sorghumm-reviewed no 220

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INTRODUCTION

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolar (L.) Moench) is one of the important cereal crops and major

staple food in most part of the world with more than 40.5 M hectares and production figures

of 55.7 M tonnes, respectively with Asia as a leading continent, followed by Africa in which

Nigeria cultivate 4.7 million hectares. However, area cultivated in Africa was 24.8 M

hectares with the production quantity of 20.9 M tonnes and average yield of 0.8 M tonnes per

hectare (FAO. 2010). The land area put into cultivation of sorghum in Nigeria was 4.7 M

hectares while the production figures were 4.8 M tonnes, respectively. The average yield of

the Nigerian farmers was 1.0 tonnes per hectare. The guinea sorghum is the most widely

cultivated and adaptable race which are common in the savannas ecological zone.

Sorghum is mainly used in the form of flour or paste processed into two main dishes.

Tuwo a thick porridge and OGI or KAMU a thin diet or porridge. Other dishes that are

sometimes made from sorghum include a number of deep fried snacks, steamed dumplings

and other boiled or roasted snack foods.

The production constraint of sorghum include farmers at the margin of subsistence level do

not invest much in fertilizer and improve varieties, rising labour cost, consumer change in

food preference due to income increase, birds attacks and parasitic weed such as striga.

Grain moulds causes significant losses in both grain yield and quality, particularly in areas

where improved cultivars have been adopted. Other important diseases include anthracnose,

ergot and leaf blight. Insect pests constrain production in many areas. Stem borers, head bugs,

midge and shoot fly are among the most important.

Another major problem is that variable rainfall leads to large fluctuation in production. Price

fall abruptly in good years, leaving traders reluctant to enter the market, especially since

stockholding infrastructure is usually inadequate. This increases the price risk that sorghum

producers face, and their unwillingness to invest in commercial sorghum production.

This bulletin is aim at considering the complete value chain of sorghum (productions,

processing, marketing, and utilization) in the light of relevant research findings applicable to

savannah zones of Nigeria.

INPUTS

Production inputs

Production inputs include seed, fertilizer, herbicides, insecticides and other chemicals used insorghum production.

Seed

Seed is an important input in sorghum production. In order to have good germination, farmers

should carefully select seeds that are not damage

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Figure. 1: Sorghum seeds Vareity

Fertilizer

Fertilizer can be divided into organic and inorganic which are both important for sorghum

production. A detail of rates and application methods is presented under cultural practices.

Herbicides

Weed can be controlled in cropland through cultural, mechanical and chemical means. Wiseuse of these individual methods or a combination of them can manage weeds effectively

without causing economic loss or harming the environment. Deciding which practice to use

will depend largely on the type of weed(s) to be control and the infestation level. Also, the

crop being planted will play a major role in determining the timeliness of mechanical

measures.

Processing inputs

The processing inputs are divided into traditional and modern. The traditional ones include

machete, knives, ropes, empty sacks/tarpaulin, mortar and pestle, beating stick,

winnower/calabashes/bowls and grinding stones while the modern ones are different type of

threshers, dryers, dehuller, milling machines, etc.

Figure. 2: IAR Prototype Sorghum threshers.

Varieties

The improve varieties and their characteristics released by Institute for Agricultural Research

(IAR) were listed in Table 1: Many of the varieties developed by IAR, Samaru have short

stalks, which make them amenable to mechanical harvesting. Short-season sorghum have

been developed and released for production in the semi-arid areas and southern part of the

Sudan, where the rainfall is less than 600 mm per annum.

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Figure. 3: Improved sorghum varieties

In the Northern guinea savanna, medium maturing sorghum varieties have also been

developed and released. Here the rainfall requirement ranges between 600-1800mm per

annum, with about seven months of rain.

In the southern Guinea savanna where there is more rainfall and the growing period is very

long (over 180 days), late-maturing sorghum varieties that are adapted to the zone, have also

been developed and released.

TABLE 1. Improved maturing sorghum varieties released by IAR, Samaru for Sudan

savanna ecology.

Release

NameNew Name Characteristics

KSV4(BES) SAMSORG-3

Shot season type, maturity period 95-105 days (early) semi-dwarf.

Resistant/tolerant to striga. Seed colour cream. Potential yields 1.5-

2.5 t ha-.

KSV 11 SAMSORG-5Shot season, maturity period 95-105 days (early) Tolerant to striga.

dwarf type. Seed colour white. Potential yield,1.5-2.5 t ha-1

KSV 12 SAMSORG-6Shot season, maturity period 95-105 days (early). Tolerant to striga.

Semi-dwarf. Potential yield 1.5-2.5 t ha-1, Seed colour cream.

lCSV4000 SAMSORG -4O

Shot season, maturity period 95-100 days (early)

Tolerant to striga. Semi-dwarf. Potential yield 2.5-3.5 t ha-1, Seed

colour cream.Use for malt production and brewing.

SSV98001 SAMSORG 42

Tall 2-3 m, Open panicles, white seeded, Late maturing 105-120

days, Potential yield 2.5-3.0 t ha-1, Tolerant to most leaf diseases,

except Anthracnose

SSV98002 SAMSORG 43

Tall 2.7-2.8 m, Open panicles, Late maturing 105-120 days,

Potential yield 2.5-3.0 t ha-1, Tolerant to most leaf diseases.

SSV20042 SAMSORG 44

Tall 1.9-2.0 m, Compact panicles, White seeded, Early maturing

95-100 days, Potential yield 2.0-2.5 t ha-1, Tolerant to most leaf

diseases.

KSV 3(SK

5912)SAMSORG-17

Long season, Semi-tall. Tolerant to striga. Maturity period 165-175

days. Potential yield 2.5- 3.5 t ha-1, Seed colour yellow. For

Industrial use especially for brewing, Livestock, confectionery.

SSV2 (FBL) SAMSORG-16

Long season. Tall. Farafara, Maturity period 165-175 days. Potential

yields 2.5-3.5 t ha. Seed colour white. Use by Industries especially

for brewing

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Seed Sources

The Institute for Agricultural Research has the mandate for the genetic improvement of

sorghum for the whole of Nigeria, covering the four main savanna ecological zones.

It is therefore mandatory for the Institute to continuously maintain its breeder seed, and in

some cases foundation Seed stock. The Institute can grow enough foundation seed of any of

the varieties listed in Table 1on request.

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PRODUCTION

Cultural Practices

Site Selection

Sorghum is a cereal crop that can grow in a wide variety of soils ranging from heavy clay in

the Southern Guinea savanna to sandy loam in the Sudan /Sahel savanna ecologies. It does

best in soils with high moisture retention capacity, well drained and fertile clay loam in

nature. It is fairly tolerant to alkalinity and salinity. It can tolerate some drought situations

that is why It is described as a hardy crop.

