sociology final module

MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

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UNIT 1: Nature and scope of Sociology of Education

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Origin of Sociology

3.2 Meaning of Sociology

3.3 Scope/nature of Sociology

3.4 Meaning of Sociology of education

3.5 Functions of Sociology

3.6 Meaning of Education

3.7 Relevance of Sociology of education to the

teacher

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit presents the Fundaments of Sociology of Education,

with emphasis on the meaning of sociology, its functions, meaning

of education and the relevance of sociology of education to the

teacher.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a. Discuss the origin of Sociology


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b. Define Sociology as a concept

c. Discuss the scope/nature of Sociology

d. Define Sociology of education

e. Discuss the functions of sociology

f. Explain the meaning of education

g. Explain the relevance of Sociology of education to the

Teacher

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

This unit looks at sociology as the study of society and human

social action. Sociology concerns itself with the social rules and

processes that connect and separate people not only as

individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and

institutions, and includes the analysis of the organisation and

development of human social life.

3.1 Origin of Sociology

The origin of Sociology can be traced from Europe especially

France and Germany around the 19th century. It then extended

and grew faster in the United States of America. Sociology

became a subject of keen interest during the 19th century when

western civilization was undergoing vast social upheavals that

accompanied the industrial revolution.

Let us look at the three factors that led to the development of

sociology.

Industrial Revolution

Travel

Success of Natural Sciences


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Industrial Revolution

Europe was changing from agriculture to factory

production.

Hugh numbers of people moved to the cities in search of

work.

In cities people met the challenges of poverty, filth and

crowding.

The traditional order was challenged by the industrial

revolution and this gave way to democratic changes.

Social changes undermined the traditional explanations of

human existence.

Travel

The Europeans had been successful in getting colonies

around the world.

The colonies they obtained exposed Europeans to totally

different cultures; they began asking questions why

cultures differ.

Success in natural sciences

It seemed logical to discover the laws underlying social

phenomena.

3.2 Meaning of Sociology

Sociology as a field of discipline is umbrella in nature because it

deals with the totality of human interaction. It is a systematic

study of human groups and social behavior. It tries to find out

the influence of social relationships on peoples behavior and

attitudes and also how societies are established and changed. In

simple terms sociology is the study of mans interaction within


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the society. But this definition is not adequate as sociology deals

with the organization and control of peoples behavior and

attitudes in the society.

Sociology is concerned with the social facts in the economy,

family, region, politics and so on. The assessment of the social

facts within society acts as a way to solve problems amongst the

people. Therefore sociology as a field helps the members of any

society to solve social or behavioral problem in order to create a

better society. Sociologist thus are people serving the society in

different capacities, such as teachers, lecturers, social workers,

researchers, administrators, town planners, and so forth. It is on

this basis that basic knowledge of sociology for teachers is

important for a better understanding of society we live in.

3.3 Scope/nature of Sociology

Sociology as discussed above mainly involves the study of human

behavior, not as an individual but as the member of a society. It

is therefore important that members are initiated into the

lifestyle of the society where they live.

On the other hand when you look at the nature of sociology, you

will notice that the subject is a scientific discipline. It is a

science because it involves objective and systematic ways of

investigating and evaluating our social reality.

3.4 Meaning of Sociology of Education

Sociology of education is an applied form of sociology. It will

allow you to study the process of education as a tool for

introducing learners into the way of life of a society. The

following are important areas of study of sociology of education.


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The processes of education that have social relevance on

the social life of a learner

The concepts of education that are of social relevance,

these are social groups and associations within the school

Social systems and institutions which are relevant to

education

A comparison of the systems of education in different

parts of the world.

3.5 Functions of Sociology

Sociology performs a number of roles within the society. Some

of the roles are as follows:

Sociology helps in the analysis of different types of

relationships within the society. It is the concern of

sociology to identify why certain undesirable behaviors are

present in human beings. Such behaviors must be checked

and changed. For instance, within the society, there are

young boys and girls who get initiated into unacceptable

behaviors due to ignorance or reason beyond the victims

explanation. It is within the interest of sociology to

investigate into the causes of unacceptable behaviors. This

can be done through critical analysis of the problem and

try to offer a solution.

Sociology exposes members of the society to how

authority and power are got within the society and why

some customs, beliefs and practices cannot be done away

with. All human beings are the same when it comes to taste

of power or privileged positions. Every person will give

reasons to cling to power and authority due to benefits


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found in those positions. Authority and power are as sweet

as honey.

Sociology attempts to explain the relationship between

different sub-systems in society. This can be between the

educational system and the political system or the

relationship between the political system and the economic

system. There is an inter relationship among all the system

in society. That is why there should be a health

relationship among sub systems in order to foster growth

and development.

Sociology reveals to individuals that society is dynamic and

transitory in nature. Individual become aware that the

society is not static and therefore calls for dynamic

thought and actions. For instance in this technological

world of computers, individuals are expected to be

computer literate in order to function effectively and be

integrated within the society.

Sociology examines different human backgrounds. This

helps in tolerating and accommodating individuals with

differences in cultural background and orientation.

Sociology has a role of identifying various human needs in

the society and explaining how these needs are met and

satisfied. Sociology teaches people to aspire to meet and

satisfy those needs that will assist you in living a

meaningful life. For instance an individual who is involved in

stealing is regarded as an unacceptable member of the

society.


