ship safety training

SEE-BERUFSGENOSSENSCHAFT

Manualfor

Ship Safety Service Training

(Lifeboat and Firefighting Service)

This Manual Comprisesthe Training Manual

(SOLAS Regulation III/51)and the Survival Manual

(IMO Resolution A.657 (16))

Ship Safety Service; .February 1996

3

PrefaceNine years have passed since the revision in1986 of the manual for lifeboat training. Thebasis for the revision then was amongst otherthings the new chapter III "Life SavingAppliances and Arrangements" of the 1974International Convention for the Safety of Life atSea (SOLAS). Since then significant innovationshave been introduced by the coming into force ofchanges to chapter III and on 1 February 1992 ofa totally new chapter IV "Radiocommunication".These deal principally with life savingappliances using radio technology.

1992 saw the appearance of the first edition ofthe firefighting training manual. Since thenthere have been significant changes in maritimenavigation in this field also. In particularstructural fire protection was improved bychanges and additions to the SOLAS convention.A revised version of chapter 11-2 of theconvention which is applicable to this effectcame into force for all ships the keels of whichwas laid down on or after 1 September 1984. Tenyears later the major part of the Germanmerchant fleet already complies with the newregulations.

Furthermore there has been a development,unimaginable a few years ago, of crews gettingsmaller with ships becoming larger. Around1980, a general cargo ship in world wideinternational trade would displace about 10,000GRT, had a propulsive power of 7000 to 8000 kWand a crew of 30 or more. Today's container shipshave a gross tonnage up to 50,000 and 35,000kW propulsive power. The installed generatoroutput is about 10,000 kVA. According to themanning scale, ships of this size are to beoperated with a standard crew totalling 22. Thismay be reduced to 14 in the case of multipurposecrews.

However in the case of very large ships thismeans that the crew numbers reach that limitbelow which setting up the firefightingorganisation on board in accordance with theprinciples laid down in the current manual forfirefighting training and the 1988 edition of theguideline for drawing up muster lists is no longerpossible without making cuts.

The "Manual for Ship Safety Service Training"introduced herewith, which replaces the twomanuals respectively for lifeboat training andfirefighting training, was therefore totallyrevised and matched to current technology aswell as current legislation and standards. It isintended as the basis for the initial training andthe continuation training on board and in theshoreside training establishments, and also asreference book for the practitioner.

The manual is at the same time intended tostimulate repeated critical examination of theconditions on board every ship, andfamiliarisation with any existing deviations duee.g. to the numbers and composition of the crew,or to technical or operational peculiarities of thevessel.

Publications such as this gain and retain theirrelevance by virtue of the continuous reviewbased on experience gained in the course of theregular exercises on board and fromemergencies. Critical comments fromexperiences at sea are therefore alwayswelcome.

At this point we wish to thank all those who havecontributed to the manual most sincerely fortheir valuable contributions. Sincere thanks arealso due to those who helped with theprocurement of the illustrations and thetechnical information.Hamburg, February 1996

See-Berufsgenossenschaft

Note

On every ship, the operating instructions for allappliances and installations on board areassembled in an orderly manner for the shipsafety service and are available to the crew in agenerally accessible place. Together with acopy of this manual they constitute theinternationally required training manual inaccordance with Regulation III/51 of the SOLASConvention.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Manual for Ship Safety ServiceTraining

Preface

1. Ship Safety Service - Fundamental Principles .....................1.1. Organisation of ship safety service on board .............. .1.1.1 Definition ...................................................

1.1.2 Firemen and lifeboatmen ......................................

1.1.3 Muster list ..................................................

1.1.4 Organisation on board ........................................1.1.5 Command unit (CU)...........................................1.1.6 Defense unit (DU) .............................................1.1.7 Support unit (SU) ..............................................1.1.8 Additional units ..............................................

1.2 The formation of units with small crews ...........................1.2.1 Fundamental principles - Regulations - Problems - Suggested solutions1.2.2 Safety organisation and document of safe manning ..................1.2.3 Examples of the safety service organisation with small crews .........1.3 Fire protection and safety plan ...................................1.4 Training manual...............................................

2. Fire Protection - Basic Principle ......................2.1 Oxidation - Combustion - Fire ........................2.2 Combustion process ................................2.2.1 Combustible substances .............................2.2.2 Oxygen ...........................................2.2.3 Ignition temperature ................................2.2.4 Flammability ranges - Proportions of ingredients ........2.2.5 Forms in which fire appears ..........................2.3 Deflagration - Explosion - Detonation .................2.4 Heat; Heat transfer - Heat build-up - Spontaneous ignition2.5 Classes of fires .....................................

2.6 Small - Medium - Large fire ..........................2.7 Materials .........................................2.8 Preventive fire protection ............................2.8.1 Structural fire protection .............................2.8.2 Operational fire protection ...........................2.9 Defensive fire protection .............................2.9.1 Fire boundaries ....................................

2.9.2 Extinguishing fires ..................................2.9.3 Extinction mechanisms ..............................2.10 Extinguishants .....................................

2.10.1 Extinguishant water ...................................2.10.2 Extinguishant foam ....................................2.10.3 Extinguishant powder ..................................2.10.4 Extinguishant carbon dioxide (CO2) ......................2.10.5 Extinguishant sand - Sawdust soaked in soda - Dry substances2.11 Danger to personnel - Accident prevention when fighting fires2.12 Fires in ship operation ..................................2.12.1 Fires in accommodation spaces ..........................2.12.2 Fires in the cargo area ..................................2.12.3 Fires in the cargo area of oil, gas or chemical tankers ........2.12.4 Engine room fires .....................................2.12.5 Fires as the consequence of explosions in the cargo area or in

operational compartments ..............................

3. Fire Defense Appliances and Systems on Board ............3.1 Regulations - Approvals ................................3.2 Reporting fire - Alarms .................................3.2.1 Fire alarm systems .....................................3.2.2 Fire alarm raised by persons .............................3.2.3 Alarm systems ........................................3.2.4 Alarm systems for operational compartments ...............3.3 Fire extinguishing appliances ...........................3.3.1 Portable fire extinguishers ..............................3.3.2 Powder extinguishers ..................................3.3.3 Carbon dioxide extinguishers ............................3.3.4 Transportable fire extinguishing appliance .................3.4 Fire extinguishing systems ..............................3.4.1 Water fire extinguishing systems .........................3.4.2 Sprinkler systems .....................................3.4.3 Water-spraying systems for manual operation ..............3.4.4 High-pressure water-spraying systems ....................3.4.5 Foam fire extinguishing system for tankers ................3.4.6 Combined CO2 fire extinguishing and smoke detection system3.4.7 Powder fire extinguishing system ........................3.5 Firemans outfit........................................3.5.1 Firemans outfit according to SOLAS ......................3.5.2 Fire protection clothing .................................3.5.3 Heat protective suit ....................................3.6 Breathing apparates....................................3.6.1 Compressed-air breathing apparates .....................3.6.2 Emergency escape breathing apparates. ...................3.7 Gas measuring instruments .............................3.7.1 Gas detectors .......................3.7.2 Gas concentration meters - Explosimeters3.8 Recommended additional equipment ...

3.8.1 Case for face mask ..................3.8.2 Lifeline bag ........................

3.8.3 Tool bag ...........................3.8.4 Metal hose bandage ..................3.8.5 Hose clasp ..........................3.8.6 Hydroshield .........................3.9 Storing the fire defense gear ...........3.10 Maintenance of fire defense gear .......3.10.1 Hoses ..............................3.10.2 Fire extinguishers ....................

4. Conduct during Fire Exercises and in an Fire Emergency4.1 Fire risk and fire prevention .........................4.2 Fire prevention - Individual conduct ..................4.2.1 Conduct during time off work........................4.2.2 Conduct at work ..................................4.3 Defensive fire protection ............................4.3.1 Definitions .......................................4.3.2 Basic principles ...................................4.3.3 Leadership .......................................4.3.4 Extinction tactics ..................................

4.3.5 Extinction technique ...............................4.4 Structure of the defense unit in case of fire defense ......4.5 The defense unit gear on fire defense .................4.6 Service by the units in emergency ....................4.6.1 Conduct in the event of a general emergency alarm .....4.6.2 Check whether everyone is present...................4.6.3 VHF radiotelephone for internal communication ........4.6.4 Instructions from the Head of operations ..............4.6.5 The defense unit as rescue unit. ......................4.6.6 The defense unit on defensive fire protection ...........4.7 Establishing the. closed-down state ...................4.8 Fire defense training on board .......................4.8.1 Basic principles ...................................4.8.2 Psychological problems .............................4.8.3 Exercise objectives ................................4.8.4 Training the individual .............................

Service distance ...................................Target region......................................

4.8.5 Training the unit ............................4.8.6 Leadership training ..........................4.8.7 Fire defense training and exercises - Organisation4.8.8 Types of exercise ............................4.8.9 Example of a fire defense exercise ..............

5. Life-Saving Appliances Description of Appliances Installations and Gear5.1 Personal life-saving appliances...................5.1.1 Survival suit ..................................

5.1.2 Rigid life jacket ...............................5.1.3 Inflatable life jacket............................5.1.4 Work vest ....................................5.1.5 Thermal protective aids ........................5.2 Lifeboats and rescue boats ......................5.2.1 Lifeboats .....................................5.2.2 Rescue boats .................................5.3 Liferafts......................................5.3.1 Inflatable liferaft ..............................5.4 Liferaft release device ..........................5.5 Inflatable boats................................

5.6 Lifeboats and liferafts ..........................5.6.1 Equipment and fittings .........................5.6.2 List of equipment and fittings ....................5.6.3 Illustrations ...................................5.7 Propulsion systems ............................5.7.1 Diesel engine .................................5.7.2 Outboard engines .............................5.8 Launching appliances ..........................5.8.1 Davits and accessories .........................

Gravity-type davit .............................Single pivot davit..............................Roller track davit ..............................Tricing pendants and bowsing tackles ............Boat lashings .................................

5.8.2 Liferaft launching crane ........................5.8.3 Free-fall launching appliance ....................5.9 Lifebuoys ....................................5.10 Radio life-saving appliances .....................5.10.1 Emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRB)5.10.2 Radar transponder for search and rescue ..........5.10.3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus . . .5.11 Pyrotechnic distress signals ....................5.12 Line-throwing apparatus ......................5.13 Helicopter rescue sling - Buoyant stretcher .......5.14 Organisation of search and rescue operations at sea

6. Handling/Operation of Life-Saving Appliances and Installations6.1 Personal life-saving appliances.............................6.1.1 Survival suit ............................................6.1.2 Life jacket ..............................................6.1.3 Thermal protective aids ..................................6.2 Survival craft ............................................6.2.1 Preparing and launching lifeboats ...........................6.2.2 Preparing and launching liferafts ............................6.3 Survival craft propulsion systems .............................6.3.1 Diesel engines ...........................................

