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A Guide to…Health & Disease in REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS

A Guide to…

Health &

Disease in REPTILES &

AM

PHIB

IAN

S By Dr Brendan Carm

el and Dr Robert Johnson

By Dr Brendan Carmel and Dr Robert Johnson

SNEAK PREVIEW176 Pages240 Colour Photos

HYGIENE PROTOCOL FOR REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN SHOWS AND EXHIBITIONS ....................................................................... 30Exhibitor and Vendor (Seller) Rules ............................................................................................................................................ 30Quarantine and Hygiene Q & A ..........................................................................................................................................................31

PREVENTATIVE HEALTH CARE ..................................................................................................................32YOU AND YOUR VETERINARIAN .......................................................................................................................................32THE VETERINARY HEALTH CHECK .................................................................................................................................33VISITING THE VETERINARIAN ...............................................................................................................................................33Transportation to your Veterinarian ......................................................................................................................................... 34 Pythons, Snakes and Lizards, Turtles, Frogs ................................................................................................................... 34BASIC VETERINARY AND LABORATORY PROCEDURES ..........................................................35Faecal Analysis ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................35 Sampling Faeces and Gastrointestinal Contents, Wet Prepartion, Faecal Flotation .........35RECORD KEEPING ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 36Record Keeping Software......................................................................................................................................................................... 36Record Keeping Checklist..........................................................................................................................................................................37

HUSBANDRY ..........................................................................................................................................................................39

HOUSING REPTILES .............................................................................................................................................................. 40REPTILE VIVARIUMS ...............................................................................................................................................................................41KEY COMPONENTS OF A REPTILE VIVARIUM ...........................................................................................41Enclosure Size ............................................................................................................................................................................................................42Substrate ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................43Furnishings ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................43 Hides ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 44HOUSING LIZARDS ....................................................................................................................................................................................45

HOUSING TURTLES ................................................................................................................................................................ 46KEY COMPONENTS OF A TURTLE VIVARIUM .............................................................................................47

HOUSING FROGS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 48Aquatic Vivarium ...................................................................................................................................................................................................49Semi-aquatic Vivarium ..................................................................................................................................................................................49Terrestrial Vivarium (Terrarium) .......................................................................................................................................................49Arboreal Enclosures ..........................................................................................................................................................................................49Furnishing and Plants .....................................................................................................................................................................................49Substrate ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................49

THERMOREGULATION AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT ....................49Low Rate of Energy Expenditure .....................................................................................................................................................49Variation of Body Temperature .........................................................................................................................................................49HOW THERMOREGULATION OCCURS ................................................................................................................... 50Preferred Body Temperature ............................................................................................................................................................... 50Body Temperature and Disease ....................................................................................................................................................... 50Temperature Gradient ...................................................................................................................................................................................51

HEATING ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................52HEATING FOR REPTILES ...................................................................................................................................................................52Heating Basics .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54HEATING FOR TURTLES .................................................................................................................................................................... 54HEATING FOR FROGS............................................................................................................................................................................ 54

HUMIDITY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................55Reptiles ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55Turtles ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55Frogs .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55

LIGHTING ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................55THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM ......................................................................................................................57Ultraviolet, Visible and Infra-red Spectrums ..................................................................................................................57ULTRAVIOLET LIGHTING ................................................................................................................................................................ 58Radiation Decays over Distance and Time ........................................................................................................................ 58Overexposure to UV Lighting ............................................................................................................................................................. 58What UV Lighting Do I Need For My Enclosure? ........................................................................................................59The Four Ferguson Zones ..........................................................................................................................................................................59Lighting System Selection Based on Ferguson Zones ...................................................................................... 60Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60

HYGIENE ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................61Disinfectants................................................................................................................................................................................................................61Phenols ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................62Alcohols ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................62Oxidising Agents ...................................................................................................................................................................................................62Quaternary Ammonium Compounds .......................................................................................................................................62Other Disinfectants ............................................................................................................................................................................................63 VIrkon®, F10sc® ......................................................................................................................................................................................................63DISINFECTING PROCEDURE......................................................................................................................................................63Water Bowl Hygiene ..........................................................................................................................................................................................63Personal Hygiene ..................................................................................................................................................................................................63Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64ZOONOSES ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64Golden Rules of Reptile Handling and Hygiene ........................................................................................................ 64 Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 64

HANDLING, RESTRAINT AND TRANSPORTATION ...............................65Handling Pythons.................................................................................................................................................................................................65Handling Venomous Snakes ................................................................................................................................................................. 66Handling Lizards ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66Handling Monitors ..............................................................................................................................................................................................67Handling Turtles .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 68Handling Frogs ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 68