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3.6 Meaning of Education

Education can be defined depending on the purpose it is meant to

serve and the discipline it is looking at. In sociology, education

can be explained as an activity which goes on in the society

where its methods and aims relay on the nature of the society in

which it takes place. In specific terms, education is a means of

making people understand their society and its structure.

Education provides well behaved individuals who have the ability

to analyze ideas and contribute meaningfully towards the

development of the society.

Education in any society is there to transmit to the young the

culture of that society. The parents, teachers and other member

of the society contribute greatly towards transmitting of

cultural ideas to the young. It therefore means that every

member of the society has a duty to transmit knowledge for the

survival of individuals. That is why education is an important tool

for human growth and survival.

3.7 Relevance of Sociology of Education to the Teacher

Teachers need to study sociology of education for the

following reasons:

Teachers learn and uphold the norms and values of

society. These help the teacher to prepare for social

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the relevance of education to the Society.


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living and enable him/her to perform social functions

properly.

The Knowledge of sociology of education helps to foster

social interaction and unity in the society. Sociology of

education helps to promote teacher pupil and pupil

pupil interaction within the school.

Sociology of education helps teachers to promote social

perpetuation. It ensures that the norms, values and

attitudes of a society are passed from one generation

to the next. The culture and identity of a society is

kept from extinction.

Sociology of education equips teachers with adequate

knowledge to offer solutions to the social crisis in the

society.

The knowledge of sociology of education, if well

implemented by the teacher during lessons will make

the lesson more interesting and create an environment

conducive for pupils to learn in.


Discuss the relevance of sociology of education to the

preparation of Teachers.

SELF ASSESSMENT TEST


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1. Sociology of Education can best be defined as the:

A. Study of relationships between education and society

B. Study of education from a sociological perspective

C. Study of classroom dynamics

D. Study of different education systems

2. One of the views of Sociology of Education in the 1920s was

that it was:

A. A study of understanding schooling

B. A study of solving the problems in society

C. A study of explaining the processes involved in social

development

D. A study of understanding processes of social organization

3. Sociology of Education grew fast in the USA because of:

A. The freedom of expression

B. The expansion of the education system

C. The industrial growth

D. The end of slave trade

4. Which one of the following is not an aim of Sociology of

Education?

A. Explanation of behavior in a school setting

B. Explanation of processes involved in pupils memory

C. Improvement of teaching in the school

D. Identification of educational problems for analysis

5. One of the earliest views about Sociology of Education was

that:

A. It was a study of the relationship between administration

and education


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B. It was a study of social statics

C. It was a study of the goals of education

D. It was the study of social dynamics

4.0 CONCLUSION

Sociology as a scientific field of study looks at man in the

society. There are different functions which sociology performs

in the society. It act as a link between different sub-systems in

the society, it also analyses different relationships within the

society. Education is the molding of an individual in line with his

culture, in order for the person to become an acceptable

member of the society.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit looked at the meaning of sociology as mans interaction

in the society. It also brought out the functions of sociology. It

further focused on the relevance of sociology of education to

the teacher.

UNIT 2: Theories in Sociology of Education

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives


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3.0 Main Content

3.1 Labeling theory

3.2 Functionalist Perspective

3.3 Conflict theory

3.4 Symbolic interaction theory

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit is packaged to bring you closer to the theories in

sociology of education. Theory is a set of interrelated

statements that gives an explanation for an event. It lets us put

together a multitude of facts so that we may understand them

as a whole. Theory will let you see the relationship among events

that are not evident in isolated parts.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

a. Discuss Labeling theory

b. Discuss Functionalist perspective

c. Discuss conflict theory

d. Discuss symbolic interaction theory

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

There are three paradigms in sociology: Functionalism, conflict

theory and interactionist theory. For our study in this unit we

have also included labeling theory because of it great importance

to education.


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3.1 Labeling theory

The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the emergence of the labelling

theory in sociology as a theoretical perspective of understanding

social delinquency or deviance. Edwin Lemert is widely considered

the producer and founder of the original version of labelling

theory.

The major concern of the labelling theory is with the process by

which individuals in the society are labelled as deviants, not the

individuals themselves. In other words, the labelling theory is

concerned with the way one is treated rather than with ones

character. For example in the case of a diploma holder teacher

and a certificate holder teacher, the difference between them

is not in their titles, but in the way they are treated.

A number of important questions are raised in connection with

this theoretical perspective, among which are: Who labels whom?

Will the label be permanent or not? What kind of behaviour do

people think is abnormal behaviour, and what are the

consequences of their interpretation of such behaviour?

The central argument of the labelling theory is that, society

creates deviants. It is society which gives labels to certain

individuals, and which makes these labels permanent, making

these individuals deviants. One is not a thief until someone blows

the whistle.

It is important to note that there is no clear consensus among

those who label others about the kind of behaviour or act which

is deviant. One individual or one kind of behaviour may be

considered deviant by one person, but not so by another. It may


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depend on the kind of relationship between the one who labels

and the one who is labelled.

By placing emphasis on the process, the labelling theory sees a

deviant as a product of a process being caught, segregated

against and given a label. The reaction of society to one who has

committed a crime reinforces criminal behaviour, or makes a

person a die-hard deviant.

Lemert (1951) describes the sequence of actions from primary

to secondary deviation as follows:

First act of deviance (primary deviation).

Society punishes the person for the first act.

The punished reacts to the punishment by committing

another act, (further primary deviation).