6.3.2 Petrol outboard engines ...................................6.3.3 Maintenance and checking of propulsion systems ..............6.4 Sea anchors .............................................6.5 Pyrotechnic distress signals ................................6.6 Lifebuoy ................................................6.7 Line throwing apparatus ...................................6.8 Radio life-saving appliances ................................6.8.1 Emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB)............6.8.2 Radar transponder for search and rescue .....................6.8.3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus. ..............6.9 Distress signals .........................................

7. Conduct during Lifeboat Exercises and in Emergency Preliminary remarks ............................7.1 Handling lifeboats and liferafts ...................7.1.1 On board .....................................7.1.2 Embarking ....................................7.1.3 Launching and casting off .......................7.1.4 Launching and recovery with the ship under way ....7.1.5 Running lifeboats ...............................7.2 Survival in distress ..............................7.2.1 Conduct at the scene of the accident ...............7.2.2 Conduct in the survival craft .....................

7.2.3 Rescue by helicopter ............................7.3 Rescue of castaways ............................7.3.1 Man overboard ................................7.3.2 Picking up castaways ...........................7.3.3 Treatment of castaways .............................................7.4 Hypothermia and its treatment ......................................7.4.1 Hypothermia .....................................................7.4.2 Treatment of hypothermia ..........................................7.5 Abandon ship in case of emergency...................................7.6 Sea distress alarm - Pyrotechnic distress signals ........................7.7 Sea distress alarm and bringing up rescue craft by means of radio equipment7.8 Maintenance and repair ............................................

8. Closing Remarks

9. Appendix ....................................................9.1 Regulations important to the ship safety service on board ............9.2 Data concerning solid and liquid combustible substances (Table 1) .....9.3 Upper and lower flammability limits (Table 2) ......................9.4 Symbols for fire protection plans according to IMO-Resolution A. 654 (16)

and DIN 0087903-2............................................

9. 5 Engine room fires.............................................9. 6 Obsolescent plant and appliances................................9. 6. 1 Obsolescent plant and appliances for use in boats...................

9. 6. 2 Obsolescent plant and appliances for fire defense...................

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1. Ship Safety Service Fundamental Principles1.1 Organisation of ship safety service on

board

1.1.1 DefinitionThe term ship safety service is in this manualused as collective designation for all functionsconnected with rescuing persons from danger,fire protection on board and abandoning ship inan emergency.The damage control service additionallyincluded in that expression in maritime parlanceis in this manual dealt with only insofar as theestablishment of the watertight closed-downstate is understood by it.

1.1.2 Firemen and lifeboatmenEvery ship has qualified fire- and lifeboatmen asmembers of the crew or as persons otherwiseemployed on board.The training of the fire- and lifeboatmen iscarried out in accordance with the guidelinesissued by the See-Berufsgenossenschaft (See-BG). Examination is carried out by the See-BG orsupervised by it.If the examinations have been passed, thecertificate of competency as fireman orlifeboatman is issued. The certificates are validfor ten years. Their validity is increased by tenyears each time the holder meets therequirements of the training and examinationinstructions in the course of a lifeboat- and fireprotection exercise carried out under thesupervision of a See-BG technical supervisor.Certificates that have expired can only berenewed by again attending a training courseand taking the final examination.The minimum number of fire- and lifeboatmenon board is laid down in § 55 of the UVV See(German regulations for prevention of accidentsat sea) on the basis of the gross tonnage.

1.1.3 Muster listSuccessful defense against danger on board isonly possible if careful planning ensures that inemergency the necessary appliances areavailable and serviceable and every member ofthe crew knows how to conduct himself.Such planning is the ship management's task. Inworking out the measures to be taken inemergencies it relies on international andnational regulations. A list of the most importantones is included in the Appendix.This planning for emergencies is expressed inthe muster list.Being prepared for an emergency means beingfamiliar with the safety-related tasks by virtue of

thorough training and regular exercises. Themuster list thus doubles as the framework withinwhich the prescribed exercises with the life-saving appliances and the fire-defenseinstallations and equipment are carried out.The organisation of the ship safety service onboard is laid down in standard form for allGerman ships in the "(B6) Guidelines fordrawing up Muster Lists" of the See-BG.Members of the crew are formed into smallteams called "units" which in an emergencycarry out fire-defense or life-saving applianceprocedure tasks. Depending on size andcomposition of the crew, each crew member ispermanently assigned to a unit. This ensuresthat an emergency situation can, observing theinevitably limited means available on board, berapidly and effectively be brought under controlby a concentration of forces, even if some crewmembers are missing.The muster list is compiled on the printed formapproved by the See-BG and posted on thebridge and in other places accessible to the crew.From muster list each member of the crew candeduce his membership of the unit to which hebelongs for exercises and in an emergency. Aproforma "muster list" is included in theAppendix.Every ship has a "command unit" and a"defense unit". With larger crews there mayadditionally be a "support unit".On passenger ships, one or more defense unitswill be established. In addition one or moreevacuation units must be formed for evacuatingthe passengers in an emergency.On ships carrying dangerous goods, special unitsmay be subdivided for service in the event ofincidents involving the cargo.

1.1.4 Organisation on boardNormal operationFor normal operation of the ship at sea or inharbour there is an organisation covering allpersons on board while at work and in their freetime.Crew:watchkeepersdaywork handsoff-watch menOther persons:passengersrelatives of the crewpilots, guarantee engineers etc.with relative superiorities in accordance with theseamen's law:


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Ship Safety Servise; February 1996





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Remarks:1) In relation to the other persons present on board, the master has authority to issue instructions on all matters

concerning the safety of individuals, ship or cargo, plus the maintenance of security and good order on board.2) Additional superiority relationships may be established on board by announcement and notices.

Fig. 1.1 Organigram

Fig. 1.2 Organigram


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The master is the superior of all members of thecrew.

The master is authorised to issue instructions toother persons in all matters concerning thesafety of the ship and the protection of themaritime environment. He may exercise hisauthority through the officers of the ship.

Ship's officers are the superiors of all ratings.

Ship safety service for exercises and in anemergency

An exercise or an emergency is announced bythe GENERAL EMERGENCY ALARM. At thattime the organisation of the ship safety service inaccordance with the muster list automaticallycomes into force. This means:

The master is in overall charge.

The ship's officer on watch on the bridgeexercises this overall charge until the masterarrives.

The head of operations is the superior of all unitleaders.

The unit leaders are the superiors of themembers of their unit.

The crew assembles at the designated assemblystations.

The officer of the watch hands over overallcharge to the master, and charge of the service tothe ship's officer designated as its chief, as soonas these have arrived. However until they doarrive he makes all decisions necessary to rescuepeople from danger and limit the damage.

- ship location (high seas, coastal waters,harbour) and distance from navigational

hazards;- weather (above all wind and visibility

conditions);- sea state;- current, tides;- traffic situation;- operational condition (sea operation, harbour

operation, loading or unloading cargo,shipyard operation or emergency operation);

- cargo state (type and quantity of dangerousgoods loaded, stability, etc.).

1.1.5 Command unit (CU)The task of the command unit is, on the basis ofthe available information, to organise the firedefense and the activation of the life-savingappliances for extraneous rescue or abandoningship. Above all it has to deploy the units formedin accordance with the muster list as effectivelyas possible.

This cannot be done by proceeding merely onthe basis of instinct and experience. In anemergency there is no time left for longdiscussions. For that reason action must be takenon the basis of repeated, preplanned sequencesof events practiced again and again.

It is also part of the ships command unit task totake the prevailing conditions into account andto see to it that in an emergency situation theship is in no danger from outside or that itendangers others.

The prevailing conditions include:

1.1.6 Defense unit (DU)The main burden of the ship safety service onboard rests on the defense unit (DU). It must becapable of fighting a fire anywhere in the shipeffectively and preventing its spread, andbringing to safety or rescuing any personsendangered by the fire. If the ship has to beabandoned, it undertakes the preparing andlaunching of the survival craft plus taking chargeof the lifeboats. It also provides the crew of therescue boat.To be able to carry out this task, the membersof the defense unit must be physically healthyand tough. This may in principle be expectedof all crewmembers in possession of a validSeediensttauglichkeitszeugnis (certificate offitness medical) for ship operational service;nevertheless there may be restrictions as regardsfitness for service in individual cases. Severeillness may for example make a unit memberunfit for the envisaged function. If crew numberspermit this, age, size and weight plus style ofhair and beard should also be taken intoaccount. It must be ensured that the members ofthe unit can communicate easily in onelanguage.Where crew numbers do not permit a defenseunit structure of one leader plus four members,then in an emergency the simultaneous laying-out and preparing of at least two C-hoses with jetnozzle and preparing of the wearer of thebreathing apparatus for service is onlyexceptionally possible. The unit leader musttake account of this when making his decisionsand issuing orders for action.

1.1.7 Support unit (SU)If the crew is large enough to designatemembers for several units, a support unit isformed whose members can back up the defenseunit once they have fulfilled their own task.The principal task of the support unit is, to bringindividual sections of, or the entire ship, to .theclosed-down state. The air supply to a fire thathas broken out is thereby inhibited and thespread of the fire is prevented or delayed. If


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flooding has occurred, sinking or capsizing isdelayed so that the ship can be abandoned ingood order.To permit the support unit to carry out this taskperfectly and without delay, separate closing-down plans or check lists are prepared for eachwatertight section of the ship, listing allapertures to be closed with their designation andexact location.Bringing the ship to the closed-down state isfacilitated if all closures to be dealt with, such asdoors or flaps, are marked clearly on both sides(e.g. with red marking paint).On passenger vessels the main fire sectionscoincide with the watertight sections.On cargo vessels they are laid down by the shipmanagement. To be considered are:- the accommodation area plus adjacent

compartments;- the machinery spaces plus adjacent

compartments;- the cargo hold or tank area;- workshops and storerooms in deckhouses or

underneath the forecastle.Further subdivision may make sense in the lightof the size of the ship and that of the support unit.When the support unit has completed its owntasks, the leader reports completion to the Headof operations.Provided the latter does not give it any othertask, the support unit then without further ordersindependently starts to render the life-savingappliances safe.

main fire zone. If this unit is put into service as arescue unit, the defense unit detailed for one ofthe more distant fire zones takes over firedefense in its place.

