social capital, indigenous community capacity, and...

Social Capital, Indigenous Community Capacity, and

Disaster Management

Practicum ReportSpring 2016

Instructor: Luciano MinerbiStudents: Sonomi Imagawa, Kailey Porter,

Silvia Sulis, Brent Wozniak

RPDepartment of

Urban & Regional PlanningUniversity of Hawaiʻi

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DISCLAIMERThisreportwasdonewithcarebygraduateplanningstudentsaspartofapracticumclass,butitisnottheworkofcertifiedplanners.Thereforeitneedstobereviewedbyprofessionalplannersandpertinentscientists.Theauthorsassumenoresponsibilityanddisclaimanyliabilityforanyinjuryordamagedresultingfromtheuseoreffectsofinformationormapscontainedinthisstudy.TheopinionsexpressedarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheStateofHawaiʻiDepartmentofHawaiianHomesLands(DHHL)andtheNationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenter(NDPTC)orotheragencies,organizations,orgroupsmentionedinthereportortheUniversityofHawaiʻiatMānoa,DepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanning.

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ExecutiveSummarySocialCapitalistheculminationofallthesmallindividualrelationshipsthatcreatea

community.TheconnectionbetweenSocialCapitalanddisasterpreparednessismorerelevantthaneverwithglobalclimatechangeandincreasingseverityandfrequencyoftraumaticweatherevents.SmallHawaiianHomesteadcommunitiesareparticularlyvulnerabletonaturaldisastersduetotheirremotelocationsandcloseproximitytotheocean.

TheSpring2016practicumclassfromtheUniversityofHawai’IatManoa’sDepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanning,workingwiththeDepartmentofHawaiianHomelandsandtheNationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenter,investigatedtheuniquevulnerabilitiesthatHawaiianHomesteadcommunitiesface.Compiledoverthecourseofthesemester,thisreportservesasasummaryofthestudent’swork,researchandactivities.Thereportalsoservesasaguideforcreatingandrevisingsocialcapital,communitycapacity,anddisasterpreparednesstrainingcoursesaimedatHawaiianHomesteadcommunities.

Thepracticumreportisdividedintofivesectionsbeginningwithbackgroundinformationonthepracticumclass,thepartneringagencies,andtheHawaiianHomesteadcommunityofWaimanalo.Themiddlepartofthereportgivesathoroughframeworkandliteraturereviewcoveringsocialcapital,buildingcommunitycapacity,recoveryandstressmodels,Hawaiianvalues,communitystructure,hazards,preparednessandmapping.Thefourthsectionsummarizesthestudent’scommunityoutreachactivitiesandinterviews.Sectionfiveconcludeswithrecommendationsforthepartneringagenciesgoingforwardandimplicationsforfutureresearch.

Thestudentsfoundthatsocialcapitalisakeyaspectforcommunitypreparednessandrecoveryinthecaseofadisaster.Duetoitsimportancetopreparedness,itshouldbeafocusfororganizations,includingtheNDTPC.HARPinWaimānaloshouldfocusonthecreationofsocialcapital,usingsocialcapitaltofulfillcommunitygoals,suchastheevacuationroute,andincludeamoredetailedrecoveryplaninHoʻomākaukauʻOWaimānalo(GetReadyWaimānalo).TheNDTPCshouldcreateacoursetailoredtosocialcapital,andcanusecommunitiesonHawai‘iasanexampleofsocialcapital.DHHLcanhelptobuildsocialcapitalintheircommunitiesthroughouttheislandsthroughcreatingaProgramPlanfordisasterpreparednessandbuildingsocialcapital.

Thepracticumclassexpandeduponapastpracticum,Spring2015.ThispracticumstudiedtheDepartmentofHawaiianHomelandscoastalcommunitiesandnaturalhazards.TheSpring2016continuedthisresearchwithanapplicationofsocialcapitalandcommunitypreparedness.

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TableofContents1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................1

2 DepartmentofHawaiianHomelandsandtheNationalDisastersPreparednessTrainingCenter..3

2.1 TheHawaiianHomesCommissionAct&DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands.....................3

2.2 NationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenter.......................................................................6

2.3 Waimānalo...................................................................................................................................6

2.4 WaimānaloCurrentPreparedness.............................................................................................9

3 FrameworkandLiteratureReview....................................................................................................11

3.1 SocialCapital..............................................................................................................................13

3.1.1 MeasuringSocialCapital....................................................................................................14

3.1.2 BuildingSocialCapital........................................................................................................17

3.2 BuildingCommunityCapacity....................................................................................................19

3.3 RecoveryandStressModels.....................................................................................................21

3.4 HawaiianValuesandCommunityStructure.............................................................................27

3.4.1 SomeCoreValues..............................................................................................................28

3.4.2 Leadership.........................................................................................................................29

3.4.3 Cooperation.......................................................................................................................29

3.5 Hazards,PreparednessandMapping.......................................................................................31

3.5.1 DisasterManagementinHawai’i.......................................................................................32

3.5.2 HazardsinWaimānalo.......................................................................................................36

3.6 ExpectedFindings.....................................................................................................................39

4 CommunityOutreachActivities........................................................................................................41

4.1 NationalDisastersPreparednessTrainingCenter....................................................................41

4.2 Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo,CommunityPreparednessCommittee...................................41

4.2.1 PublicOutreachandInformation......................................................................................41

4.2.2 TrainingandExercises.......................................................................................................41

4.2.3 MassCareandSheltering.................................................................................................42

4.2.4 EvacuationandSignage....................................................................................................42

4.2.5 CommunityResiliencePrograms......................................................................................42

4.3 UHManoaDepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanningPracticumOutreach.....................42

4.3.1 MeetingwithFrenchaKalilimoku,HHARP.......................................................................42

4.3.2 EmergencyPreparednessFair..........................................................................................43

4.3.3 EmergencyPreparednessFairEvaluation........................................................................46

4.3.4 NDTPCNaturalDisasterAwarenessforCommunityLeadersCourse............................49

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4.3.4.1 CourseEvaluation..........................................................................................................50

4.3.4.2 FindingsfromtheCourse...............................................................................................51

5 ConclusionandImplicationsforFurtherResearch.........................................................................53

5.1 WaimānaloCommunityPreparedness.....................................................................................53

5.2 RecommendationforDepartmentofHawaiianHomelands..................................................55

5.3 RecommendationsfortheNationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenter........................57

5.4 LimitationsofthePracticum....................................................................................................57

5.5 WaimānaloEmergencyAccessRoad.......................................................................................58

6 Resources..........................................................................................................................................64

Figure1-1:MapPresentedinDHHLWaimānaloRegionalPlan2011oftheWaikupanahaSt.andIlauholeSt.ExtensionProject....................................................................................................................2Figure2-1:ThestructureofDHHL(http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/DHHL_org_chart.jpg)........................................................................................4Figure2-2:LandownersinWaimānalo.......................................................................................................7Figure3-1:SocialCapitalConceptual.........................................................................................................12Table3-2:PossiblePathwaystoSocialCapitalAccumulation(Fox,1996)..............................................18Figure3-3:TraditionalNativeHawaiianConceptionofPsyche(McCubbinetal.,2008)........................27Figure3-4:Clustersofvalues(adaptedfromGoodyear-Kaopua,2013;HawaiianIndependence,2016;McCubbinetal.,2008;Minerbi,1996;Pukuietal.,1972)........................................................................28Figure3-5:WaimānaloTsunamiEvacuationZonesand5-footContourLines.......................................37Figure4-1:SocialCapitalFlyerHandedouttoCommunityParticipantsattheEmergencyPreparednessFairSpring2016;SideA.....................................................................................................44Figure4-2:SocialCapitalFlyerHandedouttoCommunityParticipantsattheEmergencyPreparednessFairSpring2016;SideB.....................................................................................................45Figure4-3:PracticumstudentsattendingthePreparednessFairinKailua...........................................46Figure4-4:PracticumstudentsinteractingwithparticipantsofthePreparednessFairinKailua........47Figure4-5:StudentstalkingwithCommunityMembers........................................................................48Figure4-6:GroupactivityduringtheNDPTCcourse(Source:FredHyun)............................................49Figure4-7:Communitymembersandstudentscollaboratingduringoneofthegroupexercises......50Figure4-8:Communitymemberslisteningasothergroupspresenttheirpreliminaryplans...............50Figure4-9:OneStudentpresentingActivity3totheGroup...................................................................51Figure5-1:FrameworkConsiderationsforaGeneralDisasterPlan........................................................56Figure5-2:WaikupunahaStreetandIlauholeStreetExtensionswithEmergencyAccessRoad..........59Figure5-3:OrganizationalListandPlanningGoalsforanAlternativeEmergencyAccessRoad...........61

ListofTablesTable2-1:SMARTObjectives......................................................................................................................10

Table3-1:StagesofATSM(NationalCenterforCrisisManagement,2016)............................................22

Table3-2:StagesofCISD(Mitchell,1995)................................................................................................24

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Table3-3:HawaiiantoEnglishTranslationofWordsAssociatedwithTsunamis...................................32

Table3-4:IndividualandFamilyPreparednessforDisastersinHawaii..................................................33

Table3-5:SocialCapitalExpectedFindings.............................................................................................39

AcronymsListARC–AmericanRedCross

CERT–CommunityEmergencyResponseTeam

CISD–CriticalIncidentStressDebrief

CISM–CriticalIncidentStressManagement

DDHL–DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands

DURP–DepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanning

HHARP–Hawai’IHazardsAwarenessandResilienceProgram

HHCA–HawaiianHomesCommissionAct

HI-EMA–Hawai’IEmergencyManagementAgency

NDPC–NationalDomesticPreparednessConsortium

NDPTC–NationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenter

NGO–Non-GovernmentOrganizations

REAP–RuralEconomicAreaPartnership

UHM–UniversityofHawai’IatManoa

USDA–UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture

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AppendicesAppendixA:NDTPCSocialCapitalExercise

AppendixB:PracticumFlyer

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AcknowledgmentsTheSpring2016Practicumwouldliketothankourclientsintheproject:TheDepartmentofHawaiianHomelands(DHHL)andtheNationalDisasterTrainingandPreparednessCenter(NDTPC).Itwashelpfulasyoungprofessionalstobeabletolearnabouttheplanningprocessandassistinarealworldproject.Wehopethatthisreportwillbeofuseinthefuture,especiallyintheplanninganddisasterpreparednessforlocalcommunitiesinthefuture.WewouldfurtherliketothankFrenchaKalilimokuofHHARPforallowingthestudentstostudyWaimanaloandtheirsuccessfulcommunityprogram.

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1 IntroductionTheDepartmentofUrbanRegionalPlanningPracticumCourseisaclassroom

experiencethatintegratesmoderneducationalobjectives,suchas“learningcommunity,”“servicelearning,”“criticalthinking,”and“actionorientedparticipatoryresearch.”Thisresearchexercisehasmultipleaspects.Itteachestheplanningprocessandfocusesonengagingthecommunity.Eachpracticumisunique,involvingdifferenttopics,studentsandclientswithdiverseskillsetsandinterests,butitalwaysentailsteamwork,client(s)orientation,andafinalproduct.

TheSpring2016PracticumassistedtheDepartmentofHawaiianHomeLands(DHHL),andDr.KarlKim,theexecutivedirectoroftheNationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenter(NDPTC).DHHLisinterestedinpromotinggrassrootstrategiesfordisasterpreparednessandcommunityresiliencebuilding.NDPTCisintheprocessofcreatingandtestingatrainingcourseonthetopicofsocialcapitalandcommunitycapacity,specificallyinregardstosmallislandcommunities.Inthiscontext,theplanningpracticumwithfourstudentsfocusedondefiningkeyconcepts,integratingthem,andpresentingthemtosomeDHHLcommunitymembersinWaimānalo.Feedbackfromthecommunityisintegratedinthefinalreport.

Thefirstsection(Chapters2,3)ofthereportincludesanintroductiontoDHHLandNDPTCaswellasacomprehensiveliteraturereviewfocusingonseveralkeyconceptssuchas:Socialcapital-especiallyinthecontextofdisasters-communitycapacity,bonding,linking,andbridging.Theseconceptsareconnectedtoideasoftrust,reciprocity,andmutualassistanceinNativeHawaiiancommunities.

Thesecondsection(Chapter4)ofthereportincludesanoverviewofthepracticum’scommunityoutreachactivities,findings,andobservations.TheoutreachactivitiesincludetheparticipationintheWaimānaloDisasterPreparednessFairandNDPTC’strainingonNationalDisasterAwarenessforCommunityLeaders.Thekeyconceptsdevelopedintheliteraturereviewareappliedinthecontextoftheseactivities.

Thefinalsection(Chapter5)providesconclusionsdrawnbythosepracticumstudentswhoparticipatedincommunityoutreachactivities,learnedandsharedexperiences,andsuggestionsforWaimānalocommunitymembers,DHHL,andtheNDPTCinmovingforwardwithtraining,buildingsocialcapital,andincreasingcommunitycapacity.

Chapter5alsoincludesamemoranduminsupportofthepreviouspriorityproject:WaikupanahaImprovements/IlauholeStreetExtension(Figure1.1),whichproposestheextensionofWaikupanahaStreetandIlauholeStreettoserveasanevacuationrouteforWaimānalocommunitymembersinthecaseofanemergency(DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands,2011).

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Figure1-1:MapPresentedinDHHLWaimānaloRegionalPlan2011oftheWaikupanahaSt.andIlauholeSt.ExtensionProject

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2 DepartmentofHawaiianHomelandsandtheNationalDisastersPreparednessTrainingCenter

ThissectionintroducesabriefdescriptionofthetwoclientsoftheSpring2016Practicum,focusingontheirjurisdictionandobjectives.