TRANSPORTATION .................................................................................................................................................................................... 68Long Distance Travel ........................................................................................................................................................................................69

FEEDING................................................................................................................................................................................................................70FEEDING PYTHONS AND SNAKES ..................................................................................................................................71 Frozen Prey Items, Feeding Live Prey ......................................................................................................................................71FEEDING LIZARDS .......................................................................................................................................................................................72FOOD PRESENTATION ..........................................................................................................................................................................72PREY ITEMS..............................................................................................................................................................................................................73FEEDING TURTLES ......................................................................................................................................................................................73Australian Short-necked Turtles .......................................................................................................................................................74 Wild Diet, Captive Diet ...............................................................................................................................................................................74Feeding Australian Long-necked Turtles .............................................................................................................................75 Wild Diet, Captive Diet ...............................................................................................................................................................................75FEEDING FROGS ..............................................................................................................................................................................................75HOW OFTEN TO FEED REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ....................................................................76Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................76

BREEDING ........................................................................................................................................................................................................77Vet Check of your Breeding Collection ...................................................................................................................................78

SEX IDENTIFICATION .........................................................................................................................................................78Pythons and Snakes ..........................................................................................................................................................................................79 Probing Method .................................................................................................................................................................................................79Lizards ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 80Monitors ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80Turtles ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................81Frogs .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................81SEXUAL MATURITY ....................................................................................................................................................................................81Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................81

REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.........................................82 Mode of Reproduction of Some Commonly Kept Australian Species ...........................................82SPERM AND EGG DEVELOPMENT (SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS) .............................................................................................................83COOLING ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................83What is Cooling—How Much and for How Long?....................................................................................................83PARTHENOGENESIS—WHO NEEDS A MALE? ...........................................................................................83COURTSHIP AND MATING ........................................................................................................................................................... 84FERTILISATION AND OVULATION ................................................................................................................................. 84Pythons and Snakes ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 84Lizards ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84Turtles .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84Frogs ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84FACTORS INFLUENCING BREEDING IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ..........85Pythons ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................85Reasons for Low Reproductive Rates in Reptiles ......................................................................................................85

PREGNANCY (GRAVIDITY) .......................................................................................................................................................... 86Egg Laying ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................87 Clutch Size, Clutch Size and Incubation Period for Some Commonly Kept Species ............87Egg-laying Problems ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 89 Follicular Stasis, Dystocia (Difficulty in Birth or Egg-laying) ...................................................................... 89Speying the Female .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 90INCUBATION ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................91

THE HEALTHY REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN.......93PYTHONS AND SNAKES ....................................................................................................................................................................93Weight ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................93Activity................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 94Posture and Muscle Tone .......................................................................................................................................................................... 94Respiration .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94Skin .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94Heat-sensing Pits ...................................................................................................................................................................................................95Eyes .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96Mouth ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96LIZARDS .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................97Weight ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................97Posture and Muscle Tone ...........................................................................................................................................................................97Skin ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................97Eyes .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 98Nose ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 98Mouth ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 98TURTLES ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99Weight ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 99Activity................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 99Respiration .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99Carapace and Plastron .................................................................................................................................................................................. 99Skin .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................100Eyes and Ears ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................100Mouth ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................100FROGS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................101Restraint.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................101Weight ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................101Activity.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................101Respiration .................................................................................................................................................................................................................101Skin .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................101Eyes .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................101

ANATOMY OF SNAKES, LIZARDS, TURTLES AND FROGS ....................................................................................................................102

SNAKE ANATOMY ....................................................................................................................................................................102

LIZARD ANATOMY ................................................................................................................................................................103

TURTLE ANATOMY ................................................................................................................................................................104

FROG ANATOMY .........................................................................................................................................................................105

BASIC ANATOMY .......................................................................................................................................................................106CLOACA .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................106What are Faeces, Urates and Urine? ........................................................................................................................................106SIGHT AND OTHER SENSES ....................................................................................................................................................106Eyelids ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................106The Third Eyelid ...................................................................................................................................................................................................107The Parietal Eye ...................................................................................................................................................................................................107The Nasolacrimal Duct ...............................................................................................................................................................................107 Why Do Turtles Cry? ...................................................................................................................................................................................107The Spectacle and Subspectacular Space ......................................................................................................................107Puffy Eyes (Pseudobuphthalmos) ..............................................................................................................................................109Systemic Disease ................................................................................................................................................................................................109Other Facts on Eye Anatomy ..............................................................................................................................................................110Summary of the Reptilian Eye ..........................................................................................................................................................110Can My Reptile and Amphibian Hear?...................................................................................................................................110Something Smells!............................................................................................................................................................................................110