1.1.8 Additional unitsIt may be worth-while to form additional units forspecial tasks.These units must consist of a leader plus at leastone member. This then takes account of theprinciple that every unit during service must beable to safeguard itself.
Evacuation unitsAn evacuation unit is composed of members ofthe operating personnel, detailed to look afterthe passengers during exercises and in anemergency.The evacuation unit is not equipped withpersonal protective equipment and thus cannotenter compartments filled with dense smoke. It ishowever worth-while equipping evacuationunits with "emergency escape breathingapparates" so that they can retreat together withthe passengers in their care from compartmentsinto which dense smoke is penetrating.The rescue of persons from compartments on fireis the duty of the defense unit responsible for the

1.2 The formation of units with small crews1.2.1 Fundamental principles - Regulations -

Problems - Suggested solutionsThe international regulations concerning thesafety organisation on board, leave many detailsto the national authority - for German ships thisis the See-BG - to settle these by nationalregulations or else by instructions such ascontained in this manual. However, the differentship types, ship sizes and above all crewnumbers make it necessary to make numerousdecisions on the spot so that the availableappliances and installations on the one hand andthe crew on the other hand, can be used tooptimum effect. In this connection, primarily thenumbers and composition of the crew must betaken into account, but also its standard oftraining.Requirements regarding the fire defenseorganisation are given in SOLAS Regulation II-2/40. These apply only to passenger ships andstate merely that every fire alarm must come tothe knowledge of a responsible crew memberwhile the ship is in operation. If there are morethan 36 passengers on board, crew memberstrained in fire defense must do fire rounds.The requirements regarding the lifeboat serviceare more detailed. They can be found in SOLASRegulation III/18 (Exercises and Training forabandoning Ship), SOLAS Regulation III/51(Training Manual) and SOLAS Regulation(Muster List and Instructions for Emergencies).This last regulation also deals briefly with theorganisation of fire defense.Supplementary regulations can be found in theVerordnung liber die Sicherheit der Seeschiffe -Schiffssicherheitsverordnung SchSV (ShipSafety Decree) and in the UVV See §§ 53 to 56.Within the limits set by these regulations, theship management must create the safetyorganisation for the individual ship and reflect itin the muster list.In doing this, it is essential to take into accountthe links and elements of interdependencebetween fire defense on the one hand and thelifeboat service on the other. In an emergencythey cannot be separated:At the same time as fighting a fire in thesuperstructure it is for instance often necessaryto safeguard the lifeboats against fire damage byswinging them out or lowering them unmanned.Abandoning ship, e.g. after a collision, will beput off for as long as possible by bringing theship to the closed-down state as regards

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watertightness. This is done simultaneously withpreparing the life-saving appliances.The result of such deliberations will in manycases be, that within the coarse grid marked outby the regulations several emergency eventsequences which, according to experience, occurrelatively frequently will be planned throughand the measures to be taken in each case laiddown in advance.A focal point for consideration in this planningfor emergencies must be any danger arising fromthe peculiarities of the cargo. The result for anoil- or a chemical tanker will thus differ in somedetails from that for a container or general cargoship.

Examples of deployment of the units in theevent of firesAny fire in the engine room caused by theescape of combustible liquid under pressure isfought immediately by bringing the machinerysection to the closed-down state and usingC02. The defense unit is only engaged if thereare persons to be rescued from the fire zone.Only after the fire has been smothered and thefire zone has cooled sufficiently the defenseunit does extinguishes any remains of fire.A fire in the accommodation area cannot befought in that way because of the ever-presentrisk of there being persons whose escaperoutes have been blocked by the fire. Here thedefense unit goes into action at once, rescuesanyone trapped, establishes a fire boundaryand extinguishes the fire.In the case of fires in the cargo area,predominantly fixed fire defense installationsare brought into play. The defense unit willprimarily be charged with establishing andmaintaining the fire boundary.In the case of dangerous-goods fires, thedefense unit will act in accordance with theprocedures specially laid down for dangerousgoods, in the EMS Unit Emergency Schedules.

breathing apparatus in the defense unit. Thismeans that a support unit entered in the musterlist often has to be deployed without a trainedunit leader. That substantially reduces thepotential for deployment.The following section shows examples about theorganisation of the safety service in relation ofthe numbers of certified lifeboat- and fire-fighting personnel on board.The size and composition of the crew derivesfrom the ships document of safe manning issuedby the See-Berufsgenossenschaft.On vessels whose crew numbers fewer than 15(excluding the master) it is necessary to deviatefrom the desirable form of organisation. Thisdeviation means that in an emergency importantsafety functions can no longer be carried outsimultaneously or with the same effectiveness.Priorities have to be established.The ship command unit is capable ofdeployment without restriction only if, apartfrom the master, it comprises at least two morenautical and one technical ship's officer. If thiscannot be achieved at all, or only after thesupport unit has completed its tasks, there willbe a heavy work load in the initial phase of anexercise or when an emergency arises.A priority recommendation is, to form a fullymanned defense unit with five crew members.The unit leader, his deputy and the wearer ofbreathing apparatus are to be qualified lifeboat-and firemen. This unit can in emergency bedeployed without delay to rescue trappedpersons and establish a fire boundary.The support unit, to be formed next, should ifpossible also consist of the unit leader, hisdeputy and three other members. At least theleader, if possible also his deputy, are to bequalified lifeboat- and firemen.The ship command unit breaks the patterninsofar as its members have individuallyspecified functions in the muster list. It istherefore necessary to check whether and towhat extent members of the unit can bedeployed elsewhere in certain situations. Thiscan be approached in a variety of ways:If on a ship only one fully manned defense unitand a smaller support unit are established, it ispossible to dispense with the Head of operations;the master will take charge of the service as partof the overall leadership. The first nauticalofficer is then available as unit leader of thedefense unit or the support unit, depending onthe actual conditions existing on board. Only if itis possible to form more than two fully mannedunits the function of the Head of operationsbecomes indispensable.In the case of fires in the machinery area causedby the escape and ignition of fuel from

1.2.2 Safety organisation and document ofsafe manning

Most of the qualified lifeboat- and firemen onboard in accordance with UVV See § 55 insofaras they have a nautical or technical certificate ofcompetence are planned into the command unit.This includes the master, the 1. officer as Head ofoperations and additional navigating andtechnical ship's officers. A ship's officer with ageneral operators certificate is designated asresponsible for distress and safety radiocommunication. The members of the shipscommand unit may take over tasks in other unitsonly to a limited extent or for a limited time.For ships whose tonnage exceeds 4000 GRT, 3additional lifeboat- and firemen are required toserve as unit leader, deputy leader and wearer of


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pressurised systems, the requirement to man themachinery control position or controlcompartment lapses. It therefore fairly obviouslymakes sense to include the second technicalofficer in the plan as unit leader of the defenseunit. The chief technical officer takes overstarting the emergency lighting sets andoperation of the fixed fire extinguishinginstallation (C02). He also takes over operationof the emergency disconnections and the quick-acting closures if there is no crew member in thesupport unit qualified to do this.

Immediate manning of the radio station with thepossessor of a maritime radio certificate, usuallya nautical officer, is not always necessary. It mustalways be effected without delay if:

- the ship sends out a distress call, e.g. if thepossibility of sinking must be consideredfollowing a collision, or a cargo fire cannot belimited,

- a "man-overboard-situation" has arisen, or- a distress call from another ship or sea distress

call repeated by a coastal radio station hasbeen received.

Since the radio installations are anywayswitched on continuously while at sea, nolaborious and time-consuming switching isnecessary. The nautical officer with a generaloperators certificate can thus at least temporarilybe deployed on other tasks, e.g. theestablishment of radiotelephone communicationbetween the bridge, the units and if appropriatethe launched survival craft.

Certain difficulties arising from the smallness ofthe crew can be mitigated by supplementing theequipment held on board with non-mandatorybut inexpensive and very useful appliances.Appliances of this kind are described in Section2. Particular attention is drawn to the"Hydroshield" which can be used to establishand maintain a most effective fire boundarywhich need not be continuously manned.

When drawing up the muster list, the shipmanagement runs through a number of suchsituations with the conditions provided by theship and its operating zone and makes thearrangements which in individual cases producethe optimum preconditions for rapid andeffective defense against the danger.

The following procedure is recommended:

As the first operational step it is to be establishedwhich members of the crew are in possession ofcertificates of competence as lifeboat- andfiremen. In principle all officers plus all ship'smaster mechanics, ship's mechanics, qualifiedboatswains and able seamen are in this category.Additional members of the crew may possessone of or both these certificates of competency if

they have attended the training courses andgained the necessary professional experience.From this category of people first of all the unitleader, his deputy and the wearer of breathingapparatus is selected.The wearer of breathing apparatus must meetthe physical fitness requirements. Wearing abreathing apparatus when deployed on shipsafety service places a considerable stress on thewearer of breathing apparatus, so his suitabilityis to be determined by a doctor authorised tocarry out medical fitness examinations.Suitability is in principle ensured by unrestrictedmedical fitness in the deck or engine roomdepartments.

However, if choices are possible, only crewmembers not older than fifty, completely healthyand physically and psychologically capable ofwithstanding stress are to be considered aswearer of breathing apparatus.

AttentionAcute illness, such as head and chest cold withfever, also precludes deployment of the affectedindividual as wearer of breathing apparatus. Tocope with this, as a precaution, an additonalman who holds a certificate of competency asfireman or at least has been thoroughlyinstructed on board and trained in wearing theapparatus is to be included in the plan.Next the unit leader of the support unit isselected. He also must hold the fire- andlifeboatman certificates of competency.The required strength of the support unitdepends on the technical and specific features ofthe individual ship. On modem ships, the closed-down state of a section affected by a fire canoften be achieved by closing just a few flaps anddoors - which takes only a little time. The sameapplies to rendering life-saving appliances safe.On such ships it is therefore justifiable to providethe support unit only with a leader and one ortwo members. During exercises and in anemergency the support unit will receiveinstructions regarding which tasks are to beundertaken first and which later, depending onthe situation. Once their tasks have beencompleted, the members of the support unit canbe deployed elsewhere.


1.2.3 Examples of the safety serviceorganisation with small crews

Specimen case: "Model ship 1"This is a motor vessel in the trade restricted toEurope and the Mediterranean Sea with a GRTof 990 as a full scantling vessel.