2.1 TheHawaiianHomesCommissionAct&DepartmentofHawaiianHomelandsTheHawaiianHomesCommissionAct(HHCA),isafederallawenactedin1921forthe

reconstructionofNativeHawaiianlifefollowingtheillegaloverthrowoftheHawaiianMonarchyin1893(Pitzer,1994).Theprimarypurposeoftheplanwastoassistinthedevelopmentofeconomicself-sufficiencyamongNativeHawaiians,whoaredescendantshavingatleast50percentHawaiianblood,asdefinedbytheHHCA.Approximately200,000acresofspecifiedlandswereallottedandplacedunderatrust.Homesteadlandmaybeusedforresidential,agricultural,pastoral,oraquaculturepurposesunderthelaw,andthetheHHCAprovidesloansandfinancialsupportforhomeconstruction,farmandranchdevelopment,andwatersystems(DepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanning,2015;3).

Figure2-1providesasummaryoftheorganizationalstructureofthedepartment,thatdividestasksintofourdifferentoffices,namelyadministrativeservicesoffices,fiscaloffice,informationandcommunityrelationsoffice,andtheplanningoffice.Thislastoffice,dealswithdevelopmentanddevelopmentstudies,waterresourcemanagementandarcheological,historicalandenvironmentalresearchconcerninghomesteadsandhomesteaders.Inparticular,theplanningoffice(PO)overseestheconsultationwithbeneficiaries;thesurveyofbeneficiaries,orientedtothecreationofservicesandpolicies;regionalplans;Islandplans,GISmapping,environmentalreviews,specialareaplans;andprogramplans(e.g.SouthPointResourceManagementPlan);andprogramplans.

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Figure2-1:ThestructureofDHHL(http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/DHHL_org_chart.jpg)

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Programplanstargetspecifictopics,goalsandissues,andprovideacoherentframeworkforfacingthem,byestablishingaclearvision,anddefiningstrongguidingprinciplesandimplementationstrategies.Forexample,theHoʻOmaluōEnergyPlan(DHHL,retrievedMay2016)wantstoachieveenergyself-sufficiencyandsustainabilityforNativeHawaiiansandthebroadercommunity,byachievingfivemainobjectives,eachoneconnectedtoaseriesofactivities.Theseobjectivesare:

1. Mālamaʻāina:respectandprotecttheland(e.g.bydevelopingastrategicplanforthepreservationofDHHL’sforestlands

2. Koʻo:facilitatetheuseofdiverseandrenewableenergies,forexamplebyseekingnewpartnerships

3. Kūkulupono:Designandbuildenergyefficient,self-sufficientandsustainablehomesandcommunities

4. Kōkuanōinākahu:Provideenergyefficiency,self-sufficiency,andsustainabilityopportunitiestohomesteadersandtheircommunities

5. Hoʻonaʻauao:Prepareandequipbeneficiariestopromoteagreen,energyefficientlifestyle

AppropriateobjectivescanalsobedevelopedfordisasterpreparednessaspartofDHHLplans.

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2.2 NationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenterTheNDPTCispartoftheNationalDomesticPreparednessConsortium(NDPC)which

wasexpandedin2007toincludetheUniversityofHawai’IatManoa(UHM).ThemissionoftheNDPTCinHawai’ii’stoutilizetheuniquegeographicandculturalresourcestocollaborativelydevelopanddelivertrainingandeducationaboutdisasterpreparedness,response,andrecoverybyincorporatingurbanplanningandenvironmentalmanagementstrategies.TheHawai’IchapteroftheNDPTCisdirectedbyUHMprofessor,Dr.KarlKimandco-directedbyDr.DoloresFoley.AmeetingwasheldbetweentheDepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanning(DURP)PracticumcourseearlyinthesemestertodiscussthegoalsofthePracticumandhowitcouldassisttheNDPTCfurtheritsmission.TheDURPPracticumclass,throughapartnershipwiththeNDPTC,isresearchinginsupportofthedevelopmentandtestingofatrainingcoursebasedonsocialcapitalanddisasterresponseinindigenouscommunities.TheHawaiianHomesteadcommunityofWaimānalowaschosenbasedonearlydiscussionswithDHHLleadership,becauseitsstrongcommunityactivity,especiallyintermsofdisasterpreparedness.

2.3 WaimānaloWaimānaloisacommunityonthewindwardsideofOáhu.ItsnameinHawaiian

meanspotablewaterbecauseofthestreamsthatfeedintothecommunity.Itcoversapproximately11squaremilesandconsistsofresidential,commercialandfarminglandsownedbythestate,DHHL,andsomeprivatelandowners(seeFigure2.1).Before1850Waimānalowasmainlyusedforraisingcattle,however,inthe1850’ssugarbecameanimportantcropanddominatedWaimānaloagriculturalproduction(DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands,2011).In1925someofthelandsinWaimānaloweregiventotheHawaiianHomesCommissionandnowitishometoalmost7,000NativeHawaiians(DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands,2011).

Waimānalohasatotalpopulationofaround10,000residents,ofwhicha82%haveahighschooleducation,andonly15%haveacollegedegree.Themedianageisaround35forallofWaimānalo.66%ofthehomesareowneroccupied,andthemedianhomeowneris54yearsold.SomeofthesehomesareonDHHLlands,wherepeopleownthehousebuthavealeaseforthelandtheyliveon(DHHL,2011).

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Figure2-2:LandownersinWaimānalo

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2.4 WaimānaloCurrentPreparednessWaimānalowashonoredasaHawai’IHazardsAwarenessandResilienceProgram

(HHARP)disasterresilientcommunitybyfederal,state,andlocalgovernmentofficialsin2015,duringtheWaimānaloEmergencyPreparednessFair(DepartmentofDefense,2015).ThefairwasheldattheHawai’INationalGuardRegionalTrainingInstitutebyHoʻomākaukauʻOWaimānalo(GetReadyWaimānalo),acommunitypreparednesscommitteecomprisedofmemberswithhazardmitigationplanningexperience(HoʻomākaukauʻOWaimānalo,2015;5).

HHARPwasdevelopedbyHawai’IEmergencyManagementAgency(HI-EMA)in2013andwascompletedovereighteenmonthsbyHoʻomākaukauʻOWaimānalo,HI-EMA,CityandCountyofHonoluluDepartmentofEmergencyManagement,andtheHawai’INationalGuard.Itsgoalistoenhancecommunityresiliencetohazardsbygatheringcommunitymembersthrougheducationandoutreachprogramsandtopromotehazardawarenessbyprovidingtoolsandmitigationresourcesforpreparedness,response,andrecoveryofdisasters(DepartmentofDefense,2015).

HoʻomākaukauʻOWaimānaloearneditsStormReadyandTsunamiReadydesignationsthroughHHARP,whichindicatesthatthecommunityhas(1)“a24hourswarningpointandemergencyoperationscenter(attheCityandCountyandState);(2)“multiplewaystoreceivesevereweatherwarningsandforecastsandmultiplemethodsforalertingthepublic;”(3)“asystemtomonitorlocalweatherconditions;”(4)“heldcommunityseminarstopromotereadiness;”and(5)“developedaformalhazardousweatherplan”(DepartmentofDefense,2015).

Theplanisdrafted,implementedandreviewedbyworkgroups,thatmeetofteninordertodevelopgoalsandstrategiesbaseduponSMARTobjectives(HoʻomākaukauʻOWaimānalo,2015)(SeeTable2-1).Theworkgroupsincluderesourcemappingofcommunity,publicoutreach,trainingandexercise,masscareandshelter,evacuationandsignage,andcommunityresilienceprograms.

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Table2-1:SMARTObjectives

S Specific,tasksneedtobefocusedontheworkgroupkuleana

M Measurable,objectivesneedtobequantifiable

A Achievable,objectivesneedtobesimple

R Realistic,objectivesneedtobeconsistentwiththeabilityandcommitmentoftheworkgroup

T Time,thetimelineforachievingobjectivesneedstobestated

Aspartoftheplan,abookletwaspreparedanddistributedtoserveasaguidefordisasterpreparednessandresponseforthecommunitymembersandfamiliesofWaimānalo.Thisisanessentialpieceinbuildingpreparednessandresponsestrategiesinthecommunityasitdealswithemergency/disasterguidelinesforfamilies,informationonemergencyshelters,suggestionsandinstructionsforsupplykits,andaresourcelist.Themanualprovidesaprecisestructurethatinformscommunitymembersaboutdisasters,emphasizingtheimportanceofknowingandunderstandingwhattheresources,risks,andvulnerabilitiesare,andorganizingthedutiesandresponsibilityincaseofadisaster.Informationfocusesonthepre-,during-,andpost-disasterscenariosandstrategies,butdoesnotyetincludeanylong-termpost-disasterguidelines.Inthisregard,thisprojectwillattempttointegratefindingsonsocialcapitalwithrecommendationsforlong-termresiliencegoals.Thekuleana(responsibility)ofthisinitiativeiscarriedbyFrenchaKalilimoku,aWaimānaloresident,whoprovidesinformation,inspiration,support,andtotheeffortsofcreatingapreparedandresilientcommunity.

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3 FrameworkandLiteratureReviewThePlanningPracticumofSpring2016atUHMDURPprovidesareviewofthe

literatureto:Assist(1)NDPTCinitsowncreationandtestingofatrainingcourseonthetopicofsocialcapitalandcommunitycapacity,specificallyinregardstoindigenousislandcommunities;(2)DHHLinpromotinggrassrootstrategiesfordisasterpreparednessandcommunityresiliencebuilding.Section3defineskeyconcepts,suchassocialcapital—especiallyinthecontextofdisasters,bonding,linking,bridging,andcommunitycapacity,andconnectkeyconceptstotheideasoftrust,reciprocity,mutualassistance,andcommunitycapacity,specificallyinregardstoclimatechangeanddisasterresilience.ItalsooutlinesthemainelementsofHawaiiancultureandsociety,andconnectthemtothebroaderframeworkonsocialcapitalandcommunitycapacity,asshowninFigure3-1.

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Figure3-1:SocialCapitalConceptual

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3.1 SocialCapitalSocialcapitalistheconnectionspeoplehavetothemselves,theirneighbors,and

theirexternalitiesonthecommunityasawhole.Itreferstothenetworkswhichaffectsocialandeconomicactivities,trust,andsocialnormswithincommunities,creatingstrongertiesthroughoutthecommunity.Socialcapitalnotonlyhelpswithcommunitydevelopmentandenhancement,butisalsoanassetduringdisasterrecovery(Aldrich&Meyer,2014;Nakagawa&Shaw,2004;McCoy&Rash,2001;Grootaert&vanBastelaer,2001).Communitiesmutuallybenefitfromcollaboration,connection,andcommunicationbetweenitsmembers(Caoetal.,2012).Therearealsofinancialexternalities,“socialcapitalfacilitatesthetransmissionofknowledgeabouttechnologyandmarkets,whichreducesmarketfailuresininformation,aswellasfacilitatescollectiveaction”(GrootaertandVanBastelaer,2001).InthestudydonebyNakagawaandShaw(2004),theyfoundthatduringrecoveryafterboththe1995earthquakeinKobe,Japanandthe2001earthquakeinGujarat,India,socialcapitalwasessentialfortherecoveryofacommunity.AftertheKobeEarthquake,areasweredesignatedasredevelopmentcommunitiesor“blackzones”,whereorganizationsweremandatorilycreatedtohelpwiththeredevelopmentofthetown.Othersthough,likeMano,a“greyzone”communityinJapan,hadtocreateorganizationthemselvesanduseexistingsocialcapitaltorebuildtheircommunity.Manoorganizationscreatedtheirownbuildinginspectors,aweeklynewsletter,andlobbiedforhelprebuilding.ThethirdgroupofcommunitiesinJapanaftertheKobeEarthquakewasthe“whitezone,”wheretherewerenosocialorganizationsinplacebeforetheearthquake,anditwasdifficultforthesecommunitiestorecoverwithoutpre-establishedsocialcapital.Japanesecommunitieshadmanyrolesinrehabilitationafterthedisaster,fromrescueandrelief,torebuilding.

Somescholarscriticizecallingitsocial“capital”becauseitdoesnotfitthethreecharacteristicsofcapital:“extensionintime,deliberatesacrificeinthepresentforfuturebenefit,andalienability”(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004,pg.8).However,others(Grootaert&vanBastelaer,2001;Seigler,2014)arguethatsocialcapitalhasabeneficialimpactoneconomicoutcomesandnorms.Interactionsproducebeneficialoutputs,whichislikelytoincreasewithhigherlevelsofsocialcapital.Ittakestwopeopleforinputsandoutputs,andtheknowledgespilloverscreatescommunityexternalities(Grootaert&vanBastelaer,2001).Someresearchshowsthatsocialcapitalcanhaveimpactsongrowth,equity,andpoverty,makingitacceptabletousetheterm“capital”(Grootaert,1998).

Manyscholarsbreaksocialcapitaldownintothreecategories,bonding(micro-level),bridging(meso-level),andlinking(macro-level)(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004;Aldrich&Meyer,2014;Caoetal.2012;Grootaert&vanBastelaer,2001).Thesecategoriesarebasedontheinvolvementandoutreachoftheindividuals,andmustbebalanced.Bondingsocialcapitalareclose-knitties,alsodescribedashomophily.Thismeanstherearehighlevelsofsimilaritybetweenindividuals.Bondingcanbebetweenfamilymembers,friends,neighbors,people

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whoknoweachotherwellandhavecloserelationships.Bondingsocialcapitalhastrust,establishedsocialnorms,highlocalparticipation,andgoodcommunitynetworks.Bondingcanhelpwithinformationsharingandconflictcontrolinsmallgroups(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004;Aldrich&Meyer,2014;Caoetal.2012;Grootaert&vanBastelaer,2001).