Society applies stronger punishment and shows rejection.

The punished commits another act further deviation

which may be accompanied with hatred to those who are

punishing him/her.

The society shows no tolerance of such an individual now.

Such individual now show stronger deviant behaviour of the

penalties or punishments.

Finally the person accepts the status, agrees that he/she

is a deviant (criminal). This is now secondary deviation.

Labelling theory: Its application to the classroom

Two major questions or concerns will be dealt with here who

labels whom and the outcome of the labelling theory.

Who labels whom?

It is generally accepted that it is the teachers who label

their pupils. It is teachers who call their pupils dull, clever, or


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troublemaker. It is teachers who, to a certain extent,

determine whether a pupil will pass or fail or is a bad pupil or

a good pupil. Teachers sometimes act as judges; they judge

the pupils and try by all means to convict them during the

process of interaction.

During this process of interaction, the pupil usually comes to

know what the teacher expects of him or her, or knows the

label, and he/she performs and behaves according to the label

the teacher has placed on him or her. Therefore it is the

teacher who decides the fate or who holds the future of the

pupil in his/her hand.

Teachers always have some form of ideas of the kind of pupils

they are dealing with in terms of their behaviour and

performance. It does not take long for a teacher to form the

ideas or opinions about his or her pupils in the classroom. It

may take only a few days or weeks for teachers to label their

pupils. Sometimes teachers form certain views about pupils

even before they meet them in the classroom. These ideas

are taken to class or school and this is how they perceive the

pupils.

However, I have many times heard students in the sociology

of education course saying it is not only teachers who label

their students but students label their teachers also.

Sometimes pupils give labels to their teachers in form of

names for a number of reasons. A teacher may be brilliant,

dull or boring, or may have certain mannerisms or because of

the nature of the subject or topic he/she is teaching. Some


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teachers react badly to these names, and create problems for

themselves. Teachers should remember that some of these

names are given to them as a way of remembering the

material taught by the teacher.


1. The major concern of the labelling theory is with the process by

which individuals are labelled as....................

2. The three main areas of interest to labelling theory are:

a. .........................................................................................

b. .........................................................................................

c. .........................................................................................

3.2 Structural Functionalist Theory

The structural functionalist or functionalist perspective relies

heavily on the ideas of the following:

Emile Durkheim

Herbert Spencer

Auguste Comte

The structure functional approach is sometimes referred to as

the consensus model. The theory looks at society from a macro

sociological point of view.


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Society as a social system

The starting point for functionalists is the idea that society is a

system, a combination of parts that make a larger whole.

Functionalists attempt to do two things: first relate the parts of

society to the whole and second, relate one part to another.

Among the important parts of any society are institutions such

as the family, education, religion, the economy and the state.

Functionalists identify the social functions performed by each

institution. For instance the family is said to focus mainly on

reproduction, socialization and maintenance of children. When

change occurs in one institution it has implications for other

institutions and the society as a whole. For example if fewer

children are born, enrolment in schools will also be low.

The structural functionalist theory on the other hand

recognises that there are inequalities in society. These

inequalities are regarded as necessary to have order in society.

Structural functionalists see inequality and stratification in

education as coming from the needs of a whole society and not

just from the needs of individuals or special groups.

Functionalist view of Schooling

According to structural functionalism schooling is important for

the following reasons:

Schooling identifies above average students from the

average and below average students.

Schooling makes sure that the talented students occupy

high positions in society.


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Reasons are that functionalists believe that those who have

excelled in society are those who have worked hard for the

positions. Such people deserve the highest rewards. It is true

to say society needs the best and the brightest to function at

the highest levels.

Functionalists also look at the following specific purposes or

functions of schooling.

The Intellectual purposes of schooling

Teaching basic skills like reading, writing and

mathematics.

Transmitting specific knowledge in subjects like

history, literature and sciences.

Helping students acquire thinking skills such as analysis,

evaluation and synthesis.

The political purposes of schooling

Inculcating allegiance to the existing political order.

Helping assimilate different cultural groups into a

common political order.

Teaching children the basic laws of the society.

The social purpose of schooling

Socialization children into various roles, behaviours and

values of the society.

The economic purposes of education

Preparing students for their occupational roles.

Selecting, training and allocating individuals into the

division of labour.


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According to the functionalist perspective, why has

poverty in society not been eliminated?

Discuss how structural functionalists see the role of

education in society today and the contributions that it

makes to social life.

What is meritocracy?

3.3 Conflict Theory

Conflict theory draws much of its inspiration from the works

of Karl Marx (1818 1883). This theory stresses that change

in society is brought about by interaction with the

environment. It states that:

Society has classes, and there is a continuous struggle

between the rich and the poor

The struggle between the contending classes leads to

inevitable conflict

Change comes about as a result of the conflict

The three types of classes are as follows:

Ruling or upper class

This class comprises of people with a lot of wealth.

They own factories, companies, land and so forth. In

other words they have control on wealth, power,

prestige, resources and authority in the society.


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Middle class

This class comprises of professional workers such as

doctors, engineers, lawyers and accountants. Majority

of these people do not own the businesses or

institutions they work for. They achieve their positions

through school and getting an educational qualification.

Working or lower class

This class comprises of people who do not own any

businesses. They have less or no educational

qualifications at all. This group mainly consists of

manual or casual workers.