The ship's document of safe manning establishesthe crew as

Sergey Korchagin

17MUSTER LIST

Ship's name: MODEL SHIP No. 1Operating region: Home TradeDisplacement: 990 GRTSafety officer: -1stN.O.

Ship Command UnitCertificate ofcompetence, fire prot.and lifeboat man

Rank Number

Total Ratings

Unit function

MasterChiefengineer

11

11

Command unitCommand unit

Overall chargeEmergency generator. emergency fire pump,CO;, activation, for special duty on the bridge

Support UnitCertificate ofcompetence, fire prot.and lifeboat man

Rank Number

Total Ratings

Unit function

1stN.O. 1 1 Support unit Unit leader, maritime radio position, for specialduty on the bridge

Defense UnitCertificate ofcompetence, fire prot.and lifeboat man

Rank Number

Total Ratings

Unit function

2nd N.0.Able bodied seaman (AS)Ordinary seaman (OS)Ordinary seaman (OS)Assistant-seaman

11

111

111

1100

DefenseDefenseDefenseDefenseDefense

Unit leaderDeputy unit leader (No. 3)breathing apparatusUnit member (No. 1)Unit member (No. 2)Unit member (No. 4) (Note 1)

Notes: Note 1: the AS first of all helps the 1st N.0. to close down

Fig. 1.3 Muster List "Model Ship 1'MUSTER LIST

Ship's Name: MODEL SHIP NO. 2Operating region: Distant TradeDisplacement: 3975 GRTSafety officer: 2nd N.0.

Ship Command Unit

Certificate ofcompetence, fire prot.and lifeboat man

Rank Number

Total Ratings

Unit function

CaptainIstN.O.Chief technical officerShip's electrician

111

111

Command unitCommand unitCommand unit

Overall chargeService directionEmergency generator, emergencyfire pump, CO; activation for specialduty on the bridgeFor special duty

Support UnitCertificate ofcompetence, fire prot.and lifeboat man

Rank Number

Total Ratings

Unit function

2nd N.0.Ordinary seaman (OS)Assistant-seamanCook

1111

1 000

Support unitSupport unitSupport unitSupport unit

Unit leader, maritime radio position,for special duty on the bridgeDeputy unit leaderUnit leaderUnit leader

Defense UnitCertificate ofcompetence, fire prot.and lifeboat man

Rank Number

Total Ratings

Unit function

2nd technical officerShip's mechanicShip's mechanicOrdinary seaman (OS)Skilled mechanic,able bodied seaman (AS)

11111

111

1100

DefenseDefenseDefenseDefenseDefense

Unit leaderDeputy unit leader (No. 1)Unit member (No. 3)Unit member (No. 2)Unit member (No. 4)

Fig. 1.4 Muster List "Model Ship 2"


Sergey Korchagin

Sergey Korchagin

18

Master1st nautical officer2nd nautical officerChief engineer

1 able bodied seaman (AB)2 ordinary seamen (OS)1 assistant-seaman

This document belongs to the ship's paperswhich are always to be carried and is used as thelegal basis for drawing up the muster list.

According to UVV See § 55, there must be threequalified lifeboatmen on board and two qualifiedfiremen, in each case one has to be a seamanrating. Since the master, the chief technicalofficer and the two nautical officers plus the ablebodied seaman (AB) - possess this competency,the regulation is complied with.

With this size of crew it is not possible to form thethree planned units so that they are ready fordeployment simultaneously.

The muster list derived from this provides that:

- the defense unit is initially deployed only withthe 2nd. N.0. as leader, one able bodiedseaman (AB) as wearer of breathing apparatus(No. 3) and as deputy leader, plus two ordinaryseaman (OS) (No. 1 and no. 2) and oneassistant-seaman (No. 4);

- the support unit consists only of the 1st N.0.who, until the closed-down state and therendering safest the life-saving applianceshave been achieved, has the assistant-seamanfrom the defense unit assigned to him, and

- the ship command unit consists only of themaster and the chief engineer.

On this small ship it will be possible, even withinitially only four men, to establish the tireboundary and to undertake the rescue of peopleor fighting the fire. For this, water can beprovided from two hoses.

With two men, the support unit can close the fewdoors and flaps and then make ready or rendersafe the life-saving appliances. On ships withfree-fall life boats this is primarily made easier ifthe boat is provided with special protectionequipment against tire, or if fixed water sprayinstallations prevent the fire spreading to theboat.

Following completion of these tasks the 1st N.0.takes over tasks in the ship command unit asinstructed by the master. He is above allavailable to undertake distress and safety radiocommunication if necessary.

The assistant - seaman rejoins the defense unitas No. 4.

Ship Safety Service, February 1996

Specimen case: MS "Model Ship 2"This is a motor ship in worldwide trade, with aGRT of 3975.The ship's document of safe manning establishesthe crew as

Master1st nautical officer2nd nautical officerChief engineer2nd engineer1 ship's electrician2 ship's mechanics2 ordinary seamen (OS)1 assistant-seaman1 ordinary seamen - engine1 cook.

The total number of qualified lifeboat- andfiremen is seven, two of them seaman ratings.Here also the requirements of UW See § 55 aremet.The formation of three units available forsimultaneous unrestricted service is not possiblewith a crew numbering a total of 13.The muster list derived from this provides that:- the defense unit is formed with the 2nd

engineer as leader and one of the ship'smechanics as deputy leader (No. 1), a secondship's mechanic as wearer of breathingapparatus (No. 3) plus two more members;

- the support unit is available with the 2nd N.0.as leader, one trained man - seaman as deputyleader and two more members, and that

- the ship command unit consists of the master,chief engineer and 1st N.0. plus the ship'selectrician.

With this arrangement the required holders ofcertificates of competence as lifeboat- andfiremen are distributed among the units in atask-oriented manner. If there are no additionallifeboat- and firemen on board, unit manningmust be completed with personnel not fullyqualified in specific duties.With this composition the defense unit is stillable simultaneously to establish the fireboundary, and to rescue trapped persons or startfighting the fire with two hoses.The support unit can simultaneously bringabout the closed-down state and render the life-saving appliances safe. Following completion ofthese tasks, the 2nd N.0. joins the shipcommand unit and is primarily available toundertake the distress and safety radiocommunication if required.Within the ship command unit the 1st N.0. goesinto action as Head of operations. However until

Sergey Korchagin

19

the 2nd N.0. arrives he can also, if required, takeon radio communication.In the case of fires in machinery spaces the chiefengineer stops the engine-room ventilators, thequick-closing valves of the fuel tanks andoperates the C02-fire extinguishing equipment.If required he starts the emergency generator setand starts the emergency fire pump. The ship'selectrician acts as his back-up.

VHF radiotelephones(portable radio set for survival craft)

- the positions of all survival craft such aslifeboatsliferafts

- the emergency exits and escape routes.The symbols for the safety equipment arestandardised. Every plan contains a list of thesymbols used.

1.3 Fire protection and safety planOn every ship, the fire protection and safety planapproved for the ship is posted on the bridge andin other places accessible to the crew at anytime.Apart from other information it contains- the stowage location of all elements of the

survival equipment, represented by symbols,such as

survival suitsthermal protective aidslife jacketslife buoysline throwing apparatussatellite emergency position indicating radiobeacon (EPIRB)

radar transponder

1.4 Training manualIn this manual the various appliances andinstallations comprising the safety equipmentare described with the aid of examples.Because of the variety of types approved, theappliances and installations on board anyspecific ship may however be of a different typeor work in a different way.For that reason, on every ship the operatinginstructions for all ship safety service appliancesand installations on board are compiled in anorderly form and available to the crew in agenerally accessible place. Together with a copyof this manual they constitute the internationallyrequired training manual.Where the illustrations in this manual differ fromthe data in the operating instructions the latterapply.


21

2. Fire Protection - Basic Principles2.1 Oxidation - Combustion - FireThe chemical process by which a combustiblesubstance combines with oxygen with release ofheat to form a new substance, the oxide, is calledoxidation.A rapidly-proceeding oxidation with theappearance of light is called combustion; thelight, flame and heat created during combustionare called the fire.

2.2 Combustion processCombustion always depends on fourpreconditions which must coincide:1.There must be a combustible substance,2.oxygen must have unimpeded access,3.the ignition temperature of the combustible

substance must be attained or exceeded, and4.the proportion of ingredients necessary for the

combination of the combustible substance withthe oxygen must be attained.

Fig. 2.1 Four-column-model

2.2.1 Combustible substancesCombustible substances are solids, liquids andgases (including vapours, mists, dust) whichmixed or in contact with the oxygen contained inthe air can be made to bum. For the assessmentof the fire risk posed by a substance, thefollowing properties are of importance:ignitability, combustibility, heat of combustionand combustion temperature.For fire protection on board it is sufficient toknow that there are substances which aredifficult, normal and easy to ignite. Even just aflying spark can set on fire a substance easy toignite. Normally-ignitable substances need theheat of combustion of a match to set them alight.Substances difficult to ignite must be stronglyheated, e.g. with a blowlamp, before they can beignited.The characteristics of combustibility, heat ofcombustion and combustion temperature are of

no significance for the practical side of fireprotection on board.2.2.2 OxygenOxygen is one of the most frequently occurringelements of our living-zone on earth. The aircontains about 21% by volume of free oxygen.Chemically combined oxygen is present in water(89% by mass) and in the crust of the earth (50%by mass).2.2.3 Ignition temperatureCombustible substances cannot by themselvescombine with oxygen with the appearance offire. They do not burn by themselves. Ignitiononly becomes possible when the combustiblesubstance has been heated to generate gas orvapour and these have mixed with oxygen.Combustion is always initiated by ignition. Itoccurs when a combustible substance in contactwith an adequate amount of oxygen is heated toa certain minimum temperature, the ignitiontemperature.The ignition temperature of a combustiblesubstance is the minimum temperature at whichin the presence of oxygen in a proportion whichpermits ignition fire will appear.The lowest temperature at which externalignition can generate fire symptoms is calledignition point for solids, flash point for liquids. Ifthe source of ignition is removed, the fire goesout again.The lowest temperature at which positiveignition can generate a fire which remains alightafter the source of ignition has been removed iscalled minimum combustion temperature forsolids and fire point for liquids.The ignitability of a combustible solid isdescribed by its ignition point and its minimumcombustion temperature.The ignitability of a combustible liquid isdetermined by its flash point and its fire point.