FIRST AID, CARE AND MEDICATION FOR SICK REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS .........................................................................111BASIC FIRST AID ...........................................................................................................................................................................................113Emergency First Aid Kit Essentials .............................................................................................................................................113

DISEASES AND CONDITIONS BY SPECIES ..........................................................................................................................................................114

PYTHONS AND SNAKES ........................................................................................................115

RESPIRATORY DISEASE ............................................................................................................................................115Blocked Nostrils ...................................................................................................................................................................................................115Stress ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................115Oral Infections ........................................................................................................................................................................................................115Neurological Signs ...........................................................................................................................................................................................115

INFECTIOUS DISEASES...............................................................................................................................................116VIRAL DISEASES ..........................................................................................................................................................................................116‘Sunshine’ Virus (a new Paramyxovirus).............................................................................................................................116Inclusion Body Disease (IBD) ..............................................................................................................................................................116Ferlavirus (previously known as Ophidian Paramyxovirus or OPMV) ......................................116Sunshine Virus versus Ferlavirus versus Inclusion Body Disease ......................................................116

BACTERIAL DISEASES ........................................................................................................................................................................117Stomatitis (Mouth Infection) ..............................................................................................................................................................117Abscess .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................118 Eye (Subspectacular) Abscess.........................................................................................................................................................118Septicaemia ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................118Ventral Dermatitis—‘Blister Disease’ .....................................................................................................................................119Slipped Skin Disease .....................................................................................................................................................................................119FUNGAL DISEASES ..................................................................................................................................................................................119PARASITIC DISEASES .........................................................................................................................................................................120Protozoa ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................120Roundworms (Ascarids) ...........................................................................................................................................................................120Tapeworms (Cestodes) ...............................................................................................................................................................................120Sparganosis ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................120Mites—‘Reptile Mite’ Ophionyssus natricis .................................................................................................................... 121Mite Facts .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................122 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................122Treatment of the Enclosure for Mites ....................................................................................................................................122

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND CONDITIONS ...............................123Lumps and Bumps ...........................................................................................................................................................................................123Regurgitation .........................................................................................................................................................................................................123 Causes, Prevention ......................................................................................................................................................................................123Constipation ............................................................................................................................................................................................................124Prolapse .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................124Spinal Osteopathy ...........................................................................................................................................................................................125Fatty Liver Disease (Hepatic Lipidosis) ................................................................................................................................125Dystocia (Difficulty in Egg-laying) .............................................................................................................................................126 Causes, Treatment ........................................................................................................................................................................................126Caring for the Female Snake .............................................................................................................................................................127Important Points Regarding Egg-laying ...........................................................................................................................127Anorexia (Loss of Appetite) .................................................................................................................................................................128TROUBLESHOOTING THE ANOREXIC PYTHON..................................................................................128The Enclosure .........................................................................................................................................................................................................128The Python .................................................................................................................................................................................................................129 Physical Examination, Treatment ..............................................................................................................................................129Dysecdysis (Abnormal Skin Shedding) ...............................................................................................................................130Retained Spectacle ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 131Cancer (Neoplasia)........................................................................................................................................................................................... 131Rodent Bites and Live Feeding ....................................................................................................................................................... 131

LIZARDS ...............................................................................................................................................................................................132

INFECTIOUS DISEASES..............................................................................................................................................132Adenovirus in Bearded Dragons ..................................................................................................................................................132Stomatitis and Gingivitis ........................................................................................................................................................................132Yellow Fungus Disease (CANV) ......................................................................................................................................................133

PARASITIC DISEASE .............................................................................................................................................................................133Worms and Coccidia ......................................................................................................................................................................................133 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................134Mites....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................134 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................134

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES ....................................................................................................................135METABOLIC BONE DISEASE (MBD) ...........................................................................................................................135Nutritional Metabolic Bone Disease (NMBD) .............................................................................................................135Renal Metabolic Bone Disease (RMBD) ...............................................................................................................................136Vitamin D Synthesis .......................................................................................................................................................................................136Captive Reptiles and UVB Exposure........................................................................................................................................136Clinical Signs of MBD ...................................................................................................................................................................................136 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................137DYSECDYSIS (ABNORMAL SKIN SHEDDING)..........................................................................................137SWOLLEN OR BULGING EYES .............................................................................................................................................138 Within the Eye, Around or Behind the Eye ....................................................................................................................138ROSTRAL ABRASION (NOSE-RUBBING) ..........................................................................................................139BIRTH DIFFICULTY (DYSTOCIA) ......................................................................................................................................139GUT IMPACTION .........................................................................................................................................................................................139TAIL REGENERATION (AUTOTOMY) ........................................................................................................................140 Features of Autotomy and Regeneration, Treatment .....................................................................................140