From the conflict perspective, people are encouraged through

the process of socialization to be competitive. This is because

every individual, group or class are trying hard to get the

best that they can out of life or they are trying to prevent

others from taking the things they have. Although there are

shared values in society, conflict theorists argue that this is

only because the powerful people impose their values on the

rest of society through the media, schools, religion and so

forth.

The main characteristic of a society from a conflict

perspective is inequality. It is therefore argued that

economic inequality is at the centre of any society. This

means that some people will have more money than they need

while others will have less money than they need. Therefore it

is in the interest of the rich people who have wealth to keep


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and extend what they own. As for the people who have little

or no wealth, it is up to them to try and improve their lives.

Functional theorists do recognise social inequality, but they

say that inequality is functional for society. For example the

most qualified people, get the most important job. Conflict

theorists on the other hand, begin with the idea that a

society is economically unequal. From this point, those who are

most powerful in the society will try to socialize the least

powerful into accepting inequality in any way they can. The

way this is done is through socialization. The wealthy and

powerful occupy the most important and influential positions

in the society. They use their power to advance their own

interests through the following processes:

Convincing people that their lack of wealth,

influence, power or status is due to their own fault.

When people compete against each other, some will

win and others will lose. The losers need to be

convinced that the competition is free and fair.

Their inability to achieve the good things in life is

said to be their own individual problem. This is where

institutions such as religion, education and the mass

media are important. They play their role in

encouraging the people to see the world in this way.

However, if for any reason people fail to be

socialized fully in these values, then force is

available to make them see the errors in their

actions.


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Conflict Theory on inequality

Marxs basic point was that Inequality leads to oppression of the

have-nots by the haves, and this is morally wrong. The solution is

to bring about equality through a revolution if necessary in

order to achieve a just and fair society. Inequality is due to the

following reasons:

Different groups in society struggle over limited resources

and compete for social advantages. Classes exist in conflict

with each other as they vie for power, economic, social,

and political resources.

Inequality results from a system of domination and

subordination where those with the most resources

exploit and control others.

The powerful and rich people use their resources to

reproduce their position and advantages. The Elites shape

the beliefs and laws of society to make their unequal

privileges seem legitimate and fair.

There is blocked mobility in the system because the

working class and the poor are denied the same

opportunities as others.

The most important jobs that sustain the quality of

life of a society are often the least rewarding. These

jobs involve people like teachers, nurses, cashers,

restaurant hostesses, bartenders and shop counter

attendants.


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Conflict view of education

Education perpetuates class, gender and race inequalities.

From the Marxist perspective, schools can be said to

repressive institutions. This is because teachers and other

ordinary persons have little control of what goes on in the

education sector. The education system tends to transmit

the values and ideas of the ruling class.

Tracking which is also called streaming is separating pupils

by academic ability into groups for all subjects within a

school.

Standardized tests cultural bias.

The hidden curriculum: Teaching attitudes of obedience to

authority and keeping the rules.

Credentials: Class advantage and social status are linked to

academic qualifications.


True or False

1. Conflict theory focuses on the macro-sociological

perspective

2. The proletariats are also known as the have-nots


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Fill-in the blanks

Mention three (3) things according to the conflict theory which

determine the rewards that an individual gets in a particular job.

a. .........................................................................................

b. .........................................................................................

c. .........................................................................................

3.4 Symbolic Interaction Theory

Symbolic interaction theory looks at society from a micro

sociological point of view. In other words they study society on a

small scale in order for them to understand the large scale. They

are concerned with the relationship between individuals and the

society.

Interactionists focus on peoples everyday behaviour and how

these people react to their surroundings. The surrounding may

include material things, other people, actions or symbols. To give

an example we can say that interactionists would not look at

what education does for the whole society, but they would look

at one class in a college and how lecturers and students interact

with each other. They would then look at how this affects

individual student performance.

George Herbert Mead (1863 1931) is known as the father of

symbolic interactionism (he liked to call it social behaviourism)

even though he did not coin the term. After Meads death in

1934, his students put together his class notes and published


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mind, self and society. It was then that the term symbolic

interactionism was coined by his student Herbert Blumer.

Mead focused on the one to one analysis of situations and small

groups. He paid much attention to body language such as a nod

and how another person would respond to such a gesture.

The interactionist view of the society is that people influence

each others everyday social interactions. They believe that an

individual will create his/her own social world through

interaction. It is therefore thought that social order is

maintained when individuals share their understanding of

everyday behaviour.

It is true to say that human beings construct such actions on the

basis of the meanings of the objects they encounter. They

define situations as real as they are real in their consequences.

Therefore Mead says, through a process of role taking a person

imagines how they themselves appear to others, thus becoming a

symbolic object to themselves. People then respond to

themselves on the basis of the meaning they give to their actions

through the process of role taking. What is role taking? This is

when people not only come to see themselves as others see them,

but also take on or pretend to take on the role of others through

imitation, play and game. This process allows people to anticipate

what other expects of them.

3.0 CONCLUSION

Sociology has developed approaches to the systematic study of

society. Each of them provides an important view of examining

society, social phenomenon and human interactions.


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4.0 SUMMARY

In this unit the contributions of the theories to sociology of

education have been highlighted.

Labelling theory tells us that it is society that creates deviants.

Functionalist perspective takes the notion that the study of

sociology of education helps us to explain issues that we do not

understand. It emphasizes the fact that institutions within

society, such as education, are made up of inter-dependent parts

all working together.