Bridgingsocialcapitalischaracterizedbypeoplewhoaresimilartoeachothereitherthroughrace,ethnicity,communitytiesororganizations.Theseconnectionsarenotasstrongasbondedconnectionsbecausetheinteractionsarelessfrequent.Bridgingsocialcapitalcanadddiversitytothecapitalnetworkandincreaseinformationsharingthroughhavingaccesstomorediverseresources.Thereareconnectionsamongvariousstakeholdersthroughoutthecommunityandevenamongstcommunities(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004,Aldrich&Meyer,2014,Caoetal.2012;Grootaert&vanBastelaer,2001).

Linkingsocialcapitalistheleastconnectedcategoryofsocialcapital.Itischaracterizedbytiesbetweencommunitymembersandtheirelectedofficialsortheauthorities,aswellaslargernon-governmentorganizations(NGOs)andtheprivatesector.Linkingconnectionsareimportantforreducingvulnerabilityofacommunitywhentheyprovideresourcesnotavailableinsidethecommunity(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004;Aldrich&Meyer,2014;Caoetal.2012;Grootaert&vanBastelaer,2001).

3.1.1 MeasuringSocialCapitalSocialcapitalmayaddresscommonproblemswithincommunities.Researchershave

lookedforwhatrolesocialcapitalplaysinthegrowthanddevelopmentofacommunity,andhowpolicycanencouragethisgrowth.Thewaytodeterminethisisthroughdevelopingbestmeasuresofsocialcapital(Stone,2001).Therehavebeenmanyattemptsat,andcriticismsfor,measuringsocialcapital.Stone(2001)notesthattherehasbeenadisconnectinthemeasurementandunderstandingofsocialcapital,yieldinginconsistentresults.

Therecanbeprimaryandsecondarydataforsocialcapital.Primarydataiscollectedstrictlyforsocialcapitalservices.Therearemanyfactorspeoplelookat,whichcanbeindividualorencompassedinotherquestions(Stone,2001).Oneofthemostpopularwaystoobtainprimarydataonsocialcapitalisthroughtheuseofsurveys.Thiscollectsspecificdataattheindividualhouseholdleveloverageographicarea,whichisthenusedtodeterminethesocialcapitalcharacteristicsofthearea.Othermethodsbesidesasurveymayincludeobservations,groupdiscussions,orhistoricalrecordsofacommunity(Stone,2001;Grootaert,Jones,Narayan&Woolcock,2004).Secondarydatacouldbecollectedforotherresearchwhichisthenusedtodeterminesocialcapitalafterthefact.Thismaynotbethebestformforlookingatsocialcapitalduetoitsindirectness.

Onecriticismofsocialcapitalresearchisthatresearcherswillcreateindicatorsofsocialcapitaloutoftheoutcomes,therearecasesinwhichtheoutcomesarenotdirectlyrelatedtotheindicatorsofsocialcapital.Theseindicatorsaredistinctfromtheoutcomes,eventhoughtheycanberelated.Therearetwotypesofindicators,proximalanddistal.

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Proximalindicatorsareactuallyoutcomesoftheconceptsofsocialcapitalwithrelationtonetworks,mutualityandtrust.Distalindicatorsarenotdirectlyrelatedtotheconceptofsocialcapital.Thesefactorsmaylackempiricalevidencetorelatethemtocoreconceptsofsocialcapital,theymayinclude;healthstatus,education,crimeorincome,andmaybeindirectoutcomesofsocialcapital.Itmustbenotedthatinsomecasesthesefactorsarenotoutcomesofsocialcapital,andshouldnotbeusedasindicators(Stone,2001;Foxton&Jones,2011).Existingsurveyquestionsandvariablesmayconfusemeasurementsofsocialcapital,sothereneedstobeaclearandconcisetheoreticalframeworkformeasuringsocialcapital(Stone,2001;Foxton&Jones,2011).Aconciseframeworkisneededtoshowthatsocialcapitalisamultifacetedconcept,understanditasaresource,anddistinguishthedifferencebetweensocialcapitalanditsoutcomes.

Researchsuggeststhatthebestindicatorstolookforwhenmeasuringsocialcapitalarenetworks(includingfamily,friends,organizational,diverse,governmental,typeandquality,communityandindividualengagement),trust(forfamily,neighbors,community,andinstitutions),andcooperationandreciprocity(Grootaert,1998;Stone,2001;Foxton&Jones,2011;Seigler2014).Stone(2001)explainstherearethreefactorswhichcanbeusedtodeterminesocialcapitalforacommunity:networks,trustandreciprocity.Networkscanbeformal(associations,communityorganizations,institutional,etc.)orinformal(familybonds,neighborhoods,etc.).Thereareavarietyofquestionsthatmaybeaskedinordertodeterminethecomplexityofone'snetworkassociations,from“inthepast12monthshaveyouseekedhelpfromthelocalgovernmentforproblemsconcerningyourcommunity?”to“whatkindofgroupsareyouinvolvedin?”(Stone,2001).Inorderforthenetworkstobeincludedinsocialcapital,theymustproduceproductiveoutcomesforthecommunity(Grootaert,1998).Thenetworks,whenlinkedtonorms,showthesocialcapitalforacommunity.Normsincludeperceivedtrustandreciprocityforacommunity.Trustcanbedividedintomultiplecategories,liketrustforinstitutions,neighbors/familiarsandfamilies.Reciprocity,orthegeneralexchangeofgoodorservices,isseenineverynetwork.Thesemayoccurintheshort-termorlong-termandtheycanbedeterminedeitherbyaskingquestionsaboutbehaviorsofacommunityorthroughdirectobservations(Stone,2001;Grootaert,Jones,Narayan&Woolcock,2004;Foxton&Jones,2011).Withinthesefactors,thenormsassociatedwiththemmustbelookedat(Stone,2001).Grootaert,Jones,NarayanandWoolcock(2004)breakthesethreecategoriesintosixforsurveyinghouseholds:groupsandnetworks,trustandsolidarity,collectiveactionandcooperation,informationandcommunication,socialcohesionandinclusion,andempowermentandpoliticalaction.

In1996theTheWorldBankissuedtheSocialCapitalInitiativetohelpunderstandtheimpactofsocialcapital,aidintheformationofsocialcapital,anddevelopmentofindicatorsformeasuringsocialcapital.Theyidentified11indicators:crimeandviolence,economicsandtrade,education,environment,finance,health,nutrition,population,waterandsanitation,povertyandeconomicdevelopment,urbandevelopment,ruraldevelopment,informationtechnology,andeconomicsandtrade(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004;Grootaert&vanBastelaer,

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2001).ThegoalfortheWorldBankwastocreateasystemfordonorstobeabletoinvestindevelopingsocialcapitaltocreatestrongercommunities(Stone,2001).TheWorldBankestimatesthathumancapitalrepresentsupto80%ofadevelopingcountry’swealth,thoughitcanbedifficulttocreatevaluesoverallbecauseitisbasedonrelationshipsunlikehumanandnaturalcapital(Seigler,2014).ThisiswhytheWorldBankcreatedtheaboveindicators,tobeabletotiefundsintohumancapital.

In2001,aSocialCapitalBenchmarkSurveywasconductedintheCharlotteregionbyMcCoyandRash.ThesurveywasoriginallydesignedbytheSaguaroSeminar:CivicEngagementinAmerica,atHarvardUniversityin1999.Theybasesocialcapitalonthesedimensions:trust,diversityoffriendships,politicalparticipation,civicleadershipandassociationalinvolvement,informalsocializing,givingandvolunteering,faith-basedengagement,andequalityofcivicengagementacrossthecommunity.Therearetwofacetsoftrust,socialtrustandinter-racialtrust.Socialtrustistrustofpeopleinteractedwithonaregularbasis,likeneighbors,congregationmembers,oraclerkataregularlyvisitedstore.Thesecondtypeoftrustisinterracialtrust,andhowmuchdifferentracestrustoneanotherinthecommunity.Diversityoffriendshipsisimportanttoassesssocialtrustinanetwork.Politicalparticipationischaracterizedbyconventionalparticipation(ifpeopleareregisteredtovoteorinterestedinpolitics)andprotestpolitics.Thesurveyfoundthatifapersonhadlowlevelsofconventionalparticipation,theyweremorelikelytobeinvolvedwithprotests.Civicleadershipreferstohowoftenpeopleparticipateincommunityorganizations,andwhetherornottheyhadaleadershiproleinthesegroups.Associationalinvolvementreferstoorganizationsnotnecessarilyboundbythetowngeographiclimits,likesportsteamsorpoliticalparties.Informalsocializingishowoftenpeopleinteractwiththeirfriends.Givingandvolunteeringisimportantforassessinghowcharitableapersonis.Faithbasedengagementishowinvolvedsomeoneisintheirreligion(McCoy&Rash,2001).

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3.1.2 BuildingSocialCapitalAlthoughthereisagreementontheimportanceofsocialcapitalindeliveringsocial,economic,andculturalbenefits,thepossibilityofincreasingitsmagnitudeisdebated.Ononehand,authorssuchasPutnam,Leonardi,&Nanetti(1993)considersocialcapitalasahistoricproduct,i.e.anassetthatcommunitiesinheritfromthepastthatcan’tbeenrichedorenhanced.Ontheotherhand,manyauthorsbelievethatitispossibletobuildandincreasesocialcapitalincommunitiesandlocalgovernments(Evans,1996;Skocpol,1996).Ingeneral,thebestwaytoincreaseandimprovesocialcapitalistoenhancesocialnetworksandtiesbetweenindividuals,familiesandinstitutions,ortocreatenewones,throughsocial,physical,and/oreconomicprojectsthatopportunitiesforgatheringandsharing(Warren,1999).Theimportanceofcreatingspacesforongoingpublicdeliberationwherecommunitymemberscandirectlyengageinthedecision-makingprocess,and“becomeparticipantsinthecomplex,ambiguous,engagingconversationsaboutdemocracy,participatingingovernanceratherthanspectators”isstressed(EvansandBoyte,1992).

Thecreationoftheseopportunitiesandforumscantakemanyformsandinvolvedifferentlayersandmembersofcommunity.Fox(1996),usingtheexampleofindigenousMexicancommunities,observedthreetypesofpatternsthroughwhichorganizationsthatcreateafertilegroundforsocialcapital(seeFigure3-2):(1)thecollaborationbetweenlocalandexternalcivilsocietyorganizations;(2)independentgrassrootsinitiatives;and(3)theconvergenceofgovernmentandsociety.First,awaytoexpandsocialnetworksandbuildupastockofsocialcapital,istoestablishand/orstrengthenthecooperationofcommunitieswithnationalandinternationalcivilorganizationssuchasNGOs,charitableentities,andhumanrightsorenvironmentalgroups.Thistypeoftieoffersindividualsvaluableincentivestonetworkandpartnerup(Fox,1996).Authoritarianenvironmentsrepresenttheonlymeansthroughwhichcitizencanassemblewithoutbeingsanctioned.Thesecondsocialcapital-buildingavenueobservedbyFox(1996)consistsofindependentinitiativesofcitizenswithacommonagenda,suchassocialorpoliticalmovements.Thesegroupsmobilizeagainstorinsupportofpolitical,environmental,orculturalissues,buildinginternalandsometimesexternalties,expandingboththeirsocialcapitalaswellastheirpowerinthepoliticalscene.An(extreme)exampleofgrassrootorganizationsthatslowlyformed,grewandtookactionsistheZapatistaNationalLiberationArmy(Fox,1996).Inresponsetobothdomesticandforeignissues(e.g.oppressionofpoorcitizensinChiapas,repression,andtheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement),Zapatistasorganizedpoliticaloppositionsvillagebyvillageandbuiltalargerevolutionarygroupstillactivetoday.

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Table3-1:PossiblePathwaystoSocialCapitalAccumulation(Fox,1996)

Statesocietyconvergence: Local/outsidersocietalcollaboration:

Independentsocietalscalingup:

Coproductionbetweenstatereformistsandlocalsocietalgroups(synergisticcollaboration)

Coproductionbetweenlocalgroupsandexternalalliesincivilsociety(religious,developmental,environmental,civicorpolitical)

Bottom-upproductionofsocialcapitalthroughautonomouslocalsocial,civicorpolitical/electoralinitiativesintheabsenceofexternalsupport

Finally,thecollaborationbetweengovernmentandcommunitiesreferstothoseinitiativesorprogramsthatwanttosupportandencouragegrassrootsorganizationsbyprovidingthemtheopportunitytoexpandtheirnetworksandincreasetheirautonomyandpower.AnexampleofthistypeofinitiativeistheRegionalSolidarityFundsforIndigenousPeoplesthatwereorientedtonotonlytransferpowerandresourcesattheregionalscale,butalsotoempower“ethnicallyandpoliticallypluralisticcouncils”(Fox,1996).Similarly,Warren(1999)discussedtheroleoflocalgovernmentinprovidingopportunities(orforums,asintroducedabove)forcitizenstogatherandjoinforcesaroundspecificissues.Tothisend,theauthorsuggestedthatthepublicsectorshouldinterveneinthecreationandenhancementofthesocialcapitalofitscitizens,byfindingwaysofcreatinghorizontalnetworkingthroughavarietyofprograms.Forexample,initiativessuchasjobtrainingorparentingskillprogramscanbeorganizedasinteractiveforumswhereparticipantscombineindividuallearningwithcollectiveparticipation,creatingandbridgingties(Warren,1999).Anexampleofsocialcapitalbuildingthroughgovernmentintervention,aretheRuralEconomicAreaPartnershipPrograms(REAP)zonesadvocatedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA).TheintentofREAPzonesistoaddresstheeconomicandcommunitydevelopmentissueaffectingmanyruralcommunitiesduetothestagnationoftheeconomyandemployment,patternsoflowdensity,geographicisolation,anddisconnectionfrommarkets,suppliers,andfinancialandinformationcenters(USDA,2016).Theseprogramsareorientedbothtoimplementationaswellascommunityempowerment,achieved“bybuildingtheskillsofcitizensandleaderstoplan,implement,manage,andevaluatetheirownprograms”(USDA,2016).REAParecurrentlyactiveinNorthDakota,NewYork,andVermont.

