is end ing ,

the n o v e lis t abandoned the fa c ts he m ust have known regard ing the su r­

v iv ing Seris in order to d rive home the m essag e of h is th e s i s . From

repo rts of the ex p ed itio n to Seri country by the In s titu to de In v e s tig a -

c io n es S o cia les in 1941, he would have known there w ere not two

sep a ra te p ro g ress iv e and reac tio n a ry fa c tio n s , one id e a lly adap ted to

surrounding M exican cu ltu re and the o ther com m itting r a c e - s u ic id e . 1

1. Rojas G onza lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 271.

CHAPTER VII

CHARACTERSi

The m ost c r i t ic a l fa ilu re in the novel' s developm ent is found in

the c h a ra c te r s , who never em erge from the background w e lte r of rom antic

t a le , erroneous an th ro p o lo g icaT th eo ry , and d id a c tic p u rp o se „

The m ain d e fe c t of a l l the ch a rac te rs is a b a s ic o n e . They are

developed in only one a s p e c t , e ith e r a ll good or a l l b a d . Each is a type

or a sym bol of h is r o le . There is an e x c e s s of em otion in th e exaggera ted

g es tu re s and cho ice of language as w ell as m elodram atic confron ta tions

and p o s tu r in g s , but th is em otion is more d isp lay ed th an f e l t .

The h e ro in e 's transfo rm ation from n in e teen th cen tu ry b e lle to

devoted c la n m other is a b ru p t. In both ro le s she is uniform ly good and

b eau tifu l.

The hero is uncommonly strong and b ra v e , and a lw ays nob le .

Sommers com m ents th a t Lola and C oyote have tin g es of ep ic q u a l i t ie s .

These ep ic q u a litie s probably o rig ina te p a rtly from th e ir im portance a s

sy m b o ls , each of a w hole d iffe ren t race and c u ltu re , and p a rtly from

th e ir h ero ic acco m p lish m en ts . These accom plishm ents b en e fit th e ir

p eo p le , in fa c t , a l l th e people of M ex ico , accord ing to the a u th o r 's th e s i s .

1 . . Sommers, p . 112.

1 2 0

1 2 1

O ther im portant but le s s e r ch a ra c te rs do not have th e se ep ic

q u a l i t ie s , how ever s lig h t, and only re p re se n t a ty p e . Tortola Parda is

a s com plicated as a bad w itc h , w hich is w hat she is „ H er treach ero u s

husband H uevo Zaino is a s b lack a v il la in a s any found in V ictorian (,

m elodram a. After the d ea th of the cac iq u e N esto r Ariza a t th e m idpoint

of th e n o v e l, H uevo Zaino co n tin u es the ro le of the thorough-go ing

v illa in who p u rsu es the good c h a ra c te r s , even to the d ea th of L o la 's

e ld e r so n .

The minor c h a ra c te rs are som ew hat more n a tu ra l, in p a rtic u la r ,

P ila rc ito , L o la 's n u rse , and Don C a rb o n a te , the d ru g g is t, d e sp ite h is

leng thy d isc o u rse s on the S eri. In d a lec io , L o la 's Seri w ard , is en tang led

in th e sym bolism of th e ro le s of the m ain c h a rac te rs and does not seem

to be the same p erso n in the f ir s t and the l a s t h a lv es of th e n o vel.

N esto r A riza 's effo rts to en trap Lola p repare the read e r to be

sym pathetic w ith C o y o te 's p re te n s io n s , a s the v ic io u s Guaym as cac iq u e

is an an ta g o n is tic c h a ra c te r . H ow ever, no a s p e c t of th e love sto ry m akes

a s ig n if ic a n t con tribu tion tow ard m aking the ch a rac te rs come a liv e . The

re a so n for in troducing Juan V ega, L o la 's i l l - s ta r re d sw ee th e a rt of G uay­

m as d a y s , is no t c le a r . H is p resen ce is tra n s ie n t, and he is a vague

figure w ho le a v e s only a f le e tin g im p ress io n . Perhaps th e d is i l lu s io n ­

m ent w ith c iv iliz e d m arriage cu s to m s, presum ably fe l t by the hero in e ,

is in tended to make i t seem more n a tu ra l th a t she would a c c e p t g ra te­

fu lly true lo v e , how ever barbaric the s e tt in g . S im ilarly , L o la 's fa th e r.

Don D iego C a sa n o v a , is a s vague a figure a s Juan V ega. Probably h is

only im portance is th a t in h is bankruptcy and c o lla p se > he le a v es her

u n p ro te c ted .

Though the ch a ra c te r developm ent is much more su c c e ss fu l

in La N egra A n g u s tia s , Sommers com m ents, " . . . in the s to ry , ch a rac ­

te r is one of h is lite ra ry a ch ie v e m e n ts , and in the n o v e l, one of h is

sh o rtco m in g s ." Sommers a lso no tes in the novel Lola C asan o v a the

ab sen ce of em otional c o n flic ts and of irony , Rojas G o n z a le z 's "b e s t

m ethod of p en e tra tin g p e rso n a lity . Em otional co n flic ts may w ell be

p re se n t, a s in the c a s e Of L o la 's fee lin g s abou t her p lanned m arriage

of conven ience w ith N esto r A riza. Yet th e se c o n flic ts are more lik e ly

to be brought to the re a d e r 's a tten tio n by an ex p lan a tio n from the author

th an by ac tio n s or even w ords of the c h a ra c te r s . "The psycho logy is

g iven in f la t s ta te m e n ts ," acco rd ing to Som m ers, L o la 's em otional

co n flic ts during her ad a p ta tio n to Seri life are d esc rib ed in such a f la t .

s ta tem en t com ing a t the end of a leng thy d ig re ss io n d e sc rib in g Seri c u s ­

tom s: "E lla so lo sab e de su s lu c h a s , de su s d e c lin a c io n e s y de sus

naufrag ios in ter! o re s , en dad iva g en ero sa a una so la p as ion: e l amor.

1. Ib id . , p . 199.

2. I b id . , p p . 112, 123.

3 . Ib id . , p . 123.

4 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 229.

: 123

S u sc ep tib ility to the in fluence of love and m otherhood is an

a s p e c t of fem ale p sycho logy explored by both H ernandez and Rojas

G o n za lez . A com parison of H ernandez8s co n c lu s io n s reg ard in g Lola

C a sa n o v a 's p sycho logy w ith th o se of the n o v e lis t re v e a ls an in te re s tin g

s im ila r ity .

H ernandez com pares the c a se of the Seri cap tiv e w ith th a t of

a 14-y e a r old Seri g ir l , Lola M o ra le s , who w as h is p a tie n t . This girl

had been adopted and ra ise d by a M exican fam ily to be a w orthy daughter

of h er adoptive fam ily in p ie ty , m an n ers , and refin em en t. He co n tra s ts

her ed u ca tio n w ith L o la 's exp erien ce and po in ts o u t, in ex p la in in g th e

la t te r8 s a b ility to ad ap t h e rse lf to h a rsh and squalid c o n d itio n s , th a t a

w om an 's b io lo g ica l ro le a s a m other en ab le s her to subord inate a ll o ther

a s p e c ts of h er l i f e . "La m ujer e s una m atriz se rv id a por d rg a n o s ," he

quo tes ano ther m edical d o c to r. The b irth of h er ch ild ren he lped Lola

ad ap t to Seri l i f e , in H ernaxidez's op in ion .

Tan s6 lo a s i" se ex p lica que una m ujer nac id a y educada en p len a c iv iliz a c io n , haya podido ad ap ta rse a un m edio ta n sa lv a je como e l co n s titu id o por la s costum bres S e r i s y ab an - donando p a tr ia , fam ilia , h o g a r , re lig io n , so c ie d a d , p re se n te , p a sa d o , y porven ir, se haya co n sag rad o a v iv ir para e l macho s a lv a je que logrcf so rp ren d er, dom inar y s a tis fa c e r a su s in c li- n ac io n es s e x u a le s , y haya sen tid o por e l y por su s h ijo s e se sublim e amor que e lev a la hem bra a la ca teg o ria de m ad re . 2

H ern an d ez 's p o rtrayal of s itu a tio n and ch a rac te rs is s trik in g ly s im ilar

1 . H ernandez , p . 64.