Landclearing

Land clearing is usually done just before the on-set of the rains. Crop residue of the previous

crop grown on the area including shrubs are cut and burnt, while bushy trees are pruned to

reduce their shading effect on the crop.

Land Preparation

Sorghum is most important in the northern Guinea and the Sudan savanna ecologies where

the soils are light and sandy; this is also similar in the Sahel savanna where minimum land

preparation through tiling is required. The seeds are planted in old furrows by farmers in such

areas. In heavier soils such as in the southern Guinea savanna ecology proper land

preparation is necessary. Where a tractor is available the land should be ploughed and left for

two weeks. It is then harrowed and ridged 75 to 90cm apart.

Figure. 4: Stages/types of land preparation for sorghum crop.

With the ox-drawn mould board, bulls are trained to break or split old ridges to form new

ones in the old furrows. After the land preparation the seed bed should be weed-free and the

soil well pulverized.

Choice of varieties: There are three main ecologies with seasonal variations, these includethe Southern Guinea Savanna (SGS) with a long growing period of about seven to eight (7-8)

months of rainfall, the varieties to grow here should be long duration or late maturing

varieties (Table 1).

In the Northern Guinea Savanna (NGS) the growing season is shorter than in the SGS but

longer than in Sudan/Sahel savanna. Varieties of sorghum to be grown here are medium

maturing. The rainfall here last between six and seven months (6-7 months). In the

Sudan/Sahel savanna, the growing period is short with the rainfall lasting between four and

five months (4-5 months) Varieties of sorghum grown here are short duration or early

maturing in order to escape the drought that is frequently experienced at the end of the

growing season.

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Seed rate

To plant a sole crop of sorghum in one hectare of land, you need 10-15kg of seeds. Seeds are

planted 3-5 seeds/hole and at 25-30cm between stands for good germination to occur.

For intercropping

Sorghum: 8kg of seed per hectare. Planted 3-5 seed/hole and thin to 2-3 plant per

stand after 10 days of emergence.

Seed dressing

Most soils are contaminated with soil borne diseases like bacteria and fungi. In some cases

insect pests and soil pests such as root-knot nematode may be found. Before planting your

seed, dress all seeds with seed dressing chemicals. Use one sachet of Aprons star or Apron

plus 50 DS to dress 1.0kg (1 mudu) of seeds.

Planting

Sorghum seed are plant on a well prepared seed bed as soon as the rains is established. To

enhance good germination plant after a good rain. Poor seed germination, will eventually

affect the yield.

Thinning

Thinning is done 2-3 weeks after planting. The seedlings are thinned to two plants per stand,

where gaps exist you need to transplant when the soil is wet and preferably in the evening.

The transplants should carry as much root as possible and the foliage should be slightly

pruned to reduce evapo-transpiration and shock. The transplants are planted upright. In both

the planting and the transplants the soil around crop shouldbefirmed.

Fertilizer application

Nigerian soils are deficient in the major nutrient elements -nitrogen, phosphorus and

potassiumandsome essential micro-nutrients.

Rate:

For good sorghum growth and yield, 64kg Nha-1 30 kg P205ha-1 and 30kg K2Oha

-1 are

required. Phosphorus and potassium are applied during land preparations and nitrogen is

applied in split application. Half the nitrogen rate is either applied at planting or three weeks

after sowing and the balance banded or spot application at about 25cm from the plant at six

weeks after sowing.

Fertilizer rates can be satisfied using the following:

a 4 bags of 15:15:15 NPKcompound fertilizer during land preparation or at planting or

at 3 weeks after sowing. This should be followed by 1.5 bags Urea 6 weeks after

sowing.

b 1.5 bags of urea plus 3.3 bags of SSP (18% P205) at planting followed by 1.3 bags of

urea 6 weeks after sowing.

Where the land is prepared with tractor the first dose of the fertilizer or combination of

fertilizers should be applied after harrowing and before ridging. It is more economical to spot

apply the first dose of fertilizer about 3 weeks after sowing. This increases the crop vigor and

controls weeds. There is need for molding up the ridges after the application of the second

dose of nitrogen, this helps in covering the fertilizer up and weed control.

Weed Control.

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Weed infestation can reduce crop yields by as much as 30-50% if not controlled, for instance

Striga, a parasitic weed, had been found to cause total crop failure where susceptible sorghum

varieties have been planted in highly infested fields.

Figure. 5: Striga as major weeds of sorghum

To control the non-parasitic weeds, two weedings at 3 weeks and 6 weeks after sowing and

ridge moulding (8 week after sowing) are required. Where parasitic weeds are a problem,

apart from choosing a striga tolerant or resistant sorghum variety, all emerged striga plants

should be hand pulled and burnt. Increasing the nitrogen fertilizer rate from 64 kg N to 90kg

N ha-1 will help the crop growth vigor to withstand the attack by striga.

Recommended herbicides for weed control include Atrazine, premextragold pendimenthalin

each at 4L/ha and also apply pre-emergence (0-1 DAS).

Harvesting

Time of harvestvaries with the duration of the crop variety. Early maturing varieties mature

early and are ready for harvest in Oct/Nov. Sorghum that is mature and ready for harvest will

be well filled and the grain will be hard. The leaves will turn yellow to brown with the lower

leaves drying up completely. As soon as the crop is mature, harvest should commence

immediately as some of the varieties tend to shatter and you will loose much seed (yield).

For tall and Medium-dwarf varieties, the plant is cut down before the panicle(s) (head) is cut

off. For dwarf varieties the panicles are cut off directly from the plant and are packed in a

basket or bag. In both cases the heads are either allowed to further dry in the field or taken

home straight.

Figure 6: Harvesting of sorghum

Post-harvest processing and storage

Where the sorghum is to be stored in heads, theheadsshould be well dried for good keeping.

If the grains are to be stored, the heads are dried thoroughly before they are threshed. The

panicles are pounded in a mortar or beaten with sticks on a smooth floor preferably cement

floor to avoid sand particles.

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Figure. 7a: Winnowing of sorghum Figure. 7b: 100kg bag of winnowed

sorghum

Whether the heads or grains are to be stored, the store should be cleaned fumigated with

phostoxin or actellic dust (11 mL/L of water and apply 1 L of diluted mixture for every 20

m2 of surface area) so that it will be insect-free. If the crop is to be stored in bags, the bags

should be air tight and fumigated with phostoxin at the rate of two tablets per bags of 100 kg

seed.

Crop Protection

Over 32 diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes have been reported. A few

of these diseases are currently of major importance, some have potential as emerging, while

many are limited in occurrence. A large number of insect species have been reported on

sorghum in Nigeria. However, only a few are of economic importance.