TURTLES ..............................................................................................................................................................................................142

INFECTIOUS DISEASES..............................................................................................................................................142VIRAL DISEASES .........................................................................................................................................................................................142BACTERIAL DISEASES .......................................................................................................................................................................142Septicaemic Cutaneous Ulcerative Disease (SCUD) ..........................................................................................142Abscesses .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................142Septicaemia ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................143TURTLE STEAMER ....................................................................................................................................................................................143RESPIRATORY DISEASE .................................................................................................................................................................144MOUTH INFECTIONS (STOMATITIS) .......................................................................................................................144FUNGAL DISEASE .....................................................................................................................................................................................144PARASITIC DISEASE .............................................................................................................................................................................144

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES ....................................................................................................................145METABOLIC BONE DISEASE (MBD) ...........................................................................................................................145 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................145PYRAMIDING OF CARAPACE (SHELL) ..................................................................................................................145 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................145EMACIATION ......................................................................................................................................................................................................146 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................146OBESITY .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................146

PROTEIN DEFICIENCY .......................................................................................................................................................................146 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................146VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY (HYPOVITAMINOSIS A) ............................................................................146 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................146FATTY LIVER DISEASE (HEPATIC LIPIDOSIS) ..........................................................................................146 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................146FOREIGN BODY INGESTION AND IMPACTION ....................................................................................147PROLAPSE ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................147 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................147OEDEMA (SOFT TISSUE SWELLING) ........................................................................................................................147 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................147TRAUMA ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................148EGG RETENTION (DYSTOCIA) .............................................................................................................................................148CANCER (NEOPLASIA)......................................................................................................................................................................148

FROGS ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................149

INFECTIOUS DISEASES..............................................................................................................................................149VIRAL DISEASES .........................................................................................................................................................................................149BACTERIAL DISEASES .......................................................................................................................................................................149Abscesses —Treatment ...............................................................................................................................................................................149 Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................................................149Skin Infections, Red Leg and Septicaemia .....................................................................................................................150Osteomyelitis ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................150Mycobacteriosis ..................................................................................................................................................................................................150Chlamydiosis ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................150FUNGAL DISEASES ................................................................................................................................................................................. 151Chytridiomycosis Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ........................................................................................... 151Saprolegniasis ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 151Mucor Amphibiorum ................................................................................................................................................................................... 151PARASITIC DISEASES ......................................................................................................................................................................... 151Protozoa ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 151Myxozoans ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 151Worms ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................152 Rhabdias, Oxyurids, Sparganosis ..............................................................................................................................................152Flukes—Trematodes .....................................................................................................................................................................................152Ectoparasitism .......................................................................................................................................................................................................152

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND CONDITIONS ...............................153METABOLIC BONE DISEASE ...................................................................................................................................................153EMACIATION ......................................................................................................................................................................................................153OBESITY .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................153GASTRIC OVERLOAD ..........................................................................................................................................................................153GASTRIC OBSTRUCTION ..............................................................................................................................................................154PROLAPSE ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................154CORNEAL LIPIDOSIS ...........................................................................................................................................................................154HYPOVITAMINOSIS A ........................................................................................................................................................................155

OEDEMA (SWELLING) .......................................................................................................................................................................155CHEMICAL TOXICITY ..........................................................................................................................................................................155TRAUMA ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................156 Lacerations, Fractures and Amputations ........................................................................................................................156Rostral Abrasion (Snout Trauma) ................................................................................................................................................156NEOPLASIA (TUMOURS) ..............................................................................................................................................................156

DISEASE CHECKLIST ........................................................................................................................................................157Signs of Disease in Pythons ................................................................................................................................................................157Signs of Disease in Colubrids and Elapids ......................................................................................................................158Signs of Disease in Lizards ...................................................................................................................................................................160Signs of Disease in Turtles ....................................................................................................................................................................162Signs of Disease in Frogs ........................................................................................................................................................................164

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................................................167

GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................................................................................168

STATE AND TERRITORY LICENSING AUTHORITIES .......................172

VETERINARY CONTACTS .......................................................................................................................................174

Marbled Velvet Gecko Oedura ‘marmorata’

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may grow up to four metres in length or more. Many commonly kept species of turtle will grow to around dinner plate size. There is little point in purchasing a large reptile if you can only provide a small enclosure.