Conflict perspective shares the view that social forces within a

society make conflict inevitable. Such conflict can be

experienced at school that includes teachers and children from

different cultural groups.

`Symbolic interaction theory stresses that individuals interact

with each other. If they share the same culture, their

interpretation of social situations will be similar. They will share

common norms that will guide their behavior.

UNIT 3: Contributions of Early Thinkers to

Sociology

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Auguste Comte


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3.2 Herbert Spencer

3.3 Karl Marx

3.4 Emile Durkheim

3.5 Max Weber

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit looks at the renounced founding fathers of sociology.

You are asked to study these early sociologists because of their

great contributions to the origin and development of sociology.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a. List the founding fathers of sociology

b. Identify specific contributions of the founding fathers of

sociology

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

In this unit emphasis is on the founding fathers of sociology and

their major contribution to sociology.

3.1 Auguste Comte


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Auguste Comte (1798 1857) was born and educated in France.

He coined the term sociology, which is derived from the Latin

word socius meaning companion or associate and the Greek word

logos meaning study or science. Comte is therefore regarded as a

father of sociology because of the great influence he had upon

the subject.

Aim of sociology according to Comte

The main aim of sociology according to Comte is to discover the

universal laws that govern the organization of the world and

evolution of humanity.

Auguste Comte and Positivism

The term positivism was coined by Comte. It originated in the

late 18th century and referred mainly to the natural sciences

such as physics, chemistry and mathematics. We will discuss

positivism in detail when we will look at approaches to the study

of sociology in unit 4.

The social statics

This involves ways in which the parts of a social system interact

with one another. Social statics deals with institutions of society

such as the family, religion, economy, education and so on.


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Sociology is seen as the study of inter-relations between these

institutions. In the words of Comte, the statical study of

sociology consist the investigations of laws of action and

reaction of different parts of the social system. Comte argued

that the parts of a society cannot be studied separately as if

they had independent existence.

The social dynamics

Social dynamics focuses on the whole of society as the unit of

analysis. It looks at how societies develop and change. It is

therefore important to remember that, the laws of social

dynamics are most recognizable when they apply to the largest

societies.

Comte believed that all societies move through stages of

development and increase in perfection as they progress.

The Law of the 3 stages

Theological stage

Searches for the essential nature of things.

People come to believe that all phenomena are created and

influenced by supernatural forces and gods.

Monotheism (the belief that there is only one God) is the

main belief system of the Theological stage.

The basic social unit is the family.

Metaphysical stage

Mysterious and abstract forces replace the supernatural

forces as the power that explains the activities of the

world


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The basic social unit is the state

Positivist stage

The last and highest stage

People search for invariant laws that govern all of the

phenomena of the world.

The basic social unit is humanity as a whole.


According to Auguste Comte. Sociology is

the study of

What was Comtes contribution to sociology?

3.2 Herbert Spencer


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Herbert Spencer (1820 1903) an English sociologist is

sometimes called the second founder of sociology. Spencer

looked at society to be similar to the human body. He viewed

society as a system made up of institutions such as the family,

education, religion, economy and the government. Similarly

Spencer related society to the human body which is made up of

organs like the lungs, kidneys, heart and intestines. This image of

society is in line with what sociologists today call structural

functional theory.

Spencer shared Comtes concern on social statics and social

dynamics. But Spencer was more concerned with social dynamics.

He convinced himself that societies do evolve from lower to

higher forms of civilization. As generations pass, the most

capable and intelligent, we can call them the fittest members

of the society will survive. While on the other hand the less

capable will die out. In this way societies will gradually improve

over time. To help those in the lower classes is interfering with

the natural processes of society. Spencer emphasized that those

who are fit survive and reproduce while those who are unfit

die out. He called this principle the survival of the fittest.

3.3 Karl Marx


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The life and works of Karl Marx

Karl Marx (1818 1883) was born in Trier, Germany. His father

Hirschel Marx was a lawyer.

After schooling in Trier, Marx went to study law at Bonn

University. He then moved to Berlin where he met Bruno Bauer.

Bauer introduced Marx to the writings of Hegel G, who had been

a professor of philosophy in Berlin.

After completing his doctoral thesis at the University of Jena,

Marx hoped that Bauer would find him a teaching job.

Unfortunately Bauer lost his job in 1842 because of his

outspoken atheism and could not help Karl Marx.

Marx made an attempt at journalism. He then moved to Cologne

where The Rhenish Gazette newspaper published an article he

wrote in which he defended the freedom of the press.

While in Cologne, Marx started attending socialist meetings

organized by Moses Hess. Based on what he heard at these

meetings, Marx wrote an article on the poverty of the Mosel

wine farmers. The article was published in The Rhenish


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Gazette in January 1843, because it was critical of the

government the newspaper was banned by the Prussian

authorities.

Marx moved to France where he was offered the post of editor

of a new political journal, called Franco German Annals. After

writing an article for the Franco German Annals in February

1844, the journal was banned in Germany.

In 1844 Marx wrote Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts. In

this work he developed his ideas on the concept of alienation.

Marx identified three kinds of alienation in capitalist society.

First, the worker is alienated from what he/she produces.

Second, the worker is alienated from him/herself; only when

he/she is not working does he/she truly feel him/herself. Finally,

in a capitalist society people are set against other people. Marx

believed the solution to this problem was communism.