Fig. 2.2 Ignition temperatures



BSG

BSG

BSG

BSG

BSG

Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.1 Four-column-model

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Fig. 2.2 Ignition temperatures

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22

If a combustible substance is heated above itsminimum combustion temperature or its firepoint, spontaneous ignition can occur.

Substances burning with a glow only are:

- solids which have been de-gassed such ascoke or charcoal;- combustible metals.

Substances burning with flames and a glow are:

- solids which on heating break down intogaseous components and solid carbon.

The gaseous components form the flames, thesolid gives off the glow.

2.2.4 Flammability ranges - Proportions ofingredients

The chemical combination of a combustiblesubstance with oxygen can only occur if theingredients are present in specific proportions.The minimum necessary percentual proportionof the combustible substances in atmospheric airis called the lower flammability limit (explosionlimit). The maximum permissible percentualproportion of the combustible substance inatmospheric air, the upper flammability limit(explosion limit). The range between the twolimits is called the flammability range (explosionrange).Ignition cannot occur, and combustion istherefore impossible, outside the flammabilityrange.

Fig. 2.3 Forms in which fire appears

2.2.5 Forms in which fire appearsDepending on the character of the combustiblesubstance, the fire can appear in two forms, asflames or as a glow. Both forms can occurtogether or separately.As flame is described the visible part of a streamof gas comprising three parts. These are:- the incoming flow in which the combustion air

flows to the reaction zone;- the reaction zone in which the combustible gas

released from the combustible solid or liquidby heating rises, mixes with the air andchemically combines with the oxygen in the airwith the generation of light and the release ofheat;

- the waste gas flow in which the gaseousproducts of combustion mixed with air rise andcool further.

What is called glow is the light radiation of asolid heated to a high temperature. The colour ofthe light radiated allows the temperature to bededuced. Corresponding values are:

Grey glow 400 °Cdark red glow 525 °Cred glow 800 °Cyellow glow 1100 °C

incipient white glow 1300 °C full white glow 1500 °CSubstances burning with flames only are:

- gases;- liquids following transition into the vapour

form;- solids which generate vapour or gas when

heated.


2.3 Deflagration - Explosion - DetonationParticularly favourable conditions forcombustion prevail if combustible substance andoxygen are present in the correct proportionsand additionally the substance is mixed inextremely finely divided form with oxygen. Theresult is rapidly proceeding combustion.

In deflagration the above-mentioned conditionsare not fulfilled, and combustion is incompletewith a low level of pressure and noise, e.g. if gas-or vapour-air mixtures are ignited near the limitsof the flammability range.

An explosion is combustion with the creation ofstrong pressure, heat and light effects. Ignitionprogresses rapidly, e.g. when petrol vapoursexplode, at about 20 m/sec.

If the ignition propagation rate becomessupersonic, it is called a detonation. Here apressure wave is generated, producing heat ofcompression at the wave-front which causesignition. The detonation pressures can be up to150,000 bar and the ignition propagation rateover 6 km/sec (TNT instantaneous fuse).

The ignition propagation rates are in the case of:

- deflagrations, of the order of magnitude ofcm/sec;

- explosions, of the order of magnitude of m/sec;- detonations, of the order of magnitude of

km/sec.

BSG



Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.3 Forms in which fire appears

23

Fig. 2.5 Example of heat radiationHeat convection is the transfer of heat carried bya liquid or gaseous substance. It is utilised forinstance in space heating using hot-waterheating elements.

Fig. 2.6 Example of heat convection

2.4 HeatHeat Transfer - Heat Build-up -Spontaneous Ignition

Heat is a form of energy. It is generated duringcombustion by conversion of the chemicalenergy of the combustible substance by meansof the oxygen in the air, as heat of combustion.

Heat acts physically by way of:

- thermal expansion;

- change of state of aggregation;

- alteration of the strength properties.

Of these effects, on board seagoing ships thealteration of strength has the most seriousconsequences. Shipbuilding steels if heated to500 °C lose up to 50% of their strength and donot recover it when they cool. Steel partsaffected by fire must therefore be replaced.

Heat can be transferred from one substance toanother, e.g. from an ignition source to acombustible substance.

There are three forms of heat transfer:

Heat conduction is the transfer of heat in a solid,liquid or gaseous substance betweenimmediately adjacent particles. Gaseoussubstances conduct heat badly, liquid ones well.Amongst solids there are good and poorconductors of heat. Good conductors are forinstance metals such as steel, iron, copper, lightalloys; poor conductors are for instance wood,concrete, wool, rubber, leather.

Fig. 2.4 Example of heat conduction

Heat radiation is the radiation emitted by asubstance, surrendering a part of its thermalenergy to its environment, as a consequence ofits temperature. It penetrates open space evenagainst the wind and can travel substantialdistances. In the case of major fires, ignition dueto heat radiation has been observed even at adistance even of 40 m.

Heat build-up

If more heat is supplied or generated than isused or removed, there is a heat build-up. As thecause of spontaneous ignition this is of crucialimportance.

Spontaneous ignitionIf a combustible substance oxidises slowly, i.e.without flames appearing, and the heatgenerated in the process builds up, thetemperature inevitably rises with increasingspeed as a result of this build-up until theignition temperature is reached. Spontaneousignition then follows.Spontaneous ignition is assisted by the followingcircumstances:-high ambient temperatures, e.g. when

embarking bag cargo in tropical ports(expeller, fish meal, etc);

- fine granulation or large surface areas ofcombustible substances, such as rich coal,greasy cotton cleaning rags;

- heat-generating bacteria decomposing organicsubstances, such as in fermenting hay or moistfishmeair

- high oxygen concentrations, e.g. at thereaction between oxygen carriers such asalkali peroxides with water and combustible





Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.4 Example of heat conduction

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Fig. 2.5 Example of heat radiation

Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.6 Example of heat convection

substances such as organic dust, paper, wood,also called cargo hold sweepings.

Fig. 2.7 Spontaneous ignitionA schematic representation of the spontaneousignition process (The process is here shown infairly large steps to make it easier to understand.In reality it progresses steadily. As a factor, thespeed of oxidation doubles for every rise intemperature of 10 °C, in accordance with Vant'Hoff's Law).

24

2.5 Classes of firesThe object of subdivision into classes of fires isthe appropriate allocation of extinction methodsand means to the various combustiblesubstances.

Fig. 2.8 Classes of fires

2.6 Small - Medium - Large FireFires are subdivided into three classes accordingto their extent:A small fire is one of limited extent, containedwithin an enclosed compartment in theaccommodation, culinary/service or cargo areas;A medium fire is one extending out to involvedirectly adjoining compartments, e.g. toadjoining cabins in the accommodation area orfrom a container to adjoining ones. Any fire inthe machinery spaces in which combustibleliquids like fuel or lube oil escaping underpressure are burning is a medium fire;A large fire exceeds a medium one in extent andinvolves several areas of the ship, e.g. machineryplus accommodation area or machinery pluscargo area. Also designated major fires are oneswhich totally engulf an area of the ship, e.g.several decks of the accommodation spaces.

2.7 MaterialsIn practice a distinction is made betweencombustible and incombustible materials.An "incombustible material" is one which doesnot release ignitable gas or vapour in suchquantities that when heated to 750 °C thegas/vapour can ignite spontaneously.Every other material is combustible material.Some combustible materials can be made hardto ignite by treatment with fire-resistantsubstances."Low flame-spread materials" are materials,woven textiles or coatings which are able toprevent the spread of a fire or restrict itadequately.

2.8 Preventive fire protectionBy structural fire protection measures, the startof a fire is impeded, its spread substantiallyprevented and fire defense facilitated.Structural fire protection includesdesign/construction measures such as thesubdivision into main fire sections, thearrangement and design of doors, fire flaps andother closures, escape- and rescue routes, theuse of incombustible or low flame-spreadmaterials, the installation of fire alarm andextinguishing systems and appliances, and ofspecial equipment to protect for examplecompartments or installations in whichcombustible liquids, compressed gases ordangerous substances are used, transported orstored, such as fuel tanks, pumps or pipelines.Operational fire protection results in timelyrecognition of fire risks and safe operating of fireprotection equipment. Operational fireprotection includes above all the organisation ofoperations so as to prevent fire risks arising.





Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.7 Spontaneous ignition

Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.8 Classes of fires

Focal points as regards this are, proper maintenanceof the fire defense and fire protection appliances andcorrect conduct in emergency.

Structural and operational fire protection arecomplementary and are not to be separated.

25

Class "C" divisions must be of approvedincombustible material. For them there are nospecial requirements as regards the preventionof smoke or flame penetration or as regardsinsulating effect.

Class "A" and "B" divisions must be approved.

2.8.1 Structural fire protection

Until a few years ago, fires in accommodationspaces of seagoing ships in many cases haddisastrous results. Because of the then currenttype of construction it was possible for a fire tospread quickly over the entire superstructure.Ship fires which involved loss of life andultimately total loss of the ship were no rarity.

It is only recently that there has been arecognition that the initially applicableregulations of the International Convention forthe Safety of Life at Sea of 1948 and 1960 wereinadequate. They were replaced in a number ofsteps, first for passenger vessels, later also forcargo vessels, by new ones enforcing the so-called "standard method" also known as the"noncombustibility method".

The now valid set of regulations is based on theprinciple that the best fire protection for theentire accommodation area can be achieved byusing exclusively incombustible materials for allbulkheads, sides and ceilings.

A distinction is made between division classes"A", "B" and "C", with additionally class "F" onfishing vessels.

Class "A" divisions are steel bulkheads anddecks with the reinforcements necessary forstability, so insulated with an approved materialthat they will certainly prevent the penetration ofsmoke and flames for an hour, and an increase inthe average temperature of more than 139 °Cabove the initial temperature on the side awayfrom the fire for a specified minimum period.This period in minutes is appended to the typedesignation. A class "A-60" division for instancemeets the requirements for a period of 60minutes. The temperature must not at any pointincrease by more than 180 °C above the initialvalue.

Class "B" divisions are bulkheads, decks,deckheads or claddings of approvedincombustible material which will certainlyprevent the penetration of smoke and flames forhalf an hour. The temperature at the side awayfrom the fire must not exceed 139 °C and only forshorter minimum periods than with class "A".The maximum permissible value must notexceed 225 °C.

This applies to the division as a whole and to thematerials used.

Approval requires the passing of a so-called"Standard Fire Test". The details of the test arefixed internationally. It involves exposing abulkhead or a deck with an exposed surface of atleast 4.65 m2 and a height or deck length of atleast 2.44 m in a fire test furnace to temperatureswhich by 60 minutes after the start of the testmust have risen to 925 °C.