2. I b id . , p . 65 .

124

to th a t of the n o v e l„ The p o s s ib ili ty is ra ise d th a t H ernandez partly Sug­

g es ted th is treatm en t by h is d is c u s s io n of. how h is th eo rie s of m aternal

love app lied to Lola C asan o v a „ In the novel Lola p lan s to f le e the Seri

camp to spare C oyote and the tribe the co n flic t she s e e s develop ing

over h er a c c e p ta n c e . S topping to r e s t on th e sand dunes behind the

cam p, she re co n sid e rs in v iew of the in c re a s in g ce rta in ty she is preg­

n a n t. For the c h ild 's s a k e , she d e c id e s to rem ain w ith th e S eri. "N iinca/ I

e l se r por ven ir d eb eria e s ta r ex p u esto a l d esp rec io de lo s b lan co s;

W om en, th en , are e s p e c ia lly favo rab le su b je c ts for accu ltu ra tio n

in the view of both H ernandez and Rojas G o n za lez . H ern an d ez 's idea

seem s to be th a t a l l w om en, of b io lo g ica l n e c e s s i ty , are p rim itiv e .

The in te re s t of Rojas G onzalez in the woman p ro tag o n is t may p artly

o rig inate in h is in te re s t in exam ining th e m eans of b lend ing two d is ­

sim ila r c u l tu re s . Therefore, the legend of Lola C a san o v a , queen of the

prim itive S e ris , m ight ap p ea l e sp e c ia lly to the n o v e lis t . The rev e rse

tw is t involved in hav ing a c iv iliz e d b eau ty adopted by a no to riously

prim itive trib e , adop ting them w ho leh earted ly in h er tu rn , probably

ap p ealed to the iro n ica l taste , of Rojas G o n za lez . A dditional drama w as

fu rn ished by the co n flic t betw een the e ffec tin g of th is b lend of ra c e s

and cu ltu re s through a woman p ro ta g o n is t, the m ost s u sc e p tib le m ean s ,

a g a in s t a background of a trib e w ith a m a trilin ea l o rg an iza tio n b u t, a t

. 1 . Roias G onza lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 223.

125

the sam e tim e, a fie rce re s is ta n c e to m ixing th e ir race w ith a l ie n s .

Perhaps a re a so n th is dram a fa ils to be com pelling in the novel is th a t

i t is b ased on theory or on d isp roved th eo ry , to be p r e c i s e . A more impor­

tan t re a so n is th e lack of c h a ra c te r developm ent.

The co n cep t of woman as a so rt of earth m other or m other of the

fa c e , seem ing ly held by both H ernandez and Rojas G o n za lez , g ives a

m atrilin ea l a s p e c t to the problem of m e s tiz a je . The tra d itio n a l theme

w as expanded upon in this, re sp e c t by H ernandez , and follow ed in th is

trea tm en t by Rojas G o n za lez . The id ea of the m atria rchate a s prim itive

w as held by M cG ee. He b e liev ed i t to e x is t among the Seri on the b a s is

of th is p reco n cep tio n , and th is b e lie f provided g rea t im petus for en la rg ­

ing the im portance of the ro le of woman in the n o v e l.

A re la ted th read of in te re s t in th e prim itive m other and of

womain' s p lace as a so rt of corner stone in her cu ltu re a s w ell a s a s p e - i

c ia l in te re s t in fem ale p sycho logy is s e e n e lsew h ere in the works of

Rojas G o n za lez . I t is m otherhood w hich p u ts the fin ish in g to u ch es on

th e transfo rm ation of A ngustias in La N egra A n g u s tia s . The f ir s t sto ry

in El D io se ro , "La T o n a ," fo c u se s on prim itive ch ild b irth . The Indian

goat g irl of "La cabra en dos p a ta s ," a lso in El D io se ro , re c a lls to the

read er the early traum as of A n g u stias . I t is a s if th is au thor fee ls th a t

in s ig h t in to the v ita l a re a s o f a p a rtic u la r cu ltu re may be gained by

exam ining a w om an's custom s and her fe e lin g s .

1 2 6 .

A note of s im ila rity betw een the two novels of Rojas G onzalez

is found in a touch of sad ism . In La N egra A naustias th is sad ism is r e ­

la ted to fem ale p sycho logy b e c a u se i t invo lves A ngustias h e rse lf . In

Lola C asan o v a the a s so c ia tio n is le s s c le a r . The s im ila rity is found in

the ra th e r leng thy scen e d ep ic tin g the to rtu re in flic ted on the young Seri

g irl, Nube B lanca, in re p r is a l for her hav ing d estro y ed th e eggs of the

sacred p e lic a n . R everence for the p e lic a n ’s young is rep re sen ted to be

a Seri custom , but appears to be s tr ic t ly the inven tion of th e a u th o r .

This scen e re c a lls the s a d is t ic b ea tin g of the p reg n an t woman

in La N egra A n g u s tia s . The m otives of A ngustia were not th e sam e a s

th o se of th e co u n c il of Seri m a tro n s , bu t th e idea is som ew hat the sam e:

a young woman to rtu red a t the orders of ano ther woman or w om en.

I t is fe lt by some c r itic s th a t th e ch a ra c te r iz a tio n s suffer from

the d ifficu lty of re la tin g figures in a rom antic ta le to a s c ie n tif ic a lly

d e ta ile d p ic tu re of a prim itive c u l tu re . I t is even m ore-probable th a t th e

fa lse nature of th is background , fa ls e p re c ise ly in the d ire c tio n of

ex ag g era ted cerem oniousnous and r itu a lism in m an 's s tru g g le w ith n a tu re ,

se rv e s to h e ig h ten the rom antic tone to a degree th a t p roduces an a tm os­

phere of pervading a r t if ic ia l i ty . No irony or humor th a t w ould hum anize

the ch a ra c te rs re lie v e s the a tm osphere of a rom antic ta le to ld ag a in s t

an a r t if ic ia l background . Sommers rem arks th a t iro n y , R ojas G o n za le z 's

127

" b e s t method of p en e tra tin g p e rso n a lity " is m iss in g from Lola C a sa n o v a ." 1

The accu ra te d e ta i l s , such a s e a tin g sp o iled raw m eat, for

ex am p le , are no t requ ired by the a c tio n , and so seem su p e rf lu o u s . The

ac tio n is re la te d ra th e r to the erroneous th eo rie s such a s th a t of the

m atria rchate among th e S eri, and th e ir supposed "race s e n s e . " The

d e ta ils of th e ir prim itive d a ily life then only make the legend becom e

more u n b e lie v a b le .

A lik e ly source for the co n flic t th a t keep s th e e lem en ts of

rom antic them e and ind igenous se ttin g from fittin g to g e th er in a harm on­

io u s , if unconv incing , p ic tu re is the dom inating d id a c tic purpose of the

n o v e lis t , for th is is b a s ic a l ly a novela de t e s i s . M anuel Pedro G onzalez

finds ev id en ce of e l origen erud ito in the em p h asis on d e sc rib in g a ll

p h ases of Seri life ex te rn a l to the ac tio n of the n o v e l. "En ta le s oca-,

s io n es e l soc ib lo g o y e l in v estig ad o r su p lan tan a l n o v e l is ta ." ^

Probably it is not the sch o la rly and s c ie n tif ic o rig in of th is

novel th a t " b e tray s the c re a tiv e in tu itio n of the author" ^ bu t ra th er the

strong d id a c tic ten d en cy ev id en t th roughout.