While in Paris, Marx became a close friend of Friedrich Engels,

and the two men decide to work together. In January 1845,

Marx received orders deporting him from France. Marx and

Engels decided to move to Belgium a country with greater

freedom of expression.

In Brussels Marx concentrated on writing The Communist

Manifesto, a 12,000 word pamphlet which he finished in six

weeks. Written for a mass audience, the book summarised the

forthcoming revolution and the nature of the communist society

that would be established by the proletariat.

The communist Manifesto was published in February, 1848. The

following month, the government expelled Marx from Belgium.


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In May 1849, Marx went to France where he believed a socialist

revolution was likely to take place at any time. However, within a

month of arriving, the French police ordered him out of the

capital. In September, Marx sailed for England.

In 1852, Charles Dana, the socialist editor of the New York Daily

Tribune, offered Marx the opportunity to write for his

newspaper. Over the next ten years the newspaper published

hundreds of articles by Marx.

In 1867 the first volume of Das Kapital was published. The book

was a detailed analysis of capitalism. Marx began work on the

second volume of Das Kapital but progress was slow. He died on

March 14, 1883.

Marxs theory of society and social change

According to Marx, society is separated into two classes, which

are in conflict. These are the exploiting and the exploited. Marx

saw society as progressing from an original primitive community

stage, through slavery, feudal, capitalist, socialist and finally to

a communist society. These changes from stage to stage were

due to conflict within society and changes in modes of

production. By mode of production we mean the activities and

tools a society uses to satisfy its material needs.

For Marx the major agent of social change is the economic

structure of society. The capitalist class societies are those

where private ownership of the means of production exists. The

socialist and communist class societies are those where the

means of production are publicly or collectively owned. In society


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there are two major classes, those who own the means of

economic production and those who do not. These are the

bourgeoisie and proletariat respectively. The bourgeoisie own

the means of production such as factories, businesses and

equipment used to produce wealth. The proletariats are the

workers. According to Marx the bourgeoisie in a capitalist

society exploit the workers. They pay them just enough wages

for food and a place to live in. The workers do not realize that

they are being exploited meaning they have a false consciousness

or a mistaken sense, that they are well off. They think that they

can depend on their bosses to do what is best for them.

The capitalist system is dependent upon the extraction of profit

by the owner from the labour of the proletariat (surplus value).

In order to accomplish this, the bourgeoisie class must

legitimate their claim to the surplus value either by social norms

or by force. For Marx the social institutions (the

superstructure) exist to reinforce and reproduce the social

norms relating to the economic structure.

Marx did foresee a workers revolution. As the rich become

richer, Marx had a vision that workers will develop a true class

consciousness or a sense of common identity based on the

common experience of exploitation by the bourgeoisie. After the

revolution the workers will then own the means of production and

the world will become communist. No one will control the access

to wealth. Everything will be owned equally by everyone.


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Distinguish between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Which

of the two is the exploiting class? Why? How is exploitation

justified?

3.4 Emile Durkheim

The main aim of Emile Durkheim (1858 1917) was to get

sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline. Up to this

time sociology was seen as part of economics and history.

Durkheim achieved this goal in 1887 when he received the first

academic appointment in sociology at university of Bordeaux.

The study of social facts

Durkheim was strongly influenced by the ideas of Auguste

Comte. Comte believed in positivism. Everything in science is

observable and provable. To Durkheim a social fact is a fact that

has a basis in scientific observation.

By a social fact, what is Durkheim referring to? He is simply

referring to facts, concepts or expectations that are not coming

from an individual responses or choices, but from the community

in which the individual socialises and is a member. Social facts


36

are ideas, feelings and ways of behaving that possess the

characteristic of existing outside the consciousness of an

individual. Social facts do not originate with the people

experiencing them. From the time you are born, the people

around you seek to impose upon you ways of thinking, feeling and

acting that you have no hand in creating. For example, the words

and gestures people use to express their thoughts, the rules and

regulations governing your school, the beliefs and rituals of

tradition you fellow, all were created before you came on the

scene. Therefore social facts have a life that goes beyond the

individual.

Mechanical solidarity

Mechanical solidarity is used to refer to a state of community

bonding. This bonding is evident in the beliefs, values and

cooperation that people share. In such a society people feel

connected through similar works, lifestyle and educational

training. An example of such a society is a small scale or

traditional farming community. In here social order and cohesion

is based on uniform thinking and behaviour.

Organic solidarity

Organic solidarity refers to a society with a complex division of

labour. In such a society social order is based on

interdependence and cooperation among people performing

various specialized tasks. For example if you are a head teacher,

you depend on the secretary, teachers and general workers to

get your job done, but you also depend on the health workers for

your medical care and local transporters for your transportation.


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Durkheims view on education

Durkheim believed that education has many functions.

To reinforce social solidarity

Durkheim was concerned with what holds individuals

together in a social institution. For example what makes

you as teacher feel part of the school community and not

just break the rules in the school. The same applies to the

pupils about social solidarity. They have a way of pledging

allegiance to the school and the community.

To Maintain social roles

In schools children learn to interact and cooperate with

other members of the school and community by following

the set out rules. The experience of interacting with other

people prepares them for future roles.

To maintain division of labour

Schools play a role of sorting pupils into social groups and

encouraging them to find jobs in fields that suit their

ability.


1. Distinguish between mechanical and organic and

solidarity

2. Durkheim maintains that the sociologists task

is to study social facts. What are social facts?

3. What is social integration according to

Durkheim?


