socio-cultural aspects of bangladesh

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CHAPTER 1

HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND OF

BANGLADESH

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1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BANGLADESH

Bangladesh is the lowest riparian of three major river systems of the Himalayan Range the

Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Meghna (GBM), which drain a huge volume of water

generated in the GBM region and pass through Bangladesh on to the Bay of Bengal. About

92% of the run-off Bangladesh has to deal with, enters the country from up streams annually

outside of the country. Bangladesh occupies only 7% of the GBM catchment area with a

network of rivers criss-crossing the country. It is one of the most densely populated countries

of the world with a population of 155 million in a land mass of 147,750 sq. kms. Bangla is

the state language and citizens are known as Bangladeshi.

The country is surrounded by India in the West, North and Northeast and by Myanmar on the

Southeast with the Bay of Bengal in the South providing a gateway to the oceans of the

world. Bangladesh was once a part of the Indian sub-continent and gained independence

from the British colonial rule as East Pakistan in 1947 only to be politically dominated,

socially alienated and economically exploited by West Pakistan. After 23 years of political

struggle and a War of Liberation under the leadership of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur

Rahman, Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971.

Bangladesh is endowed with a unique natural resource base. About 80% of the country

consists of floodplains and wetlands with over 300 rivers in the riverine network that sustains

rare wildlife, flora and fauna and distinctive but diverse ecological systems across the

country. These systems range from the unique mangrove forests of the Sundarbans in the

Southwest (a world heritage) to coastal and marine ecosystems in the deep South; deep

natural water basins called haors and baors in the Northeast which remain inundated for

half of the year and has a unique but changing ecology; arid area in the upper mid-section to

hill tracts in the Southeast and flat sandy or marshy riverine deltas in the middle down to

South. The country has 29 agro-ecological zones that have micro-climates of their own.

More than 700 kms of coastline in the South has a population of over 35 million who are

most vulnerable to cyclones, tidal surges and salinity ingress. Floods are a regular

phenomenon as part of Bangladeshs normal hydrological cycle and usually affect 22-30% of

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the country. But they turn disastrous when the waters overspill to inundate wider areas. The

changing climate over thepast 3-4 decades has increased both the intensity and frequency of

floods, cyclones and droughts together with the changing and shifting pattern of rainfall.

In spite of the global financial crisis, Bangladesh has managed the macro-economic front

well enough to maintain its economic growth at an average of 6% per year since 2008 and

also not to be much affected by the global financial meltdown and global recession of 2007-

2008. The economy is still agro-based, with just under 50% of total labor force employed in

the sector and more than 70% of the population involved directly or indirectly in agricultural

activities.

Following the parliamentary elections held in December 2008, Bangladesh embarked on the

road to democracy again after two years of an army backed caretaker government. By then,

the country was already facing the negative effects of the global economic recession and

rising prices of food grains and other consumer essentials and fuel. However, that has been

managed fairly well. But the current Euro zone crisis looks alarming and may adversely

impact on Bangladeshs economic prospects. Bangladesh is watchful of the developments for

appropriate responses to be made as far as possible.

Bangladesh is a unitary and sovereign Republic known as The Peoples Republic of

Bangladesh. It appeared on the world map as an independent and sovereign state on

December 16, 1971 following the victory at the war of liberation from March 25 to

December 16, 1971. The area was under Muslim rule for five and a half centuries and passed

into British rule in 1757 A.D. The country is bounded by India on the west, the north, and the

north-east and Burma on the south east and the Bay of Bengal on the south. The area of the

country is 143,999 sq. km. Bangladesh enjoys generally a sub-tropical monsoon climate.

About 14% of the land area is forest. The present population is about 120 million and GDP is

$ 24 billion (1993). The total civilian labour force of the county is 51.2 million of which 31.1

million are male and 20.1 million are female. Dhaka is the capital and the largest

metropolitan city of the country. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people employing

61.3% of the labour force. This sector directly contributes around 46% to the gross domestic

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products. Bangladesh has got one of the fertile lands of the world but due to paucity of

capital and implementation of new inputs and techniques its yield per acre is one of the

lowest in the world. 75% of the export earnings come from raw-jute and jute goods. At

present, a democratic government is in power and a parliamentary form of government is

existed in the constitution of the country.

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CHAPTER 2

LOCATION &

GEOGRAPHY

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CHAPTER 3

DEMOGRAPHY

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3. Demography

Bangladesh is the most densely populated non island nation in the world. With approximately

125 million inhabitants living in an area of 55,813 square miles, there are about 2,240

persons per square mile. The majority of the population (98 percent) is Bengali, with 2

percent belonging to tribal or other non-Bengali groups. Approximately 83 percent of the

population is Muslim, 16 percent is Hindu, and 1 percent is Buddhist, Christian, or other.

Annual population growth rate is at about 2 percent. Infant mortality is approximately

seventy-five per one thousand live births. Life expectancy for both men and women is fifty-

eight years, yet the sex ratios for cohorts above sixty years of age are skewed toward males.

Girls between one and four years of age are almost twice as likely as boys to die.

In the early 1980s the annual rate of population increase was above 2.5 percent, but in the

late 1990s it decreased to 1.9 percent. The success of population control may be due to the

demographic transition (decreasing birth and death rates), decreasing farm sizes, increasing

urbanization, and national campaigns to control fertility (funded largely by other nations).

Population: 156 050 883

Year: July 2009 (estimated)

Age structure: 0-14 years: male 27,065,625/female 26,913,961

15-64 years: 61.4% (male 45,222,182/female50,537,052)

Age: 65 years and over: 4% (male 3,057,255/female3,254,808)

Year: 2009

Population growth rate: 1,29%

Year: 2009

Urbanization Urban population: 27% of total population

Rate of urbanization: 3.5% annual rate of change

Birth rate: 24.68 births/1,000 population

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Year: 2009

Death rate: 9.23 deaths/1,000 population

Year: July 2009 (estimated)

Net migration rate: -2.53 migrant(s)/1,000 population

Year: 2009

Sex ratio: at birth : 1.04 male(s)/female Year: 2009

under 15 years : 1.01 male(s)/female

15-64 years : 0.9 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female

total population : 0.93 male(s)/female

Year: 2009

Infant mortality rate: Total: 59.02 deaths/1,000 live births

Male: 66.12 deaths/1,000 live births

Female : 51.64 deaths/1,000 live births

Year: 2009

Life expectancy at birth: Total: 60.25 years

Male: 57.57 years

Female: 63.03 years

Year: 2009

Total fertility rate: Value: 2.74 children born/woman

Year: 2009

HIV/AIDS - adult

prevalence rate:less than 0.1%

Year: 2001

HIV/AIDS - people living

with HIV/AIDS:Value: 12 000

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Year: 2007

HIV/AIDS - deaths: Value: fewer than 500

Year: 2007

Nationality: noun: Bangladeshi(s)adjective: Bangladeshi

Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%, tribal groups, non-Bengali Muslims (1998)

Religions: Muslim 83%, Hindu 16%, other 1% (1998)

Languages: Bangla (official, also known as Bengali), English

Literacy: Definition: age 15 and over can read and write

Total population: 47,90%

Male: 54,00%

Female: 41,40%

Year: 2001

School life expectancy

(primary to tertiary

education)

Total: 8 years

Male: 8 years

Female: 8 years

Year: 2004

Education expenditures 2.7% of GDP

Year: 2005

Table 1: Demographic representation of Bangladesh

3.1 Demographics Issues in Bangladesh

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Demographics in Bangladesh are a very sensitive issue because it involves population

density, ethnicity and religious affiliations. Population density is a critical condition in

Bangladesh because the country has one of the highest density rates in the world. Also,

ethnicity and religious beliefs have been causes for discontent ever since the country became

independent. Bangladesh can be considered a largely homogeneous country when it comes to

ethnicity. The country gets its name from the Bengali group who represents 98 percent of the

population, making it the dominant ethno-linguistic group. In 2009, the population of

Bangladesh was estimated at approximately 160 million people. 90 percent are religious

Muslims and the rest are mostly Hindu. One of the downsides of demographics in

Bangladesh is that is has one of the highest population density rates in the world. If we

exclude from the list small states such as Malta, Bangladesh has the highest density rare in

the whole world. When it comes to developing countries such as Bangladesh that are highly

illiterate, poor and with a large rural population, statistics cant always be sure.