The strong urge fe lt by the author to .ex p re ss h is id e a s for

reform re su lte d in d ig re s s io n s , such as the one sum m arizing Seri h is ­

to ry . The au thor ap p ro p ria tes the ra th e r ap p ea lin g p erso n of Don C ar-

bonato to expound th e se id e a s . Don C arbonate re p e a ts the e p iso d e s in

1. Som m ers, p . 123.

2 . G o n za lez , p . 365. 3 . I b id . , p . 365 .

128

Seri h is to ry th a t are the inven tion of the n o v e lis t a s w ell a s th o se on

record e ls e w h e re .

A further in d ica tio n th a t Don C arb o n a to 's th e s is is th a t of the

au th o r, a ls o , is found in L o la 's ev id en t sym pathy w ith h is s id e of the

argum ent. H is th e s is is c o n s tru c tiv e , and she s a y s , "No se por que'

yo s ie n to h a c ia e s ta s g en tes una ex tran a sim patfa

Don C arbonato firm ly in s is ts on th e im portance of recogn iz ing

th a t M exico h as a ra c ia lly mixed p o p u la tio n , re ferring to th o se p re se n t1

a s "noso tros lo s m e s tiz o s ." W hen th e prim1 Sr. Vega p ro te s ts th a t he a t

le a s t is no t d escen d ed from In d ia n s , the d ru g g is t 's re to rt is e x p lic it

and p erso n a l: "S i e l co lo r de us ted y la con tex tu ra de su pe lo no h ab -

la ran en forma ta n e lo c u e n te , le c re e r fa , am igo m io ." O pposing po in ts

of v iew on the Ind ian problem are thoroughly e x p lo re d . H ere ap p ears a

p o ss ib le re a so n for the in te re s t .in the Seri by Rojas G o n za lez , adm itted ­

ly Sonora 's m ost prim itive t r ib e . If th ey can be c iv iliz e d , so can any

o ther g roup . Don C arbonato V alenzuela m ain tains th a t both p o s s ib il i t ie s

e x is t , and offers a s h is th e s is . "El indio es M cil de c iv i l iz a r s e , no b a s ta

s in o un poco de c a r id a d ." 3

This leng thy d ig re ss io n d oes not a id in the ch a ra c te r iz a tio n of

Don C arbonato . H is p e rso n a lity appears in se v e ra l sh o rt s c e n e s of

1 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a s a n o v a , p . 41 .

2 . Ib id . , p . 4 3 . 3 . I b id . , p . 40 .

everyday life found e lsew h ere in the ea rly c h a p te rs . N atu ral d ialogue

w hich h e lp s c re a te re a l ch a rac te rs is lik e ly to be sc a rc e in a hovela de

t e s i s , w here the words of the ch a ra c te rs are des ig n ed to e x p re ss the

m essag e and not th e m se lv e s .

CHAPTER .VIII

STYLE AND LANGUAGE

The a r t is t ic e lem en ts of s ty le have rece iv ed le s s em phasis in

th is s tudy th an the source of the them e and other a s p e c ts of i ts tre a t­

m ent in th e n o v e l.

The s ty le show s a m ixture of p ed an tic tra its such as the te c h ­

n ic a l lan g u ag e , sch o la rly d ig re s s io n s , and ex p lan ato ry in tru sio n s w ith

some of the outward trapp ings of rom anticism such as om ens. One ex ­

am ple of the la t te r is L ola’s em otional a ffin ity for the S eris th a t she

fe e ls in th e beg inn ing , ap p aren tly even before she becom es fond of

In d a le c io . Another ty p ic a l of M exican rom antic lite ra tu re is the owl

w hich flew , s ta r t le d , from the tree ju s t a s the carav an en te red the c a n ­

yon w here the. Seri w ar party w a ited .

A h igh ly em otional tone is c h a ra c te r is t ic , a s in th e scen e w here

the Seris prepare for a noctu rnal p e lic a n hunt:

Para lo s muy jd v e n e s , e ran novedad todos aq u e llo s a p re s to s , ya que su prolongado a le jam ien to por t ie rra s d is - ta n te s d e l mar le s h ac fa d esco n o ce r la o sad a a v e n tu ra , que d isp o n ian lo s mas fo rtach o n es . Los v ie jo s , en cam bio , con e l ch isp a zo en la m irada, p a lp ita n te s la s a le ta s de la nariz y con los m usculos ten s o s , d e se sp e ra b a n por in ic ia r aq u e lla em p resa , duena de tra d ic io n e s v en erab les y de p rom esas am a b ilfs im as , para su go loso d e sen fren o . 1

1. I b id . , p . 53.

130

131

This s ty le is m ost n o ticeab le in the Ind ian s c e n e s . I t should be noted

p a re n th e tic a lly th a t th is exag g era tio n probably re su lts from :the in fluence

of the an th ro p o lo g ica l d a ta in the s o u rc e . H ernandez a sc r ib e s to the Seri

a pronounced r itu a lism in connection w ith hun ting , an id ea unsupported

by o ther s tu d ie s .

This in flu en ce may have a bearing on the e x te n s iv e anim ism of

n a tu re , often m e tap h o ric a l, w hich is a lso c h a ra c te r is tic of a rom antic

p rose s ty le . H e n c e , " la m ar, fie ra ju d ean te" and an im age th a t p o s s e s ­

s e s a c e r ta in p o e tic beau ty : "H ablaba e l u n iv e rse por boca d e l m a r ."

O ften nature re f le c ts the em otions of the ch a ra c te rs a s w hen

Juan Vega vows to becom e w orthy of L o la 's love: "La no ch e , c la ra y/ o

frag an te , acog io a l enam orado con un v o lup tuoso a b ra z o ." The heavens

p ity the h e lp le s s hero ine and her old nurse as they huddle in th e ir

w recked carriag e a fte r the b a ttle a t La Palm ita: "Las e s t r e l la s , h a c ie n -

d o se cargo de la zozobra de aq u e lla s d e sv e n tu ra d a s , d e s le ia n su luz

en la g r im a s .

E lsew h ere , the cap tiv e g ir l 's fe a rs a re mirrored by the ap p ro ach -

/ / ing tw iligh t: " O b sc u rec ia , a l tiem po que en e l alm a de la b lan ca vp lv ia

1. H ern an d ez , pp . 5 0 -5 1 .

2 . Rojas G onzctlez, Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 17.

3. Ib id . , p . 90 .

4 . Ib id . , p . 150.

132

a acu rru ca rse la in q u ie tu d , con e l a fan de la s av es m arinas que b u scan

la tib ie z a d e l n id o ." 1

Some s ty l is t ic d ev ices are u sed to convey to th e read er an im­

p re ss io n of in c rea sed em otionalism , add ing to the rom antic a tm o sp h ere .

One such dev ice is th e im pression ism ev id en t in the d e sc rip tio n of the

h e a t p rev io u sly c ited „

In the fo llow ing p a ssa g e d esc rib in g the cap tiv e Lola are b lended

im pression ism of s ty le w ith a m etaphor su g g estiv e of Ind ian c u ltu re ,

w hile ov era ll hangs a rom antic atm osphere of nature sym path izing w ith

th e h e ro in e 's suffering :

O presidn sobre e l pecho; la cab ez a a punto de rev en ta r „ El punzan te dolor en traba por una s ie n , para s a lir por o tra , como punalada de arma s in m ango„ Sed y bochorno; penum ­b ra , la x itu d . Afuera, en tre la n o ch e , la "com adre1 luna agon izando de pctlida h em o rrag ia . ^

Verb te n s e s are sw itched to produce a g rea ter fee lin g of immed­

iac y as the scen e s lid e s in to c lo se r v iew and fo cu ses on d e ta i l s . An

exam ple is found in the scen e p reced ing the puberty r i t e . The young

g irl is f ir s t d e sc rib ed a s if from a d is ta n c e , and the v erbs are p a s t

t e n s e . Then, a s she becom es aw are sudden ly th a t sh e h a s reached th is

C risis in h er l i f e , the verb te n s e s sw itch to the p re se n t, and the scen e

b u rs ts in to a c tiv ity w ith much ex c item en t and com m otion..

l i . I b id . , p . 166.