Longevity Remember that a reptile will live for many years if cared for correctly. You may want to choose a particular species based on the likely lifespan. For example, it is not uncommon to see turtles that have been passed down from grandparents to grandchildren. Many pythons and snakes live for tens of years if cared for correctly and lizards live for several years.

Commonly kept amphibians typically live from approximately 5–15 years, although there are reports of some frog species living for decades.

Is it Better to Buy a Young Reptile or Amphibian?All reptiles require special care, particularly when they are young. For newcomers to reptile and amphibian care, we suggest buying a fully grown animal. Novices often have difficulty providing for juvenile reptiles because they are less tolerant to environmental changes, especially when moved into a new environment. An older reptile will hopefully have established feeding patterns and be of a size that can withstand the rigours of moving to a new home.

Most of the problems veterinarians see in young reptiles are due to the difficulty novices have in providing adequate care for their newly purchased reptiles. Many reptiles less than 12 months of age are difficult or fussy feeders and great skill is required to coax them onto a regular feeding schedule. In addition, young reptiles that are rapidly growing are more prone to developing diseases such as metabolic bone disease (see page 135) if the diet and/or husbandry are inadequate.

Do not underestimate the difficulty of owning a juvenile reptile if you have not owned reptiles before.

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Blue-tongued Lizards are ideal for keepers just starting out

Central Bearded Dragons are popular species with novice keepers

Children’s Pythons are a popular python for novice and experienced keepers alike

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HOUSING REPTILESOnce you have decided on the species of reptile to keep, the next step in your journey is to purchase or build the reptile enclosure or vivarium.

Think first—where will you locate the enclosure?

A dedicated room for the housing of reptiles is preferable but not always possible. It is best to choose the warmest room in the house rather than the tin shed in the backyard. This will limit husbandry associated problems and help to reduce your heating costs. You

should also try to keep captive reptiles separate from other household pets such as cats and dogs, rabbits and rats, because housing different species close to each other can cause stress. Imagine if you were the pet rat housed next to a python or snake!

A purpose-built indoor enclosure is recommended for housing most reptiles because this provides a stable environment that is easily monitored year-round—especially if you are a novice keeper.

Depending on the region of Australia in which you live, you may need to house your reptile indoors during winter. Some keepers find a good compromise is to use an outside enclosure during the summer months, bringing the reptiles inside once winter approaches. This provides reptiles with the benefits of access to natural light and a larger enclosure when outside, while providing a heated and monitored vivarium during the cooler months.

Outdoor enclosures should be secure, protected from predators and in a sheltered region of the garden or backyard. Ensure the enclosure is escape and predator-proof. Hygiene can be an issue with outside enclosures, as cleaning and disinfection is usually performed intermittently or less often than in the case of indoor enclosures, and natural substrates are virtually impossible to disinfect. Despite these concerns, outdoor enclosures can provide a safe, environmentally stimulating environment for many reptiles.

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Arboreal (climbing) pythons, such as this Green Tree Python, need somewhere to climb and perch

KEY COMPONENTS OF A TURTLE VIVARIUM Ensure the enclosure is escape-proof, as turtles are experts at disappearing! A dry land (or dock) region is essential in order for the turtle to get out of the water. Ideally, the land area should be protected with a shelter.

A heat lamp should be placed over one section of the dry land, with a basking temperature of approximately 30–33°C, allowing the turtle to bask if required or to move away from the heat while remaining on dry land. A water heater and thermometer should be fitted to your tank.

Make sure that the tank is properly conditioned before purchasing your first turtle. This involves taking a few weeks to set up the tank and ensuring that the water quality is perfect and the filter is working before introducing your turtle(s).

Test basic water parameters every 1–2 weeks. Simple water testing kits are available from pet stores and aquarium shops. Ideally, there should be little or no nitrites, nitrates or ammonia in your tank water and the pH should be neutral (7) or just above.

A turtle set up complete with fake rock background

and ledges

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HOW THERMOREGULATION OCCURS• Movementbetweenaheatsourcesuchassunlight,warmsubstrateandaheatsink—shade,

wateroraburrow.• Posturaladjustmentsegchangesinbodyvolume,shapeorientationorposture.• Physiologicalresponsesegheatproductioninmuscletissuesinsomespecies,colourchanges,

circulatorychangesandventilatoryadjustmentsto increasewaterevaporationfrommucousmembranes.Reptilesmaypantorgapeinhightemperatures.Captiveanimalsshouldnotbekeptinconditionswheretheyareexposedtohightemperatureswithouttheopportunityofescape to a cooler region. Conversely, at temperatures below the regulated range, reptilesbecometorpidandsluggishanddigestionceases.Ensurethatallcaptivereptilesaregivenachoiceoftemperaturezonesintheirenclosure.