MAJOR DISEASES

Foliar Diseases

Anthracnose

Anthracnose causedby Colletotrichum graminicola (C. sublineolum), is the most important

foliar disease on both local and improved sorghum varieties. It is most prevalent and

destructive in the northern and southern guinea guinea savannah zones. Although three

symptom types (foliar, panicle and stalk) are reported, recent reports suggest panicle

anthracnose is now prevalent in farmersfields. It is reported to cause yield loss from foliar

infection of up to 47 percent on susceptible varieties. Variation among foliar population ofC.

graminicola has been established in Nigeria. Current status establishes the existence of six

physiological races in Nigeria.

Figure. 8: Anthracnose Leaf Blight

Control

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Management of the disease depends on fungicides and the use of resistant varieties. Varieties

resistant to anthracnose include SAMSORG 42 SAMSORG 43 etc. Many resistant lines have

been identified in Nigeria and include: IS 5359. IS 5360, IS 20302, IS 24733, IS 24721.

ICSV 901 NG, CSM 417. Malisor 84-5, Naga white Yarruruka, Gaya early. Lines with

resistance to foliar panicle and grain anthracnose have also been identified.

Grey Leaf SpotThis disease caused by Cercospora sorghi is more prevalent on local varieties in the Guinea

savanna zone. In highly susceptible genotypes e.g. SAMSORG 17 (SK 5912), Mixed

infections of this disease and zonate leaf spot (caused by Gloeocercospora sorghi) have been

observed.

Control

Disease management is based on host plant resistance (where available). Genotypes such

Naga white. ICSV 901 NG. Yarruruka. ICSV 902 NG Sariasso 3, Sariasso 10 and Gaya

early have been identified to have resistance to grey leaf spot.

Panicle diseases

Grain mould

Grain mould (GM) is one of the most important diseases limiting sorghum production within

Nigeria although earlier surveys in the sixties and seventies had indicated that it was rare in

farmers fields. It is more prevalent on early maturing local and improved varieties grown in

the Sudano-Sahelian zones and also on medium maturing local and improved varieties

introduced into the southern fringes of northern Guinea savanna and in the southern Guinea

savanna. It is caused by a complex of fungi including: Fusarium moniliforme; F.

pollidoroseum; Curvularia lunata; Phoma sorghina Aspergillus flavus; species of

Acremonium, Bipolaris, Cercospora, Exserohilum, Nigrospora, Gleocercospora, Phomopsis,

and Verticllium. Grain moulds degrade crop yield and quality by discoloration, smaller seedsize and reduced feed processing quality. Further, mouldy grain has been reported to contain

aflatoxins.Zearalenone andpatulin.

Figure. 9: Grain mould diseases in sorghum

Control

Management of grain mould in Nigeria has seen the use of several approaches that target both

grain moulds and head bugs. These include the use of host plant resistance; cultural practices

e.g. date of planting and integrated management options where high yielding local resistant

varieties are planted at appropriate periods.

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Smuts

Smuts are the most widespread group of diseases of sorghum in growing areas of Nigeria

where they cause damage on both traditional and improved cultivar. There are four smuts on

rain fed sorghum: grain or covered smut (Sporisorium sorghi loose smut (Sporisorium

cruentum), head smut (Sporisorium reilianum and long smut (Sporisorruim ehrenbergii).

Covered smut is the only post-rainy season smut of sorghum grown in the Lake Chad area.

The prevalence of smuts among the agro-ecological zones of Nigeria varies from one area toanother. Covered smut prevalent in the Sahel, Sudan,Northern Guinea Savanna (NGS) and

Southern Guinea Savanna (SGS) zones.

Control

Although covered smut was once endemic, it was successfully controlled by use of seed

dressing chemicals. Recent evidence, however, suggests the incidence has increased

dramatically. Similar loose smut, which was once reported as light and sporadic in

occurrence is now widespread with increasing Incidence around the Sudano-Sahelian zones.

Figure. 10: Grain Smut of sorghum

The Increased incidence of covered and loose smuts are attributed to many factors such as

increased cost and erratic supply of agricultural inputs, lack of suitable seed treatment

chemicals and the existence of an alternate host Cynodon dactylon for the covered smut

pathogen in the region.

Covered smut management continues to be based on seed dressing fungicides, host plant

resistance. Resistant varieties identified include: ICSV 2: ICSV G49; ICSV 1002 and NSV

74. Long smut is predominantly a disease of the dry - Sahelian zones. Management of the

disease is by use of resistant varieties where available and by late planting. Resistant varieties

identified include ICSV XL Naga white, Yarruruka (Jollofl. 90 SN 7 and ICSV 901 NG).

Head smut

Head smut is most prevalent in the SGS zone of West a Central Africa (WCA) with sporadic

occurrence in NGS and the Sudano-Sahelian zones. It occurs primary on late maturing

cultivars and management is through sowing of resistant varieties.

ParasiticWeeds

Striga hermonthica is a major biotic constraint to Sorghum production in Nigeria where many

local and improved varieties are susceptible to the parasite. Yield losses particularly under

drought conditions, may be high (90-100%).

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Figure. 11: Striga infested field

Host plant resistance can be a major component of integrated striga management when it

occurs in adapted and productive cultivars. The variety SAMSORG 41 (ICSV Ill) has been

identified while SAMSORG 17 (KSV 8) has also been identified to be tolerant to S.

hermonthica in Nigeria.

ControlThe approaches include cultural and mechanical activities such as pulling, crop rotation, trap

cropping, catch cropping, mixed cropping; chemical and integrated control. Biological

control ofStriga spp. is a research area which has recently shown promising result.

Minor Diseases

Sooty stripe, caused by Ramulispora sorghi ergot caused by Claviceps africana has been

observed on seed production plots. Head blight, caused by F. moniliforme, is prevalent in the

Northern Guinea and Sudan zones where it occasionally causes significant yield loss.

High incidence of oval leaf spot (Rainulispora sorghicola), zonate leaf spot and leaf blight

(Exserohium turcicum.) occur, but at low levels in many farmers fields in the northern Guineaand Sudan zones while rough leaf spot (Ascvchyta sorghina is predominant in the southern

Guinea savanna. A high incidence of ladder leaf spot (Cercospora fuscimaculans occurs in

the southern Guinea savanna.

Figure. 12: Leaf blight of sorghum

A relationship between sorghum yellow leaf blotch caused by Xanthomonas sp. and spittle

bugs (Locris ruberns; Poophilus costalis) has been reported in Nigeria where the feeding

bugs transmit the bacterium Xanthomonas sp. Maize Streak virus (MSV) and Maize mosaic

virus (MMV) are reported on Sorghum in Nigeria.