Bulkheads and ceilings in the passage regionsmust not have any openings without closures.Passage bulkheads must extend from deck todeck. All internal stairs leading toaccommodation spaces, service spaces or controlstations must have a steel load-bearing structureand be inside a shaft bounded by class "A" or"B" divisions. Doors in the stair shafts must be atleast class "B" and self-closing. They must nothave any means of ventilation.

Fig. 2.9 Structural fire protectionin the accommodation area

The result of this is, for instance, a cabin firewhich has already spread beyond its originalsource and has set fire to everything burnable inthe cabin cannot extend to adjoining spaces. Thecrew has enough time for an effective attack onthe fire.

The method of construction describedadditionally has the effect that escape routes areparticularly protected. They are intended toprovide persons leaving the danger zone on theoutbreak of a fire with a secure exit to the opendeck and at the same time offer the defense unita secure route of advance to, and retreat from,the source of the fire.

Ship Safety Service: February 1996

Sergey Korchagin


Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.9 Structural fire protection

26The regulations about structural fire protectionare too extensive to be quoted in their entirety inthis manual; a list of the applicable regulations isadded to the manual as Appendix 1. The texts ofthe regulations are available as part of themandatory collection of leaflets on board.

Some particularly important details are:

On passenger ships:

- In the accommodation spaces andcompartments with a comparable fire risk,built-in furniture must be of approvedincombustible material. Freestanding chairs,sofas, etc. must have frames of incombustiblematerial. Curtains and other hanging fabricsmust be of approved incombustible material.Floor coverings must have correspondingproperties. Paints and other coatings, andmarkings or notices on foil must be ofapproved low flame-spread material.

- Additionally to the incombustible bulkheadsand decks, a subdivision of the ship intovertical main fire sections is carried out toprevent the spread of a fire to other parts.Vertical main fire sections are created byhaving main boundary bulkheads extending atintervals of up to 40 m through the hull, thesuperstructure and the deck houses.

On all ships:

All doors must be made of material of the sametype as the bulkheads in which they are set.Certain doors have to be self-closing.

All fire flaps must be made of material of thesame type as the ventilation shafts or ducts inwhich they are fitted.

The inlet and outlet apertures of all ventilationsystems must have easily accessible closuredevices on deck, which on the outbreak of afire can be closed manually.

Fig. 2.10 Fire flaps

Fig. 2.11 Fire doors

Fig. 2.12 Fire flap in ventilation shaftThe structural fire protection in the engineroom is primarily intended to prevent theuncontrolled escape of liquid combustiblesubstances and, should this nevertheless occur,prevent their being heated to their ignitiontemperature. For that reason the fuel pumpsand engine room ventilation fans must haveemergency stop devices outside the engineroom. Equally, the suction lines from the fueltanks must have quick-closing arrangementsoutside the engine room. Fuel lines are run asfar away as possible from components with hotsurfaces. They must be of such materials andso constructed as to pose a major obstacle tothe escape of fuel. Components with hotsurfaces are insulated. The insulation isprotected against fuel soaking-in by sheet-steel cladding.The engine room can be made airtight.Some spaces, such as batterydangerous-substance stores, cargo





Ship Safety Service

Fig. 2.11 Fire doors

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Fig. 2.10 Fire flaps

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Fig. 2.12 Fire flap in ventilation shaft

27compartments, rooms with facilities foracetylene and oxygen bottles, are explosion-endangered compartments. The electricinstallations in those compartments must bemade explosion-proof.Fire alarm systems are provided primarily forthe cargo spaces and unmanned machineryspaces, plus on cargo vessels for all passages,stairs and escape routes in the accommodationarea and on passenger vessels also for thepublic rooms and recreation spaces. Thearrangement and number of alarm units isfixed so that all endangered areas are securelymonitored.

ATTENTION - FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

EXPLOSION HAZARD

NO NAKED LIGHTS !

NO SMOKING!

- At the place of work, only one - original -container of dangerous working-materials maybe kept ready for use.

Protective measures for entry into dangerouscompartmentsCompartments which have been cut off from theoutside air for some time, or in which organicsubstances, oil or chemicals have been storedmay be dangerous primarily because of the lackof breathable air or the presence of poisonous orsuffocating gases or vapours.In such compartments there may also be a firerisk. The regulations about entry into dangerousspaces therefore also serve the purpose ofoperational fire protection.

Protective measures when welding or workingwith fireWelding and work with fire are among the mostfrequent causes of fires, so the regulationsapplicable to these must receive particularattention. In the context of operational fireprotection this is ensured by careful supervisionof the work and its environs.

Maintenance of fire defense installations andappliances to ensure their readiness for use inemergencyOnly if they are immediately ready for use inemergency can the installations and appliancesfulfil their purpose. To this end there are gradedmaintenance measures:- check of completeness and proper condition at

set intervals;- immediate elimination of any deficiencies

detected; if that is not possible, repair ashore orreplace;

- check of dates due for inspection e.g. in thecase of portable fire extinguishers, compressedair bottles, breathing apparates;

- functional check of the installations underquasi-operational conditions, e.g. waterpressure, C02 plant, discharge of a fireextinguisher.

Fire patrolsTo ensure early detection of any outbreak of fireduring silent hours regular fire patrols arenecessary, day and night in harbour and at nightat sea, above all in the accommodation area.They are one of the most important measures ofoperational fire protection!

2.8.2 Operational fire protection

Designated "operational fire protection" are allmeasures which- prevent fire risks arising,- ensure that any fire risks on board are

recognised early, andin emergency bring about the rapid and secure

operation of the fire defense appliances toprevent spread of the fire.

Structural and operational fire protectioncomplement one another. Both are of the samevalue; they must not be separated.Among the most important measures ofoperational fire protection are:Safe storage of combustible working-materials

Some working-materials such as compressedgases, cleaning materials, solvents or coatingmaterials are combustible and certain safetymeasures must therefore be observed regardingtheir storage and use on board.For the storage space there are special structuralfire protection regulations:- petrol/gasoline, solvents and other highly

flammable liquids with a flash point below21 °C, plus compressed gas for use on boardmay only be stored on the open deck,protected against heat effects.

- Coating materials must be stored on the opendeck or in a special compartment (paintlocker). This compartment must be separatedfrom the other spaces in the ship by steelbulkheads and self-closing doors, so as to begastight. It must have adequate supply andexhaust ventilation. It must have permanentlyinstalled fire extinguishing arrangements.

- Coating materials containing volatilecomponents with a flash point below 21 °C areto be stored in strong, firmly closablecontainers and as cool as possible. Thecontainers must be marked. Smoking isprohibited where they are stored. A warningnotice is to be posted.



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Fire defense exercises - instruction - initial andfurther trainingOnly by constant exercising of the crew, byintroductory instruction of crew members new tothe ship, by careful nurturing of the young crewmembers and the ongoing further training of thecore personnel in as-realistic-as-possible firedefense exercises can it be ensured that a firebreaking out in spite of all precautionarymeasures can be fought swiftly and effectively.

chemicals. The interruption of the supply ofcombustible substance is also a possibility,particularly in the case of fires of liquid orgaseous substances.

2.9 Defensive fire protection

2.9.1 Fire boundariesAll regulations or instructions for fire defense onboard, and also this manual, are based on theexperience that with the limited meansavailable, fighting a fire effectively is onlypossible if it can be kept within bounds.A designated fire boundary is any permanent ortemporary device which assists in- preventing the spread of the fire and thereby

protecting persons against danger form it,- carrying out the fight against the fire with

minimal use of personnel, appliances andextinguishants,

- ensuring a secure base for the personnelengaged in fighting the fire, and

- minimising the consequential damage arisingfrom the use of the extinguishant.

The purpose of the numerous measures ofstructural fire protection is, the precautionaryerection of permanent fire boundaries.Predominant among these are, the subdivision ofpassenger vessels into vertical main fire sectionsand the construction of all bulkheads, ceilings,doors, etc. in the accommodation area usingincombustible materials with proven high fireresistance.Where in an emergency a permanent fireboundary does not exist or has been breached, atemporary fire boundary can be erected. In theaccommodation area for instance, a fireboundary can be erected in an operationalpassage using table tops. When advancing witha protective spray, the curtain of water emittedby this also constitutes a fire boundary.

2.9.2 Extinguishing firesCombustion is a chemical process in which acombustible substance and oxygen in the correctproportions combine as soon as the minimumcombustion temperature is reached.Extinguishing means interrupting this processby altering the proportions or lowering thetemperature.Extinction is achieved by smothering or cooling.A third method is based on the reaction-impeding (anticatalytic) effect of some

Fig. 2.13 Extinguishants

2.9.3 Extinction mechanisms

Smothering a fire means separating thecombustible substance from the oxygen, orreducing the oxygen content of the air until theproportion drops below the minimum necessaryfor combustion. This can be done in a variety ofways, e.g. by mixing a sufficient amount ofasphyxiating gas (carbon dioxide) with the air orby covering the substance with a layer of foam orpowder extinguishant.Cooling means slowing down the chemicalprocess by lowering the temperature until theprocess breaks down altogether as thetemperature drops below the minimumcombustion temperature.The effectiveness of cooling depends on the heatabsorption potential of the extinguishant. Wateris in this respect of supreme importance becauseit absorbs, and thus extracts from the fire, largeamounts of heat energy both in being heatedand in being evaporated.Many extinction processes use both modestogether; e.g. water first acts by cooling then,once steam has been generated, also bysmothering.

2.10 Extinguishants

In the choice of extinguishant, the circumstancesin the environs of the fire as well as the methodof extinction must be taken into account.When transporting dangerous goods and on gasand chemical tankers, particular care must betaken to see that extinguishants compatible withthe cargo are on board or are taken on board.Details are to be taken from the reference book"Emergency Procedures for Ships CarryingDangerous Goods - Group EmergencySchedules (EMS)" which when transporting







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Fig. 2.13 Extinguishants

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dangerous goods is part of the mandatorydocumentation carried on board.Smothering as an extinction method isparticularly effective if the chemical process canbe made to break down solely by altering theproportions of the constituents. That applies toflame-producing fires. Glowing fires on the otherhand cannot be extinguished by smotheringalone because the heat energy of the glowingmass is too great. The fire would break out againimmediately oxygen regained access. Glowingfires must therefore primarily be extinguished bycooling.Extinguishants can cause damage in theenvirons of the fire. These undesirable side-effects must be taken into account in the choiceof extinguishant.Lastly, disturbing influences from theenvironment must be taken into account. In thecase of a fire on deck, for instance unsuitablefoam would be torn apart by the wind whichwould prevent it producing an adequateextinguishing effect.