Bangladesh also has one of the highest population growth rates in the world. The fertility rate

is extremely high in the countrys society because of patriarchal issues that request women to

bear children and work in rural, menial jobs. Bangladeshs population is highly rural, with

urban centers being limited. It also has a high risk of infectious diseases like hepatitis A and

E, typhoid fever and malaria. This is because the countrys health system is extremely poor

and underdeveloped. Most women dont receive medical treatment, while some of them

spent their entire lives without making contact with a medical professional. Another issues

that haunts Bangladeshs demographics is the ethnic conflict between the dominant

population and tribal groups that hide in the Chittagong Hills.

3.1.1 Women in Bangladesh

All the info gathered from 1980 about Bangladesh women's health, education, nutrition and

economic power has indicated that women in Bangladesh are still inferior to men. In custom

and practice, women in Bangladesh have an inferior social status than the social status of

their male counterparts. Women's possibilities are limited by their traditional role in the

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society. They have limited or no access to markets, education, health services and

government jobs.

The traditional role that women had to play in Bangladesh society forced them to have high

fertility rates. Usually, high fertility contributes to malnourishment and poor health because

too many children are challenging the well-being of a family that can provide for a limited

amount of members. Poverty rates are the highest among women and children who are not

capable of taking care of themselves because they have no access to education, jobs and

professional medical advice.

In Bangladesh, almost 80 percent of women live in rural areas, with no prospects for a

brighter future. Women in Bangladesh are responsible for most of the hard work that is done

in rural areas. They keep livestock, poultry and small gardens and they also do all the post-

harvest work. Women in cities can't advance further than a manufacturing job. The high

population rates meant less working places and more candidates. Another discriminatory

feature of the social situation in Bangladesh is the fact that female wage rates are typically

lower than male wage rates. Usually, they are between 20 and 30 percent of male wages.

Violence against women is also omnipresent in Bangladesh. In 2008 only, there were almost

600 cases of violence against women. These victims were killed, beaten and even killed after

being raped. Many women in Bangladesh even reach the point where they decide to commit

suicide because of extreme domestic violence.

3.1.2 Education in Bangladesh

Education in Bangladesh has gone through various periods and has evolved in method of

teaching and language choices. For example, during the British rule, the education system

was mainly in English. The main language that was being taught was English. Also, during

that period, education was only for the privileged and wealthy. Only families that had ties

with the British government were able to receive substantial education. After the English

rule, the territory of Bangladesh came under Pakistani rule and education was still scarce.

People without education were considered second-class citizens. The state language changed

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from English to Urdu, the mother tongue of Pakistan. Conflicts appeared between Bengali

speakers and Urdu speakers. Today, it is considered that the Pakistani education system that

was imposed in Bangladesh during the Pakistani rule was meant to weaken the Bengali

language and indoctrinate the citizens. After its independence in 1971, Bangladesh became a

secular state and different forms of education were allowed to coexist. The most practiced

education system in the country is the British one, but people have the right to choose from

three different options: the English medium, the Bengali medium and the religious branch.

The Bengali medium of education is offered by the government of Bangladesh, meaning that

it is public and mainly free. Still, people have to pay some fees. All the courses are taught in

Bengali with the exception of English courses and religious ones. The religious branch of theeducation system in Bangladesh attracts mostly young children who are homeless. These

children are fed, sheltered and taught the paths of Islam in specialized religious institutions

called madrashas. These institutions are subsidized by the Mosques through public donations.

When they grow up, these children will become Islamic religious figures. That is why Islam

plays an important role in the educational system of Bangladesh.

3.1.3 Bangladesh's Health and Education

A high poverty rate prevails in Bangladesh even though the country was listed in 2005 as one

of the Next Eleven Economies -eleven countries that were identified as having a high

potential for economic growth according to Goldman Sachs Investment Bank. In spite of this

inspiring premonition, the lacking Bangladesh health and education systems maintain the

country bound in extreme poverty. Bangladesh Health is aggravated by the scarcity of water

and the numerous natural catastrophes that have impacted the country's fragile economy.

Most rural areas are plagued with diseases caused by the high amount of arsenic

contamination in the ground waters.

Health issues are worsened due to the lack of communication provided by the Bangladesh

Health Ministry. As a matter of fact, raising awareness regarding health issues is complicated

since literacy levels are below average. The literacy rate in Bangladesh is a low as 56%. On

the bright side, Bangladesh education is being propelled thanks to the flourishing of non-

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profit organizations that are working hard to communicate to the whole world how

vulnerable is this nation's state. Bangladesh Education Ministry needs to focus on women

since gender is still a huge barrier. Women are treated with disdain and this obstacle has

become one of the main factors that conjugate the low Bangladesh poverty rates.

If you care Bangladesh's current situation, we encourage you to help in any way you can.

Global efforts are being done to try to raise awareness regarding the pressing Bangladesh

poverty rates. However, as many freethinkers have already stipulated, we adhere to the idea

that a woman empowerment campaign in the region would spark reforms in the otherwise

obsolete health and educations programs. It is an uprising of the oppressed women that

would actually lead Bangladesh to a better tomorrow

3.1.4 Women Empowerment in Bangladesh

Women empowerment in Bangladesh means giving women of the country the power to rule

and govern their own lives, away from traditional and social constraints.

The women empowerment movement in Bangladesh focuses on giving women the power

and authority they need to be mens equals. The structures of sub ordinance that have keep

women in the dark for so long must be eliminated. Women must have intellectual resources

that can be acquired through good education and material resources that can be accumulated

with the help of a solid job. Women in Bangladesh work in rural areas and do most of the

manufacturing labor as well as most of the harvesting. This traditional practice needs to stop.

The violence against women must also stop. Women need to gain a lot more power over their

decision making process. They should not be seen as fertility machines that have only the

goal of reproducing.

Most of the violence against women that takes place in Bangladesh is located in urban and

rural households. Violence against women is an old, patriarch practice that focuses on

establishing the balance of power in the family. The system of early marriage for girls is also

a cause for violence against women because little girls are forced into new families from an

early age. There, they have to work like adults. Bangladesh is a society that perpetrates the

myth of the mother as a divine creature. Women who do not get pregnant are considered

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inferior because they cant bear children. This is a male tradition that limits the mobility of

women all over the country.

Global NGOs that are working towards helping women get empowered in Bangladesh are

still facing difficulties because Bangladesh is a closed society which allows very few

changes. In Bangladesh, gender inequalities are a social construction that can be eliminated

with time.

3.1.5 The Urban Poverty Situation in Bangladesh

While much of the statistics and research of poverty in Bangladesh points to the problems of

those in rural poverty, the urban situation is not much better. The percentage for urbanpoverty in the country is smaller than the rural areas and the total number of people is much

smaller, numbering around 20 million. However, the urban poverty situation in the cities of

Bangladesh is a real problem and the population of those living in slums continues to grow.

Without the right infrastructure and improvements, the Bangladesh people will continue to

see increased growth of urban poverty. The main issue of urban poverty is the lack of

available food. Because space is at a high premium in the cities, the formation of slum

villages on the outskirts leaves little room for individuals or families to try and practice

subsistence farming. Instead, they attempt to work for a nominal wage that often does not

meet their food needs for a proper diet or basic survival. This slum living situation further

worsens the health level of those living in Bangladesh cities, with a lower level of hygiene

that allows disease and sickness to spread at rapid rates.