2. I b id . , p . 201.

133

q Another dev ice to convey em otion is a change in gender, a s is

found in the word e l mar and la m ar. U sed a s " la m a r ," th e more a rch a ic

or p o e tic form s e ts the tone for a p a s sa g e in rom antic s ty le , a s in the

m etaphor p rev io u sly c ited : " la mar / f ie ra ja d e a n te ." W henever the emo­

tio n a l p itch h as dropped and an a ir of rou tine d a ily o ccu rrence is d e s ire d ,

th e n o v e lis t ch an g es to "e l mar" in acco rd an ce w ith common modern

u sag e : "La p a re ja m archa h a c ia e l m a r ." 1

Animals have hum an q u a li t ie s , a s in the sce n e w here Coyote

u se s a cap tiv e p e lic a n to ca tc h fish : "Lo dem as, e l lad ino lo 'co n fia a

la ternura y a l amor h a c ia su s s e m e ja n te s , p ro v erb ia les de lo s p e li-

c a n o s ."2

The n o v e lis t show s a p reference for e lab o ra te la n g u a g e , per­

h ap s to harm onize w ith the rom antic a tm o sp h e re . U nusual words are

preferred a s in "ep ita lam ico " u sed in s te a d of " n u p c ia l." A ugm entatives

are em ployed in the form of h ig h e s t d e g re e , a s in " fo r ta c h o n ," "bona-

c h d n ," and " liberrim o" and " pauperrim o ." An abundance of a d je c tiv e s

is u se d . In many in s ta n c e s the n o v e lis t h a s ch o sen to u se a noun p h rase

in ap p o s itio n ra th e r th a n a sim ple ad je c tiv e : "C inco in d iv id u o s, p o se e -

d o res d e l don de la ju v en tu d , se h ic ie ro n p re se n te s en la m itad del

co rro . "3 P hrase m o d ifie rs 'in genera l are frequen tly u sed throughout

JL. I b id . , p p , 11, 232.

2. m i d . , p . 93 .

3 . Ib id . , p . 74.

134

in s tea d of the sim ple m odifier. This h ab it ten d s to produce a f u l l ,

flow ery s ty le , w ith d e sc rip tio n very s p e c if ic , perhaps b e ca u se the

au thor is try ing to convey much d e ta ile d inform ation . At tim es e ffec ­

t iv e , producing an e a sy and co lorfu l s ty le , overuse m akes i t seem a

m annerism in the p rose of the n o v e l. It may be a symptom of h a s te in

a c tu a l w ritin g , w ith so much to in c lu d e .

Som etim es the p h rase re p la c e s a sim ple m odifier w ith odd

e ffec t: "Las a v e s , ad o rm ila d a s , se d e jab an a tra p a r , y a n te s de que

e l g rito de agonia d e sp e rta ra la in g u ie tu d , ya lo s lab io s g o losos le s

h ab ian succ io n ad o la m itad de su cau d a l c ircu la to rio ^ /b lood /.

A graphic s e n se of beau ty is found in th e d esc rip tio n : " la

ta rd e se h ab ia desp lom ado y una co rtin a c la v e te ad a con lu ce ro s cubria

e l p u e rte c illo d esb o rd an te de paz . . . " Such p a s sa g e s are often sh o rt.

"A poco una flo ta de p irag u as bogaba como m anchon de g av io tas sobre

la su p erfic ie a rg e n tin e ." 3 The au thor seem s to lik e to u se the te c h n ic a l

term inology of a r t , a s is seen in the d e sc rip tio n of the facad e of the

C asan o v a m ansion . A rtis tic .term ino logy is le s s obvious bu t h in ted a t

in the follow ing: "Los v eh icu lo s m archaban en tre b ru sco s v a iv en es . . .

A lo le jo s , dbnde se fundia / s i c / e l c ie lo y e l p iano a re n o so , se rom-

p i / la m onotonia d e l p a isa je con la ap a ric id h de dos p in c e la d a s

1. I b i d . , p . 56 . 2 . I b id . , p . 17.

3. I b i d . , p . 54.

135

v erd o sas : e ran e l par de lom as que h ac fan la Canada

U sed ex te n s iv e ly are w ords from various s c ie n c e s : f e ld s p a to .

m am ifero, c o m isu ra , h ip o fa g ia . h e te rd c l i to , pa lm ip ed o , d ig itig a d o .

'I t ap p ears here th a t Rojas G onzalez is co n sc io u s of th is a s s o c ia ­

tio n of sp e c ia liz e d vocabu lary w ith a p a rtic u la r f ie ld , and w hen a

c h a r a c te r s resem blance to a s ta tu e is p ic tu re d , he is made of " fe ld ­

s p a to ," W here the Seri custom s are e x p la in ed , w ords lik e "c la n e s"

and "a ta v ic ia s " ap p ea r. For d e sc rib in g r e l ie f carv ings of a fa ca d e ,

"dos m aneras de v e r y de operar la lin ea " and "de c a la r en e l volum en"

ap p ear in the. d is c u s s io n . Such a lik in g for term inology frequen tly accom ­

p an ies a sch o la rly in c lin a tio n , and is probably true in the c a s e of the

• /w rite r Rojas G o n za lez .

The te c h n ic a lity and the poetry of the s ty le are both in tended to

id e a liz e the In d ia n , u ltim a te ly , by d ign ify ing a ll th a t p e rta in s to sto ry

and s e tt in g , and so move the read er to re s p e c t the v a lu e s of th is .Indian

cu ltu re id ea liz ed e lsew h ere in th e n o v e l.

The au tho r’s dream , w hich is an im passioned one, a t tim es le a d s

-him to subord inate a e s th e tic requ irem en ts in th is n o v e l, or to intrude

in to th e n arra tio n to make h is p o in t c le a r . Sommers s in g le s out th e se

/ 2fac to rs a s fa u lts in Rojas G o n za lez ’s p ro se . He c i te s th e follow ing

p a s sa g e from the novel a s an il lu s tra tio n of th e au th o r’s in tru sio n a s a

1 . Jfo id ., p p . 143 -144 .

2, Som m ers, p . 87 .

136

narrator;

Si se hub iera d e jad o a la s u e r te , an to jad iza y coqueta aq u e lla noche como una p ro fes io n a l de la c a r ic ia , s e n a la r su p re d ile c to , no se. hub iera logrado n ad a , pues lo mismo so n re ia a l "yaquero" que mimaba con e x c ita n te s h a lag o s a don D iego .

Fue m en este r que otro fac to r o b ra ra , a s tu to y a le v o so , en favor de un d es ig n io „„„•*■

The language re v e a ls an in te re s t in w ords for th e ir own sake

and a lik in g for the unu su a l word as w e ll . Some c a r e le s s n e s s w ith th e se

unu su a l w ords is found , a s in the c a se If " s a lp ic a d o ," w h ich , if not an

unu su a l w ord, is a n o ticeab le o n e . I t occu rs 12 tim es and seem s re p e ti­

tious , e s p e c ia lly s in c e tw o or th ree of th e se o ccu rrences may appear in

c lo se p rox im ity . This c a re le s s n e s s may be ev idence of h a s te in the

a c tu a l w riting of the n o v e l. Sommers p o in ts out th a t the movie appeared

the y ea r fo llow ing p u b lica tio n of the n ovel; and th a t Rojas G onzalez

w as a shareh o ld er in the m ov ie . %

Slang is p re se n t a s in the u se of the word " b u q u i ," reg io n al

term for "cham aco" or y o u n g ste r.