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3.2 BuildingCommunityCapacityCommunitiesarecommonlydefinedbyaspatialorpoliticalcontextbutasocial

communityiscomposedofindividuals,groups,andorganizationsthatreachbeyondanyphysicalboundary.Commonvaluesandtogethernesswithinasocialsettingiswhattrulyconnectspeople(Chaskin,1999;Goodman,et.al.,1998;Oetzel,et.al.,2011).ThetheoreticalframeworkforthePracticumcourseisbasedontheassumptionthatthroughincreasedcapacity,communitiesbecomemoreresilienttodisasters.Whiletheultimategoalofthecourseistodemonstratehowcommunitiescanbuildandfostercapacity,anoperationaldefinitionofcommunitycapacityisrequiredfirst.Chaskin(1999)proposesthefollowingdefinition:

Communitycapacityistheinteractionofhuman,organizational,andsocialcapitalexistingwithinagivencommunitythatcanbeleveragedtosolvecollectiveproblemsandimproveormaintainthewell-beingofagivencommunity.Itmayoperatethroughinformalprocessesand/ororganizedeffortsbyindividuals,organizations,andthenetworksofassociationamongthemandbetweenthemandthebroadersystemsofwhichthecommunityisapart.

Oetzel,et.al.(2011)agreesthattheconceptofbuildingcommunitycapacityisrootedincommunityorganizationsandinvolvesmultipleconcepts.Havinganoperationaldefinitiontobaseourworkuponitbecomespossibletodiscussthewaysinwhichcommunitycapacitycanbebuiltandexpandedupon.

Thetermcapacitydenotesanabilitytoperformacertaintask.Withinthecommunitycontext,capacityrelatestothefulfillmentandsustainingofacommunity’swell-being.Withoutcapacity,acommunitycannotlast.Asociallysustainablecommunityhasfourfundamentalcharacteristics:(1)asenseofcommunity;(2)committedcitizens;(3)mechanismofproblemsolving;and(4)accesstoresources(Chaskin,1999).Basedonthesefundamentals,differentcommunitieswithdifferentneedswilllook/feel/actdifferentlybasedontheirlocalcontextandone’sabilitytogobeyondtheircommunitytohavetheirsocialneedsfulfilled.Amoreaffluent,suburbanneighborhoodhasdifferentneedsthanaHawaiianHomesteadcommunityinWaimānalo.Moreaffluentpeopledonothavethesamerelianceontheirlocalneighborhoodsforbasicneeds.Forthoseless-affluentcommunities,orthosewhorelymoreontheirneighborsforfellowshipandsupport,itismoreimportanttoidentifyandremovebarrierstoservices,publicfacilities,andinstitutions(Chaskin,1999).

Acommunityhasasenseofplacewhenthereisacommonconnectednessthatcitizensmutuallyagreeto.InWaimānaloHomestead,residentsfeelathomeknowingthateveryoneintheircommunityisofHawaiianancestry,andthatcommonbondentailsbeliefs

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andvaluestheyallshare.Peoplederiveasenseofplacefrommultipleaspectsofcommunity:Mentally,throughamutualtrustorsenseofbelonging,orphysicallybybelongingtothesameorganizationsorsharingthesamecommunityassets,suchasaschoolorpark(Chaskin,1999).Organizationsandindividualsplayastrongroleincommunitycapacitybuildingthroughtheircommitmenttotheircommunity.Theyregularlyinvesttime,energy,andresourcesintotheircommunity’swellbeing.Oftentimes,organizationscreatetheenvironmentnecessaryforstakeholderstoemergewithinacommunityandconnectittoabroadersystemofcivicengagement.Committedstakeholdersbecomethemechanismforproblemsolvingbyturningtheirleadershipintoaction.Othercommunitymemberswilllooktothemduringtimesofcrisisandconflict,foritisneighborsandfriendswhoarethetruefirstresponders(Aldrich&Meyer,2015).But,intimesofdisasteritisdifficulttoretainasenseofcommunitybecausethemainconcernbecomesselfandfamilyoverothers.(Heaps,etal.,2005)

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3.3 RecoveryandStressModelsTherehasbeenagreatdealofattentiontomentalhealthresponseandstress

debriefingintheUnitedStatessincetheturnofthetwenty-firstcentury(Stebnicki,2005;675).ThebleaknessleftintheaftermathoftheSeptember11thterroristattacksandHurricaneKatrinacreateda“historicaltraumaamongWesternersthatseemstohavepromptedaconsciousnessshiftwithinthecounselingfield”(Stebnick,2009;675).Whilecommunitymembers,medicalprofessionals,andrescueworkersaretrainedforfirstresponseandrescueinaspectrumofdisastersituations,counselorsandhumanserviceprofessionalsarepreparedformentalhealthrescuesandassessingthepsychologicaldamagesofdisasters.

Socialcapitalbecomesakeyelementofrecoveryforbothsurvivorsandfamilymembers,butalsoforcrisiscounselors,whodeveloprapportandestablishconnectionstosurvivors.Socialcapitalisapublicasset,theabilityofestablishingdifferenttypesofformalandinformalorganizationsthatpermitparticipantstointerrelateandcollaborateontheprinciplesofmutualtrust,reciprocityandcooperation(Dusaillant&Guzmàn,2014).Socialcapitalincreasestheopportunitytoachievecommonobjectivesandthecapabilitytoconfrontcrisissituations.Thedensityofnetworksisassociatedwiththelevelsoftrustamongagroupofindividuals.Thus,socialcapitalmaybelikenedtoapublicgood,withcharacteristicsofindivisibilityandnon-rivalconsumption,unlikeotherformsofcapital,suchasphysical,financialorhuman(Dusaillant&Guzmàn,2014).

“Thequalityoftheworkingrelationshipisparamountinfacilitatingandreinforcingcopingandresiliencyskillsaswellassupportsandresourcesforthesurvivorofcriticalincidents”(Stebnicki,2009;677).CrisiscounselorsandhumanserviceprofessionalswhoarefollowingmodelssuchasAcuteTraumaticStressManagementorCriticalIncidentStressDebriefmusthavetheabilitytolisten,attendto,empatheticallyrespondandempowersurvivorswiththeconditionstomanagetheirlivesfollowingacriticalincident.Disastersituationsareopportunitiestostrengthendegreesofinterpersonaltrust,whichultimatelyaffectsocialcapital.Theseprocessesdonotappeartobetransitory;instead,theypersistuntilatleastthemediumterm,astrustkeepsincreasing(Dusaillant&Guzmàn,2014).

Physicaltraumaisthemainconcernforemergencyrespondersduringtimesofcrisisandoftenignorethe“hiddentrauma”thatarguably“leavesthedeepestscarsandchangespeopleforever”(NationalCenterforCrisisManagement,2016).TheAcuteTraumaticStressManagement(ATSM)wasdevelopedtoofferemergencyrespondersastressresponseprotocolthatprovidescarebeyondtraditionalemergencymedicalintervention,allowingfirstresponderstoaddresspsychologicalneeds(NationalCenterforCrisisManagement,2016).

Traumaticstressisexperiencedbysurvivorsofdisasterssuchashurricanes,floods,fires,tsunamis,andearthquakes.Suchstressdoesnotalwayshaveabeginningandanend,

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buttakesforminnumerousways,suchasfacingaseriousillnessordealingwithlossofalovedone(NationalCenterforCrisisManagement,2016).ATSMwasdevelopedtoprovidepracticaltoolsforaddressingawiderangeoftraumaticexperiencesandits“goal-directed”andfacilitatedprocessisdesignedtostabilizeacutesymptomsofstress.ThetenstagesofATSMcanbefoundinTable3-1(LernerandShelton,2005).

Table3-2:StagesofATSM(NationalCenterforCrisisManagement,2016)

Stage Questions

Stage1:AssessforDanger/SafetyforSelfandOthers

Aretherefactorsthatcancompromiseyoursafetyorthesafetyofothers?

Stage2:ConsiderMechanismofInjury Howdidtheeventphysicallyandperceptuallyimpactupontheindividual?

Stage3:EvaluatetheLevelofResponsiveness

Isindividualalertandresponsive?Undertheinfluenceofasubstance?

Stage4:AddressMedicalNeeds Forthosewhoarespecificallytrainedtomanageacutemedicalconditions

Stage5:ObserveandIdentify Whohasbeenexposedtotheeventandwhoisevidencingsignsoftraumaticstress?

Stage6:ConnectwiththeIndividual Introduceyourself,stateyourtitle/position.Onces/heismedicallyevaluated,movetheindividualawayfromthestressor.Begindeveloprapport.

Stage7:GroundtheIndividual Discussthefacts,assuresafetyifs/heis,havehimtellhisstory.Discussbehavioralandphysiologicalresponses.

Stage8:ProvideSupport Beempathetic.Communicateadesiretounderstandthefeelingsthatliebehindhis/herwords.

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Stage Questions

Stage9:NormalizetheResponse Normalize,validate,andeducate…“Normalpersontryingtocopewithanabnormalevent.”

Stage10:PreparefortheFuture Reviewtheevent,bringthepersontothepresent,describeeventsinthefutureandprovidereferrals.

ATSMpresentstechniquesfordevelopingconnectionswithemotionallydistraughtvictimsoftraumaticeventsandsupportsemergencyresponderswhentimeisrestrictedandunderimmensepressuretorestoreordertodisasterstruckenvironments.ATSMisbroadenoughtobeusedinnumeroussituationsdealingwithdiversepopulationssuchaschildren,potentiallyviolent,ordepressedindividuals(NationalCenterforCrisisManagement,2016).Itprovidesstrategiestoassistgrievingindividuals,andmoreimportantlyaddressesthecommunity’sownresponsesduringacrisis.

CriticalIncidentStressDebrief(CISD)isasevenphasesmallscalesupportivecrisisinterventionprocess,andisoneofseveralinterventiontechniquesundertheumbrellaoftheCriticalIncidentStressManagement(CISM)program(Mitchell,2016).CISDwasdevelopedspecificallyfor“small,homogenousgroupswhohaveencounteredapowerfultraumaticevent”(Mitchell,2016).Thismodelaimsatreducingdistressandtorestoregroupcohesion,whichcouldbeapplicableforsmallcommunitiessuchasWaimānalo.“Itisastructuredgroupstorytellingprocess,”combinedwithpracticalinformationtofacilitatecommunityrecovery(Mitchell,2016).

CISDisnotpreferredasthefirstinterventiontofollowadisasterbecauseitdoesnotaddressphysicalmedicalandemergencyneeds(Mitchell,2016).Thedebriefingshouldbeginatleast24hoursafterthecriticalincident,startingwiththefirstofthesevenphases(seetable3-2).Thephasesinclude,theintroduction,facts,thoughts,reactions,symptoms,teaching,re-entry,andfollowup(Mitchell,1995;270):

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Table3-3:StagesofCISD(Mitchell,1995)

Phase SocialCapital

Phase1:Introduction

Teammemberintroductionanddescriptionoftheprocess.Carefullypresentedintroductionsetsthetoneofthesession,anticipatesproblemareasandencouragesactiveparticipation.

Introduceinterventionteammembers,explainprocess,setexpectations.

Phase2:Fact

Onlybriefoverviewsofthefactsarerequested.Itiseasiertospeakofwhathappenedbeforegettingintodetailofhowitimpactedeachparticipant.Thisphaseiskeptbriefonlytoloweranxietyandlettinggroupknowthattheyhavecontrolofthediscussion.

Questions:Canyougivemeathumbnailsketchofwhathappenedinthesituationfromyourviewpoint?

Todescribetraumaticeventfromeachparticipant’sperspectiveonacognitivelevel.

Phase3:Thoughts

Transitionfromthecognitivedomaintowardtheaffectivedomain.Promptquestionsthatallowparticipantstospeakoftheirthoughtsratherthanfocusimmediatelyonthemostpainfulaspectsoftheevent.

Questions:Whatwasyourfirstthoughtoryourmostprominentthoughtonceyourealisedwhatwashappening?

Toallowparticipantstodescribecognitivereactionsandtotransitiontoemotionalreactions.

Phase4:Reactions

TheheartoftheCISD,focusingontheimpacttheeventhadontheparticipants.Anger,frustration,sadness,loss,confusion,andotheremotionsmayemerge.

Questions:Whatistheveryworstthingaboutthiseventforyoupersonally?

Toidentifythemosttraumaticaspectoftheeventfortheparticipants.

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Phase SocialCapital

Phase5:Symptoms

Leadingthegroupfromtheaffectivedomaintowardthecognitivedomain.

Questions:Howhasthistragicexperienceshownupinyourlife?Whatcognitive,physical,emotional,orbehavioralsymptomshaveyoubeendealingwithsincethisevent?

Toidentifypersonalsymptomsofdistressandtransitionbacktocognitivelevel/domain.

Phase6:Teaching

TheteamconductingtheCISDnormalizesthesymptomsbroughtupbytheparticipants.Theyexplaintheparticipants’reactionsandofferstressmanagementinformation.Otherinformationspecifictotheincidentcouldbesharedduringthisphase.

Toeducateastonormalreactionsanadaptivecopingmechanisms,providecognitiveanchor.

Phase7:Re-entry

Theparticipantsmayaskadditionalquestionsandmakefinalstatements.TheCISDteamsummarizeswhattheprogramwentover,finalstatements,andhandoutsarepresented.

Toclarifyambiguitiesandpreparefortermination,assessforfollowup.