Eighteen genera of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported to be associated with

sorghum and other cereals in the Nigerian savanna. Sped belonging to five genera:

Pratylenchus; Aphelenchoides; Helicotylenchus; Tylenchus; and Ditylenchus occurred in

more than 50% of the surveyed fields. Pratylenchus and Heticotylenchus species had the

highest Incidence occurring in 90% of sorghum fields surveyed. This study established a11


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correlation between incidence Pokkah boeng (induced by F. moniliforme) and the incidence

of nematode symptoms across all fields surveyed.

Storage fungi especially Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. ochraceus, Penicillium, Penicillium

spp. have been reported to be associated with stored sorghum grain in Nigeria. Sorghum grain

stored with moisture content higher than 12% are highly predisposed to infection.

Major insect pests

Nearly 15 insect species have been reported as pests of sorghum in Nigeria. However the

major pests include:

Foliage feeders

Spittle bug

The spittle bug, Poophilus costalis Walker is a serious pest of late planted sorghum crop in

the northern Guinea and Sudan savanna zones. The bug causes considerable damage by

feeding on sorghum leaves and within leaf whorls, resulting in chlorotic spots and botches on

the leaves. In very severe cases of infestation, the plants become stunted in growth, producing

smaller panicles. The pest can attain high densities in late or phased planting. The adult bugs

are usually small brown or grey jumping insects usually 11mm long. The nymphs always

remain inside a foamy spittle mass resting head downward on the plant.

Control

Early plantings escape spittle bug infestation as chemical control is not usually necessary.

However in late sown seed production plots, application of Furadan 3G into the whorls

control the insect.

African Army worm

The army worm Spodoptera exempta Walker) is an occasional pest of sorghum in Nigeria. It

occurs periodically in major outbreaks resulting in extensive loss of crops. It is a general

grass feeder, attacking pasture grasses and other cereal crops. The damage is caused by the

larvae. They are gregarious and move through the vegetation at very high infestation rates.

Solitary larvae are green, but the gregarious forms are black with green undersides. Pupation

occurs in soil and the adults emerge in about 1 week. Moths migrate long distances, giving

rise to outbreaks away from the site of Infestation. Outbreaks are usually associated with rain.

Control

Control of major outbreaks can be satisfactorily effected only if national or state

organizations apply insecticides in outbreak areas. It is very important to detect infestation at

an early stage. Small infestations can be controlled by using insecticides such as malathion,

endosulfan and trichlorphon.

Grasshoppers

Grasshoppers (Oedalus senegalensis, Krauss) are a major pest especially in the Sahel zone of

Nigeria. It attacks all stages of the plant, but most crop loss occurs when the crop is attacked

at the seedling stage or at the ripening of panicles. Both nymphs and adults feed on sorghum

as well as other cereals and wild grasses.

Control

It can be control by using insecticides. Malathion and diazlnon are particularly effective.

Sorghum shoot fly

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The shoot fly Anrherigona soccata (Rondani) is a widespread and damaging pest in all

sorghum growing areas of Nigeria. The damage is as a result of larval feeding on the central

leaf which wilts and later dries up, giving the characteristic dead heart symptom. The dead

heart can be easily pulled out and, at the base, emits a bad smell. The young whitish yellow

maggot feeds only on the decaying tissue. Normally, the damage occurs from 1 week to about

1 month after emergence. If the attack occurs a little later, plants produce side tillers that may

also be attacked. Late sowing during the rainy season increases the likelihood of attack.

Control

The more promising control measures are the adjustment of sowing dates, high seeding rate,

use of higher yielding shoot fly resistant cultivars (ICSV 700, ICSV 7 0 5 , ICSV 717, etc)

and the use of systemic insecticides (e.g. carbofuran).

Stem Feeders

The stalk borerBusseola fusca (Fuller) is a very important pest of sorghum in Nigeria

especially in the northern Guinea and southern Sudan savanna zones. Young larvae feed on

leaves, while more mature larvae bore into the stems and produce dead hearts. In severe cases

of infestation, plant growth is retarded and flowering and grain production are seriouslyreduced. Adults normally exhibit a wide variation in colour and usually, three generations are

produced per year. The third generation larvae enter into diapauses with the onset of the dry

season and complete their development 5-7months.

Control

Management or control is achieved by the destruction of dry stalks and stubble by burning or

ploughing reduces borer density. Early sowing reduces infestation. Insecticides such as

carbofuran and carbaryl are known to be effective.

Head Feeders

Sorghum midge

The sorghum midge (Contarina sorghicotci) is probably the most widely distributed in the

Sudan savanna zone of Nigeria. Damage to sorghum is caused by larvae feeding on the

ovary, preventing normal grain development and resulting in a blasted panicle. The pupal

stage in a generation lasts for only 3 days. Because of this rapid developmental cycle, 9 to 12

generations could occur during one cropping season, thus resulting in the buildup of high

populations and infestations when sorghum flowering times are extended by a wide range of

planting dates or maturities.

Figure. 13: Sorghum midge

Control

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Control is achieved by early and uniform planting of sorghum over large areas and is the

most widely accepted method of reducing midge damage. Multiple insecticide applications

directed at adults are used primarily to reduce losses in late plantings. The resistant variety

ICSV 197 has been identified.

The Head bugs

The head bug,Eurystylus oldi is a serious pest of sorghum in Nigeria. The nymphs and adultssuck the nuts sap from developing grain. Damage starts as soon as the panicle emerges from

the boot leaf. Bug damaged dust grain shows distinct red to brown feeding punctures which

create quantitative and qualitative losses. Head damage spoils the grain quality, and renders

the tan unfit for human consumption. Such grain also shows poor germination. Bug damage

also increases the severity of grain moulds.

Figure. 14: Leaf footed bug on sorghum panicle

Control

Host plant resistance remains the major control measure. The use of open panicle sorghumsvariety such as SAMSORG 42 and SAMSORG 43 reduces incidence of head bugs.

Insect pests of stored sorghum

Maize weevil

The weevil (Sitophilus zeamnis) and related species such as rice weevil (S. oryzzae) are the

most destructive insect pest of stored sorghum grain in Nigeria. They infest a very large

variety of stored grains and are cosmopolitan distribution but are much more damaging in

warm humid conditions. Both adults and larvae feed on grain, which may often be damaged

beyond use.

Control

Control can be achieved by storing grain in a dry, clean condition, in insect proof containers.

If the grain moisture content is less than 9% the insect is unable to feed. If keeping the grain

dry is not practicable, fumigation may be the only feasible protection.