Preferred Body TemperatureCareof reptilesandamphibians requires knowledgeof theunique thermal requirementsof aspecies.Preferredbodytemperature(PBT)isspeciesandsometimessubspeciesdependent(SeeTableonpage51).

In captivity, species that are diurnal (those that are active during the daytime, eg beardeddragons)and/orarboreal(thosethataretreedwellingorclimbers,egcarpetpythons)requirearadiantheatsource,whereasspeciesthatarenocturnal(thosethatareactiveatnight,eggeckos)and/orpredominatelyterrestrial(thosethatarelanddwellers,egtheChildren’sPython)mayavoidalight/heat(photothermal)sourceandpreferathermallyvariablesubstrateorsubfloorheating.

Frogsandturtlesmayalsorequiresupplementaryheating,particularlyifhousedinthecoolerpartsofAustralia.Heatersshouldbeusedtokeepaquariumwaterataconstantandcomfortabletemperature.Aheatmatmaybesufficientforafrogtankholdingshallowwater.

Turtlesandsomefrogsalsoenjoybaskingunderradiantheatsources.Thismeansthatinmostcasesadailythermalcycleorbehaviouralaccesstothermalvariationisdesirable.Heatingsourcesavailableincludeinfraredlamps,regularincandescentglobes,thermaltapeorcordandceramicglobes. Thermal gradients or mosaics can be arranged using these sources and a variety ofshelters.Heatavailabilitycanbecoupledwith,orbeindependentoflightsources.

Body Temperature and DiseaseInappropriate thermalexposurecansuppress the immunesystemsof reptilesandamphibiansandoperateinconjunctionwithotherformsofdistressimposedbycaptivity.Aninabilitytocoolbelowactivitytemperaturesforprolongedperiodscanaffect appetite and reproduction. Bacterial infectionscaninducereptilestoselectabodytemperatureseveraldegrees above ‘normal’ levels. Studies have shownthat elevatedbody temperatureenhances survival ofanimalsinfectedwithapotentiallylethalpathogen.Itisthereforebadhusbandrytocoolsickreptiles.

Do you know the difference between athermostatandathermometer?Athermostatisadeviceusedtoautomaticallyregulatetemperature.A thermometer is a device to measuretemperature.

Heating Basics• Allreptilesrequireheat.• Relatethetemperaturerequirementsforaspeciestothatencounteredinnature.• Atemperaturegradientmustbeprovidedtoenablethereptiletoselecttheappropriatetemperature—tothermoregulate.

• Knowthedifferencebetweenathermostatandathermometer—youneedboth.• Regularlymeasureandrecordthetemperaturesinyourvivarium.• Ensureanyradiantheatsourcesareprotectedfromcontactwithyourreptile.• Understandtheinteractionbetweenheatandhumidityinavivarium.• Linkheatingwithlighting.

HEATING FOR TURTLES A variety of heat lamps are available—incandescent bulbs, halogen and dichroic lamps. Other than water heaters, heat sources should be placed outside the vivarium. All heaters should be connected to a thermostat.

Water temperatures for most turtle species should be in the range of 22–28°C. This is best achieved by using a standard aquarium heater.

HEATING FOR FROGS A variety of heat lamps are available—incandescent bulbs, halogen and dichroic lamps. Other than water heaters, heat sources should be placed outside the vivarium. All heaters should be connected to a thermostat. As heat mats and heat cords provide heat but no light, the day/night photoperiod is not affected. This reduces the stress compared with a heat lamp that frequently turns on and off.

Water in aquatic vivariums may need to be heated, particularly in cooler parts of Australia.

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This glass enclosure is specifically designed for reptiles and amphibians

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Small tank suitable for housing juvenile turtles

FEEDINGDietary habits vary greatly among Australian reptiles, depending on species, size and state of maturity. For example, Blue-tongue Lizards start off life eating insects and snails and gradually become more omnivorous in their feeding habits, eventually preferring a range of vegetables, fruit and snails. In captivity they can also be offered the occasional boiled egg. Bearded dragons similarly begin as insectivores and as they mature develop a taste for vegetables and fruits.

All Australian pythons and snakes—venomous and non-venomous—are carnivorous.

Turtles can be either carnivorous or omnivorous.

Whatever reptile or amphibian you are planning to keep, research and find out what they eat in the wild and ensure you will be able to offer them that diet—or something appropriately similar—on a consistent basis.

Some food items can be harmful to reptiles in captivity for a variety of reasons. • Inadequate diet—for example

low-calcium diets may lead to metabolic bone disease (MBD).