FollowUp

TheCISDaccordingtoMitchell,istypicallyfollowedbyrefreshmentstofacilitatethebeginningoffollowupservices.Therefreshmentsanchorthegroupwhiletheteammembersspeaktoeachparticipantone-on-one.

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Thesephasesinthedebriefingprocesshelpnotonlythehumanserviceprofessionalsbuildrelationshipswiththecommunity,butitalsoreestablishesasenseofcommunityforthevictimsofthedisaster.Buildingrapportandcollectivenesswithinthecommunitywillincreasesocialcapital,whichwillthencreatestrongercommunitycapacityforrecoveryoffutureevents.

3.3.1 HawaiianRecoveryandHealing InthecaseofHawaiianfamiliesandindividuals,Thompson,McCubbin,Thompson,&Elver(1995)summarizedthreepatterns;coherence,problem-solvingcommunicationandschemathatwerecorrelatedtohigherlevelsofresilienceinNativefamiliesundergoingadversity.Inthefirstcase,coherenceistheabilityofafamilyofdevelopingtrust,predictability,andmanageabilitythatinfluencethecapacitytofosteroneanother’swellbeing(Thompsonetal.,1995).Second,communicationisessentialinthecontextofproblemsolving,becauseitemphasizespositiveaffirmationandconfirmation,andcontrastsprovocativeandsubversiveattitudes.Finally,schema,i.e.thefamily’ssharedethnicidentity,definesthecollectiveworldviewandepistemologyofmembers,enhancingbothcoherenceandtheresiliencetoadversity(Thompsonetal.,1995).Traditionalhealingmethodsandtechniquesareculturallyappropriateandeffectivemethodsoftacklingadverseandtraumaticsituations,suchasdisaster.Inthisregard,thetraditionaltreatmentofhoʻoponoponoisparticularlyinteresting,asitaimstorestoreharmonyandmaintaingoodrelationsandlōkahiwithintheʻohanaandwiththespiritualworld(forthedefinitionofHawaiiantermsseefollowingparagraph).HoʻoponoponoisaHawaiianformoffamilytherapyfocusedonpositiverelationswithinfamilymembersandthespiritualworld,andisbasedonactsofrestitutionandspiritualcleansing(McCubbinetal.,2008).

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3.4 HawaiianValuesandCommunityStructureDefiningthemainelementsofsocialcapitalforNativeHawaiiancommunities

requiresareflectionontheessentialelementofHawaiianselfandpersonalityandonsomeofthevaluesofcohesiveness,leadership,andcooperation.TheconceptofselfforHawaiiansisholistic,asthekino(physicalbody)enclosesnotonlythevitalorgans,butalsotheelementsofthemental,emotional,andspirituallifeofanindividual(Pukui,Haertig,&Lee,1972).Thekinoisinfusedwithmana(divineandspiritualpower)andpossessesintelligence,emotionsandcharacterlocatedintheʻōpū(stomach)(Pukuietal.,1972),andisthecentralpartoftheconceptionofbeing,togetherwiththeʻohana(family),makaniʻainawai(nature),andtheAkuaandAmakua(Godsandspirits)(McCubbin,Ishikawa,&McCubbin,2008),asillustratedinFigure3-2.

Figure3-2:TraditionalNativeHawaiianConceptionofPsyche(McCubbinetal.,2008)

Hawaiianvaluesandbeliefscanbefoundandstudiedinbehaviorsandnorms,suchaslanguage,protocols,culturalandreligiouspractices,andarts(Minerbi,1996).Thediscussionaroundthesemanifestationsisopenandrich,andmanyauthorsprovidedasummaryandguideofthebasiccollectiveandindividualvaluesofthisculture.Inthe

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contextofsocialcapitalandcommunitybuildingandtheirroleindisastermanagement,elevenkeyprincipleswereselectedbasedontheworkofvariousscholars(Goodyear-Kaopua,2013;McCubbinetal.,2008;Minerbi,1996;Pukuietal.,1972).Theseguidingprinciplesincludealoha,ʻaina,haʻahaʻa,kōkua,lōkahi,mana,ʻohana,kuleana,alakaʻi,pono,laulima,andmālama.Inordertoclarifytheroleoftheseelementsinthedefinitionofsocialcapitalandcommunitycapacityandtheirrelevancetodisastermanagement,theyweregroupedinthreeclusters,namelycorevalues,leadershipandcooperation(seeFigure3-4).

Figure3-3:Clustersofvalues(adaptedfromGoodyear-Kaopua,2013;HawaiianIndependence,2016;McCubbinetal.,2008;Minerbi,1996;Pukuietal.,1972)

3.4.1 SomeCoreValuesSomeofthecorevaluesofHawaiiancultureincludealoha,pono,ʻaina,mālama,and

lōkahi,and,andhighlightthedeepandholisticrelationshipbetweenHawaiians,theirland,andtheirspirituality.Alohaisthemostpopularofthesevalues,andthemost(sometimestheonly)knownworldoftheHawaiianlanguage.Itgoesfarbeyonditsfunctionasagreeting,andsymbolizessentimentsofaffection,compassion,andlove(McCubbinetal.,2008).Thisconceptcanbeappliedbothtoindividualsandsystems,asitincludessentimentofpersonalcordiality,mercy,andsympathy,butalsocommunitycohesiveness,goodwill,andmutualkindness(McCubbinetal.,2008).AnotheressentialconceptinunderstandingHawaiiancultureispono,whichreferstotheproperbehavior,ortheindividualsenseofjusticeand“right”,reflectedintheproperbehaviortowardsoneselfandtheʻohana(McCubbinetal.,2008;Minerbi,1996).Theconceptofʻaina,whichliterallytranslatesto“thatwhichfeedsus”,referstotheland,theenvironmentandnatureingeneral.ThisconcepthighlightsonceagaintheholisticnatureofHawaiiancultureandindividuals,andconsistsofthreedimensions;physical,psychologicalandspiritual.Thephysicalʻainarepresentsthehomeland,thelandoftheancestors,butalsothesourceofnourishmentandlife,asitprovidesfoodandshelter.Whereas,thepsychologicalandspiritualdimensionsarerelatedtotheprovisionofmentalhealthandthesupportofthedailyrelationshipbetweenindividualsandthespiritualworld,asasourceofguidanceandstrength(McCubbinetal.,2008).Stronglytiedtotheconceptofʻaina,isthevalueofmālama,whichrepresentsatthe

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sametimetheattitudeofcaringwithalohaandtheprincipleofrespect.Thecombinationofthisconceptwiththestewardshipofnatureandtheenvironment,i.e.mālamaʻaina,isoneofthecornerstoneofHawaiiancultureandtheguidingprincipleoftoday’smovementsforindependentHawaiʻi(HawaiianIndependence,2016).Inthisregard,thecareandrespectforthelandandthebalancedrelationshipbetweenhuman-kindandnaturearetherootsoftheindependencemovement,asopposedtotheWesternmodelofdomination,exploitationandexhaustionoftheland.Finally,lōkahirepresentsunityandharmonyandistheoverarchingvalueguidingthebroaderstructureofHawaiiansociety.Inthisregard,McCubbinetal.(2008)describedthisvalueasatrianglecombiningʻaina,kanaka(human-kind)andkeakua(thegods),underliningtheroleofthiselementasthestrengthbehindthebalancebetweenmen,gods,andtheenvironment.

3.4.2 LeadershipThedescriptionofleadershipinHawaiiancommunitiescanbesummarizedbythe

combinationoftheconceptsofhaʻahaʻa,alakaʻi,andkuleana.First,ʻhaʻahaʻarepresentsmodestyandhumility,andistheelementthatinterconnectspeopletooneanotherwithsentimentsofrespectandcaring,asopposedtoarrogance(McCubbinetal.,2008).ThiselementisessentialinNativeHawaiiancultureasitallowstobalancehumilityandself-respect,andhumilityandconfidence,andbecomesanessentialcharacteristicforgoodleadership.Alakaʻirepresentstheabilitytoguide,direct,andlead,andacquiredagreatrelevanceintheculturalrenaissanceandresilienceofHawaiianpeople.Thisconceptdescribesagoodleaderthatneedstohaveloyaltyandexpertise,butalsoalohaandmana,andneedstobeandactpono(McCubbinetal.,2008).Finally,kuleanaliterallytranslatesto“right,privilegeandresponsibility”andcanbeinterpretedastheactivecommitmentandcontributionstothecommunity(Goodyear-Kaopua,2013).

3.4.3 CooperationWhendescribingcommunitycapacityandsocialcapital,itisessentialtounderstand

whatarethebasiccomponentsofacultureandhowcooperationisorganizedwithintheircommunities.InregardtoHawaiiancommunities,theseelementsincludekōkua,laulima,andʻohana.Firstofall,tokōkuameanstohelportoassist,andreferstotheempathicandmutualsystemofgiveandtakepresentbetweenfamilymembers,families,andneighbors,especiallyintimesofneed(McCubbinetal.,2008).Morespecifically,cooperationisachievedalsothroughlaulima(literally“manyhands”),whichtranslatesinto“toworktogether”(Minerbi,1996)or“jointaction”(wehewehe.org),symbolizingthecollectiveandsystematicefforttowardstheachievementofgoalsorproblemsolving.

Finally,ʻohanarepresentsthecoreofHawaiiansocietyandorganization,notonlyasabuildingblockofsociety,butalsoasamodeloforganizationandmanagement.“Membersoftheʻohana,liketaroshoots,areallfromthesameroot”(Pukuietal.,1972).TheHawaiianfamilyincludestheextendednetworkofbloodrelatives(pilikoko),andinformal

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relationshipsoffriendship(McCubbinetal.,2008).Thefunctionoftheʻohanaistoemotionally,physicallyandfinanciallysupportitsmembers,anditcanbedefinedas“themostpracticalofsocio-economic-educationalunits”(Pukuietal.,1972).ʻOhana’swereessentialinthemanagementoftheʻahupuaʻa(landdivision),bothfortheirinternalorganizationandtheirnetwork.Ononehand,thedivisionofresponsibilitiesanddutiesamongfamilieswasimportanttotheefficientmanagementofnaturalresources,andtomālamaʻaina.Whiletheinternalorganizationoffamilyguaranteedthatdutieswereadequatelydividedamongmembersandperformedproperly(Pukuietal.,1972).Hawaiianfamilytieswerealsoimportantinthepreservationandcommunicationofknowledge,astheywerethemeansofpassingteachings,rituals,andkapu(taboos)fromonegenerationtoanother(Pukuietal.,1972).Thegeneralstructureoftheʻohanaincludes(1)makuas(parents)andrelativesinthesamegenerationastheparents,suchasunclesandaunties,(2)kupunas(grandparentsortheelderlies),and(3)thekeiki(kids)(Pukuietal.,1972).

Insum,whenleadershipisexpressedinculturalwaysconsistentwithcoreHawaiianvalues,asdescribedabove,itengendersbehaviorsandcooperativeactionsorganizedaroundtheextendedfamilysothatindigenoussocialcapitalcanbebettermobilizedfordisasterpreparednessofthelocalcommunity.

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3.5 Hazards,PreparednessandMappingSocialcapitalisextremelyimportantinthepost-disasterredevelopmentofa

community,notonlyinthephysicalstructure,butthesocialstructureaswell(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004).Aldrich&Meyer(2014)statethathistorically,communitiesworktogethertorecoverfromadisaster,withthistheycanleveragetheirsocialcapitaltorecoverinthecommunity(Ada&Bolat,2010).Theyalsoexpressthattypically,individualswithhighsocialcapitalaremorelikelytoreachoutandgethelpfromcommunitymembersbecausetheyhavemoretrustintheirneighbors;thereismorefinancialhelpaswellasresourcesforthesepeople.Thosewithfewerconnectionsmayhaveadifficulttimereachingoutforhelpafteradisasterwhentheyneedit(Aldrich&Meyer,2014).Disastermanagementcanbedividedintotwoparts,mitigationandresponse.Mitigationfocusesonpreparedness,physicalvulnerabilityofaplace,andprevention,alsoknownastheDisasterCycle.Responsetoadisastercanincludesearchandrescue,reconstructionandrehabilitationofanarea(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004).SocialcapitalisimportantinallaspectsoftheDisasterCyclefrommitigation,preparednessandresponsetotherecoveryprocessafterwards.Otherpeople’sknowledgeandexperiencecanhelptobetterpreparetheircommunityforadisaster.Whenthereisstrongsocialcapital,everyonebenefitsfromworkingtogetherinallstepsofdisastermanagementandknowledge(Ada&Bolat,2010).Whenitcomestoemergencypreparednessincommunities,theremustbebonding,bridging,andlinkingsocialcapital,andtheremustbeastrongleaderwhocanbringthecommunitytogetherandfacilitatelinkingsocialcapitalandencouragecommunitymemberstobeproactivewithpreparedness(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004;Ada&Bolat,2010)

Inrecentyearstherehasbeenanincreaseintheuseoftheinternetforconnectingtootherpeopleandsocialgroupsthroughouttheworld,whichcanbeespeciallyusefulinthecontextofdisasters(Caoetal.,2012;Procopio&Procopi,2007).InNewOrleans,afterHurricaneKatrina,theinternetplayedavitalroleinconnectingpeopletotheirfriendsandfamilyaroundtheUnitedStates.Italsoallowedthevictimstoconnecttoothersandsociallyrecoverfromthedisaster.Theinternethasincreasedtheirbridgingsocialcapitalandnetworksthroughtheabilitytogetemotionalsupportafterthecrisis(Procopio&Procopio,2007).Recently,thefocusondisastermanagementstrategieshasbeenatthecommunitylevel,bothforthepre-andpost-disasteranalysis.Communitieswithmoreconnectionsandresourcesarelikelytobemoreresilientandrecovermorequicklyfromadisaster(Nakagawa&Shaw,2004;Ada&Bolat,2010).