S pecia l language is u sed in the novel to re p re se n t the Seri

to n g u e , supposed by the au thor to be prim itive and u n re la ted to Other

Ind ian ton g u es on the b a s is of the inform ation in H ern an d ez . Some

e x p re ss io n s w ere inven ted to re f le c t Seri cu s to m s, su ch a s "buscar

cunado" for " to m arry ."

1. Rojas G o n zd iez , Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 120.

2. Som m ers, p . 14 .

Also sa id by H ernandez to be c h a ra c te r is tic of the Seri lan ­

guage w ere many term s in d ica tiv e o f th e ir prim itive fee lin g of c lo se n e ss

to a n im a ls . H ence such m etaphorical e x p re ss io n s a s , "D isponeos ,

p u e s , tod os los kunkaaks para re sb a la r sobre e l cuero arrugado de la

m a r . M etaphors are em ployed s im ila rly to denote th e in tim ate invo lve­

m ent w ith na tu ra l phenom ena of Seri custom s a s w ell a s h a b its of

th ink ing and sp ea k in g . An exam ple is w hen a lookout b rings word th a t

the p itah ay o c a c tu s h a s flo w ered , s ig n to tak e the w arpath :

" El so l— d ice a g rito s— ha brotado de lo s renuevos j ""H a flo rec id o e l p itahayo" , rep ite lle n a de en tu siasm o

una m uchacha, como eco d e l a la rid o d e l guerrero ."El p itah ay o se a l in a , para e s ta r d ignam ente a l lado

de lo s v a lie n te s h ijo s d e l pe lican o " , agrega un jo v en p e sc a d o r. ®

This form of sp e e c h , or though t, d o es not su cceed from the re a d e r 's

po in t of v iew . The m etaphors seem o v erstra in ed and in ap p ro p ria te , and

probably are re sp o n s ib le for p a rt of the fa ilu re of the ch a rac te rs to seem

hum an. The language a lo n e , in the Ind ian s c e n e s , would p reven t any

so ften ing th a t w ould perm it e ith e r humor or the re a d e r 's sharing the

su fferings or jo y s of th e c h a ra c te r s .

I t is s ig n if ic an t th a t some of th e m ost n a tu ra l d ia logue belongs

to the tw o m ost n a tu ra l-se em in g minor c h a ra c te rs , Don C arbonate and

/1 . H ern an d ez , p . 238.

2 . Rojas G o n za lez , Lola C a sa n o v a , p . 54 .

P ila rc ito . This n a tu ra l d ia logue occurs only during the sh o rt sc e n e s of

d a ily life in G uaym as; and in th e c a se of P ila rc ito , i t is only f le e tin g ly

no ticed „

D esp ite the h an d icap s of dogm atizing and aw kw ardness w ith

sim ulated Seri language w hich lead s to e x c e s s iv e o rnam entation , the

p rose s ty le is often graphic and re a d a b le .

CONCLUSIONS

The legendary them e h a s been u sed in the novel to p re se n t the

au th o r 's th e s is for m e s t iz a te . The rom antic drama w ith a fem ale pro tago­

n is t who overcom es trib a l re s is ta n c e to m estiz a ie and brings about

p rog ress is u sed to i l lu s tra te th is t h e s i s .

The im portance of the source lie s in the fa c t th a t the an thro­

p o lo g ica l d a ta fu rn ished th e re in are not only e rro n eo u s , bu t tend to give

a rom antic a s p e c t to Seri cu ltu re „ According to H ern an d ez , th e S eris are

s trange and unique owing to iso la tio n , g iven to ex c e ss iv e -ritu a lism and

ce rem o n io u sn ess and show an o therw ise unexam pled p rim itiv en ess th a t

re su lts in h ab its of sp eak ing and thinking- th a t e x h ib it b e lie f in c lo se

re la tio n sh ip w ith an im als and n a tu re . That th e se erroneous im p ressio n s

derive from ou tdated an th ropo log ica l th eo rie s in vogue in th e n in e teen th

cen tu ry encourages sp ecu la tio n th a t th o se th eo rie s c o n ta in some of the

sam e e lem en ts a lso re fle c ted by much contem porary lite ra tu re of the

tim e s , e lem en ts th a t to modern th ink ing appear " ro m an tic ."

M ore ce r ta in is the fa c t th a t th e re su ltin g p ic tu re of the Seri

Ind ians is in c red ib le ev en to the u n sc ie n tif ic re a d e r, and the h e ig h ten in g

of th e rom antic atm osphere a tten d an t upon the a u th o r 's effo rts to re ­

c re a te an Ind ian cu ltu re on the b a s is of th e se d a ta is re sp o n s ib le for

much of the a ir of u n rea lity th a t m ars the n o v e l.

140

I t is iro n ica l th a t the d iff ic u ltie s fe lt in read in g th is novel

should be a ttrib u ted to a co n flic t b e tw een the rom antic them e and

sc ie n tif ic fa c t . The au thor perce ived the harm ony betw een the rom antic

a s p e c ts of Seri cu ltu re g iven in H ernandez and the tra d itio n a l them e,

He th en tried to re la te th is b lend of rom antic Guay mas w ith rom antic

Kino Bay to the d e ta i l s , o ften a c c u ra te , of very prim itive d a ily l i f e .

The la ck of harm ony p erce iv ed in th is com bination is probably due to

the fa ls e n e s s predom inating in the p ic tu re and h indering the d evelop ­

m ent of iro n y . Any irony p re se n t w ould have to be show n betw een the

co n flic tin g a s p e c ts w ith in Seri cu ltu re i t s e l f ;pt a rom antic cerem onial

life w ith g rubby , prim itive liv in g c o n d itio n s . This c o n flic t g ives the

im p ressio n th a t the w hole p ic tu re is a r tif ic a l and u n re a l .

The Seri v e rs io n of the sto ry of Lola C asan o v a is more b e lie v -

ab le than the M ex ican tra d itio n found in H ern an d ez , bu t ap p aren tly had

no in fluence on the n o v e lis t . I t is in te re s tin g to co n s id e r th a t a good

r e a l is t ic novel could perhaps be w ritten on the sam e th e m e , u s in g the

Seri v e rs io n and an th ro p o lo g ica l and lin g u is tic d a ta now a v a ila b le .

The au th o r 's aim of fu sio n of an th ropo log ica l and lite ra ry

in te re s ts to re f le c t the " re a lit ie s of M exico in the p ro c e ss of so c ia l

change" su cc ee d s to a g rea te r degree in the cuen tos of El D iosero

than in th e novel Lola C a sa n o v a . a m ajor fac to r in th is g rea te r s u c c e ss

1. Sommers,, p. 145.

141

is a lm ost c e r ta in ly th e p e rso n a l ex p erien ce and fie ld o b se rv a tio n s of the

. au thor co n ta in ed in th e se s to r ie s .

Rojas G o n z a le z 's w orks are fe lt by Sommers to re p re se n t a

bridge from the lite ra tu re of the R evolution to more m odern th inking as

re fle c ted in contem porary w riting in M ex ico . 1 This judgm ent is based

on the w rite r 's m oraPconcern th a t en la rg es reg io n a l and p o li t ic a l them es

to ex p ress fee lin g s and tru th s common to hum anity or "u n iv e rsa l" as

w ell a s on h is in te re s t in m odern th e o rie s of psychology.. % Sommers

a lso fe e ls th is w rite r may be consid e red to be a bridge be tw een older

in d ia n is ta w rite rs and m odern in d ig en is ta w rite rs b ec a u se of h is id e a li­

za tio n of the Ind ian to g e th e r w ith the d e ta ile d cu ltu ra l backgrounds he is

ab le to provide as a re s u l t of h is s tu d ie s . 3

It can be su g g ested in s te ad th a t w hat the w orks of Rojas

G onzalez dem onstra te in th a t in d ia n is ta and in d ig e n is ta s to r ie s share

the same fundam ental in sp ira tio n , the d e s ire to find foundation for

modern H ispanoam erican so c ie ty in rev iv in g and iden tify in g w ith th e .