As a secondary problem, those that become sick because of living in slums and malnutrition

are unable to receive quality healthcare. The type of healthcare that is available is low quality

and is expensive when compared to the average wages. This creates a vicious circle of

poverty in Bangladesh, with the impoverished person not being able to work because they are

sick, which means that they cannot afford the foods that make up a proper diet. To their

credit, the Bangladesh government has recognized the problem and is actively taking several

steps to improve in all the areas where urban poverty plagues their cities and population.

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3.1.6 Health in Bangladesh

When it comes to the health in Bangladesh as a whole there are many concerns that have yet

to be completely addressed by medication in the country. Though health in Bangladesh is

better than it was just a few short years ago there are still many cases of malaria reported in

the country on a yearly basis so before you travel to Bangladesh you should be aware that

you may need vaccinations for the vaccine preventable diseases of the country. If you are

unsure of your health risks and of exactly what vaccinations you should take then talking to a

doctor at your local hospital could be something that will benefit you greatly. Talking to a

doctor in Bangladesh about vaccinations is advisable as well if you are already in the country

but to have the greatest benefit to your health you should talk to your doctor 4 weeks beforeyou travel to Bangladesh at least.

The CDC would recommend that you talk to a travel doctor about any disease related

medication or vaccinations you may need for your trip as a travel doctor can give you more

insight then a standard physician. In addition to this if you have any preexisting conditions

you should fully disclose this with any medical specialist you speak to before your trip. If

you plan on traveling to areas outside of Bangladesh it is also a good idea to disclose this

information to your doctor as other countries may be faced with other healthcare concernsthat you should be aware of. People who travel for longer periods of time may also need

special vaccinations and those who may go to Bangladesh for a school or work venture may

be supplied with vaccinations and medications from their respective school or employer. In

any case it is important that you are practicing safety by protecting yourself by these means.

3.1.6 Education in Bangladesh

Education in Bangladesh has gone through various periods and has evolved in method of

teaching and language choices. For example, during the British rule, the education system

was mainly in English. The main language that was being taught was English. Also, during

that period, education was only for the privileged and wealthy. Only families that had ties

with the British government were able to receive substantial education.

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After the English rule, the territory of Bangladesh came under Pakistani rule and education

was still scarce. People without education were considered second-class citizens. The state

language changed from English to Urdu, the mother tongue of Pakistan. Conflicts appeared

between Bengali speakers and Urdu speakers. Today, it is considered that the Pakistani

education system that was imposed in Bangladesh during the Pakistani rule was meant to

weaken the Bengali language and indoctrinate the citizens.

After its independence in 1971, Bangladesh became a secular state and different forms of

education were allowed to coexist. The most practiced education system in the country is the

British one, but people have the right to choose from three different options: the English

medium, the Bengali medium and the religious branch.

The Bengali medium of education is offered by the government of Bangladesh, meaning that

it is public and mainly free. Still, people have to pay some fees. All the courses are taught in

Bengali with the exception of English courses and religious ones. The religious branch of the

education system in Bangladesh attracts mostly young children who are homeless. These

children are fed, sheltered and taught the paths of Islam in specialized religious institutions

called madrashas. These institutions are subsidized by the Mosques through public donations.

When they grow up, these children will become Islamic religious figures. That is why Islamplays an important role in the educational system of Bangladesh.

3.2 People

A vast majority (98 percent) of the people of Bangladesh are

Bengalis and they speak the Bengali language. Minorities

include Biharis numbering 250,000 and other tribes numbering

about a million, with the Chakma being most numerous innumber. About 83 percent of Bangladeshis are profess Islam as

their religion. The next major religion is Hinduism (16 precent).

Other major religions include Buddhism and Christianity. A member of the Indo-European

family of languages, Bangla (sometimes called Bengali) is the official language of

Bangladesh. Bangladeshis closely identify themselves with their national language. Bangla

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has a rich cultural heritage in literature, music, and poetry, and at least two Bengali poets are

well known in the West: Rabindranath Tagore, a Hindu and a Nobel laureate; and Kazi

Nazrul Islam, a Muslim known as the "voice of Bengali nationalism and independence."

Bangla has been enriched by several regional dialects. The dialects of Sylhet, Chittagong,

and Noakhali have been strongly marked by Arab-Persian influences. English, whose cultural

influence seemed to have crested by the late 1980s, remained nonetheless an important

language in Bangladesh.

Biharis, a group that included Urdu-speaking non-Bengali Muslim refugees from Bihar and

other parts of northern India, numbered about 1 million in 1971 but had decreased to around

600,000 by the late 1980s. They once dominated the upper levels of Bengali society. Many

also held jobs on the railroads and in heavy industry. As such they stood to lose from

Bangladesh independence and sided with Pakistan during the 1971 war. Hundreds of

thousands of Biharis were repatriated to Pakistan after

the war.

Bangladesh's tribal population consists of about 1 million

people, just fewer than 1 percent of the total population.

They live primarily in the Chittagong Hills and in the

regions of Mymensingh, Sylhet, and Rajshahi. The majority of the tribal population

(778,425) live in rural settings, where many practice shifting cultivation. Most tribal people

are of SinoTibetan descent and have distinctive Mongoloid features. They differ in their

social organization, marriage customs, birth and death rites, food, and other social customs

from the people of the rest of the country. They speak Tibeto-Burman languages. In the mid-

1980s, the percentage distribution of tribal population by religion was Hindu 24, Buddhist

44, Christian 13, and others 19.

The four largest tribes are the Chakmas, Marmas (or Maghs), Tipperas (or Tipras), and Mros

(or Moorangs). The tribes tend to intermingle and could be distinguished from one another

more by differences in their dialect, dress, and customs than by tribal cohesion. Only the

Chakmas and Marmas display formal tribal organization, although all groups containe

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distinct clans. By far the largest tribe, the Chakmas are of mixed origin but reflect more

Bengali influence than any other tribe. Unlike the other tribes, the Chakmas and Marmas

generally live in the highland valleys. Most Chakmas are Buddhists, but some practiced

Hinduism or animism.

3.3 Religion

About 80 percent of Bangladeshis are Muslims, making Bangladesh one of the largest

Muslim countries in the world. The Muslim community in Bangladesh tends to be

accommodating to other faiths and beliefs and Bangladesh is known for its lack of communal

strife. Hinduism is professed by about 13 percent of the population. There are also significant

numbers of Buddhists in Bangladesh. Bangladesh also has a very small Christian community.

3.3.1 Religious Beliefs.

The symbols and sounds of Islam, such as the call to prayer, punctuate daily life.

Bangladeshis conceptualize themselves and others fundamentally through their religious

heritage. For example, the nationality of foreigners is considered secondary to their religious

identity.

Islam is a part of everyday life in all parts of the country, and nearly every village has at least

a small mosque and an imam (cleric). Prayer is supposed to be performed five times daily,

but only the committed uphold that standard. Friday afternoon prayer is often the only time

that mosques become crowded.

Throughout the country there is a belief in spirits that inhabit natural spaces such as trees,

hollows, and riverbanks. These beliefs are derided by Islamic religious authorities.

Hinduism encompasses an array of deities, including Krishna, Ram, Durga, Kali, and

Ganesh. Bangladeshi Hindus pay particular attention to the female goddess Durga, and rituals

devoted to her are among the most widely celebrated.

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3.3.2 Religious Practitioners

The imam is associated with a mosque and is an important person in both rural and urban

society, leading a group of followers. The imam's power is based on his knowledge of the

Koran and memorization of phrases in Arabic. Relatively few imams understand Arabic in

the spoken or written form. An imam's power is based on his ability to persuade groups of

men to act in conjunction with Islamic rules. In many villages the imam is believed to have

access to the supernatural, with the ability to write charms that protect individuals from evil

spirits, imbue liquids with holy healing properties, or ward off or reverse of bad luck.

Brahman priests perform rituals for the Hindu community during the major festivals when

offerings are made but also in daily acts of worship. They are respected, but Hinduism does

not have the codified hierarchical structure of Islam. Thus, a Brahman priest may not have a

position of leadership outside his religious duties.