Flour beetles

The confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum) and the flour beetle (T. castenum) are

generally widely distributed. They are found infesting stored sorghum grain and other grains,

seeds, flour, dried fruits, in the granaries, mills and warehouses. The larvae ofT. confusum

feed on flour or other materials such as grain dust and broken surfaces of grain kernels. They

are primarily secondary feeders. Adult beetles ofT. castenum can readily be observed by thetunnels the construct when they move through flour or other granular products. When attack

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is severe, contaminated grain or flour turn grayish yellow and become mouldy, with a

pungent smell.

Control

Exclusion of insects by storing products in sealed containers provides effective control.

Fumigants are also effective.

Angoumois grain moth

The grain moth Sitotroga cereoldilu (Oliver) is a cosmopolitan storage pest of sorghum in

Nigeria. It is also known to attack maize, rice and wheat. Infestation can begin in the field. In

storage, the infestation is confined to the upper layer of grain. The larvae bore into the grain

and remain there until they emerge as adults from round emergence holes. The infested grain

is completely hollowed out and filled with larval excreta or webbing.

Control

Control is easily achieved by keeping grain moisture content below 12%. Fumigation is also

very effective.

Insect Pests of Minor Importance

Other insect pests of sorghum reported in Nigeria include the shoot fly (Antherigorza

soccata), bollworm (Heliothis armigera) and the blister beetle Mylabris pustulata). Storage

pests of minor importance include lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dorninica) and the flat

grain beetle (Crptolestes pusillus).

Economy of sorghum production

Table 2: Cost and returns in sorghum productions per hectare in 2007

Item Unit cost

(N)

Quantity/ha Value (N/ha)

I. Labour (man days)

II. Seeds

III. fertilizers

IV. Misc. expenses

Total variable cost (TVC)

Average total output

Unit price of output

Gross returns/ha (N)

Gross margin/ha (N)

300

70/kg

3200

-

-

-

N40/kg

-

-

25

10 kg

Four 50kg NPK and one 50kg

Urea

-

-

1300kg

-

-

-

750

700

16000

2400

26600

-

-

60000

33400

Average rate of return/TVC 1.25

Source : I.A.R, A.B. U Zaria.

Processing and utilization of sorghum

Sorghum Processing Technology

Processing of sorghum entails applying suitable grain, milling and malting procedures, which

will not only maintain nutritional value, but also lead to minimal grain losses with improved

marketability of the end products. The process goes through primary processing which

involves cleaning, dehulling (decorticating), pounding and milling. Then comes the

secondary processing, which involves turning material into food, i.e. cooking, blending,fermentation and roasting. Both traditional and industrial processing methods are employed,

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which may involve the partial or complete separation and/or modification of the three major

constituents of the cereal grain, i.e. the germ, the starch-containing endosperm and the

protective pericarp (or testa).

Industrial methods of processing sorghum though not well developed as that of other cereals

have had significant impact on the food security of the country. Industrial processing is in

most cases, geared towards production of grit, malt, meal/flour and sometimes germ, withbran and germ-cake as by-product for feeding animals. Two main methods usually employed

in sorghum processing are dry-milling and wet-milling.

Cleaning

In traditional systems, grain cleaning is achieved by winnowing, while washing in water will

remove most dust and stones. In mechanised systems, forced air (aspiration) is used to

remove lighter materials, while most stones, dust and other material are removed as the grain

passes over a series of screens. Ferrous metal are removed by a permanent magnet placed in

the flow path of the grain.

Small Scale Dry milling of Sorghum

The production of virtually all sorghum foods first comprise of two major operations: 1)

Debranning (dehulling)- removal of the unpalatable, sometimes tannin-rich and highly

pigmented bran and the rancidity causing fat-rich germ; 2) Size reduction (grinding)-

converting the endosperm into meal or flour. Traditionally in Africa, sorghum milling has

been done using a pestle and mortar for dehulling and saddle quern for grinding or size

reducing the grain, methods still used in many African communities (Fig. 15).

Today, mechanised milling is becoming the norm, creating a milling industry and the

opportunity for manufacture of more versatile sorghum food products to meet growing worldfood demands. Probably the most common method of mechanised sorghum milling in Africa

is by abrasive debranning (also known as decortication or dehulling), followed by hammer

milling of the endosperm material.

Figure. 15: Ancient method of milling sorghum into flour

(a) Dehulling using pestle and mortar (b) Grinding using saddle quern

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Figure. 16: Sorghum grinding Machines

Large scale Milling

The sequence of operations in sorghum dry milling is as follows:

Cleaning: the sorghum is weighted and conveyed to a separator consisting of two sets

of sieves equipped with an air aspirator. Stones, sticks and other coarse and fine

materials are removed.

Conditioning: The sorghum grain is passed into bins and at the same time

conditioned by the addition of water (cold ot hot) or steam so that the moisture

content is raised to 19-22%, at which condition it is best suited for miling. The

conditioned grain rests for about 24 hours before milling.

De-germing and miling: When optimum conditioning has been achieved, the

sorghum is passed through a worm-conveyor from where it is dropped into a

degerming machine consisting of a conical rotor revolving inside a conical stator.

Both parts are fitted with studs which break up the grain. The grains then passed

through successive fluted-rollers with decreasing fineness where they are reduced togrits, coarse, middlings, flour and bran.

Separation of the milling components (sifting): The milled grain is then passed

through a rotary drier to reduce its moisture content to about 15%. It is then passed

through a cooling worm into two rotating cylidrical sieves which removes the

sorghum meal from the grits, germ and bran.

Packaging: The milled products are packaged in bags of 10, 25 and 50 kg weights for

distribution to market outlets. In most cases however, the grits are bulk transported to

secondary production plants for use in infant foods and confectioneries.

Wet-Milling

Like other cereals, sorghum is wet-milled to obtain starch, oil, animal feeds (gluten feed,

gluten meal, germ cake) and the hydrolysis products of starch (i.e. liquid and solid glucose

syrup). Dark-coloured sorghum varieties are not suitable for wet-milling as the colours

leaches out in to the steep unless a means for removing the colours is employed. The process

which can also be carried at cottage level yield products like starch, germ, fibre and sorghum

gluten. The steps involved in sorghum wet-milling are basically the same at both the small

and large scale levels.

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a. Steeping. The sorghum is cleaned and steeped for about 24-72 hours at room

temperature [or 24 48 hours in warm water (about 50 oC)] containing sulphur

dioxide (0.03%).

b. De-germing. The steep water is drained off and the soaked grain is run through

attrition mills to break it and free the germs. The slurry of ground sorghum is allowed

to stand: the germ floats and is skimmed off for use in oil extraction and animal feeds.

c. Milling. The de-germed slurry after straining is finely ground using attrition mill, and

the hulls and fibre which are not finely ground are separated from the protein and

starch using fine mesh screens.

d. Separation of starch from protein. By subjecting the slurry in a high speed

centrifuge, the starch which is heavier is separated at the outer region of the centrifuge

while the lighter protein fractions migrate to the centre. The fractions of starch and

protein are then dried to safe moisture levels.

e. Oil extraction (at large scale only).Oil can also be extracted from the germ by eitherhydraulic press, screw press or solvent extraction using normal hexane

Main products obtained from sorghum wet-milling are starch,gluten (protein) and Germ (for

oil)

MARKETING OF SORGHUM

Sorghum is found in all Nigerian markets. It is widely consumed by most households,

especially in the north, and it is used by breweries for producing beverages. Sorghum is

important for households in the north, particularly the border markets where it is heavily

traded with Niger. Below are the various market outlets which farmers can explore.