- impact force, by which loose burning materialis torn apart so that a larger glowing surface isexposed to the extinguishing effect,

- penetrating effect, which forces the waterdeeper into the layers of glowing material, and

- wetting properties, which can be increasedfurther by the addition of wetting agents sothat larger areas retain their coating of water.

Water is non-poisonous and chemically neutral.

Disadvantages

At ambient temperatures below freezing point,water can only be used to a limited extent.Especially when used against cargo hold fires,water can endanger the stability of the ship.Water is absorbed by certain organic cargoessuch as grain, pulse, cellulose. This causes theseto swell, which may endanger the ship'sstructure.Water can cause breakdown of electricallypowered equipment. This includes the firepumps.

Safety instructions

Water can have a dangerous reaction withchemicals. For instance, the reaction withcalcium carbide produces combustibleacetylene, with sodium or potassiumcombustible hydrogen, with peroxides fire-promoting oxygen and heat.Water conducts electricity. For that reason, whenusing jet nozzles a minimum distance must bemaintained between their mouthpieces and livecomponents. For voltages up to 1000 V, thesedistances are 5 m for solid jets, 1 m for spray jets.

Fig. 2.14 Safety distancesVoltages above 1000 V occur in ships only infully-enclosed and marked electro-operationalcompartments or in specially protected andmarked installations (e.g. radar sets, aerialleads). In the event of fires there, the minimumdistances to be maintained between jet nozzlemouthpieces and live components are 10 m for asolid jet, 2 m for a spray jet.

2.10.1 Extinguishant water

Water is the extinguishant most widelyavailable, cheapest and easiest to use. It is easyto transport by pumping, easy to carry even overconsiderable distances through pipe and hoselines and to convey to the location of the fire in asolid jet or spray form over spaces necessary forextinction.The main way in which water extinguishes is, bycooling. In this it is not surpassed by any otherextinguishant.

Properties

Water freezes at temperatures below 0 °C andturns to steam at 100 °C and an air pressure of1013 hPa. One litre of water forms 1700 litressteam. In evaporating 1 litre of water from 10 °C,the heat energy absorbed is

378 kJ for heating to 100 °C2264 kJ for evaporating completely2642 kJ

Use

By virtue of its powerful cooling effect, water isthe most effective extinguishant against glowingfires, e.g. those involving substances such aswood, coal, paper, straw, fibrous materials. (Fireclass A)

Advantages

Water can be used in many different ways, e.g.as a solid jet, spray jet, mist, personal protectivespray.As well as the cooling effect, the solid jet has



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Fig. 2.14 Safety distances

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Water sprayed into hot (over 100 °C) liquids canevaporate suddenly. This results in aspontaneous expansion of the steam to a volume1700 times that of the water and thus aneruption-like ejection of the combustible liquid.Water is heavier than most combustible liquids.In containers it displaces the lighter combustibleliquids, which as a result overflow and cause thefire to spread.If used as a solid jet, water may stir up dust fromcombustible solids. This creates the danger ofdust explosions.Hot water used as extinguishant or steamgenerated in the extinction process canendanger persons.In consequence of (e.g.) the simultaneousopening or closing of several hydrants, pressurefluctuations can arise in the firefighting-watersystem. This may adversely affect the firm standof the jet nozzle operator.

the case of fires combining class A and B, usingfoam is appropriate.Foam extinguishant covers the heart of the fireand acts primarily by smothering. In the case ofliquid fires, that calls for an unbroken layer offoam at least 15 cm thick. The water element ofthe foam provides cooling. This effect is mostpowerful with heavy foam by virtue of the highproportion of water and is least powerful withlight foam.Heavy foam is used above all to fight liquid fires.It is considered the only promising extinguishantfor fires in major tank farms. It is particularlysuitable for installations on the upper decks orcargo tank decks of tankers. When used in thesecircumstances, its cooling effect is alsoimportant. With appropriately designed fixedinstallations, effective ranges of jet of up to 45 mcan be achieved.Medium foam is primarily used in mobile units iflarge quantities of foam are needed, as forinstance for fires in accommodation areas orcargo holds. Effective ranges of jet are only from2 to 10 m.Light foam is used in seagoing shipping onlyexceptionally, namely where the compartmentsto be protected can be totally flooded with foamfrom fixed installations.

Safety instructionsProtein-based foaming agents must not beallowed to get into open wounds. There is a riskof blood poisoning!Food contaminated by foam extinguishant mustnot be consumed subsequently!When exercising with foam extinguishant, allrelevant environment protection regulations areto be observed!Medium and heavy foam are not to be used inthe vicinity of live electric components.

2.10.2 Extinguishant foam

PropertiesFoam consists ofwater to which has been added- foaming agent, and- air which fills the foam bubbles.In the case of fixed installations for specialpurposes (e.g. on tankers), other inflating-gasessuch as carbon dioxide may also be used insteadof air.Foam as extinguishant can be mixed to differentstrengths, depending on the agent and the foamtube.A distinction is made between:- heavy foam with frothing up to 20 times;- medium foam with frothing up to 200 times,

and- light foam with frothing up to 1000 times.To generate heavy foam, a protein-base foamingagent (admixture rate 5%) and, for all types offoam, one with a fat alcohol base (admixture rate3%) is used.Foaming agents are dangerous substances andmust be marked in accordance with the relevantregulations.Foaming agent containers must be kept in frost-protected storage.

UseFoam extinguishant is lighter than mostcombustible liquids. For that reason, its principalfield of application is to extinguish fires of liquidsin fire class B. For extinguishing combustiblesolids, foam can be used but is not economical. In


2.10.3 Extinguishant powder

PropertiesExtinguishant powder is produced in variety ofcompositions for the variety of uses. Regularlyavailable on board is powder for class A,B,Cfires, for class B,C fires and in some cases forclass D fires.ABC extinguishant powder consists principallyof ammonium phosphate or ammoniumsulphate, BC powder of hydrocarbons, D powderof sodium chloride with flux added.Extinguishant powder is kept fine-grained andrunny by means of special additives.Dry extinguishant powder remains usable forlengthy periods.



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In dry conditions, extinguishant powder is notcorrosive. Because of its saline character(hygroscopic properties) it must however afteruse be removed from any corrosion-sensitivecomponents.ABC powder is suitable for use against fires inelectrical installations only if a safety-distance ofmore than 3 m can be maintained if highvoltages (greater than 1000 V) can occur, as themelt formed is electrically conductive. There isno restriction on the use of BC powder againstfires in electrical installations provided the safetyinstructions are observed.

UseExtinguishant powder is brought to the seat ofthe fire in the form of a powder cloud, by meansof a propellent gas.The extinguishant powder cloud in the case offlame fires (fire classes B, C) acts instantly byimpeding the reaction in the flame and with asmothering effect by reducing the proportion ofoxygen in the reactive region.Glowing-fire extinguishant powders effectseparation by their ability to melt, as the glassymelt can form an air-excluding layer over theglowing mass if the surface is smooth. Thesepowders are used in universal manualextinguishers in the accommodation- andservice spaces (A, B, C class fires).Extinguishant powders for incandescent metals(D class fires) have a smothering and coveringaction. Complete extinction requires a great dealof powder.'Fires in low-tension (voltage less than 1000 V)electrical installations can be extinguishedsafely if a safety-distance of at least 1 m ismaintained between the powder nozzle and thelive components. For high-tension (voltage morethan 1000 V) that applies only if BCextinguishant powder is used.

Safety instructionsExtinguishant powder is not harmful to health. Itirritates the mucous membranes.Due to the high pressure of the propellent gas,the extinguishant powder jet is ejected at highspeed. This can mean that particles ofcombustible solids (e.g. wood chippings, ironfilings) are stirred up and bum in the form of adust explosion.

or stored at -20 °C and a pressure of 20 bar inlarge containers.A sudden drop in pressure causes liquefied CO2to cool to -78 °C and form snow ("dry ice") whichreverts to gas slowly with the absorption of heat.If liquefied CO2 in sealed containers is heated,the pressure rises rapidly and at 52 °C reaches190 bar.

UseCarbon dioxide has a suffocating action. Thisstarts to take effect as soon as a concentration ofat least 10% in the air is reached; that is onlypossible if it is used in enclosed compartments.A good extinguishing effect is above all obtainedwith flame-only (fire class B, C) fires.Retardation of the fire progress can be achievedwith glowing fires in enclosed spaces.CO2 is used for compartment protection, e.g. inmachinery spaces, or to protect specific objects(e.g. exhaust duct, scavenge air duct).CO2 is suitable for fighting fires in electricalinstallations as it is electrically no-conducting. Itevaporates completely, thus its use asextinguishant causes no damage to electro-mechanical equipment. It can however causedamage to electronic equipment because of itslow temperature of -78 °C.CO2 must not be used on light-alloy firesbecause at high incandescence-temperatures itbreaks down into carbon and fire-promotingoxygen. As there are small amounts of steammixed-in with the C02, a fire-promoting effectcan also arise from that being split into hydrogenH2 and oxygen 02.CO2 is carried on board in fixed installations forflooding cargo and operating compartments.Storage requires a good deal of space, so only alimited, stipulated amount of extinguishant canbe carried on board. This demands a carefuldetermination of the amount of CO2 to beinjected to flood a compartment in emergency.

Safety notesIn low concentrations, CO2 is harmless tohumans. In higher concentrations it producesrespiratory paralysis, unconsciousness andultimately death.Enclosed spaces which have been flooded withCO2 may only be entered wearing acompressed-air breathing set.Contact with non-insulated parts of theapparatus during use may result in injuriesthrough freezing.The pressure rise due to heating of C02containers in enclosed spaces can result intriggering of the safety devices (bursting discs)

2.10.4 Extinguishant Carbon dioxide (CO2)

PropertiesCarbon dioxide (CO2) is a colour- and odourlessgas heavier than air.CO2 can be compressed into a liquid at 20 °C anda pressure of 56.5 bar into bottles (0.766 kg/dm3)



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and thus to uncontrolled flooding of thecompartment with the gas.ATTENTION! The safety device does not closeagain after cooling-down. Whatever happensthe complete contents of the C02 container willescape!

First aid for injured persons and subsequent carefor them is arranged by the ship's management.

2.10.5 Extinguishant Sand - Sawdust soaked insoda - Dry substances

Sand, sawdust soaked in soda or other approveddry substances are kept in readiness at everyboiler firing position.