3.3.3 Rituals and Holy Places

The primary Islamic holidays in Bangladesh include: Eid-ul-Azha (the tenth day of the

Muslim monthZilhaj ), in which a goat or cow is sacrificed in honor of Allah; Shob-i-Barat

(the fourteenth or fifteenth day ofShaban ), when Allah records an individual's future for therest of the year; Ramadan (the month Ramzan ), a month-long period of fasting between

dawn and dusk;Eid-ul-Fitr(the first day of the month Shawal, following the end ofRamzan

), characterized by alms giving to the poor; and Shob-i-Meraz (the twenty-seventh day of

Rajab ), which commemorates the night when Mohammed ascended to heaven. Islamic

holidays are publicly celebrated in afternoon prayers at mosques and outdoor open areas,

where many men assemble and move through their prayers in unison.

Among the most important Hindu celebrations are Saraswati Puja (February), dedicated to

the deity Saraswati, who takes the form of a swan. She is the patron of learning, and

propitiating her is important for students. Durga Puja (October) pays homage to the female

warrior goddess Durga, who has ten arms, carries a sword, and rides a lion. After a nine-day

festival, images of Durga and her associates are placed in a procession and set into a river.

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Kali Puja (November) is also called the Festival of Lights and honors Kali, a female deity

who has the power to give and take away life. Candles are lit in and around homes.

A young Bengali woman performs a traditional Manipuri dance. Almost all traditional

dancers are women.

Other Hindu and Islamic rituals are celebrated in villages and neighbourhoods and are

dependent on important family or local traditions. Celebrations take place at many local

shrines and temples.

3.3.4 Death and the Afterlife

Muslims believe that after death the soul is judged and moves to heaven or hell. Funerals

require that the body be washed, the nostrils and ears be plugged with cotton or cloth, and the

body be wrapped in a white shroud. The body is buried or entombed in a brick or concrete

structure. In Hinduism, reincarnation is expected and one's actions throughout life determine

one's future lives. As the family mourns and close relatives shave their heads, the body is

transported to the funeralghat(bank along a river), where prayers are recited. The body is to

be placed on a pyre and cremated, and the ashes are thrown into the river.

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3.3.5 Islam in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the largest Muslim countries in the world. Most Bangladeshi Muslims

are Sunnis, but there is a small Shia community. Among religious festivals of Muslims are

the Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Eid-e-Miladunnabi, Muharram etc.

The region of what is now Bangladesh saw wholesale conversions to Islam that began in the

thirteenth century and continued on for hundreds of years. Muslim missionaries and mystics

who wandered about the villages and towns were responsible for much of the conversions.

3.3.6 Hinduism in Bangladesh

Hinduism is the second largest religious affiliation in Bangladesh, covering more than 9.2%

of the population. Hindus in Bangladesh are

almost evenly distributed in all regions, with

concentrations in Khulna, Jessore, Dinajpur,

Faridpur, and Barisal. According to the 2001

census there are 11,379,000 Hindus in Bangladesh

Durga Puja, Saraswati Puja, Kali Puja etc. are some of the importanr Hindu festivals in

Bangladesh.

3.3.7 Buddhism in Bangladesh

In the Chittagong Hills, Buddhist tribes formed the

majority of the population. There are

approximately 1 million Buddhists in Bangladesh,

representing less than 1 percent of the population.

3.3.8 Christianity in Bangladesh

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There are less than a million Christians in Bangladesh, mostly Roman Catholic. Christians

account for approximately only 0.3% of the total population

3.4 Religious Issues in Bangladesh

Religion in Bangladesh is a sensitive issue, mostly because Bangladesh is officially a secular

state but recognizes Islam as an official, state religion. Historically and doctrinally, Islamic

scholars don't accept nations that are secular because they think that religion, society and

private life are all part of the great community they like to call 'umma'.

The main religion in Bangladesh is Islam because it is practiced by almost 90 percent of the

country's population. The rest of 10 percent adhere to Hinduism. The type of Islam that is

practiced in Bangladesh is Sunni Islam with a lot of Sufi influences. Sunni is the most

numerous branch of Islam in the world. Countries like Egypt and Saudi Arabia have Sunni

majority populations. The Sufi practices that influence the Islamic religion in Bangladesh are

commonly known as mysticism. Sufi followers are poor men that don't eat, don't drink and

spend their days in deep prayer in order to achieve spiritual connection with God.

Bangladesh has the fourth largest Muslim population in the world, with over 130 million

followers, right after Indonesia, Pakistan and India. In its constitution, Bangladesh is

recognized as a secular state. For a short period of time, when Bangladesh was under

Pakistani rule, Islam was made the state's official religion. But the Supreme Court or High

Court of Bangladesh ruled that Bangladesh must return to the principles of the 1972

constitution, meaning that it mustn't have an official religion.

The problem with Islam gaining too much power in Bangladesh is that it unbalances the

genders issues. Islamic edicts or fatwas have been issued mostly against women by religious

courts as punishments for their nonreligious behavior. Global NGO's are fighting such edicts

in order to maintain a fair judgment when it comes to men and women. Bangladesh is a

country where gender issues, as well as religious issues are very sensitive subjects.

3.5 Languages of Bangladesh

3.5.1 Introduction

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The vast majority of the people of Bangladesh speakBangla (Bengali). Bangla is an Indo-

Aryan language and evolved from Sanskrit. The language plays an extremely important role

in the hearts and minds of Bangladeshis. The Independence struggle and the subsequent

liberation from Pakistani domination draw inspiration from the struggle by Bengalis to

prevent Urdu being declared the state language of Pakistan. The struggle for Bangla gave

impetus to the nascent Bangla nationalism which saw fruition in the advent of Bangladesh as

a free nation after a nine month long War of Independence.

3.5.2 The Evolution of Bangla

Bangla belongs to the easternmost branch, called Aryan or Indo-Iranian, of the Indo-

European family of languages. Its direct ancestor is a form of Prakrit or Middle Indo-Aryan

which descended from Sanskrit or Old Indo-Aryan. Sanskrit was the spoken as well as the

literary language of Aryandom until circa 500 B.C., after which it remained for nearly two

thousand years the dominant literary languages as well as the lingua franca among the

cultured and the erudite throughout the subcontinent.

Like Sanskrit, Apabhramsa-Avahattha was a literary language, and in the available records it

shows remarkably little local variation; practically the same form of the language appears in

the poems written in Gujarat and in Bengal. But the spoken language conditioned by the

regional linguistic and ethnic environments took up the different regional New Indo-Aryan

languages. The emergence of these New Indo-Aryan speeches was not all synchronized. But

some of them, including Bangla, certainly originated by the middle of the tenth century at the

latest.

For old Bangla the only records are mystic carya songs discovered in a MS from Nepal by

Haraprasad Shastri.The language of the carya songs is basically vernacular, but at the same

time it is also something of a literary language.

Bangla at the present day has two literary styles. One is called "Sadhubhasa" (elegant

language) and the other "Chaltibhasa" (current language). The former is the traditional

literary style based on Middle Bangla of the sixteenth century. The later is practically a

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creation of the present century, and is based on the cultivated form of the dialect spoken in

Calcutta by the educated people originally coming from districts bordering on the lower

reaches of the Hoogly. The difference between the two literary styles is not very sharp. The

vocabulary is practically the same. The difference lies mainly in the forms of the pronoun

and the verb. The Sadhubhasa has the old and heavier forms while the Chalitbhasa uses the

modern and lighter forms. The former shows a partiality for lexical words and for compound

words of the Sanskrit type, and the latter prefers colloquial words, phrases and idioms. The

Chalitbhasa was first seriously taken up by Pramatha Chaudhuri at the instance of

Rabindranath Tagore during the early years of the first WorldWar. Soon after Tagore

practically discarded Sadhubhasa, and Chalitbhasa is now generally favoured by writers who

have no particular fascination for the traditional literary style. The Sadhubhasa is always easy

to write but it is somewhat faded in signification and jaded in rhythm. The Bangla script, like

all other Indian scripts, originated from Brahmi alphabet of the Asokan inscriptions. The

Bangla alphabet in its present printed form took shape in 1778 when printing types were first

cast by Charles Wilkins. There still remained a few archaic forms and these were finally

replaced in the middle of the nineteenth century.