Table 4: Key Sorghum markets in Nigeria

Makets location state

Dawanau Dawakin tofa Kano

Kaura namoda Kaura namoda Zamfara

Illela Illela Sokoto

Maiaduwa Daura Katsina

Giwa Giwa Kaduna

Dandume Dandume Katsina

Saminaka Lere Kaduna

Bodija Ibadan Oyo

Mile 12 Epe Lagos

Minna Minna Niger

Mai gatari Mai gatari Jigawa

Lafiya Lafiya Nassarawa

Buying and selling of sorghum

The marketing of sorghum start with the farmers. They sell through the rural assemblers,

wholesalers, retailers and consumers as well as local processor. These assemblers, who often

handle relatively smaller volumes, may include some local farmers who have accumulated a

little capital. The assemblers visit farmers often at harvest time and buy sorghum often in

cash although they may get it on credit whenever adequate trust has been built between the

buyer and the seller.18


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The points of sale are usually farm, home, village, and village and rural markets. The unit of

measurement is not standard, as the grain is sold in bags, mudu or tiya. Prices are negotiate

between the buyers and the sellers. Once buy the produce is transported to wholesalers in the

urban centres using bicycle, lorry, pick-up van, trucks or buses depending on the quantity and

accessibility of the road.

Quality criteria for Sorghum

Traders and stockists want dry, clean grain, neither infested nor damaged.

Millers want clean grain in homogeneous batches, not too hard for grinding and

giving a high yield of milling products.

Processors want hulled or broken products of homogeneous size, free of sand or other

impurities and without parasitic odours or infestation.

Consumers are sensitive to the colour, the texture, the aroma and the taste of the

product after final cooking.

These quality criteria, reflected in the price, are always present even if the current quality

standards are not always respected.

General standard for export

1. The standard applies to sorghum for direct human consumption.

2. Grains shall not have abnormal odour or taste.

3. Grains may be white, pink, red, brown orange or yellow or may be a mixture ofgrains.

4. Grains must be sound, clean and free from living insects.

5. Moisture content should not exceed 14.5 percent; ash not more than 1.5 percent on

dry matter; protein not less than 7 percent on dry matter basis.

6. Tannins: For whole grains - not to exceed 0.5 percent on dry matter. For polished

grains - not to exceed 0.3 percent on dry matter basis.

Packaging:

Threshed sorghum is packaged in sacks of 100, 200, 300, 500 and 750kg weights fordistribution to market outlets, warehouse, and stores. The sacks are often re-used and in case

of re-using, care should be taken to prevent re-infestation of clean grain by boiling sacks in

water and thorough drying.

Storage

The goal of good storage is to be able to deliver grain from store in good quality and with no

loss in quantity. This is achieved by preventing the deterioration caused by: Adverse climatic

conditions (temperature, relative humidity, etc), Contamination by extraneous material; Grain

germination; and Pest infestation.

Traditionally, unthreshed heads are store in a solid walled container called a rumbu, bins,silos, warehouse etc. For short-term storage, bundles of sorghum heads are arranged in layers

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in the rumbu. For long-term storage of three to six years, the heads are laid out individually

rather than in bundles. While threshed grains are stored in bags in small quantities for

immediate consumptions or for seed are store in clay pots, tins, or calabash. In large farms

and markets grains are stored in warehouse or in large silos.

Ensuring that the storage environment is clean and tidy and in a good state of repair, makes a

major contribution to the quality control during storage, but it is insufficient to prevent lossesby pests.

Transportation

In rural area donkeys, pick-up vans and trucks are mainly used to transport sorghum from the

point of production to home or rural markets, urban area and mill plant. In general Nigerian

agricultural value chains suffer greatly from high transportation costs. Limited rail service,

poor road conditions, go-slow bottlenecks, and rampant checkpoints contribute in the

reduction the competitiveness of agricultural goods produced in Nigeria. This is particularly

true of product that are transported over long distances, such as sorghum.

Figure. 17: Means of transportation of sorghum

Wholesaling

Sorghum wholesalers can be defined as traders who buy and sell in large volume. They

operate at several levels of the value chain; at the rural assembling level; regional level (longdistance assembler/wholesaler) and at consumer level.

Utilization of Sorghum and Sorghum Grain Products

Nutritive value of sorghum

Sorghum constitutes substantial amounts of energy and protein in the diet of the majority of

people in the sub-Saharan regions. Its contribution in terms of digestible protein and energy

available to the body are higher quality than those obtained from root and tuber crops (Table

3). Table 3. shows that sorghum is a good source of other nutrients such as calcium, iron,thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. These nutrients, though needed in small quantities are very

Important for growth and development, especially for children, pregnant and lactating

mothers. Sorghum can be utilized to the advantage of the majority of those who consume the

crop in their daily meals.

Table 6: Composition of sorghum in comparison with other staple crops.

Crop Protei

n (%)

Energy

Kcal

Calcium

(mg)

Iron

(mg)

Vit.

A

(mg)

Thiamine

(mg)

Riboflavi

n (mg)

Niacin

(mg)

Vit.

C

(mg)

Sorghum 9.5 353* 28 10.0 20 28 0.9 3.4 020


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flour

Cassava

(fresh)

1.2 128 68 1.0 45 0.04 0.05 0.6 31

Yam

(fresh)

1.9 111 52 0.8 25 0.11 0.02 0.3 6

Plantain

(raw)

1.2 128 8 1.3 170 0.08 0.04 0.6 20

Small-scale Utilisation of sorghum

Sorghum and sorghum products can be employed in a variety of food applications at both the

local and industrial levels. At the local level, indigenous/traditional products made from

sorghum includes: tuwo, burabusko, ogi (akamu), masa, sinasin, kunu gyada, kunu zaki (non-

alcoholic beverage), burukutu (alcoholic beverage) and many others.

1. Grits

Masa: Masa is a traditional fermented batter made from sorghum, maize, rice, millet or acombination of the cereals.Masa is usually served as a breakfast cereal with vegetable soup,

spices or stews.