Ind ian p a s t in s tea d of try ing to liv e as a g raft unaw are of i ts own ro o ts .

This in s tin c t may be sound and i t is an ap p ea lin g id e a , bu t i t probably

l ie s w holly w ith in the rom antic trad itio n in the m anner of the " a e s th e tic

1 . Ib id . , p . 168.

2. Ib id . ,

3 . Ib id . , p . 209.

affec tion" of C h a teau b rian d 1 s fo llow ers for fe u d a lism . 1 The in d ig en is ta

w r itin g s , th e n would c o n s titu te a derived form w here s c ie n tif ic d e ta il is

e s s e n tia l ly a c c u ra te . This d e fin itio n of th e se term s is su g g ested by the

p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n surrounding the novel Lola C a s a n o v a , and further

s tudy would be requ ired to support i t . The term s in d ia n is ta and ind i­

g e n is ta a re u n sa tis fa c to ry as p re sen tly u sed lo o se ly to d is tin g u ish

r e a l is t ic w riting from rom antic w ritin g , a s the p re se n t stu d y d e m o n stra te s .

M uch of the con fusion regard ing "the p la c e of th is novel in the w orks of

Rojas G onzalez has derived from the effort to sep a ra te a rb itra rily th e se

two sch o o ls of w riting w ith ind igenous th em es . The novel should very

probably be co n sid e red not a ty p ic a l, but a s an exam ple of th e work of

F ran c isco Rojas Gonz<alez w herein the id e a l is t ic and d id a c tic e lem ents

p redom ina te . That w hich w as d e e p e s t engrained in him , h is id ea lo g y ,

h is dream for M ex ico , h as here oberbalaneed the a r t is t ic e lem en ts

c h a ra c te r is tic of h is w r itin g s , providing in the novel an in te re s tin g

in s ig h t in to the c rea tiv e p ro c e ss of h is lite ra ry ta le n . I t in d ic a te s ,

p e rh a p s , th a t h is w orks provide a bridge from reg ionalism th a t does

not reach a ll the w ay to the o ther shore of common hum an ex p erien ce—

or th a t th is tra n s itio n is not y e t com plete in M exican l i te ra tu r e .

1 . D enis S a u ra t, " French L ite ra tu re , " E ncyclopedia B rittan ic a , 1963, DC, 794.

APPENDIXES

144

-txPITIQUITO

PU E R T O LIBERTADo

PO ZO COYOTE

O

HERMOSILLO

/SLA

•LOS PO CITO S

o

SONORA, MEXICO

Locations mentioned in the Legend of Lola Casanova

APPENDIX A

Mariana Sanchez Juan Avi la

!_________________________tJes t is Avi la (Coyote iguana) Dolores (Lola) Casanova

Victor Avi la Petra Chico Romero Pelona

J o s e ManuelChefa (Josefa) J o s e /Vila Fernando Teresa

PanchitaChico Franci sco

▲Rosa Avi la Hilario V i l l a lobos

A

J e s u s Morales* Carlos Ibarra Lola Casanova Andrea Romero

Antonio Franci sco Jose f i t a Ramona Thompson Roberto Herrera (Thompson)

J o s e Juan Antonio▲ A

* Informant

APPENDIX B

GENEALOGY OF SERI DESCENDANTS OF LOLA CASANOVA(A f t e r Mary Beck Moser. June 10, 1964)

APPENDIX C - l

R eproduction of M cG ee' s te x t show ing p o in t a t w hich H ernandez in se rte d sto ry of Lola C asa n o v a .

The third instance is still less definite, though it seems to be trust­worthy. There is a widespread tradition throughout Sonora that in the course of a brush between a band of Papago hunters and a maraud­ing bunch of Seri warriors in the mountains southeast of Cieneguilla twenty-five or thirty years ago, a Papago maiden was captured and carried off to Tiburon; and that for some years thereafter—i. e., until the Papago had taken ample blood vengeance—the intertribal animos­ity was exceptionally bitter. No wholly satisfactory basis for the tradi­tions could be found among the Papago, though some of the silences of the old men were suggestive; nor was the tradition fully credited by Senor Encinas, despite its deep lodgment in the minds of some of his yoemanry. When Maslu-m was interrogated on different occasions, he merely shook his head in stolid silence; but when the device was adopted of inquiring the number of Papago children brought into the tribe through this woman he responded promptly with a snort of scorn, and followed this with the explanation that she never had chil­dren, and could not because she was an alien slave. The explanation was corroborated by clanrnother Juana Maria and other matrons, with sundry expressions of contemptuous disapproval of the inquiry and scorn of the very idea that aliens could fructify within the tribe. Later, the ice being broken, Mashem intimated that the woman had recently died of old age and its consequences—doubtless as an outcast. On the whole, the direct testimony would seem to substantiate the tra­dition, and to supplement it with the short and simple annals of a spouseless and childless life (incredible of other tribes, but consistent

•Tin* iilviitilication may posHibly bt» co rrect; the collocation o f the totem w ith th e tu r t le waa aluijH-il th rough unw illing and jierhapa m isleading rcaponaca m ade by M aah6m to in q u ir ies in 18*4— these i i-iqmnat-n denoting a sea m onster which In the beginning helped th e A nc ien t o f Pelicans to m ake the world hy push ing from below, anil which Is now very good food—a descrip tion ap p aren tly fittin g the tu r t le more closely than the o th e r anim al.

>," M RARITY OK ADOPTION 279*

with the customs of the Seri), endured for many years and ending at last in unpitied death. ^

Collectively the eases seem to define a germ, rather than a mature custom, of adoption. In the first ease a benefactor (by means regarded as magical; was formally inducted into the reigning family; in the second ease the conquering hero (through what were again regarded as magical means) was less formally recognized and venerated, even wor­shiped. as an all powerful shaman; while in the third case a represent­ative uf the doughtiest alien tribe was enslaved, probably with motives akin to iliox,. expressed in the carrying of chargeless guns, the making of imitation machetes, and other fetishistic devices. Except in the tii 'i instance there is no indication of consistent custom; but since the vniire history of the tribe clearly contradicts regulated adoption of a l i e n s (and indeed affords no other example), it must be inferred that any such custom is intratribal rather than intertribal.

APPENDIX C -2

R eproduction of H ern an d ez 's te x t show ing in se rtio n of sto ry of Lola C asa n o v a .

147

62

Otro caso de adopcidn, es el referido por Mashem, un int^rprete Seri, corroborado en parte por los recuerdos del Sr. Encinas.

Hard unos treinta anos que una partida de cazadores Pdpagos se bati6 encarnizadamente con un grupo de guerreros Seris, en la montana que estd al Sudeste de la Cieneguilla, y duran-

. te el combate los Seris lograron apoderarse de una doncella de la tribu enemiga y la lleva- ron d la isla, conservdndola como cautiva.

Verdad es que los Papagos emprendieron una formal campana contra los Seris, que su vehganza fue terrible y que la doncella cost6 d la tribu Seri torrentes de sangre; pero la cau­tiva murio de vejez en la isla, y probablemente abandonada en el maldito desierto, conforme d la inhumana costumbre de aquellos salyajes que en esta cruel forma se desembarazan de los inutiles ancianos.

, Por las relaciones de la matrona Seri Juana Marfa y de Mashem, se sabe que la doncella ro- bada no tuvo un solo hijo, pues los orgullosos Seris jamds mezclan su noble sangre con la de los indignds extrah33, y la infortunada joven Pdpago murio virgen tras largos ahos de cauti- verio. < 3 --------------

Los casos de adopcidn mds notables, son el de un cautivo que llegd a ser Jcfe de la tribu, bajo el nombre de Coyote-Iguana, y el de Lola Casanova, una joven de dieciocho anos que fu6 arrebatada d su familia por los Seris, durante un combate sostcnido contra estos en el ca- mino de Guaymas d Hermosillo, por el ano de 1854.