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CHAPTER 4

SOCIAL ASPECTS

OF BANGLADESH

4.1 Social Stratification

4.1.1 Classes and Castes

The Muslim class system is similar to a caste structure. The ashrafis a small upperclass of

old-money descendants of early Muslim officials and merchants whose roots are in

Afghanistan, Turkey, and Iran. Some ashraf families trace their lineage to the Prophet

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Mohammed. The rest of the population is conceived of as the indigenous majority atraf. This

distinction mirrors the Hindu separation between the Brahman and those in lower castes.

While both Muslim and Hindu categories are recognized by educated people, the vast

majority of citizens envision class in a more localized, rural context.

In rural areas, class is linked to the amount of land owned, occupation, and education. A

landowner with more than five acres is at the top of the socioeconomic scale, and small

subsistence farmers are in the middle. At the bottom of the scale are the landless rural

households that account for about 30 percent of the rural population. Landowning status

reflects socioeconomic class position in rural areas, although occupation and education also

play a role. The most highly educated people hold positions requiring literacy andmathematical skills, such as in banks and government offices, and are generally accorded a

higher status than are farmers. Small businessmen may earn as much as those who have jobs

requiring an education but have a lower social status.

Hindu castes also play a role in the rural economy. Hindu groups are involved in the

hereditary occupations that fill the economic niches that support a farming-based economy.

Small numbers of higher caste groups have remained in the country, and some of those

people are large landowners, businessmen, and service providers.

In urban areas the great majority of people are labourers. There is a middle class of small

businessmen and midlevel office workers, and above this is an emerging entrepreneurial

group and upper-level service workers.

4.1.2 Symbols of Social Stratification

One of the most obvious symbols of class status is dress. The traditional garment for men is

the lungi, a cloth tube skirt that hangs to the ankles; for women, the sari is the norm. The

lungi is worn by most men, except those who consider themselves to have high

socioeconomic status, among whom pants and shirt are worn. Also indicative of high

standing are loose white cotton pyjama pants and a long white shirt. White dress among men

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symbolizes an occupation that does not require physical labour. A man with high standing

will not be seen physically carrying anything; that task is left to an assistant or labourer.

Saris also serve as class markers, with elaborate and finely worked cloth symbolizing high

status. Poverty is marked by the cheap, rough green or indigo cotton cloth saris of poor

women. Gold jewellery indicates a high social standing among women.

A concrete-faced house and a ceramic tile roof provide evidence of wealth. An automobile is

well beyond the means of most people, and a motorcycle is a sign of status. Colour

televisions, telephones, and electricity are other symbols associated with wealth.

4.2 Marriage, Family, and Kinship

4.2.1 Marriage

Marriage is almost always an arranged affair and takes place when the parents, particularly

the father, decide that a child should be married. Men marry typically around age twenty-five

or older, and women marry between ages fifteen and twenty; thus the husband is usually at

least ten years older than the wife. Muslims allow polygynoms marriage, but its occurrence is

rare and is dependent on a man's ability to support multiple households.

A parent who decides that a child is ready to marry may contact agencies, go-betweens,

relatives, and friends to find an appropriate mate. Of immediate concern are the status and

characteristics of the potential in-law's family. Generally an equal match is sought in terms of

family economic status, educational background, and piousness. A father may allow his child

to choose among five or six potential mates, providing the child with the relevant data on

each candidate. It is customary for the child to rule out clearly unacceptable candidates,

leaving a slate of candidates from which the father can choose. An arrangement between two

families may be sealed with an agreement on a dowry and the types of gifts to be made to the

groom. Among the educated the dowry practice is no longer prevalent. Divorce is a source of

social stigma. A Muslim man may initiate a divorce by stating "I divorce you" three times,

but very strong family pressure ordinarily ensures that divorces do not occur. A divorce can

be most difficult for the woman, who must return to her parent's household.

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4.2.2 Domestic Unit

The most common unit is the patrilineally-related extended family living in a household

called a barhi. A barhi is composed of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, and

their adult sons with their wives and children. Grandparents also may be present, as well as

patrilineally-related brothers, cousins, nieces, and nephews. The oldest man is the authority

figure, although the oldest woman may exert considerable authority within the household. A

barhi in rural areas is composed of three or four houses which face each other to form a

square courtyard in which common tasks are done. Food supplies often are shared, and young

couples must contribute their earnings to the household head. Cooking, however, often is

done within the constituent nuclear family units.

4.2.3 Inheritance

Islamic inheritance rules specify that a daughter should receive one-half the share of a son.

However, this practice is rarely followed, and upon a household head's death, property is

divided equally among his sons. Daughters may receive produce and gifts from their brothers

when they visit as "compensation" for their lack of an inheritance. A widow may receive a

share of her husband's property, but this is rare. Sons, however, are custom-bound to care for

their mothers, who retain significant power over the rest of the household.

4.2.4 Kin Groups

The patrilineal descent principle is important, and the lineage is very often localized within a

geographic neighbourhood in which it constitutes a majority. Lineage members can be called

on in times of financial crisis, particularly when support is needed to settle local disputes.

Lineages do not meet regularly or control group resources.

4.3 Socialization

4.3.1 Infant Care

Most women give birth in their natal households, to which they return when childbirth is

near. A husband is sent a message when the child is born. Five or seven days after the birth

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the husband and his close male relatives visit the newborn, and a feast and ritual haircutting

take place. The newborn is given an amulet that is tied around the waist, its eye sockets may

be blackened with soot or makeup, and a small soot mark is applied to the infant's forehead

and the sole of the foot for protection against spirits. Newborns and infants are seldom left

unattended. Most infants are in constant contact with their mothers, other women, or the

daughters in the household. Since almost all women breastfeed, infant and mother sleep

within close reach. Infants' needs are attended to constantly; a crying baby is given attention

immediately.

4.3.2 Child Rearing and Education

Children are raised within the extended family and learn early that individual desires are

secondary to the needs of the family group. Following orders is expected on the basis of age;

an adult or older child's commands must be obeyed as a sign of respect. Child care falls

primarily to household women and their daughters. Boys have more latitude for movement

outside the household.

Between ages five and ten, boys undergo a circumcision ( musulmani ), usually during the

cool months. There is no comparable ritual for girls, and the menarche is not publicly

marked.

Most children begin school at age five or six, and attendance tends to drop off as children

become more productive within the household (female) and agricultural economy (male).

About 75 percent of children attend primary school. The higher a family's socioeconomic

status, the more likely it is for both boys and girls to finish their primary educations.

Relatively few families can afford to send their children to college (about 17 percent), and

even fewer children attend a university. Those who enter a university usually come from

relatively well-off families. While school attendance drops off overall as the grades increase,

females stop attending school earlier than do males.

4.4 Social Problems and Control

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Legal procedures are based on the English common-law system, and Supreme Court justices

and lower-level judges are appointed by the president. District courts at the district capitals

are the closest formal venues for legal proceedings arising from local disputes. There are

police forces only in the cities and towns. When there is a severe conflict or crime in rural

areas, it may take days for the police to arrive.

In rural areas, a great deal of social control takes place informally. When a criminal is

caught, justice may be apportioned locally. In the case of minor theft, a thief may be beaten

by a crowd. In serious disputes between families, heads of the involved kinship groups or

local political leaders negotiate and the offending party is required to make restitution in

money and/or land. Police may be paid to ensure that they do not investigate. Nonviolentdisputes over property or rights may be decided through village councils ( panchayat )

headed by the most respected heads of the strongest kinship groups. When mediation or

negotiation fails, the police may be called in and formal legal proceedings may begin. People

do not conceive of the informal procedures as taking the law into their own hands.