Figure. 18: Masa

BURABUSKO (steam-cooked product):Burabusko is a common name for all steam-cooked

coarse flour products (like grits) produced from cereals including sorghum

PATE: This type of porridge is prepared from coarsely milled sorghum. It is very popular

household food.

COUSCOUS: This is a steam steam-cooked substance that is coarse and uniformly

gelatinised. Sorghum with a pigmented testa produces reddish-brown couscous with an

astringent taste. It is popular in many West African countries.

FLOUR

TUWON DAWA: Tuwo is a thick porridge prepared from sorghum flour which is popular in

northen Nigeria.

FURA:Fura is an unfermented, steam-cooked dough primarily made from

sorghum, millet or a combination of the two. Fura is usually taken withmilk, yoghurt ornono (kindirmo).

DAKUWA: Dakuwa is a snack food prepared from a blend of roasted sorghum and rosted

groundnut in a ratio of 1:1. The blend is mixed and a sugar solution added. The mixture is

then pounded and moulded into balls before serving.

MPURSA (meaning flour for drinking): Mpursa is prepared from roasted sorghum and

roasted groundnut in a ratio of 1:1 after dehulling and removing the skin respectively.

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure. 19: (a) Tuwo (b) Dan-wake(c) Akamu

2. Germ.

At the large scale, the germ is used for oil extracrion while it is is used principally in feeding

animals at the small scale and cottage levels

Large scale (Agro-industial) Utilization of sorghum and sorghum products

The main components recovered in the dry-milling of sorghum comprised of:

a. Grits: The pricipal use of sorghum grits is in the brewery as adjunts (up to 40%) to

barley base (mash) for making both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. It is also used

in making breakfast cereal (flakes), bakery products and snack foods. Non-food industrial

use include aluminium-ore refining, animal feeds, building materials and in foundry

binders.

b. Flour: Sorgum flour is a main ingredient in the manufacture of confectioneries such as

bread, biscuits, crackers, cakes, couscous, infant foods and cookies. It is also used in pies

and as thickeners in some foods. Non-food use include applications as thickening agent.

The fine fraction produced by the mill can be sold as gluten-free flour, and turned into

special bread, biscuits and cakes for people who suffer from Celiac disease. The flour

itself is very high in protein and typically constitutes 18-22% of the output.

c. Germ: Oil is recovered from the germ by either solvent extraction or hydraulic press and

use as cooking fat, for making margarine, shortenings, soaps, salad oil, etc. The meal

remaining after oil extraction is a main ingredient in making animal feeds.

d. Malt: This is a non-alcoholic drink prepared from malted sorghum. It is produce

industrially and commonly sold at both rural and urban community.

Pasta and noodles

Pasta products (noodles) such as spaghetti and macaroni are usually made from semolina or

from flour of durum wheat or common wheat or a mixture of both. Wheat has a unique

property of forming an extensible, elastic and cohesive mass when mixed with water.

Sorghum and millet flours lack these properties when used alone. Sorghum is inferior to

wheat for making pasta, both because it contains no gluten and because its gelatinization

temperature is higher than that of wheat. Miche et al. (1977) made pasta from mixtures of

sorghum with wheat. They found that to obtain products of good cooking quality it is

necessary to add some gelatinized starch to the sorghum flour before extrusion. The pasta

quality is influenced by the quality of both the sorghum flour and the starch. White sorghum

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is preferable for pasta products as its colour is similar to that of wheat flour. A composite

flour consisting of 70 percent wheat and 30 percent sorghum produced acceptable pasta.

Composite flours

Composite flour technology initially referred to the process of mixing wheat flour with cereal

and legume flours for making bread and biscuits. Diluting wheat flour with locally availablecereals (e.g. Sorghum) and root crops was found to be desirable to encourage the agricultural

sector and reduce wheat imports in many developing countries including Nigeria.

When sorghum is used for bread-making, addition of bread improvers or modification of the

bread-making process is needed. A higher level of substitution is possible with hard than with

soft wheat. For the production of biscuits from composite flours, the fat content of the non-

wheat flour should be kept as low as possible to promote a longer shelf-life.

Sorghum flour milled at 80 percent extraction rate could be blended with white wheat flour

for breadmaking without any adverse effect. Milling at 72 to 75 percent extraction rate

yielded fine sorghum flour that is more suitable for bread-making. Consumer acceptancetrials in Nigeria indicated that breads made with 30 percent sorghum flour were comparable

to 100 percent wheat bread. 55 percent sorghum could be used for biscuits without adversely

affecting biscuit quality.

Figure. 20: Sorghum confectioneries

(a) breakfast cereal (b) biscuits (c) Cakes (d) cookies

Use of Sorghum as Composite Flour in Baking

Blends of wheat, sorghum, and soybean flours in the ratio of 65:30:5 is used to make bread,

and 40:55:5 to make biscuits. Replacement of wheat up to a level of 20% with sorghum flour

produced acceptable bread, while further substitution up to 55% sorghum flour could give

acceptable biscuits. It was also found that a blend of 70% sorghum flour and 30% detoxifiedcassava starch could produce acceptable bread and cakes.

Figure. 21: Some bread made from sorghum composite flour

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Uses of Wet-milled sorghum products

The products obtained from wet-milling of sorghum include starch, glutein, germ (for oil)

and fibre. At the small scale level, sorghum is wet-milled to obtain starch, glutein and germ.

Depending on the desired finished products, different wet-milling yield different kinds of

products. Kunu (or kunun-zaki), sinasin, akamu (or ogi), etc. are produced by wet-milling

sorghum.

KUNU.Kunu or kunun-zaki (non-alcoholic beverage) is a very thin porridge prepared from

sorghum (millet, maize, rice) flour or a mixture of these cereals. Spices are added before

serving the slurry now called kunun-zaki.

AKAMU (ogi): Like kunu,akamu (ogi) can be made from any of the cereals.The product is

consumed warm or cooled along with bean-ball (akara) to obtain protein enriched diet. Ogi

(or akamu) is ideal as an infants food when complemented with a rich protein source because

of its ease of digetibility.

NDALEYI: Ndaleyi is an important food indigenous to north-east Nigeria that is producedfrom sorghum or millet.

Industrial Utilization of Wet-Milled Sorghum Products

a. Sorghum starch. The starch obtained in wet-milling of sorghum is used directly in paper

manufacture, textiles, adhesives, confectioneries and beverages, or is further hydrolysed

further to yield dextrose sugars and syrup. Dextrose sugar is employed in making jam &

jellies, canned fruits, soft drinks, confections and pharmaceuticals; Syrup is used in

making soft driks, ice-creams, caramel colour, mayonnaise, salad dressings, candy

pharmaceuticals, packaged foods, syrups and dextrose sugars. Glucose and dextrose.