• Inappropriate diet—for example feeding mice to bearded dragons. Find out what your reptile eats in the wild. Mice are too fatty and high in protein for most lizard species.

• Dangerous diet—for example, impaction of the bowel may occur if a bearded dragon is fed too many mature crickets at one time.

Reptiles are generally fed no more than 20% of their body weight at a time. All mammalian prey items must be pre-frozen (preferably for four weeks at least) for animal welfare reasons and to limit parasitism. If you keep more than one python or snake, never feed them together in the same enclosure. This can prove dangerous if both decide to eat the same item and can result in one injuring or devouring the other, rather than giving up its hold of the prey.

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Different size mice are fed to reptiles according to their age, development and size. From left to right: large adult, small adult, hopper or weaner, pinky and day-old pinky

Snails are a favourite for Blue-tongued Lizards

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BREEDING

Interest in reptile keeping has increased considerably in recent years, and the number of reptile breeders has grown accordingly. Some keepers begin breeding their reptiles simply for fun, some seek quick sales, and others work on developing popular hybrids and colour morphs for a more sophisticated market.

A comprehensive breeding plan involving proper husbandry, detailed record keeping, appropriate quarantine measures and reproductive strategies can lead to a more fulfilling and successful outcome for the reptile breeder.

Housing of breeding reptiles varies from small plastic drawers for smaller reptiles and hatchlings to vivariums for larger species. Rooms should be secure, vermin-proof and well ventilated. Containers for adults should provide enough space for mating to take place. Newspaper or butcher’s paper is a suitable substrate.

Good background knowledge of the idiosyncrasies of reptiles and reptile keeping is important. As an example, terms such as ‘postovulatory shed’ may sound alien to first-time reptile breeders. Since fertilisation and ovulation in pythons and snakes does not occur in an ordered manner, the time of egg-laying is difficult to predict, but the postovulatory shed— the shed which occurs after the female ovulates—provides a clue.

Breeding reptiles requires experience, excellent husbandry and equipment. If you wish to breed pythons, it is essential that potential breeding reptiles are fit and consider cooling down prior to mating (no less than 18–20°C). Attention must be paid to behaviours during the gravid period, taking particular notice of the ‘pre-lay shed’.

Depending on environmental temperature, incubation times may also vary, and to further complicate reproductive issues, the sex of the young (sex determination) can be a result of either

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Pink-tongued Skinks

FIRST AID, CARE AND MEDICATION FOR SICK REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANSReptiles often become ill when things go wrong with the keeper’s husbandry. Low temperatures, poor hygiene, little or no access to UV light and inappropriate diet can all contribute to making your reptile sick. Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and worms are opportunistic pathogens (bugs)—they strike when the immune system is not working well. Good husbandry and diet will prevent the establishment of most infections.

Reptiles can develop illnesses and organ diseases such as heart disease and liver failure also seen in other animals. Many types of cancers (neoplasms) have been reported in reptiles. It is also common for older reptiles to develop similar illnesses to those suffered by older humans, dogs, cats or other animals, including osteoarthritis and renal failure. Veterinarians provide geriatric care for reptiles, and active research is conducted in this area.

The fundamentals of nursing a sick reptile or amphibian are similar to those for any animal. The following should be provided:• Heat

Provide supplementary heat for the patient, making sure that your reptile is kept within its preferred optimum temperature zone (POTZ)—see Temperature Gradient on page 51. Mammals have a fever when they are sick, however, reptiles cannot generate body heat, and therefore we need to create a ‘fever’ for them to boost their immune system by making sure that they achieve their preferred body temperature (PBT).

• Isolate Minimise handling and provide adequate shelter within the enclosure. It is best to isolate sick reptiles in order to stop disease spread, limit injury, and to provide security and comfort. A dedicated hospital cage is ideal. Remember the rules associated with quarantine and disinfection.

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Administration of subcutaneous fluids to a Green Tree Python

Treatment If no obvious abnormalities are found:• Reduce handling. • Raise the temperature of the hotspot in the enclosure (even if you think it is appropriate as it

stands). • Increase the day length or UVB exposure.• Provide regular exposure to natural light—many anorexic reptiles will eat once taken outside to

access natural, unfiltered light. Take your python for a ‘walk’—drape it on a small tree or allow it to investigate the lawn or garden (under strict supervision).

• Change food items—try offering a mouse instead of a rat.• Consult your reptile veterinarian regarding faecal analysis for parasites such as roundworm.

If the above husbandry changes are unsuccessful in making your python eat, consult your reptile veterinarian. As well as a comprehensive physical examination, blood and faecal analysis, ultrasound and radiography may be necessary to achieve a diagnosis.