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CHAPTER 5ART & CULTURE

5.1 Architecture

The Bangladesh region contains relics of the finest specimens of Buddhist monastic

architecture. The Buddhist vihara at Paharpur occupied a quadrangle measuring more than

900 feet externally at each site. "No single monastery of such dimensions" asserts an art

historian", has come to light in India, and the appellation mahavihara, the great monastery as

designating the place, can be considered entirely appropriate". Similar vihara of Deva

dynasty has been unearthed at Mainamati. The relics of Mahasthangarh where the ancient

city of Pundravardhana was located suggest that a large monastery was built there. Of

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notable sculptures in ancient Bengal, stone figures of Buddha from Ujani in Faridpur district,

Varaha avatara from Bogra (10th century) the Vishnu Stela from Comilla (11th century) and

Chandi image from Dhaka district (12th century) deserve special mention. Another

remarkable achievement was the terracotta art of Paharpur which drew its inspiration from

the simple village life. This depicts the daily life of people with intense human interest.

The Middle Age in Bengal saw the construction of a

large number of Islamic monuments which were

characterized by massive arches and bold clean lines.

The emphasis was on utility and simplicity. Among

these monuments the Satgambuz mosque of Bagerhat,the mausoleum of Shah Ali Bagdadi at Mirpur and the

mosque of Rasti Khan at Hathazari deserve special

mention.

Architectural landmarks of the recent era include the

National Parliament building designed by the renowned

American architect Louis Kahn. Other landmarks include

the National Monument, the National Museum and theNational Mosque

5.2 Drama

Drama is also one of the important means of recreation in Bangladesh. There are two kinds

of theatres in our country-viz. Jatra and theatre. Jatra is the folk theatre. It is extremely

popular in the villages of Bangladesh as well as amongst common people living in the urban

areas. Winter is the best season for jatra, when performances of mythological or historical

plays and social melodramas interspersed with interludes of dances and songs are presented,

often through the whole night.

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In Bangladesh, theatre got a new lease of life after the independence of the country in 1971.

Though almost all plays are staged in Bangla, the range of play rights is varied from local

stalwarts to Brecht or Sophocles. Some of the more famous theatre groups include:

Dhaka Theatre

Nagarik

Arranyak

Nadonik

Dhaka Padatik

Nadanik

Famous Drama personalities include Abdullah-Al-Mamun, Ramendu Majumder, Mamunur

Rashid, Nasiruddin Yussuf, Humayun Faridi, Fardousi Majumder, Suborna Mustafa and

others.

5.3 Cinema

Although cinema had always been a popular form of entertainment, it was not until 1956 that

the first full-length feature film was produced in Bangladesh. At present the industry is

capable of producing around 60 feature films per year. The films of Bangladesh display a

pattern similar to those of other countries of the subcontinent. The themes range from social

and historical to fantasies and fairy-tales. In recent years, there has been a tendency to

experiment with the medium; one of the outcomes has been an abundance of popular Short

Feature Films .

To encourage quality film making, the Government has introduced national film awards and

set up an institute of Film Archive. A Film institute has also been established recently to

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provide formal training to the students of film making. "Surjo Dighal Bari" and "Dahan" are

two internationally acclaimed films.

History of Bangladesh Cinema

DeshiMovies- All about Bangladesh Cinema

Bangladesh Showbiz - Popular site with info and pictures of Bengali film actor,

actresses, models and celebrities.

FDC - Film Development Corporation of Bangladesh.

Webbangladesh cinema pages

Cinema Glamour Girls - Image gallery of popular actresses of Bangladeshi cinema.

J K Movies

Uzzal Films Limited

5.4 Music

Music in Bangladesh can he divided into three distinct categories - classical, folk andmodern. Folk music nurtured through the ages by village-poets and rich in devotional

mysticism and love-lore is very popular. The best known forms are Bhatiali, Baul, Marthti,

Murshidi and Bhawaiya. Baul songs need particular mention due its popularity.

Modern Bengali Music has blended Western and Middle-eastern traits with traditional forms.

Contemporary music has an inclination towards the West.

Relevant Links

Bengali Mp3 Site

Bengali Songs and Videos download

Desi Movement

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Bangla Radio-Protitee.com

Bangla Music - BanglaMusic.com

Bangla Ganer Bhubon

www.music.com.bd

5.5 Dance

Classical forms of the sub-continent occupy a dominant position in Bangladeshi dance. The

folk and tribal traits are also observed. Among the tribal dances, the Monipuri and Santal are

popular. Institutions like the Chhayanat, Bulhul Academy of Fine Arts and the ShilpakalaAcademy have helped popularize dance and other forms of performing art. Classical sub-

continental dances are also getting more popular of late.

Katthak

Bharatanatyam

5.6 Sports and Games in Bangladesh

Sports and games form an integral part of Bangladeshi's life. In the villages one might see a

passel of kids kicking a football, or in some dusty alley one might see kids playing cricket.

Though Bangladesh is not a major sporting power in any sense, Bangladeshi athletes and

sportspersons have brought her many laurels

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The Bangobandhu National Stadium at Dhaka

Popular Sports and Games

Cricket is the most popular sport in Bangladesh.

Football is the second most popular sport in Bangladesh.

Kabaddi is the national sport in Bangladesh, after cricket.

Badminton is also widely played in Bangladesh

Chess has a wide following.

5.7 Etiquette

Personal interaction is initiated with the greeting Assalam Waleykum ("peace be with you"),

to which the required response is, Waleykum Assalam ("and with you"). Among Hindus, the

correct greeting is Nomoshkar, as the hands are brought together under the chin. Men may

shake hands if they are of equal status but do not grasp hands firmly. Respect is expressed

after a handshake by placing the right hand over the heart. Men and women do not shake

hands with each other. In same-sex conversation, touching is common and individuals may

stand or sit very close. The closer individuals are in terms of status, the closer their spatial

interaction is. Leave-taking is sealed with the phraseKhoda Hafez.

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Differences in age and status are marked through language conventions. Individuals with

higher status are not addressed by personal name; instead, a title or kinship term is used.

Visitors are always asked to sit, and if no chairs are available, a low stool or a bamboo mat is

provided. It is considered improper for a visitor to sit on the floor or ground. It is incumbent

on the host to offer guests something to eat. In crowded public places that provide services,

such as train stations, the post office, or bazaars, queuing is not practiced and receiving

service is dependent on pushing and maintaining one's place within the throng. Open staring

is not considered impolite.

5.8 Work Culture

The Bangladesh work culture is much more relaxed than in the US. Often, work does not

start until 10am, and time is a relative matter. A meeting scheduled to begin at 4pm may not

begin until 5pm or even 6pm. Tea breaks during work hours are frequent, and while they are

wonderful for building personal relationships, they do not promote the sense of urgency and

efficiency common in the work environment in the US. Bureaucracy is another issue and

may prevent you from being able to speak with anyone higher than your immediate

supervisor. I experienced this at Grameen Bank, but JAAGO was much less hierarchical,

and I consulted frequently with the founder. The larger challenge regarding working within ahierarchy is the lack of communication. Often, decisions made at the top were not passed

down, so that work became irrelevant or repetitive. Finally, communication may be

complicated by language barriers. Although most high-ranking leaders have good

knowledge of English, this cannot be assumed. When meetings include both English and

Bangla native speakers, they may drift into Bangla with little regard to the non-Bangla

audience

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CHAPTER 6

TRADITIONS AND

FESTIVALS

6.1 National Holidays in Bangladesh

6.1.1 General Holidays:

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6.1.1.1Muslim Holidays

Bangladesh is a predominantly Muslim country with about 85%

of its people professing Islam as their faith. The Muslims of

Bangladesh celebrate their Islamic holidays with much

enthusiasm. Some of the important days are: Eid-ul-Fitr: This

marks the celebration at the end of the fasting month of

Ramadan. Bangladeshis mark this day by first taking part in a

morning prayer with other Muslims. Eid-ul-Azha: Festival of sacrifice. The day marks the

supreme devotion of Prophet Ibrahim (pbuh) by his willingness to sacrifice his son. Those

who can afford to sacrifice cattle in the name of God, and the meat is then shared withfriends, family, and the poor. This is also the culmination of the Hajj or holy pilgrimage.