These are used in soft drinks, additives, pharmaceuticals, confectioneries, baking andjams.

b. Sorghum gluten. Used as animal feeds, binding agent, additives in printing dyes and in

pharmaceuticals.

c. Germ. Oil is recovered from the germ for used in home cooking, making soaps, margarine

shortenings, etc.

Potential Food Application of Sorghum and Sorghum Products is in the area of:

a. Weaning or complementary foods production

b. Breakfast cereals (sorghum flakes) similar to corn-flakes

c. Popping of cereal grains to prepare ready-to-eat products would be very useful to

diversify their utilization in the value added foods, especially in supplementary

feeding programmes. Popped grains can be used as snack food also. Popped products

are stable for longer period compared to many other products from these germs.

Popping, being a simple dry heat processing technique, can be adopted from the household to industrial level conveniently.

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d. Refined flours suitable for special foods/ bakery; shelf stable flours for conventional

and composite flour based foods.

With increasing awareness, the potentialities of sorghum as a food security crop can be

exploited for improved nutrition and income generation.

PRODUCTS PROMOTION STRATEGY

Despite the relative importance of sorghum in the food system of this country, little of these

grains are commercially processed or marketed. As the countries become more urbanized and

disposable incomes increases, commercial agro-processing is bound to be stimulated. The

actual level of utilisation of any grain will depend on its relative competitiveness as food and

an industrial input. Industry will use only those grains obtained with lowest cost and are

consistently available throughout the year. The grain should also be amenable to processing

with the readily available technologies and meet consumer preferences. Creating linkages

between key sorghum value chain players coupled with industrialization and

commercialization of indigenous products will add value, improve their competitiveness, and

increase the demand for sorghum. Understanding consumer needs through consumerresearch, nutritional profiling of different cultivars and developed products, and developing

and transferring of processing equipment

Promotion strategy include but not limited to the following:

Establishment and revival of food plants utilizing sorghum as raw material in malt,

malt drinks and beverages

Establishment of both cottage and medium scale facilities for production of fortified

complementary/weaning foods using sorghum along with other legumes like Soy-

Akamu (soybean: sorghum flour blend), for infants, School Feeding Program, Foodaids and as export commodities.

Production of Ready-to-use foods such as tuwo meal/flour, noodles, pastas including

macaroni, spaghetti, couscous, composite flours (up to 20%) for making bakery

products; steamed foods like burabusko; confectioneries like biscuits, pancakes.

Advantages of Using Sorghum Products For Food

Nutritionally, sorghum compete well with other cereal grains although its per capita

consumption is high only in countries or areas where the climate does not allow economic

production of other cereals and where per capita incomes are relatively low. In most othercountries, consumption of sorghum as food is relatively small or negligible compared to other

cereals. Like other cereals, sorghum is predominantly a starchy crop. The protein content is

comparable to that of wheat and maize. Sorghum is relatively rich in iron and phosphorus.

Whole grains sorghum are important sources of vitamin B-complex, minerals which are

mainly concentrated in the outer bran layers of the grain. Whole grain sorghum products also

provides good insoluble fibre, which acts like broom sweeping and clearing the digestive

tract, improves bowel movement and facilitates the elimination of toxic substances such as

bile acids. Some yellow-endosperm sorghum varieties contain small amounts of -carotene,

a precursor of vitamin A. Moreso, processing methods that involve germination increases the

levels of the B-group vitamins and vitamin C. Like other items of foods, sorghum contain

some levels of antinutrients, but a combination of cooking and fermentation reduces thecontent of anti-nutritional factors to a safe level in comparison with other methods of

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processing. The high fibre content of whole sorghum and its antioxidant property suggest a

health, and nutraceutical rationale for human consumption in controlling sugar and

cholesterol levels, therefore, it can be used in dietetic management of diabetes and heart

conditions. There is epidemiological evidence suggesting that sorghum consumption reduces

the risks of certain types of cancers in humans

Summary

For optimum yield from sorghum follow these practices

Use the variety recommended for your area

Choose a good site

Prepare the land well

Treat seed

Used corrected spacing

Thin and weed

Apply fertilizer

Harvest carefully and dry your crop thoroughly

Protect grain from insects (Good/proper storage)

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References

AGSI/FAO. Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Sorghum. (1998).

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m.pdf 23/06/2012.

A wika, J.M., Rooney, L. W. (2004). Review: sorghum phytochemicals and their

potential impacts on human health. Phytochemistry, 65(9), 1199-1221 Awika, J.M.,

Rooney, L. W. (2004). Review: sorghum phytochemicals and their potential impacts on

human health. Phytochemistry, 65(9), 1199-1221

FAO (1994): African experience in the improvement of post-harvest techniques

http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1544E/W1544E00.htm 12/06/2012

FAO. (1995). Sorghum and millets in human nutrition. Food & Nutrition Series, No. 27.

www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm 19/06/2012

Farrar, J.L., Hartle, D.K., Hargrove, J.L., Greenspan, P. (2008). A novel nutraceutical

property of select sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) brans: inhibition of protein glycation.Phytotherapy Research, 22(8):1052-6.

Gonzales, A.J.P.( 2005). Specialist indirect- expansion extraction. M.Sc. Thesis, Texas A

& M University.

IAR Sorghum Manual.

Idem, N.U.A. and Showemimo, F.A. (eds.). Cereal Crops of Nigeria principle of

production and utilization, xxii, 337

J.E., J.O. Adeosun and C.K. Daudu. Production of guinea corn in Nigeria NAERLS

Extension bulletin No. 1

Obilana, A. Tunde. 1984. Sorghum crop improvement in cropping scheme meeting

Note on cereals research programme IAR/ABU., Samaru-Zaria.

Sharma, H C (1997)Host-plant resistance to shoot fly and spotted stem borer in

sorghum. In: Strengthening sorghum research collaboration in Asia: report of the Asian

Sorghum Scientist's Meeting, Suphan Buri, Thailand, 18-21 Nov 1997, Suphan Buri,

Thailand. http://oar.icrisat.org/2270/ on 4th August, 2012

Yang, L., Browning J.D., Awika J.M. (2009). Sorghum 3-deoxyanthocyanins possess

strong phase II enzyme inducer activity and cancer cell growth inhibition properties. J

Agric. Food Chem. 57(5):1797-804.

Taylor, J.R.N., 2003. Overview: importance of sorghum in Africa. In:Belton, P.S. & Taylor, J.R.N. (Editors). Proceedings of the Workshop onthe proteins of sorghum and millets: enhancing nutritional andfunctional properties for Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, 24 April 2003.Afripro. http://www.afripro.org.uk/. On August 2012.

FAO and ICRISAT, (1996). The World Sorghum and Millet Economies:

Facts, Trends and Outlook.

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