Ya varios ancianos sonorenses me habfan referido el atrevido rapto y novelesca historia de Lola; pero ninguno de el los me aseguro haberla conocido.

Durante mi tiltima expedicion al territorio Seri, encontrd en el Rancho de San Vicente, propiedad de los Sres. Desens, una antigua sirviente llamada Marfa, que conocid a Lola Casa­nova y que me refirio lo siguiente:

Hard como unos diez y ocho ahos que Marfa, ya entonces al servicio de la familiaDesens, se encontraba con su esposo, Antonio Valdes, en un rancho conocido con el nombre de E l Parian.

Al amanecer de un dfa de verano, los Seris asaltaron el Paridn, matando con los prime- ros disparos de sus arcos d otro sirviente, el tinico que entonces acompahaba eu el rancho d Marfa y d su esposo y que en los momentos del ataque se ocupaba en sacar agua del pozo.

Antonio Valdes dormfa con su esposa en un petate cerca del jacal en que habitaba, y al oir el grito de muerte dado por el sirviente, cogio el rifle que tenia d la mano y sc dispuso d defenderse, refugiendose con Marfa en el interior del jacal.

Los jacales de todos los ranchos de aquella costa estdn formados con ramas de ocotillo, por entre cuyos intersticios puede verse lo que pasa en el interior de las habitaciones.

Los asaltantes rodearon el jacal por todas partes, y al ver que Valdds no hacfa mds que apuntarles sin llegar d disparar, comprendieron lo que en realidad y desgraciadamente pasa- ba: el rifle estaba descompuesto. A partir de aquel mo men to, Valdds fue hombre perdido; los Seris, entreabriendo las ramas, empezaron d disparar flechazos sobre cl sitiado y por fin pe- netraron en la habitacidn.

APPENDIX D - l

L etter of C olonel C aye tano N avarro , P re fec t of G uaym as, February 24, 1850. (Sonora A rch iv es . P refectu re d e l P artido de S a lv a tio n , file : S eris 214 .3 -1850)

•• /Sx : .<*- --

( c--i ^Zr_ c v> ■&,---

^ / ^dr

Z? , . . . A_, y»7».^x-,/% ."? * . , \ ^ >,

/ » 4- ^ ------------------- C*S

APPENDIX D -2

L ette r of C o lonel C aye tano N avarro , P refec t of G uaym as, February 25 , 1850. (Sonora A rch iv es . P refectu re d e l Partido de S a lv ac io n , file : Seris 214 .3 -1850)

149

' . 4 * .

/I, r<t r XvVv '

X \ - I

'l£,t e»A' << *Ss*/i**** ■r/r/X *'S/,n-‘l43f* mtn* *r+*c <* ■** * < r*

f / / *' V ^ .**1S s ' sfs /s-r ,! ''*■/*■ * * / '£/’■£-<*'-%■ < A - S ,'&- 'y^-tr r*+ <y, » -^f*t y *-

^ y , • - <A' -» <<■ ^ < / f -»<«»» V >-»r Yy

V • " X yT 9 ^ ✓ v ^ X T v«« e« l<z * „ -*y r Z rvV ty-» - - <•

Ssi fy^ y

✓ •-<#t#-»i 'S*/i/

■siL+t. s** 0tS v9v fWt

/'ti y<<" >Z ' • '•'''' '' ' i ir ii r il l | « a ^ <

•- *- <’*» <- -'•/-f z . z

,'#1 >>/Z«rz r z- >« « #• V *~+S*$r ' *-*■*vvz Zrr y-

y

•i t-**, Styf^/t c/y/Zr *^k<'/ ' ' / # -rX* zX» I i' S' -' <& *- 4 4s*sU*4 i

<*+» * f Jt*i f €j4 S+**s *Y*sxf ~t X ^ - c / ** * '* * ? • '> * Z * * / V y “>% • * x £ Z V ^ z « r X r -#

APPENDIX D -3

L etter of C o lonel C aye tano N avarro , P refec t of Guay m a s , April 24, 1850. (Sonora A rch iv es . P refectu ra d e l P artido de S a lv a tio n , file : Seris 214 .3 -1850)

150

/s ir *------- -( s//SSSf-e — ~ —

/y ^ /X yz z z x z // >" y r s s r Y v . fsvs* * /* + " 7"

/ K/X / s r S f/tS S */ l/ s s S J /s ™ / tr * r / / s ^ < /-* '

J r A * S ?sss< rrt J r < /? ? sS * 7 '* £ T rc ./ a s 2 s s /r * s s s £ s f c .+ *>y~j

s / s / / ^ s f S t r S s S ///< sS S r> s^ / s / SS tx

s / c f / i ’/J tS u s /c - S /S A t sssxsssrrx S ? t c*<*

y z/Zr* /z o //sty** A /ssssm £s/c* ** S Sr^a . /***'<■

/7/s<x->/ A sA fi/sa AA'Ars, y s -c c y y /s i ' j ' f /'W sy< *, A<^

S 'A ss'/r y <^> z^- < zsr^ / s z / s s s z n cS^s Ss/'^^y^s* /As-ssr-

J l r / . / A s /s s t'* ^ . / / V Z ’ z y z « ^ ^ / s r s / / i y / > ^ / / s e r r ^

y / A/ £ 1 S ^ S /S S etJL SS'S*l<r y / r t/sK . , A / s s s / s s t s > > y Z ^ _

/ / s s r / s r ’ y % , / / „ - >x Z r r / ' ^ S /S /< S S S C s / e / ? >

A / / S r /y / s s Ac. A A/s s f *r y / s / s s s y s ^ r s s A * / sSr<-/~ v

z V' Zzi ysS/s* A/s' AssssS sAA/Sf /A /A Ssssss?^yy y< / y /z f A s / s /m s r S7/s*s'r<? / / s / s c s A A s Y ’

y A s t / A s A Y s Y y /s z s sc ., s / r A /A s fsx s r s ^ A * s's/ A

zW A s s <2 s S s s r s r s s c r cu jsA A c / S S / s s s s s s s ' jc*---

X // Ss/ J, ;s/ft strs/Ase /^cYj^srs/YA s t< s e s tY r A / s / s t A r r , ’ s s / A s s A ' t ' / / //cA A t y / A s y s

1 c J /s s /s s /s / / As< V sr -/sz s /s /s A Y ssy s/Y^ Jsy?Yr//„

y sS y / f / s , / z z z z t ; z^ v / / u^'A t s y ^ jA /sA se /Y * . <

>// S/SS/SSS*// S/liT-s'fS*/ s i s / S C C t ' t i . , y . /■ » / / /< / A .

/ A w - ' . v ^ / , z ; Z A 'S s ^ c L A Z y Y s s S A A s** s A s s , ,

S ^ J . A / y z / V z z z z - y z X Z / y r Z Z / A x y A A s S c ^ y S Z */t€>

Sy? /rctYs/ss/rsc .

^ x? < r /* /'< /^ /€*///1,sY*. Z7 zV-T- ,/^-Z ^ S /Y c * l/A/As / ‘s.

APPENDIX D -4

F ile card from Sonora s ta te a rc h iv e s .

3 e r is 2 1 4 . 3 ^ 1 8 5 0 ”

Tribu S e r i . - As a l to en e l Rancho de l Huer fano, e l dia 23 de febrero de 1^50, f a s a l t a da una fa tn i l ia que procedente de H e r ro s i l lo ca ctLnaba para e l Puerto de Suayrcas. y en el can! no cerca del p a r a je "El Huerfano , fuA a s a l t a - da cor v e in te S e r i s , matando a t re c e personas, s i e t e que se l le v a ro n c a u t iv a s , un her!do cue escape', dos nifias he r idas que quedaron abando­ns das y t r e s c u je re s que se l le v a ro n entire e — l i a s a Do a DOLORES CASAI'JOVA a quien pocos d iadespues l a s a c r i f i c a r o n . - ( s e se n ta y cinco fo^ja s c ia n u sc r i ta s ) ,

L e3 .1 .2xp .2 .G u ad ern n 18* A:|o de 18%).