Other significant days include Shab-e-Barat, Jamaat-ul-Wida, Shab-e-Qudr, and Muharram

(Ashura).

6.1.1.2 Hindu Holidays:

(a) Janmastami: Celebration of the birth of Rama.

(b)Durgapuja (Dashomi):

The 10 day festival associated with vanquishing

demons, in particular Rama's victory over Ravana

in the Ramayana, and Durga's victory over the

buffalo-headed Mahishasura. People wash their

vehicles clean on this day and decorate it with

flowers and leaves of mango tree. Sweets are made. The young people distribute leaves of a

particular tree which are of symbolic gold. One can watch the Ram Lila which is a dramatic

performance of the life of Rama.

6.1.1.3 Buddhist Holidays

(a)Buddho Purnima:

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Buddhists commemorate the birth and enlightenment of Buddha. This occurs on the first full-

moon of the Bengali month of Baishakh.

6.1.1.4 Christian Holidays

Christmas: Christians celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ.

6.2 Secular Celebrations

Ekushee (21 February), also called Shaheed Dibash, is the National Day of Martyrs

commemorating those who died defending the Bangla language in 1952. Political speeches

are held, and a memorial service takes place at the Shaheed Minar(Martyr's Monument) in

Dhaka. Shadheenata Dibash, or Independence Day (26 March), marks the day when

Bangladesh declared itself separate from Pakistan. The event is marked with military parades

and political speeches. Poila Boishakh, the Bengali New Year, is celebrated on the first day

of the month ofBoishakh (generally in April). Poetry readings and musical events take place.

May Day (1 May) celebrates labor and workers with speeches and cultural events. Bijoy

Dibosh, or Victory Day (16 December), commemorates the day in 1971 when Pakistani

forces surrendered to a joint BangladeshiIndian force. Cultural and political events are held.

6.3 Traditional Festivals

6.3.1 Bengali New Year (Pahela Baishakh)

Bengali New Year (Bengali:

Nbobrsho) or Poyela Boishakh (

Phela Boishakh) is the first day of the

Bengali calendar. Many of the traditional

festivities in Bangladesh revolve around the

Bengali Year, the most important of them being the Bengali New Year celebrations.

The Bengali Calendar is based on ancient sub-continental calendars which was codified and

standardized by the Mughal Emperor Akbar about 6 centuries ago. The start date of the

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Begali calendar was made to coincide with the start date of the Islamic calendar (i.e. the date

of Prophet Muhammad's (pbuh) Hejira). The calendar is a solar one which is composed of six

seasons that revolve around the region's agricultural cycle.

6.3.2 Pahela Falgoon

Another traditional day (though not a national holiday)

is Pawhela Falgoon, the first day of spring, which is

observed across the country through traditional

festivities and colourful programmes. Spring fairs,

cultural programmes and exchanges of greetings and

gifts among friends and beloved ones mark the day. People from all walks of life throng the

venues of different programmes wearing colourful dresses including traditional 'spring

sarees' and 'Panjabi'. Other programmes of the day include exchange of flowers, gifts and

'Rakhi-Bandhan', and poetry recitations.

6.4 Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions: At weddings and on important holidays, food

plays an important role. At holiday or formal functions, guests are encouraged to eat to their

capacity. At weddings, a common food is biryani, a rice dish with lamb or beef and a blend

of spices, particularly saffron. On special occasions, the rice used is one of the finer, thinner-

grained types. If biryani is not eaten, a complete multicourse meal is served: foods are

brought out sequentially and added to one's rice bowl after the previous course is finished. A

complete dinner may include chicken, fish, vegetable, goat, or beef curries and dal. The final

bit of rice is finished with yogurt ( doi ). On other important occasions, such as the Eid

holidays, a goat or cow is slaughtered on the premises and curries are prepared from the fresh

meat. Some of the meat is given to relatives and to the poor.

6.5 National Identity

Bangladeshi national identity is rooted in a Bengali culture that transcends international

borders and includes the area of Bangladesh itself and West Bengal, India. Symbolically,

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Bangladeshi identity is centred on the 1971 struggle for independence from Pakistan. During

that struggle, the key elements of Bangladeshi identity coalesced around the importance of

the Bengali mother tongue and the distinctiveness of a culture or way of life connected to the

floodplains of the region. Since that time, national identity has become increasingly linked to

Islamic symbols as opposed to the Hindu Bengali, a fact that serves to reinforce the

difference between Hindu West Bengal and Islamic Bangladesh. Being Bangladeshi in some

sense means feeling connected to the natural landwater systems of the Ganges,

Brahmaputra, and other rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal. There is an envisioning of

nature and the annual cycle as intensely beautiful, as deep green paddy turns golden, dark

clouds heavy with monsoon rains gradually clear, and flooded fields dry. Even urban families

retain a sense of connectedness to this rural system. The great poets of the region,

Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nurul Islam have enshrined the Bengali sense of the beauty

and power of the region's nature.

A man eating a meal on his houseboat in Sunderbans National Park. Fish and rice are a

common part of the diet.

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CHAPTER 7

HEALTH &

EDUCATION

7. Education

7.1 Background and progress and achievements in the last 20 years

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The country has made significant progress in the areas of increasing literacy rates both for

girls and boys and greater enrolment of girls in primary schools and secondary schools. The

literacy rate for 7 years and above was 44.3%, the female literacy rate was 28.5% and male

was 50.4% and adult literacy was 35.3%.

Gender parity has been achieved in primary and secondary levels of education in the country

making it a significant achievement for Bangladesh. As of 2010, the ratios are in favor of

girls at 1.02:1 and 1.14:1 at primary and secondary levels respectively. Free education for

girls is now extended to intermediate level (12th grade).

Primary level enrolment has reached 94.7% in 2010 against MDG target of 100% by 2015.

The school drop out rate has also significantly decreased. It is expected that by 2015 all

primary age children will be enrolled in schools. School feeding (i.e. mid-day meal)

programme has been introduced in selected parts of the country to check school drop-out rate

and increase child nutrition. The programme will be expanded throughout the country, but

contribution by individuals, private and voluntary organizations and others concerned in

addition to governmental efforts are necessary for successfully implementing the programme

nation-wide.

7.2 Challenges and future directions

Future challenges remain in relation to increasing the quality of education; proper training of

teachers at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels; making school environment

attractive; and raising completion rates.

The number of schools, colleges and universities is also inadequate to meet the demand of

the growing number of students. In the urban areas, this has led to the establishment of a lot

of private schools, colleges and universities. However, the increasing rural demand for

educational facilities calls for serious attention to be given to expand educational

opportunities in rural areas.

Bangladesh still has to overcome the challenge of increasing womens tertiary level

education from the current 39% against 61% for boys.

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7.3 Health, Population and Development

7.3.1 Background and progress and achievements in the last 20 years

Life expectancy at birth has increased in Bangladesh from 46.2 in mid-70s to 68 years

currently, which is due to improvement in nutrition and availability of vaccines against

diseases and affordable medicines.

The total fertility rate (TFR) has fallen from 7 live births in the mid-70s to 2.3 births per

woman in 2011 as the contraceptive prevalence rate increased from about 8% in the early

1970s to 40 % in early 1990s to 60% by 2011.

The reduction in birth rate is also attributed to education of girls and more women joining the

work force. The population growth rate which was of 1.42 % in 2001 is down to 1.3%

according to 2011 Population Census, which is a worthy achievement. The male-female ratio

is also quite stable at 105:100.

Since the 1970s, Bangladesh has experienced negative demographic forces. The dependency

ratio indicates whether a country is struggling to generate growth in income and output with

a high dependency ratio or is poised for economic boom with a low dependency ratio. The

dependency ratio, or the ratio of population below working age (18 years) and population

above working age (about 65 years) in Bangladesh was very high with almost one dependent

for every worker until recent years. This caused a drag on the economy. Recently the trend

has started to reverse and hence it is expected that the future will have positive demographic

forces at play.