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3.5.1 DisasterManagementinHawai’iSevereweathereventsoccuroften,buttheyareonlyconsideredadisasterwhen

theyaffectpeople.Unfortunately,inHawaii,thereareafewmisconceptionsabouthazardsbecausenothinghashittheislandinquiteafewyears.Afewmythsare:TheBigIslandwillblockhurricanesfromhittingotherislands,ortheyonlyhitKauai,andifsomethingdoeshappen,thegovernmentwillbeavailabletohelpus(Hwang&Okimoto,2014).Recenttrendsshowthatthenumberofmajordisastereventshasincreasedinthepast50years(Aldrich&Meyer,2004).

Intermsoftraditionalknowledge,thetopicofnaturaldisastersispresentandrecurringintheHawaiianlanguage,moʻolelo(chants),oralhistories,mythology,andproverbs.Anexampleofthisnarrative,aretheprecisenamesofwavesbasedonmanycharacteristics,indicatingadeepknowledgeofnaturalphenomenasuchastsunamis.Chun(2004)andProfessorMorgan(DepartmentofOceanography,UniversityofHawaiʻiatMānoa),reviewedthemeaningandusageofthesetermsusedbyNāmakaokeahi(2004),andprovidedthefollowingHawaiiantoEnglishtranslations(Nāmakaokeahi,2004,p.xi):

Table3-4:HawaiiantoEnglishTranslationofWordsAssociatedwithTsunamis

Hawaiian EnglishKa-nalu Thewave

Ka-nalu-akea Thebroad/widewaveKa-kai-akea Thebroad/wideseaMoanaakea Thebroad/wideoceanNalu-hoo-hua Swelling-waveNalu-hoo-hoku Increasingwave

Manana-mana-akea Broad/widebranchingout

Furthermore,Nāmakaokeahi(2004)describessomepost-disasterrecoverystrategiesadoptedbyancientHawaiian.Inparticular,hedescribedhowafter“thesesrosemeetingthefreshwater”(p.E-1)(i.e.flood),chiefsfocusedonre-populatingthelandandtheislands,byfirstofallincreasingtheproductionoffoodandfish.

Table3-3describessomeofthenaturaldisasterswhichimpactHawaii,aswellassomeofthepreparednessmeasuresthatcanbetakenforthembyindividualsandfamilies.

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Table3-5:IndividualandFamilyPreparednessforDisastersinHawaii

HazardType HazardDescription IndividualPreparedness

CoastalErosion

Erosioniscausedbywaves,tides,currents,ordrainagealongthebeachesanddunes.Erosioncanbecausedby:humanimpacts,waveandcurrentchanges,andsealevelrise.

ThisiswidespreadinHawai‘i,andalloverbeacheshavebeenaffected.Thereareshorelinesetbacksforbuildingalongbeaches.Thisdiffersforeachislandandsometakeintoaccounterosionrates,othersdosolelyshorelinesetbacks.

Drought Adroughtiscausedbyexcessivelylongamountsoftimewithlimitedprecipitation.Thisreducesgroundwatersupply.

Rainwatercatchmentsystemsareonewaytolocallystorewaterincaseofadrought.Anotherwayistoreducewaterconsumption.

Earthquake Earthquakesarecausedthroughthemovementoftectonicplates.Thiscausesthegroundtoshake.Theycanalsobecausedbymagmabuildinguparoundactivevolcanoes

EarthquakesarelesscommonontheIslandofOahu,however,knowtheproceduresforwhatyoushoulddoifyoufeelanearthquake.Inyourhomebesuretohaveheavyobjectsclosertotheground,andsecuretop-heavyfurniturelikedresserstothewall.Ifyouareoutsideorinthecar,stayawayfromanythingthatcanfallonyou.

Flooding Floodingcanrelatetoflashflooding,withshortertimeperiodsofexcessiverain,orlongeronsetfloodingafterdaysofrainfall.Theycanalsohappeninsituationswhererainfallexceedspipecapacity.

LookattheFederalEmergencyManagementAgency’s(FEMA)FloodInsuranceRateMaps(FIRM)toseeifwhereyouliveispronetofloodsorhighsurf,iftheydo,investinfloodinsurance.Avoiddrivingonfloodedroads.Avoidgoingintothewater.Ifthereisaflashfloodandyouarestuckinyourhouse,verticallyevacuate.

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Tsunami Tsunamisareseriesofwaveswithlongwavelengthsandperiods.Theyaretypicallytriggeredbyearthquakes.Theycanalsobetriggeredbyunderwatervolcanoesandlandslides.Thewavescanbe30feethigh,andcanpenetrateafewmilesinlanddependingonthestrength.Theseriesofwavescanlastforacoupleofhours.

Listenforsirensafteranearthquakeevent.Ifatsunamihasbeentriggeredtheywillgooff.Moveimmediatelytohigherground.Ifyoufeelanearthquake,anditisstrongenoughtomakeitdifficultforyoutowalkormovewhileitishappening,makeyourwaytohigherground.Stayawayfrombeaches,andwaituntilyougetthe“allclear”toreturntoyourhouseifitisinthecoastalarea.Evacuatetosheltersorsafezones.

HurricanesandStorm

Surge

Hurricanesareseveretropicalstormsthathappenduringacertainseason(June1–November30inHawaii).Theyhaveheavyrainfallandcanhavewindsexceeding155milesperhour.Hurricanescreatestormsurge,whichistheriseinwaterastormcreatesabovethenormaltides.Thisincreasesfloodinginareasimpactedbyhurricanes.

Havingwindowcoveringsandroofbracingscanhelpprotectyourhouse.Also,evacuatetoemergencyshelters,especiallyifyouareinafloodzone.Begingatheringemergencysuppliesnow,andanevacuationplan.Haveinsuranceforyourhouseifitisinthefloodandhurricanezone.

Landslides Thisisthedownwardmovementofsoils,rocks,andplantsonsteepsurfaceslikemountains.

Lookatwherepastlandslideshaveoccurred,thismayshowatrend.Stayawayfromthoseareas.

Fire Firesoccurduringdryconditionswhentherehasbeenashortageofprecipitation.FiresinHawai’iarealmostcompletelycausedbypeople.

Designyourpropertytoeffectivelybattlefires.

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HighSurf Highsurfiswhentherearewavescrashingonshorethatareatleast10feet.Thewavesarecreatedbyswellsfromstormsnorthoftheislands.Thisaffectsdifferentshoresatdifferenttimesduringtheyear.

Usecautionifyouareenteringthewater,butfollowadvicegivenonpublicbeaches.Ifthelifeguardssaydon’tswim,thendon’tgetinthewater.

Sources:Homeowner’sHandbooktoPrepareforNaturalHazards;

CityandCountyofHonolulu,Hawai’IDisasterPreparedness.

Currently,tohelppeoplepreparefornaturaldisastersonO‘ahu,thereareorganizationswhichofferclassesonpreparedness.TheNDPTCoffersclassestosmallgroupsorcommunitiesonarangeoftopicssuchas:disasterrecoveryandresponse,awareness,coastalresilience,andfloodriskreduction.TheAmericanRedCross(ARC)hasclassesonhowtobepreparedforadisaster,firstaidandotherhealthprograms.HonoluluhasaCommunityEmergencyResponseTeam(CERT),whichisagroupofvolunteerswhocanactasfirstrespondersafteradisaster.Theyaretrainedinsearchandrescue,preparedness,emergencyandfirstaid,andmore.Youcanalsogetinvolvedwithlocaldisastersupportgroupsorthroughbeinginvolvedinthelocalgovernment.

Therearenumerousreportsthatadvisecitizensonwhattheyshouldhaveinanemergencykit,howtheyshouldplantoevacuateisadisasterstrikes,whattobringtoashelter,andknowhowtogetintouchwithfamilies.Oneofthereports,byHwangandOkimoto(2014)recommendsthatemergencysuppliesinclude:afirstaidkit,aflashlightwithextrabatteries,aseven-daysupplyoffoodwithamethodforopeningandcookingthefoodifneedbe,andatleastonegallonofwaterperpersonperday.Someoftheitemsforashelteraresimilartotheemergencykit.Theguidelinesforanevacuationkitinclude:onegallonofwaterperpersonperday,andonesmallbagwithmedications,foods,canopener,personalneedsitems,first-aidkit,flashlightandextrabatteries,clothes,towels,andsleepwear.Ifyouplantouseashelter,trytowalktherebecauseduringanevent,roadsmaybecongested,damaged,orclosed.Alsofindoutaheadoftimeiftheshelterisforhurricanesortsunamis(Hwang&Okimoto,2014).

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3.5.2 HazardsinWaimānaloTherearemultiplehazardswhichhavetheabilitytoimpactWaimānalo.Theyinclude:tsunami,landslides,hurricanes,highsurf,flashflooding,fires,earthquakes,droughts,andcoastalerosion.Manyoftheseeventscancoincidewitheachother,creatingalargerimpactonthecommunity.

Alongthecoast,Waimānaloisinthetsunamievacuationzone.AgreaterportionofWaimānaloisintheextremetsunamievacuationzone(ETEZ)(seeFigure3-4).TheETEZmodelstheinundationpotentialforanextremetsunamitriggeredbya9+magnitudeearthquakeintheAleutian-Alaskanarcregion.TheAleutian-AlaskanregionearthquakesposethegreatestrisktoHawai’Iduetotheircloseproximitytotheislands(Butler,2014).Thecloseranearthquakeis,ifitgeneratesatsunami,thequickerthetsunamiwillreachHawaii.Theregulartsunamievacuationzoneisshowninredonthemap,whiletheextremetsunamizoneisshowninyellow.Foranytsunaminotrated“extreme”,thepeoplewithintheredareashouldevacuate.

Figure3-4showsthevillagecenterandsurroundingresidentiallandscloserintoindicatethelocationofhurricaneevacuationshelters.PopeElementarySchoolistheshelterintheextremetsunamizone,andWaimānaloElementary/IntermediateschoolissafeoutsideoftheETEZ.Thepre-schoolsinWaimānaloareintheETEZ,andthefirestationliesjustoutsideofit.Fromthemap,therearenumerousparcelsinthetwozones.ThemainhighwayforaccessinWaimānalo,KalanianaoleHighway,isalsointhetwozones.Fromthis,itcanbeconcludedthatitmaybebeneficialtohaveanotherevacuationrouteoutofWaimānaloduringanemergency.Thisideawasoriginallyproposedin2006,andisstillapriorityprojectforDHHLinWaimānalo(DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands,2011).MoreonthispossibleevacuationrouteisdiscussedinChapter5.

Therearenoemergencysheltersfortsunami’sinWaimānalo,aswellasnosetevacuationplanexcepttogoinlandanduphillifyoufeelthegroundshakeorhearthetsunamisirens(CityandCountyofHonolulu,Evacuate!!!,2015).TheRegionalWaimānaloPlan,2011discussestheimportanceofhavinganevacuationplan,andlistsitasatoppriorityforthefutureofWaimānalo.Theirplanwasdevelopedbeforetheextremetsunamievacuationzoneswerecreated,soupdatesareneededtotheplan.However,thebasicsoftheplanstillremain.ThereisaneedtoprovideinformationofevacuationroutestoallcitizensofWaimānalo.Theresidentsshouldknowwhentheyneedtoevacuateandwheretheyshouldgoandwheretheyshouldstay(safestagingaccess).Methodsforinformingcitizensmayincludesignageorpublicoutreachandeducation(DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands,2016).Currentlyallofthedesignatedsheltersareforhurricanesonly,however,WaimānaloElementaryandIntermediateschoolisoutsideoftheETEZ,andmaybesafetouseasashelterinthecaseofatsunami.Ifthisisnotasuitablelocation,thereshouldbeasafezonesetupsopeopleknowwheretogototakerefugefromatsunami.

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Figure3-4:WaimānaloTsunamiEvacuationZonesand5-footContourLines

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3.6 ExpectedFindingsStudentsofthePlanningPracticum-Spring2016participatedintheEmergency

PreparednessFairwithMs.FrenchaKalilimokuofHHARPonApril9,2016attheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-daySaintsinKailua,HIandtheNDTPCCourse:NaturalDisasterAwarenessforCommunityLeadersatTheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-daySaintsonApril23,2016.Socialcapital,asitexistsinWaimānalotoday,isexpectedtohaveagreatinfluenceonmostmembersofthehomesteadcommunityduetotheeffortsbyHHARPtoincreasecommunitycapacityanddisasterresilience.Table3-4presentsthemainpartiesinvolvedinthreephases:before,during,andpostdisasters,andhowthecommunityisexpectedtohavedevelopedsocialcapitalandcommunityresilienceineachphase.

Themainpartiesinvolvedindisasterpreparednessinthecommunityare:Waimānalocommunitymembers(Ms.FrenchaKalilimoku,HHARP,LDSChurch,etc.),NDPTC,andDHHL.Oneobjectiveforthepracticumcoursethroughparticipationofthisworkshopistoanalyzethelevelandeffectivenessofcommunicationbetweenthesemainparties.Somequestionstheresearchersattemptedtoanswerare:

● DoesHHARPandDHHLmaintainarelationshipthatpromotesprogressiveplanningandpreparationforfuturedisasters?

● WhatisthenatureofinteractionsbetweenWaimānalocommunitymembersandHHARPandhowareHHARPobjectivesandgoalsreflectiveoftheneedsofthecommunity?

● HowcantheNDPTCencouragesocialcapitalinWaimānaloandwhatcanbeimproved?