APPENDIX D -5

Label of f ile in a rch iv es of the s ta te of S onora, M ex ico , for the y ea rs 1850-1854, co n ta in in g C olonel N av arro 's l e t t e r s .

D#1 LeJ».k> I 3 . I 6 &1 So. 3 0 .- 3n e s t* e x p e ll en t» ee eociw ntra *1 Am ml to en e l R*ncho > 1 Jurfrfano, iu e e l <3la 23 de - feb raro «le 1350, h lc leron lo» Ind io s S a r i s , a tir.a f a o i l l a qua pro ca­dent* la H erm oalllo , cacdnaba para e l Puerto d a S uayaaa, y en e l ca - -ctlno carea del lugar aenclonadb <ue a e a l tad a por vein te S a r i s , % ta n do a trac e p ersonas, a le te queae l le v a ro n s a u t lv a a un h e r ld o qua a sc a - u , dos nlftaa h e rld a y que quedaron abandons la s y t r e s c u je r e s qua t# -

lle v a ro n a n tra a l i a s 3oAa D olores Casanova, a ou len pocos d la a das - 2 u<a l a a a c r l f ic ac o n .t Da as te a o o n te c ic le r .to ban su rg ld o l a s le y e n - 3a t da "LOLA CA3AJOVA .

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

Almada, F ran c isc o . D icc ionario de h is to r ia , g eo g ra fia , v b iografia s o n o re n s e s . C hihuahua: Im presora Ruiz S andoval, 1952.

B ancroft, H ubert H ow e. W ild T rib e s . Vol. I of The N ative R a c e s . 5 v o ls . San F rancisco : A. L. Bancroft & C o . , 1882.

B artle tt, J . R. P erso n a l N arra tive of Explorations and In c id en ts in T exas, New M ex ico , C a lifo rn ia , Sonora, and C hihuahua connected w ith the U nited S ta tes and M exico Boundary Com­m issio n during th e y ears 1850, 51 , 52 and 5 3 . 2 v o ls . New York: D . Appleton & C o . , 1854.

C alvo B erber, L aureano . N ociones de h is to r ia de Sonora ("P ub licaciones d e l G bbierno d e l e s ta d o de S o n o ra"). L ibreria de M . Porrua, 1958 i

C havez C am acho, Armando. C a iem e . M exico: E d ito ria l J u s , 1948.

C o o lid g e , D ane and M ary R o b e rts . The L a st of the Seri s . New York:E. P . D utton C o . > 1939.

C o rra l, Ramon. O bras h is td r ic a s — R eseha h is td r ic a d e l e s ta d o deSonora, 1856-1877; B iografia de Tose M aria Leyva Caiem e;Las ra z a s in d ig en es de S onora. H erm osillo , Sonora: B ib lio teca Sonorense de G eografia e H is to r ia , 1959.

D av ila , F . T. Sonora h is to ric o y d e s c r ip tiv o . N o g a le s , Sonora: 1894.

Di P e so , C h arles C . , and M atso n , D an ie l S . "The Seri In d ian s in1692 as d esc rib ed by Adamo G ilg , S . J . ," Arizona and th e W e s t , VH, N o. 1 (Spring, 1965), 3 3 -5 6 .

G onzalez B onilla , Luis A rturo. "Los S e r is ," R evista M ex ican a de Socio- lo g ia . In s ti tu te de In v es tig ac io n e s S ocia les de la U niversidad N a tio n a l Autdnoma, H I, N o. 2 (1941), 9 3 -1 0 7 .

G riffen , W illiam B. N otes on Seri Ind ian C u ltu re , S onora, M exico("Latin American M onographs," N o. .10.) G a in sv ille , Florida: U n iv ersity of F lorida P r e s s , D e c . 1959.

154

155

H ern an d ez , F o rtunate . Las ra z a s ind igenes de Sonora y la querra d e lY agu i. M dxico: T alleres de la C a sa E d ito rial "J . de E liza lde-," 1902.

K roeber, Alfred L. The Seri s . (" S outhw est M useum P a p e rs ," No. 6 .)Los A ngeles, C alifo rn ia : S outhw est M useum , 1931.

M cG ee, W . J . The Seri Ind ians ("Bureau of American E thnology, Annual R e p o rt," N o. 17, P art 1 .) W ash in g to n , D .C . : Governm ent P rin ting O ffice , 1898.

M o ser, Edw ard. " Seri B an d s," The K iva, XXVIII (February, 1963), 14-27,

N avarro , C olonel C ay e ta no . L e tte rs d a ted from Feb. 23, 1850 to April 24, 1850 to G overnor Aguilar of Sonora. Sonora A rch iv es . P refectu ra d e l Partido de S a lv ac io n , file : Seris 2 1 4 .3 -1 8 5 0 .

Reyna de Ledh, C arm ela . D o lo res , o la re in a de lo s K unkaaks— N ovela h is td r ic a , b a sa d a en e l rap to de D olores C asan o v a a fines d e l s iq lo p a s a d o . P itiq u ito , Sonora: Prin ted by Im presa E condm ica, C a n a n e a , Sonora: 1943.

Rojas G o n za lez , F ra n c isc o . El D io se ro . 2d e d . M dxico: Fondo de C ul­tu re Econdm ica, 1955.

_________ . La N eqra A n g u s tia s . 2d e d . M dxico: Edicion y D is trib u c io nIbero American de P u b lic a c io n e s , S .A . , 1948.

_________ . Lola C a sa n o v a . M dxico: E dicion y D is trib u c io n Ibero Ameri­cana de P u b lic a c io n e s , S .A . , 1947.

________.. " S eris o K unkaks," E tnoqrafia de M ex ic o , s m te s is m onogra-f i c a s . In s titu te de In v es tig a c io n e s S o c ia le s , U niversidad N acional Autdnoma, M exico: 1957, pp . 3 1 -4 2 .

S au ra t, D e n is . "F rench L ite ra tu re ," E ncyclopedia B ritta n ic a , 1963, IX, 794.

Som m ers, Jo sep h . "The C ontribu tion of F rancisco Rojas G onzA ez toM ex ican L ite ra tu re ." U npublished P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n . U niver­s ity of W isc o n s in , 1962.

S ykes, G odfrey . The C olorado D e lta . (The American G eograph ical Society, "S p ec ia l P u b lic a tio n s , 11 N o. 19.) Baltimore: Lord Baltimore P re s s , 1937.

156

V illa , Eduardo W . Com pendio de h is to ria d e l e s ta d o de S onora, M exico: E dito rial "P atria N u ev a ," 1937.

P ersonal C om m unications

H errera (Thompson), R oberto. P ersonal in te rv iew . June 10, 1964.

M o ra le s , J e s u s . P ersonal in te rv iew . June 10, 1964.

M o ser, Edw ard. P ersonal in te rv iew . June 10, 1964.

_________ . L e tte r . July 27, 1964 .

M o ser, M ary Beck (M rs. Edw ard). P ersonal in te rv iew . June 10, 1964.

P esq u e ira , F ernando. P ersonal in te rv iew . O ctober 22, 1964.

__________. P ersonal in te rv iew . O ctober 25, 1964.

__________. P ersonal in te rv iew . June 30 , 1965.

Q uijada H ernandez , Arm ando. P ersonal in te rv iew . O ctober 25, 1964.

Sm ith, W illiam N . Telephone co n v e rsa tio n . June 6, 1964.

S p icer, Edward H . Telephone c o n v e rsa tio n . August 20, 1963.

_________ . P ersonal in te rv iew . M ay 15, 1965.

03003