The population born during 1970s - 90s is now entering the most productive working age.

The country is expected to benefit from this demographic dividend through increase in

productivity and outputs if they receive skills training and are facilitated to find employment.

On the health side, infant and child mortality rates sharply have fallen dramatically and may

exceed the MDG expectations. The infant mortality rate has declined from 87 per 1000 live

birth in 1994 to 39 in 2009. The under-5 child mortality rate has dropped to 50 per 1000 live

births in 2009 from 146 in 1991, which is a significant achievement. Large scale child

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immunization contributed to reduced mortality and diseases. Successful programmes to

control diarrheal diseases and Vitamin-A supplementation have contributed to significant

reduction in infant and child mortality. Another contributing factor in this regard is the

breastfeeding of babies of less than 6 months old, which has increased from 43% in 2007 to

64% in 2011.

Overall mortality among women at reproductive age has consistently declined in last one

decade. The maternal mortality has decreased from 322 per 100,000 live births in 2001 to

194 in 2010. Skilled birth attendants are assisting one out of four births in rural areas. Their

number has increased from 21% in 2007 to 32% in 2011. More needs to be done to meet the

MDG target of 143 deaths per 100,000 live births by 2015.

The incidence of HIV/AIDS is very low at less than 0.1%. Polio has been virtually

eliminated. Leprosy is almost eliminated. Trends show a positive decline in the number of

malaria cases and consequent deaths. Major interventions providing effective treatment to

90% of malaria victims and preventive medication provide to 80-100% households in high

risk areas have yielded results.

Intensive information, education and mass communication campaigns for prevention and

control of malaria was carried out by the government toward this end. Immunization ratio of

one year olds against measles is up to 85.3% as of 2010, and the target is to take it to 100%

by 2015.

Tuberculosis is on the decline due to the door to door direct preventive and treatment

interventions of the health service. Multi-drug resistant TB prevalence remains very low. The

proportion of children under-5 sleeping under insecticide treated bed nets has risen to 90% as

of 2010 (MDG target: 90% by 2015).

7.3.2 Challenges and future directions

The current population of Bangladesh exceeds 150 million, with almost 50% of them below

the age of 35 years constituting a large young work force. Importantly, Bangladesh has been

able to More than one-quarter of all under-5 deaths are due to diarrheal diseases and acute

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respiratory infections. However, it has been found that the mothers level of education is

inversely related to infant mortality rate. Mothers having secondary or higher level of

education have less number of infant mortality compared to uneducated or less educated

mothers. Their knowledge of health, hygiene and nutrition plays an important role in

reducing child mortality. Educated mothers also tend to have less number of children.

Therefore, the future focus will remain on education of females. keep the population growth

rate in check with targeted interventions in the population and health sector. The population

growth rate is as noted earlier, down to 1.32% per annum, but the large and growing

population remains a major concern. Bangladesh therefore needs to continue meeting the

challenges of improving the environment that encourages further reduction in population

growth, which will necessarily focus on those segments of population which still records

higher growth rates. There is a slow progress in improving nutrition. Malnutrition affects

two-fifths of children. Access to Vitamin A supplement has fallen from 84% in 2007 to 60%

in 2011 and this needs special attention in future. Bangladesh has some progress with regard

to decreasing child malnutrition. The disadvantaged groups at the wrong end due to wide

disparities in regions and income classes need to be particularly addressed. More follow-up

needed.

Bangladesh is now slightly behind expected progress with regard to decreasing maternal

mortality rates, but some extra efforts can meet the MDGs target by 2015.

Behavioral factors of Most at Risk Population (MARPs) to HIV need to be monitored and

addressed in order to avert any future epidemic.

The government is aiming to achieve universal access of all persons with TB to high quality

care in future. Bangladesh enjoys a favorable position for achieving this goal by 2015.

However, in the area of infectious diseases like HIV and malaria, the government needs to

build adequate responsive services and technical capacities, which calls for increased

government funding in the health sector.

Health experts around the world warn that with rise in temperature, due to global warming,

the vector-borne diseases will increase. Therefore, climate change poses a big health risk for

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the population. Although it is too early to predict the nature and extent of increase in

infectious diseases, experts believe that malaria, kalajar, influenza, various skin diseases, and

other new or emerging diseases may affect the health of the population, bringing immense

sufferings and increasing the economic burden of health cost. More emphasis on research and

research- based adaptation programming and action should be in place.

Higher Education

Great value is placed on higher education, and those who have university degrees and

professional qualifications are accorded high status. In rural areas the opportunities for

individuals with such experience are limited; thus, most educated people are concentrated in

urban areas.

Bangladesh has a number of excellent universities in its largest urban areas that offer both

undergraduate through post-graduate degrees. The most prominent universities, most of

which are state supported, include: Dhaka University, Rajshahi University, Chittagong

University, Jahngirnagar University, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,

and Bangladesh Agricultural University. Competition for university admission is intense

(especially at Dhaka University) and admission is dependent on scores received on high

school examinations held annually, as in the British system

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A young girl makes matchboxes in the slums of Khulna. There is a marked split between rich

and poor in most of the country.

of education. University life in Bangladesh can be difficult. A four-year degree may actually

require five to eight years to complete due to frequent university closings. The student bodies

and faculties of universities are heavily politicized along national political party lines.

Protests, strikes, and sporadic political party-based violence are common, as student groups

play out national political agendas on their campuses and vie for members. Virtually every

university student finds it easier to survive the system by becoming a member of the student

wing of a political party.

While the universities are the scenes of political struggle, they are also centers of intellectual

and cultural creativity. Students may obtain excellent training in all fields, including the arts,

law, medicine, and engineering. Universities are also somewhat like islands where some of

the ordinary rules of social interaction are relaxed. For example, male female interaction on

campuses is more open and less monitored than in society as a whole. Dance and theater

presentations are common, as are academic debates.

Medicine and Health Care

The pluralistic health care system includes healers such as physicians, non professionally

trained doctors, Aryuvedic practitioners, homeopaths, fakirs, and naturopaths. In rural areas,

for non-life-threatening acute conditions, the type of healer consulted depends largely on

local reputation. In many places, the patient consults a homeopath or a nonprofessional

doctor who is familiar with local remedies as well as modern medical practices. Professional

physicians are consulted by the educated and by those who have not received relief from

other sources. Commonly, people pursue alternative treatments simultaneously, visiting a

fakir for an amulet, an imam for blessed oil, and a physician for medicine.

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A nationally run system of public hospitals provides free service. However, prescriptions and

some medical supplies are the responsibility of patients and their families.

Aryuvedic beliefs based on humoral theories are common among both Hindus and Muslims.

These beliefs are commonly expressed through the categorization of the inherent hot or cold

properties of foods. An imbalance in hot or cold food intake is believed to lead to sickness.

Health is restored when this imbalance is counteracted through dietary means.

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CHAPTER 8PROPOSED

SOCIETALDEVELOPMENT BY

BANGLADESH

GOVERNMENT

8. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development encompasses a vast range of challenges, from education for children of

School going age, provision of a nutritious diet, eradicating epidemic diseases, ensuring good

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health for all, creation of employment opportunities for all citizens, and skills formation to

training of the labor force for national and international employment. Secondary and tertiary

educations are also an integral part of human development.

However, population growth can threaten development achievements. Bangladesh needs a

new perspective on population planning that will not only set future population targets, but

will also introduce convincing measures to reach those targets. Therefore, promoting human

development entails three basic processes:

Planning population (both containment and management) properly and converting them

into human resources

Promoting and sustaining health and nutrition, and

Ensuring education for all.

8.1 Planning Population and Generating Human Capital

Population and development go hand in hand. Since people in a society are both producers

and consumers, a development process should consider demographics, i.e. a populations

structure, composition, distribution, behavior pattern, attitude, values, norms, beliefs,practices, and its wh

socio-cultural aspects of bangladesh

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