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3.5 Max Weber

Power and authority

Power

Power according to Max Weber is "the probability that one actor

in a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his will

despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this

probability rests".

Power may be exercised in the following ways:

Force: The police trying to control a riotous crowd.

Religion: Convincing members that they must obey.

Control of economic resources: People with an economic

advantage will have more access to sharing of the available

resources.

Power is exercised in different institutions. Though it is

prominent in government, it is also exercised in the family,

school, church, prison, bank, and so on. When you think of power

you will notice that it is exercised whenever it is possible to

manipulate conditions that people must obey.


39

Power on its own is usually resented and is an unstable base for

administrators in a school or college. For a head teacher to

continue to be obeyed, his/her power must be legitimated and

become authority.

Authority

Authority according to Weber is the probability that a certain

command will be obeyed. The main point of authority is

voluntary obedience because a person believes that the source

of the command is legitimate and the person commanding has the

right to do so.

When you as a teacher accept authority, you suspend your own

judgement about the order because you agree that the person in

authority has a right to give it.

The question we need to ask is why authority?

Authority exists because groups of teachers and pupils share

certain beliefs. These beliefs lead to the development of group

norms for accepting commands from certain sources.

Obedience to commands is enforced by the group, be it teachers

or pupils. Anyone who wants to remain a member of the group

must accept this authority.

An administrator with authority in a school has certain rights

and responsibilities as do those under it.

Max Weber distinguished three types of authority. These are

traditional, charismatic and bureaucratic.


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Traditional authority

Obedience is based on the acceptance of custom

It is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition

Members hold the belief that the social order was created

by god and that it is mans duty to conform. This is the

basis of the divine right and authority of chiefs.

Traditional power does grow and decline. Today the

authority of chiefs in Zambia has continued to diminish

because the government does want challenges in trying to

unite its people.

Traditional authority is not limited to chieftaincy but

there are those who are able to command because

subordinates customarily accept their authority.

Charismatic authority

Authority is given to a person because of his/her personal

magnetism.

It is based on a leader who embodies a movement and is

obeyed for ideological reasons.

It rests heavily on the leaders personal qualities and

characteristics.

In a school situation, pupils obey a teacher because of

his/her person mystique.

In schools charismatic leaders are rarely found.

Charismatic leaders tend to arise when social order breaks

down and people feel insecure and are looking for someone

to solve their problems for example in time of economic

depression and political change.


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Bureaucratic authority (Rational legal authority)

Bureaucratic can be said to be the type of organization

designed to accomplish large scale administrative tasks by

systematically coordinating the work of many individuals

It involves the rationalization of administration to achieve

the organizational goals. What is rationalization? This is a

process whereby thought and action motivated by

superstitions, emotions, tradition and respect for

mysterious forces become replaced by thought and action

grounded in the logical assessment of the most efficient

ways to achieve a valued goal.

Large numbers of workers are organized so that all the

necessary tasks are done well on time. Rationalization

means the calculated use of resources for the

achievement of a particular set of goals in the most

economic way possible.

Bureaucratic authority is legitimate by law and obedience

is owned not to the individual but to the set of impersonal

principles. For example the head teacher holds the legal

authority in the school. He/she is appointed by the

appointing authority that is legally constituted.

Bureaucratic organizations have a number of characteristics.

According to Weber some of these characteristics are as

follows:

Each office or position (head teacher, deputy head, section

head, and class teacher) has clearly defined duties and


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responsibilities. This way all activities of the organization

are arranged within a clear cut division of labour.

All offices are organized in a hierarchy authority that

takes the shape of a pyramid. Officials like the head

teacher, deputy head teacher, section heads are held

accountable to their superiors for their subordinates

actions and decisions.

All activities are governed by a consistent system of rules

and regulations. These rules and regulations define the

responsibilities of the various offices and the relationships

among them.

All offices carry with them qualifications that are filled on

the basis of technical competence, not personal

consideration. Competence is established by certification.

For example college diploma or teaching service

examinations.

Workers do not own their offices. Positions remain the

property of the organization. Office holders are supplied

with the items they require to perform their work.

Employment by the organization is defined as a career.

Promotion is based on seniority or merit or both. After the

probation period, workers gain the security of tenure and

are protected against dismissal.


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Administrative decisions, rules, procedures and activities

are recorded on written documents, which are preserved in

permanent files.


How is a school a bureaucracy and give some

characteristics into how it makes it a

bureaucracy.

What is Rationalization?

SELF ASSESSMENT TEST

1. One of the major contributors to the development

of Sociology of Education was:

A. Herbert Spencer

B. Howard Becker

C. Max Weber

D. Auguste Comte

2. One of the major concerns of the conflict theory

is:

A. The use of education in instilling status

group values

B. The discipline in the classroom

C. The concepts teachers use to describe their

learners

D. The self fulfilling prophecy of the teacher


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3. Which of the following concept refers to the

development of social institutions from a simple

stage to a complex stage?

A. Social statics

B. Social dynamics

C. Social differentiation

D. Social change

4. Who among these is known as the second founder

of Sociology?

A. Herbert Spencer

B. Max Weber

C. Auguste Comte

D. Emile Durkheim

5. Aspects of social life external to individuals that

constrain or control behavior of individuals in

society are known as:

A. Macro forces

B. Social indicators

C. Social facts

D. customs

4.0 CONCLUSION

The classical founders of sociology that you have just studied

contributed immensely to the subject of sociology and sociology

of education.