Table3-6:SocialCapitalExpectedFindings

SocialCapital Before During After

MainParties

CommunityNDPTC

DHHL

Community:Family,FriendsPolice,Fire,National

Guard

CommunityCrisisCounselorsPolice,Fire,National

Guard

Collectiveness

PreparednessWorkshops(HHARP)

SocialCapitalCourses(NDPTC)

SocialCapitalPreparedness

ATSMCISDOtherProgramsfor

Recovery

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4 CommunityOutreachActivitiesThepracticumobjectiveinvolvescommunityoutreachandparticipantfeedbackto

supportthefindingsoftheliteraturereviewinsection3.Theliteraturereviewincludedthedefinitionofkeyconceptsinthestudyofsocialcapitalandcommunitycapacityinsmallislandcommunities,andthefollowingsectionprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewofhowtheseconcepts,suchasbonding,bridging,andlinkingmaybemanifestedinnativeHawaiiancommunities.SomeorganizationsinvolvedinthemovementforaresilientcommunityinWaimānaloareNDPTCandHo’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo.TheeffortsofmembersandvolunteersintheseorganizationsareespeciallyinfluentialtothesuccessincreatingaresilientcommunityinWaimānalo.

4.1 NationalDisastersPreparednessTrainingCenterTheNDPTCisapprovedtodevelopanddelivertrainingprogramsrelatedtodisaster

managementincoastalcommunities.Theinstitution’sfocusisonthe“fivemissionareas:Prevention,Protection,Mitigation,Response,andRecovery”(NDPTC,2016).ThetrainingcoursesofferedontheHawai’IIslandsincludethedevelopmentofawareness,resilience,andpreparedness.

4.2 Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo,CommunityPreparednessCommitteeTheobjectiveofHo’omakaukau‘OWaimānaloisto“educateandtrainresidentsof

theWaimānaloCommunityaboutthe‘AllHazardsApproach’todisasterpreparedness,mitigation,responseandrecovery”(Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo,2015:5).Theorganizationmeetstheirobjectivesthroughpublicoutreach,trainingandexercises,creatingspaceandpreparingcommunitytosheltercommunitymembersinthecaseofanemergency,creatingevacuationsignage,andholdingcommunityresilienceprograms.

4.2.1 PublicOutreachandInformationThepurposeofpublicoutreachistoreachouttoallmembersoftheWaimānalo

community.Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānaloencouragesthepublicandvulnerablepopulationstogetinvolvedinindividualandcommunitydisasterpreparedness.Thisisdonethroughemergency/disasterpreparednessfairs,whereorganizationspromotingdisastermanagementpresenttheirworkandinvolvementontheislandoftheOahu.Theyarealsocommittedtoschedulingspeakersfromlocalandstateemergencymanagementagenciesandpreparednessorganizations.

4.2.2 TrainingandExercisesHo’omakaukau‘OWaimānalocoordinatesandschedulestrainingcoursesfor

membersoftheircommunity.Someorganizationsinvitedtoholdtrainingcoursesinclude:

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CERT,ARC,andNDPTC.Thesetrainingsessionsextendinfluencetoindividuals,families,andbusinessesinWaimānalo.Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānaloalsoholdstabletopsondisasterpreparednesswithresidents,communityorganizations,businesses,electedofficials,volunteers,andprivateandpublicagencies(Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo,2015).

4.2.3 MassCareandShelteringHo’omakaukau‘OWaimānaloiscommittedtoanalyzingwaystofeedandshelter

Waimānaloresidentsinthecaseofanemergency.Theyhaveestablishedtheconceptofthe‘Hub,’ortohaveadesignatedcenterforshelterindisastersituations.TheorganizationincooperationwiththeARCcontinuetoworkwithfoodestablishmentsinWaimānaloforemergencyfeeding.Radiooperatorsarealsoestablishedindisastersituations.

4.2.4 EvacuationandSignageEvacuationroutesareestablished,andtheorganizationisworkingwiththeCityand

CountyofHonolulutoestablishTsunamiwarningsignsanddesignatedrefugecenters.

4.2.5 CommunityResilienceProgramsHo’omakaukau‘OWaimānaloprovidesthecommunitytheopportunitytodevelop

andmaintainStormReadyandTsunamiReadyprogramswithNOAA.TheorganizationalsoinvolvesthecommunityindevelopingandmaintainingtherequirementsforaResilientReadyprogramwiththeHawai’iEmergencyManagementEmergency(Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo,2015:12).

4.3 UHManoaDepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanningPracticumOutreachTheplanningpracticumparticipatedinonemeetingwithacommunityleaderand

twooutreachactivities.ThestudentsandtheinstructormetFrenchaKalililimoku,facilitatorforHHARPandlongtimeWaimānaloresident.TheyalsoparticipatedintheEmergencyPreparednessFairwithHo’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo,andtheNaturalDisasterAwarenessforCommunityLeadersCourse,heldbyNDPTC.

4.3.1 MeetingwithFrenchaKalilimoku,HHARPOnFebruary26,2016thepracticumteammetwithHHARPFacilitatorandcommunityleaderFrenchaKalilimoku,todiscussthegoalsofthepracticumandlearnmoreaboutthepreparednesseffortsofWaimānalo.Duringthemeeting,Ms.KalilimokuintroducedtheachievementsandfuturedirectionsoftheHo’omakaukau‘OWaimānaloinitiative,anddiscussedthecurrentissuesofthecommunity.ItwashighlightedthatWaimānalowasthefirstcommunityintheStateofHawai’itoreceivetheResilientCommunityAward,duetothecontinuousefforttowardclassesandtrainingonnaturalandmanmadedisasters.Sofar,103communitymembershavebeentrainedindisasterpreparedness,representingthe1.04%of

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thepopulationofWaimānalo,andMs.Kalilimokuwishestoincreasethisnumberbyinvolvingatleast10%of“mailboxes”(Kalilimoku,2016),i.e.households.Intermsoffutureconcernsanddirections,thecommunityleaderexpressedherdesireofhavinganenhancedandfunctioningevacuationroadthatcanbeusedincaseofadisasterasanalternativetoKalanianaoleHighway.Inparticular,theattentionwasdrawnonthebackroadconnectingtheendofIlauholeStreetwithWaikupanahaStreet,intheSouthernpartofWaimānalo,mauka(towardsthemountains)oftheWaimānaloBeachPark.Lastly,Ms.Kalilimokuexpressedherconcernstowardsthedisasterpreparednessofkupuna,caregiversandhousingfacilities.

4.3.2 EmergencyPreparednessFairTheobjectiveofourgroup’sparticipationinthepreparednessfairwastoinform

communitymembersofthesignificanceofsocialcapitalindisasterpreparedness,analyzethecurrentexistenceandlevelofengagementwithsocialcapitalinWaimānalo,andreceivefeedbackfromcommunitymembersonhowsocialcapitalismanifestedintheircommunity.Thepracticumgroupwasprovidedaboothwherestudentspostedmapsoftsunamievacuationzonesandflyersdefiningandpromotingsocialcapital.Theflyerincluded(1)Descriptionofsocialcapital,adiagramandsummaryofliteraturereview;(2)Questions;(3)Listofresources;and(4)Contactsforemergencymanagement(seeFigures4-1and4-2).

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Figure4-1:SocialCapitalFlyerHandedouttoCommunityParticipantsattheEmergencyPreparednessFairSpring2016;SideA

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Figure4-2:SocialCapitalFlyerHandedouttoCommunityParticipantsattheEmergencyPreparednessFairSpring2016;SideB

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4.3.3 EmergencyPreparednessFairEvaluationTheemergencypreparednessfairwasheldattheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-Day

SaintsonSaturday,April9,2016inKailua,HI.Participantsincluded,butnotlimitedto,theARC,NationalWeatherService,HonoluluFireDepartment,HonoluluPoliceDepartment,DepartmentofEmergencyManagement,TheHawai’IVoluntaryOrganizationsActiveinDisaster,NDPTCandHawai’IEmergencyAgency.

TheUniversityofHawai’IpracticumstudentspreparedamapofWaimānalotsunamizonesasasupplementtotheactivitiesthatwereplannedforfairparticipants(seeFigure4-2).MostparticipantswhovisitedthepracticumtablewerefromtheKailuacommunity,andthefewwhoresidedinWaimānalowereoutsideofthetsunamizoneandmovedontothenexttable.Thereappearedtobeadisconnectbetweenthecommunitymembers,revealingtheneedforgrowthinbridgingsocialcapital.Hostsofcommunityeventssuchasthepreparednessfaircouldbenefitfrompromotingtherelationshipbetweencommunities,andsupportingacollaborativeenvironmentbetweenneighboringcommunities.

Figure4-3:PracticumstudentsattendingthePreparednessFairinKailua

AnotherissuethatbecameevidentwasthedismissiveresponsefrommostoftheparticipantstoamapofWaimānalotsunamizones.Thefewparticipantswhoresidedin

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Waimānaloexpressedtheirsatisfactionwithlivingoutsideoftheextremetsunamizonewithlittleconcernfortheirneighborswholivedinsideofthetsunamizone.Futureworkshopscouldincludelessonsonbonding,stressingthesignificanceofcollaborationindisastersituations.

Withtheexceptionofvolunteers,theparticipantsofthepreparednessfairwerepredominantlymiddleagedtoseniorresidents.Theyoungergenerationofresidents,especiallythosewhowillbecomenewhomeownersappearedtobeabsent,whichcouldhinderthedevelopmentofsocialcapitalinthiscommunity.Anotherimportantapparentabsenceisthatofelectedofficialsand/orcommunityleaders,underliningthelackoflinkingtiesandweakeningtheoverallsocialcapitalofthecommunityaswellasitsdisasterpreparedness.

Figure4-4:PracticumstudentsinteractingwithparticipantsofthePreparednessFairinKailua

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Figure4-5:StudentstalkingwithCommunityMembers

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4.3.4 NDTPCNaturalDisasterAwarenessforCommunityLeadersCourseThecoursewasgearedtowardsindividualsandcommunitymemberswhowould

wanttobeleadersinthecaseofanemergency.Thiscourseisdesignedtohelpcreateapreparednessplan.Thecourseisbrokendownintofivemoduleswiththreeexercises.Therewere25peopleinattendanceincludingtheinstructor,hiswife,andthecommunitymemberswhoorchestratedtheworkshop,mostofwhichwereadultsorkupuna.Mostofthecommunitymembersinattendanceseemedtohavesomepersonalinterestinpreparednessandbeingaleaderfortheircommunity.Communitymembersincludedpeoplewhowantedtolearnhowtobebetterprepared,CERTmembers,membersfromothercommunitieswhowantedtobringknowledgebacktotheircommunity,students,farmersandfamilies.Thisseemedtobeagoodbridgingexperienceforthecommunitymembersinattendancewhodidnotknoweachother,andbondingforthosewhodid.

Figure4-6:GroupactivityduringtheNDPTCcourse(Source:FredHyun)

Whiletherewerepeoplewithnumerousbackgroundsattheworkshop,therewereafewgroupswhichwerenotablymissing.Therewerenopeoplefromthelocalgovernment,retiredpoliceorfireofficials,orneighborhoodboardmembers.Therewasalsoanapparentlackofinvolvementfromothercommunityorganizationslikethecanoeclub,HawaiianHomesAssociation,HawaiianCivicClub,schools,localbusinesses,youthsandlocalchurches.Morepeopleinattendancewouldhaveincreasedbridgingsocialcapital.

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4.3.4.1 CourseEvaluationOverallthecommunityseemedtoenjoythecourse.Theinstructorhadapersonal

stakeinHawaii,sohecouldrelatetotheattendees;hehadalsobeeninvolvedonKauaiintherecoveryprocessafterHurricaneIniki,sohecouldprovidereallifeexperienceandtakeawaysfromthatexperience.ThereweremostlyWaimānalocommunitymembersthere,alongwiththestudents,onemanfromKaneohewithKailuaCERT,andawomanfromAinaHaina’sPreparednessCommittee.Thereseemedtobetoomuchinstructionandnotenoughworkshoptime,theactivitiesweren’tfullycompletedbyanyofthegroups.Theideabehindtheworkshopswastogetstakeholderstothetabletocomeupwithapreliminaryplantoinvolvemembersofthecommunity.

Themoretimethecommunityhastoworktogetherthroughtheexercises,themoresocialcapitaltheyarebuildingthroughrelationshipsandtrust.Thefinalexercisewasparticularlyusefulbecauseitassignedeachgroupadifferentdisaster,andtheyhadtocomeupwithaplanbasedonwhattheylearnedthroughoutthecourse,fromexercisesoneandtwo,andtheirpersonalknowledge.

Figure4-8:Communitymemberslisteningasothergroupspresenttheirpreliminaryplans

Figure4-7:Communitymembersandstudentscollaboratingduringoneofthegroupexercises

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4.3.4.2 Findings from the Course

More participants would have increased bridging social capital. Handing out the participant's guide was beneficial for members who may not have access to either internet or a printer. There seemed to be a heavy focus on disasters, but the information could have been more tailored to the community at hand. The course relates to social capital in a few ways. It focuses on strong community leaders, who are essential in the preparedness and recovery of a disaster. The course describes the importance of creating partnerships, which can be associated with bridging and linking social capital. This would have been beneficial to more community members who were not in attendance. The course stressed the importance of preparedness and everyone having a role to play. One of the activities focused on figuring out who had skills in the community to provide assistance before and after a disaster, like carpenters, contractors, farmers, electricians, tree trimmers, and first responders. One community member noted that though there are numerous skilled workers in Waimānalo, they may be hesitant to write their name down on a list with their services, but they believed that if it came down to it, everyone in the community would band together to help recover. The topic of the evacuation route was brought up in one of the groups during discussion, and the community members seemed to have lost hope or belief that the road would ever be constructed because the proposal had been around for so long.