It is illegal in some states to feed reptiles or frogs to captive reptiles.

Dysecdysis (Abnormal Skin Shedding)

Healthy pythons shed their skin in one piece, including the spectacles. Difficulty with shedding or sloughing occurs in otherwise healthy snakes that are maintained in environments that are too dry, or in sick or dehydrated animal. Mite infestation commonly contributes to dysecdysis.

Pythons and snakes kept in hygienic conditions within their preferred optimal temperature zone (POTZ) and at a humidity level in keeping with the species, and that are provided with adequate furniture to aid removal of the shed, rarely suffer from dysecdysis.

In order to increase humidity in an enclosure, use a large water bowl, preferably with a heat mat underneath to increase evaporation. Always ensure adequate ventilation.

Pythons suffering from dysecdysis may require daily soaking in clean, warm water. Rub a wet towel over the snake after the soak to help remove the retained shed. Consider applying a very small amount of a non-irritant moisturising cream after soaking to help soften and loosen the skin. Do not pull too hard when removing the ‘shed’—it should peel off without much effort. If the shed does not come away with the first treatment, try again once daily. It may take several days to achieve removal of the retained or abnormal shed—be patient! Abrasive surfaces such as rocks or roughened pieces of wood in an enclosure will aid the natural process of skin shedding (ecdysis).

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Abnormal shedding (dysecdysis) in a dehydrated Children’s Python

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES

METABOLIC BONE DISEASE (MBD)Metabolic bone disease is the most common nutritional disease in captive freshwater turtles. Signs include weakness, shell deformities, softness of the shell and stunted growth.

Turtles require a balanced diet with adequate levels of calcium, vitamin D and protein. Exposure to UVB light—via UV lights or natural sunlight—is necessary to ensure metabolism of vitamin D and calcium in the body. Remember ultraviolet light does not pass through glass or plastic and ultraviolet lights should be regularly tested for efficacy or replaced every six months.

Treatment

Ensure that turtles are on a well-balanced diet with adequate calcium and have access to good levels of artificial and natural UVB. Often deformities of the shell are permanent.

PYRAMIDING OF CARAPACE (SHELL)Low environmental humidity (too dry) and a high protein diet are known to cause a pyramid-shaped deformity of the carapace in captive tortoises. Similar changes to the carapace occur in freshwater turtles.

Take care when feeding animal protein such as beef strips, pinkie mice, dog and cat food to omnivorous species. All turtles require some animal protein, however, like many foods too much is not necessarily a good thing. See Feeding on page 70.

This condition and MBD are arguably linked to over-handling, which potentially restricts the turtle’s access to its preferred environment. Remember Australian turtles are aquatic and require access to water at all times.

Treatment

Ensure that turtles are on a well-balanced diet. Often deformities of the shell are permanent.

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The carapace of this Eastern Long-necked Turtle with severe metabolic bone disease is soft and a section has broken away

Notice the curling of the carapace and general distortion of the shells in this short-necked turtle with metabolic bone disease

TRAUMA Wounds, lacerations and fractures require immediate assessment by a veterinarian.

Lacerations Lacerations or punctures may occur due to bites or scratches from large invertebrates, cats or even reptiles.

Many are treated as open wounds with antiseptic applications and antibiotic treatments. Some lacerations may require suturing.

Fractures and AmputationsFractures may occur due to acute trauma in otherwise healthy frogs, or in frogs suffering from metabolic bone disease. The latter is referred to as a pathological fracture.

Some fractures, such as pelvic fractures, may heal with simple rest and pain relief. Long bone fractures may require splinting or pinning. Limbs may also require amputation due to severe injury such as compound fractures, muscle trauma or bone infection (osteomyelitis). Captive frogs appear to cope well after a single amputation.

Rostral Abrasion (Snout Trauma)Some frogs develop small ulcers or wounds on their nasal region due to rubbing. It is often a sign of ‘escape’ behaviour or stress.

Husbandry changes may be necessary. Consult with your veterinarian and an experienced frog keeper to uncover the cause and treat the wound.

NEOPLASIA (TUMOURS) Neoplasia occurs in amphibians. Tumours may be confused with granulomas or swellings caused by inflammation or infection. Tumours may be inflammatory, parasitic, hyperplastic, or neoplastic.

Many tumours occur on the skin and can be easily excised.

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A benign tumour in a Green and Golden Bell Frog

A White-lipped Tree Frog with an amputated hind limb due to osteomyelitis

Swelling caused by a lizard attack in a Green Tree Frog—note the tell-tale teeth marks on the skin

Snout trauma or rostral abrasion in a Green Tree Frog

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