5.0 SUMMARY

This Unit looked at the renounced founding fathers of sociology.


45

You learnt that:

Auguste Comte is credited as being the founder of

sociology. He also divided the study of society into social

statics and social dynamics.

Herbert Spencer viewed society as similar to the living

body. He depicted society as a system, a whole made up of

interrelated parts.

Karl Marx brought out ideas that society is divided into

those who own the means of producing wealth and those

who do not. This division gives rise to class conflict.

Emile Durkheim was interested in what holds society

together. He saw mechanical solidarity and organic

solidarity as important to the maintenance of social order

in society.

Max Webers ideas are wide, but we concentrated on the

concepts of power, authority and Bureaucracy.


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UNIT 4 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY OF

EDUCATION

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Positivism

3.2 Phenomenology

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Approaches to the study of sociology and sociology of education

are broad assumptions about human social behaviour and the

society. These approaches provide us with the viewpoint of the

study of human problems. There are two main approaches in

sociology. These are positivism, the traditional scientific

perspective and phenomenology a less scientific approach

because some researchers reject the idea of applying theories.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a. Explain the meaning of positivism and phenomenology


47

b. State the relevance of positivism and phenomenology in our

day to day life

MAIN CONTENT

The two perspectives in this unit have a significant role in

helping us to understand and analyze the nature of society.

3.1 Positivism

Positivism is the traditional method of sociology which is

associated with Auguste Comte. Comte has contributed to

knowledge which is based on scientific research.

To understand positivism let us look at what it does.

Uses the scientific method to seek laws of social

behaviour, interaction and organization.

Assumes that reality is external to people and objectives.

For example, mangoes falling off a tree. Even if you do not

believe in gravity, the mangoes will still fall.

Pursues an objective world with precise instruments

We can therefore narrow the understanding of positivism to the

following points:

Positivism is the application of the methods of science to

the understanding of society.

Positivism is the search for invariant laws governing the

natural world as well as the social world.

Positivism is based on the assumption of empiricism.

Empiricism is the view that the five senses are

the only true source of knowledge.


48

Empiricism says the right methods are those

which lessen the sources of error and can be

verified scientifically.

The main idea of positivism is that there is an objective world

which is capable of being understood in the scientific and

objective ways. The scientific method is therefore a process for

forming and testing solutions to problems. It is also a way of

theorizing about how and why things work the way they do.

Scientific method tries to reduce bias of the experiment so that

the process is valid anywhere in the world.

Let us say you observe that your cell phone suddenly switches

off. You research and find the following possible reasons for

this occurrence. Click on the reason you think is the best option

this is your hypothesis.

You pressed on the switch off button of the cell phone.

You did not recharge the cell phone battery.

Your cell phone has developed a fault after it dropped on

the floor.

From the example if option second option is correct, you can

repeat and demonstrate that the cell phone battery is the

answer. You can repeat this condition and predict the outcome

(testing your theory).

If not dropping the cell phone is the problem, you can repeat

that also, but it can be expensive.


49

Positivism tries to emulate the methods in the example by:

Identification of a problem

Collection of data

Explanation of hypothesis

Methods of testing hypothesis

Analysis of results

Re testing if necessary

Interpreting result report

3.2 Phenomenology

This perspective originates from Max Weber. The

phenomenologist is concerned with understanding human

behaviour from the actors point of view. For example you spot a

mound in a distance it looks like a small hill. You ask yourself

what shape it is. How do you know it is a mound and not an

elephant? Would anything convince you that it was not an

elephant? Your friend warns you that it is not a mound but an

elephant. You get closer to the mound and see it move. We take

such experiences for granted. The phenomenological aim is to

stop taking experiences for granted, even the simplest

experiences of everyday life.

Therefore the phenomenologist examines how the world is

experienced. For the phenomenologist the important reality is

what people imagine to be. In this perspective less emphasis is

placed on the need to develop objective methods of study and

more on the value of seeing the world through the eyes of those

being studied. Phenomenology stresses the need to understand

the subjective interpretation of actors.


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4.0 CONCLUSION

The two approaches we looked at each focuses on different

aspects of social reality. Both of them have a significant role in

helping you understand the nature of our society.

5.0 SUMMARY

Two points are important in this unit.

Positivists prefer structural explanations and avoid

interpretive explanations that bring in human intentions

and emotions.

Phenomenologist study everyday events from within the

life world of the persons experiencing them. The aim is to

determine what an experience means for the person who

has had the experience and are able to provide a detailed

description of it.


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References

Banks, O (1968) The Sociology of Education. BT. Batesford Ltd,

London

Datta, A (1988) Education and Society: with Special Reference to

Africa. London: Macmillan

Ezewu, E (1983) The Sociology of Education. Lagos: Longman

Giddens A (2008) Sociology: Polity press, Malden

Kirby M etal (2000) Sociology in Perspective: AQA Edition. Heinemann,

Oxford

Musgrave, PW (1965) Sociology of Education. Methuen and Co Ltd,

London

Swift, D.F (1969) The Sociology of Education: An introductory Analytic

Perspective. Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd, London

Zanden J.W.V (1988) The Sociology Experience: An Introduction to

Sociology: Random House, New York

sociology final module

Documents

meaning of sociology

sociology of education

functions of sociology

relevance of sociology

scopenature of sociology

development of sociology

sociology deals

scope of sociology