Figure 4-9: One Student presenting Activity 3 to the Group

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5 ConclusionandImplicationsforFurtherResearch

5.1 WaimānaloCommunityPreparednessOverall,thecommunityofWaimānalohasachievedimportantresultsandoutcomes,anditcanbeconsideredwellprepared.TheHHARPfacilitator,Ms.FrenchaKalilimoku,isdevotedandmotivatedtoexpandingtheinitiative,andherenthusiasmandleadershipwillbemuchneededinthefuture.Tothisend,thepracticumteamidentifiedsomekeyelementsthathopefullycanbeaddressedbythecommunity,itsmembersanditsleaderstoimprovetheirdisasterreadinessandplanning.

Firstofall,the“Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo”planandHHARP’sinitiativesarenotwidespreadinthecommunity.Manymembersofthecommunitymaynotbeawareoftheexistenceofsucheffortstowardsdisasterpreparedness,andmaybemissingtheopportunityofbeinginformedaswellastrained.Theteamsuggestsfocusingevenmoreonoutreach,byexpandingthecontactsandreachingouttonewchannelsofdistributionandcommunications,withspecialattentiontotheyoungergenerations.Forexample,thecommunityofHauʻula(NorthShoreofOahu)plantoincreaseawarenessfortheirpreparednessprogrambyinvolvingteachersandchildreninschool.Basedonthepreparednessplan,theycreatedahomeworkassignmentthatwasthendistributedandgiventostudentstotakehomeandgooverwiththeirparents.Furthermore,theHHARPinitiatives,meeting,andprojectsshouldbeadvertisedmorethroughtheinternet,andthe“Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo”manualshouldbemadeavailablefordownloadonline.

Second,intermsoffutureexpansionofthe“Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo”plan,attentionshouldbedrawnonthepostdisasterprocess,identifyinglong-termstrategiesofrecovery.Thiswouldbesomethingbeneficialforthecommunity,asitwouldincreasetheresilienceofitsmembers,guidingtheminthesocial,physicalandeconomicreconstruction.Inthisregard,long-termrecoverystrategiesshouldfocusoncreationofsocialandorganizationalcohesion,andtheincreaseofsocialcapitalthroughbonding,bridging,andlinkingties.

Third,HHARP,Ms.KalilimokuandotherWaimānalocommunitymembersandstakeholders,shouldcontinuetogrouptogetherandjointheirforcestoadvocateforthecreationoftheevacuationrouteconnectingWaikupanahaStreetandIlauholeStreet.Inthisregard,thepracticumteamwroteamemo(seeSection5.5)thatwantstosupportandtoguidethisprocessandencouragetheinitiativeofthecommunity.

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Lastly,futureeffortsshouldfocusoncreatingapreparednessplantohelpthekupunaduringadisaster,especiallythosewhoarelessmobileoraloneandlivingintheseniorhomesorbythemselves.

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5.2 RecommendationforDepartmentofHawaiianHomelandsBasedonthefindingsofthisresearch,themainrecommendationtoDHHListo

increaseitsinvolvementindisasterpreparednessingeneralaswellastheinitiativesofsinglecommunitiessuchasWaimānalo.ThefirstrecommendationistoattendtheeventshostedbyHHARP,NDPTCclasses,andothercommunitygatheringsgearedarounddisasterpreparedness.Intermsofsocialcapital,thiswouldallowtheunderstandingofeachcommunity’sinteractionsandnetworks(bondingandbridging),aswellasthebuildingofneworrenewedtieswiththeinstitution(linking).TheirpresencewillalsohelpreinforceDHHL’sstanceontheimportanceofdisasterpreparedness.

Second,DHHLcanuseWaimānaloasanexampleforothercommunities,highlightingtheongoingeffortsbehindthe“Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo”plan,theenthusiasmoftheinvolvedmembersofthecommunity,andtheimportanceofastrongcommunityleadershipwithintheDHHLlands.Onefirststepinthisdirectionistopoststhe“Ho’omakaukau‘OWaimānalo”onlineontheDHHLwebpagesothatcommunitymemberscandownloadit,andhopefullybeinspired.Furthermore,itwouldbeinterestingandbeneficialtoDHHLtoinvolvestudentsandyoungerhomesteadersthroughthecreationofvolunteeropportunities.Thiswouldsparktheinitiativeofcommunities,reinforcingtheleadershiproles,increasingdisasterpreparednessandresilience.

Third,DHHLshouldconsidercreatingaProgramPlanforallhomesteadcommunities.Thisplanshouldincludeclearandconsistentobjectivesfordisasterpreparednessandrecovery,andbeprimarilyfocusedonbuildingcommunitycapacityandincreasingsocialcapital,asseenintheexampleofUSDA’sREAPPrograms(seeSection3.1.2).Inparticular,thepracticumteamsuggestsfourkeyobjectives:

1. Increasenaturaldisasterawarenessofcommunityleadersandmembers.Forexample,hostingorparticipatinginNDPTCcourses(e.g.“NaturalDisasterAwarenessforCommunityLeaders”).

2. Establishscheduledmeetingsforcommunityleaderstodevelopskillsinleadershipandenhanceengagementwiththeirrespectivecommunities.

3. HaveaDHHLrepresentativeattendpreparednessfairs(andsimilarevents)heldbyorganizationsinthecommunities.Thishelpstoconnectwithotherdisasterpreparednessagenciesattendingtheseevents.

4. Haveageneralframework(seeFigure5-1)thateachcommunitycanadoptandtailortotheirspecificneedsandhazards.

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Figure5-1:FrameworkConsiderationsforaGeneralDisasterPlan

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5.3 RecommendationsfortheNationalDisasterPreparednessTrainingCenter

OurexperienceattendingtheNDPTCcourse“NaturalDisasterAwarenessforCommunityLeaders”wasoverallpositive.Thecoursematerialwasinformativeanddeliveredinaprofessionalandengagingway.Thepracticumstudentswanttohighlighttheimportanceoftheinstructorinthislearningopportunity,andrecommendtheagencytofocusonfindingandtrainingindividualswithprofoundculturalandgeographicknowledgeoftheareaandthecommunity,inordertocreatetrustandinterest.Oneimprovementthatwebelieveisnecessary,isthebetterbalancebetweenactivitiesandlecture,ensuringthatallcontentsareproperlydeliveredandthatthegroupactivitiesarecompleted.

Intermsofcontent,themainsuggestionistoincludeadefinitionofsocialcapital,andfocusingonmechanismsofbridgingandlinking.Bondingtiesdonotneedtobeaddressedindetail,asitcanbeassumedthatagoodlevelofbondingalreadyexistsbetweenparticipants,thattheyareinvolvedinthecommunity,andthattheyarealreadyawareoftheproceduresbeforeandduringdisaster.Therefore,itwouldbeinterestingtoprovideparticipantswithideasandinspirationstoincreasetheirsocialcapitalathigherscales,withexamplessuchasparticipatorybudgeting.

Theliteraturereviewandthefindingsofthecommunityoutreachactivitiesrepresentageneralframeworkforthestudyofsocialcapital,andcanbeusedbyNDPTCasaninspirationforthecontentofafuturecourseontheroleofsocialcapitalindisastermanagement.Inadditiontothesecontents,thepracticumteamcreatedagroupactivitythatcanbeusedinthiscourse.Thisactivityisbasedontheclassattendedbytheteam,andisorientedto:(1)theidentificationofthemaincharacteristicsofacommunity;(2)theidentificationofpotentialhazards;(3)thereflectionontheexistingbonding,bridging,andlinkingtiesofparticipants;(4)thebenefitsconnectedtothesenetworks(i.e.howthesecanhelpbefore,during,andafteradisaster);(5)theunderstandingofwhenthesetiesareneeded(preparedness,response,recovery);and(6)howsocialcapitalcanbeusedtoorganizedisastermanagementandpreparedness.Anexampleofthisactivityisfoundinappendix1.

5.4 LimitationsofthePracticumThestudentswereonlyabletoparticipateintwocommunityeventsoverthecourse

ofthesemester.Theywouldneedtoparticipateinmoreeventsinordertohavemoreaccurateobservationsofthebonding,bridgingandlinkingsocialcapitalaswellasthesocialnorms.

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5.5 WaimānaloEmergencyAccessRoadThereisaneedforanadditionalevacuationrouteoutofWaimānalo.Thereisonly

onemajorroadinandoutforsomeoftheresidentslivinginthearea.Theemergencybackuproadwasoriginallyplannedin2006.DHHLsubmittedafundingrequestandreceivedboththefundingandsupportfortheprojectin2009bySenatorWaters,howeverthefundingwaslostandtheroutewasnotbuilt.Theprojectcameupagaininthe2011RegionalPlanforWaimānalobyDHHL.ItislistedasapriorityprojectinconjunctionwiththeextensionsofWaikupanahaStreetandIlauholeStreet.Theroadwayimprovementsincludeasmallsectionwhichwillbegatedoff,connectingthetworoads.Thisportionwillonlybeopenedinthecaseofanemergency,andonlycertaincommunityleaderswouldhavethekeytoopentheconnection.Thecommunitymemberswillneedtogetsupportfromtheirlocalrepresentativesinordertogetfundingforthedesignoftheroad,whichisestimatedtobe$100,000andanestimated$12milliontoconstructtheroadwayimprovementsforbothWaikupanahaStreetandIlauholeStreet.Thereareafewsourcesoffundingwhichmaybeavailablefortheconstructionoftheroad,includingCityandCountyofHonoluluCapitalImprovementsprojectFund,FederalHighwayAdministrationfunds,Statefunds,andNewMarketTaxCredits(DepartmentofHawaiianHomelands,2011).

Theevacuationrouteisimportantforthecommunityincaseofatsunami.ItnotonlyprovidesanadditionalwayoutforfamiliesmoreontheMakapusideofWaimānalo,buttherecouldalsobeanadditionalrouteconnectingtoOluoluStreet,whichwouldprovidethefamiliesthereandonthebeachsideanalternativeroutetoKalanianaoleHighway.KalanianaoleHighwayisatwolaneroad,withonelaneineitherdirection.Ontheweekendsitiscongested,andinthecaseofatsunamiitcouldbegridlocked,wherethereissufficientwarning.AsecondroadwouldproviderelieffromKalanianaoleHighway,andgetmorefamiliestosafetyfaster.

Figure5-2illustratestheapproximatelocationoftheconnectionroadperthe2011RegionalPlanforWaimānalo.ItshowsthattheroutewouldbeonDHHLlands,sogettinglandownerspermissionwouldberelativelysimple.Therouteisalsooutsideofboththetsunamiandextremetsunamizones.Familiesontheocean-sideofKalanianaoleHighwayarenotonDHHLland,however,theywouldalsobenefitfromthealternateroute,sotheirsupportwouldbehelpfulinobtainingfundingfortheproject.TheconnectionfromOluoluStreettotheemergencyroutewouldbethroughstateland,sotheywouldneedtosupporttheprojectaswell.

Thecommunitywillneedtoutilizebonding,bridgingandlinkingsocialcapitalinordertogetfundingfortheroad(seeFigure5-3).Theywouldneedtoshowthattheyasacollectivecommunitysupportandneedtheprojecttobettertheircommunityandprovideaccessincaseofadisaster.Thiswillshowtheirrepresentativeswiththecityandstatetoallocatefundsfortheplanninganddesignofthealternativeroute.

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Figure5-2:WaikupunahaStreetandIlauholeStreetExtensionswithEmergencyAccessRoad

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Figure5-3:OrganizationalListandPlanningGoalsforanAlternativeEmergencyAccessRoad

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5.6 FinalPresentationandConclusionThestudentspresentedtheirfindingstotheirclientsattheconclusionofthesemester.

Overalltheclientswerepleasedwiththefindingsofthereport.TheNDTPCquestionedwhetherornottheyshoulddesignacoursecenteredonthetopicofsocialcapital.ThestudentssuggestedthatitwouldabeneficialcoursetotheNDTPCandcommunities,especiallycoupledwithothercoursestheNDTPChastooffer.Bycreatingacoursebasedonsocialcapitaltheyhavetheopportunitytobuildsocialcapitalincommunities,andfocusondisasterpreparedness.DHHLquestionedastowhetherornotthereisaHawaiiantermthatcouldbecomparabletosocialcapital.Thiscouldbeafocusforfurtherresearchforacoursetailoredtosocialcapitalforindigenouscommunities,especiallyontheIslandsofHawai‘i.Anotheraspectofsocialcapitalthatcouldbeexploredfurtherisacompilationofkapunaknowledge,andusingthatknowledgeasaresourcetoteachfuturegenerationshowtobepreparedfordisastersaswellastoshapedevelopmentinthefuture.

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Social Capital in Community Resilience

Applied to Hawaiian Homelands Communities The practicum is a classroom experience that integrates modern

educationalobjectives, suchas“learningcommunity”,“service learning”,“critical thinking”, and “action oriented participatory research”. Thisresearchexercisehasmultipleobjectives. Itteachestheplanningprocessandfocuseson involvingandengagingthecommunity.Eachpracticumisunique, involvingdifferenttopics,studentsandclientswithdifferentanddiverse skills and interests, but it always involves teamwork, client(s)orientation,andafinalproduct.

The Spring 2016 Practicum assisted (1) The Department ofHawaiianHomeLands(DHLL),and(2)Dr.KarlKim,theexecutivedirectorof the National Disaster Preparedness Training Center (NDPTC). DHHL isinterested in promoting grass-root strategies for disaster preparednessandcommunityresiliencebuilding.NDPTCisresearchingatrainingcourseon the topic of social capital and community capacity, specifically inregards to small island communities. In this context, the planningpracticumwith 4 students focused in defining key concepts, integratingthem, and presenting them to aDHHL community. The projectwas alsopresented to DHHL and NDPTC representatives. The instructor wasProfessorLucianoMinerbi([email protected])

Class Photo:

Sonomi Imagawa Brent Wozniak Kailey Porter Silvia Sulis

social capital, indigenous community capacity, and...

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