Fig. 2.15 Classes of fire

2.11 Danger to personnel - Accidentprevention when fighting fires

There is always the risk of an accident wherethere is the possibility of an uncontrolled andunsafeguarded release of energy. That is alwaysthe case with a fire.Accidents can however also be caused bycarelessness, by inappropriate personalprotective gear or by inexpert handling ofappliances.The most important accident preventionmeasure is the identification and elimination ofdangers. This is a task shared by everyoneinvolved in fire defense.On board, dangers can arise which cannot beeliminated, e.g. ship-motion in a seaway, list, lowvisibility caused by fog and also the restrictionsto movement about the ship due to itsdimensions.The injuries to personnel caused by accidents inthe course of fire defense are primarily bums,corrosion injuries and injuries due to stumbling.


2.12 Fires in ship operationBy fire prevention measures, the preconditionsfor a fire breaking out are eliminated as far aspossible, and any fire which does break out inspite of all the precautions remains restricted toits originating area. It is then a matter of a smallfire or, if the fire spreads to several spaces in anarea, of a medium fire.The equipment of the ship with fire defenseinstallations and appliances and the training andrepeated exercising of the crew in fire defensemakes it possible to fight such fires immediatelyand effectively.Experience teaches that a fire on board whichspreads beyond its originating area to become alarge fire can no longer be extinguished with themeans available on board. That increases theimportance in fire defense of rapid, resolute anddrastic action.Examples of fires in accommodation areasare given in the reports ,,SICHERHEIT AUFSEE - Schiffssicherheit - Unfallverhutung -Gesundheitsschutz" (safety at sea - safety of theship - accident prevention - health care) issuedannually by the See-BG and available on boardfor the crew to look at.

2.12.1 Fires in accommodation spaces

Special characteristics:The accommodation area is subdivided into amultitude of small spaces. The initial fire is inmost cases small. The escape routes may becomeobscured by dense smoke which develops.People are in immediate danger.

Fire protection:The fire is restricted to its original seat by the useof incombustible materials. Fire alarms makeearly discovery of an outbreak of fire possible.

Fire defense:By bringing the entire accommodation area tothe closed-down state, the fire is restricted to thearea where it started and is extinguished by thecrew using fire protection and fire defenseequipment.

2.12.2 Fires in the cargo areaThe cargoes transported on the seas include asubstantial proportion of "Dangerous Goods".Regarding their transport, there are detailed,comprehensive international regulationssupplemented by national laws.There is also a special manual for incidents in thecourse of the transport of dangerous goods, the" Emergency Procedures Guide". This is held on






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Fig. 2.15 Classes of fire

33board every ship which transports dangerousgoods and must also to be observed andcomplied with if dangerous goods catch fire. Ifthat happens, the instructions in the „ EmergencyProcedures Guide" override all otherinstructions, manuals, etc.All the information which follows about fires inthe cargo area therefore applies only to cargoeswhich are not dangerous goods.

Fires in the cargo area of dry-cargo vessels

Special characteristics:The cargo holds in many cases contain largeamounts of combustible substances. Because ofthe large size of the spaces, with littlesubdivision, restriction to the original seat is notalways possible. If the cargo hold transversebulkheads are not constructed as fireboundaries, spread of the fire to adjoiningcompartments cannot be ruled out.

Fire protection:Fixed fire alarms permit early recognition of anoutbreak of fire. Closures for loading hatches,accesses, ventilation inlets and outlets permitprevention of the ingress of atmospheric oxygen.

Fire defense:By bringing the area of the fire and the adjoiningspaces to the closed-down state, the ingress ofair and the oxygen it contains is prevented.Fixed fire defense installations allow the fire tobe restricted to the cargo hold in which it brokeout, and extinction by smothering.The employment of fire defense units often doesnot make sense or is not possible, as the seat ofthe fire is not accessible and opening-up thecompartment would allow free access tocombustion air - which would increase thedanger of the fire growing into a large one.Spread of the fire is made more difficult orprevented by water-cooling the closures,transverse bulkheads and decks.

Fires in the cargo area of container vessels

Special characteristics:On the condition that only approved,undamaged containers suitable for the cargo inquestion are used, experience indicates that thedanger of a fire spreading within the cargo areais small. No case is known of a fire in a sealedcontainer not going out by itself due to lack ofoxygen, far less of one spreading to adjoiningcontainers.

Fire protection:Sealed containers have such good properties inthe context of fire defense that special additionalmeasures are not necessary.

Fire defense:If the suspicion arises that a fire might havebroken out in a container, because for instancethe paint on it discolours or blisters, spread of thesuspected fire to adjoining containers or areas isprevented by cooling with a lot of water.

Fires in the deck cargo

Special characteristics:The seat of the fire is usually accessible. Oxygenfor combustion is available in unlimitedquantities.

Fire protection:No special protective measures, but care shouldbe taken to see that fixed fire defenseinstallations (deck-washing- and fire main withhydrants) are accessible and in emergency canbe used for fire defense.

Fire defense:On ships under way, provided the navigationalcircumstances permit, course and speed arechosen primarily to lower the air speed at theseat of the fire as far as possible, and if possibleto avoid causing people on board discomfortfrom smoke. A fire boundary is created by meansof a "water wall". If necessary, endangeredcargo is removed from the danger zone.

2.12.3 Fires in the cargo area of oil-, gas- orchemical tankers

For fire protection and defense on board tankersthere are comprehensive internationalregulations with supplementary nationaladministration instructions. These regulationsconcentrate primarily on the dangers arisingfrom the cargoes and the defense against thesedangers. Tanker crews have been familiarisedwith these additional regulations andinstructions in supplementary training courseswhich build on the general training in firedefense dealt with in this manual.

2.12.4 Engine room fires

Special characteristics:Because of the large quantities of fuel present inengine rooms there is a risk that if a fire breaksout it will very quickly spread over the wholearea. Due to the height of the engine room, athermal lift develops above the fire whichpromotes its growth unless the engine roomventilation is shut down and the fire flaps areclosed.As a result of distant effects, engine room firescan also produce failures of operationallyimportant systems away from the engine room.That can lead to persons being endangered evenat some distance from the seat of the fire.


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Fire protection:Apart from the machinery control room, thereare in general no permanent fire boundarieswithin the machinery area. Special regulationsregarding structural fire protection apply to fuel-transporting systems. There is a fixed firedefense installation. In part-time unmannedengine rooms there are fixed fire alarm systems.

Fire defense:Every fire in the machinery area brings with itthe risk of expansion into a large fire. It istherefore essential to order immediate closing-down of the area and interruption of the fuelsupply, provided the navigational situationpermits this. To fight the fire, primarily the fixedfire defense installations are used.Additional reports concerning fires in themachinery area are in the Appendix.

If a combustible liquid stored in a tank or acontainer in the machinery area, such as fuel inthe daily supply tank or hydraulic oil in thestorage tanks, is heated because the tank isengulfed by flames or adjoins an incandescentbulkhead, the combustible liquid will be heatedto its boiling point and then evaporated. It isimpossible for an explosive vapour-air mixture toform inside the tank because there is notsufficient air above the surface of the liquid.Also, it will escape through the overflow orventing arrangements because of the volume-increase due to the evaporation of thecombustible liquid. These fittings also ensurethat the tank cannot burst. If they terminatewithin the machinery area, the escaping vapourwill be heated above its ignition temperature bythe flames and ignited unless the closed-downstate has been established and the access ofcombustion air prevented. There is no risk of anexplosion. If on the other hand the tank ventpipes end in the open, in still air and with theship stopped it is possible for clouds of explosivevapour-air mixtures to form under certaincircumstances. That sort of danger can inpractice however only arise in harbour, ifbuildings and jetty walls close off an entire basinsubstantially against any movement of the air.Explosions can therefore only occur ifdangerous goods of class 1 are heated abovetheir ignition temperature due to an accidentsuch as a collision, or if vapour-air mixturesform in empty, inadequately ventilated or notinerted tanks and are ignited.

Fires as the consequence of explosionsAn explosion will destroy the area boundariespartially or entirely; at the same time,installations or appliances will be renderedunusable for fire defense. Persons may be killedor injured. There may be flooding and the risk ofsinking.Because of the immediate crossing of the regionboundaries, a fire following an explosionbecomes a large fire. Limitations are placed onfire defense not only by the possible non-availability of fire defense personnel,installations or appliances.In many cases it will be necessary to prepare toabandon the ship at the same time as attemptingto create a new fire boundary.

Fire defense:If the navigational situation permits, course andspeed are chosen to reduce air movement at theseat of fire and discomfort or danger to those onboard from smoke as far as possible. At the sametime all available means are employed in aneffort to restrict the fire.A call for help cannot be avoided in such

2.12.5 Fires as the consequence of explosionsin the cargo area or in operationalcompartments

Preliminary remarksThe investigation of accidents at sea hasrepeatedly revealed that following the outbreakof a fire ship managements or crew feared thatan explosion might occur, specifically due to- oxyhydrogen gas being formed from

firefighting water, or- heating of partially-filled daily supply fuel

tanks or suchlike containers in the machineryarea.

In practice, both are impossible.

Formation of oxyhydrogen gas fromfirefighting waterWater is a very stable compound. Even at themost extreme pressures (up to 200 bar) andtemperatures (up to 1800 °C) occurring intechnical thermal power plants the waterinvolved in the process is not separated into itscomponents hydrogen and oxygen either in itsliquid or its vapour form. There is no formation ofoxyhydrogen gas.Water can be reduced in contact with certainmetals. This splits it into hydrogen and oxygen;the oxygen is immediately bound again tooxidise the metal, the hydrogen is released.Hydrogen's ignition temperature is 510 °C in air,450 °C in oxygen. These temperatures aresignificantly exceeded during metal oxidation. Ifoxygen is available, the hydrogen released bythe reduction bums immediately. The formationof explosive gas-air mixtures at a temperaturebelow the ignition temperature is in practiceimpossible.

Heating of combustible liquids in tanks orcontainers in the machinery area

situations and is made without delay.


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35

d

The transmission system takes the form of apipeline or an electric cable.

At the central unit, if a detector is triggered avisual or acoustic signal is activated and thelocation of the triggered detector indicated. Anymalfunction of the system also produces a visualor acoustic indication in the central unit.

Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram of a fire alarm system

Fire detectors used on board ships are

Early warning detectors

Early warning detectors have an especially hightriggering sensitivity. They respond to a firealready in its nascent phase. There are twoversions, namely

- Ionisation detectors

3.1 Regulations - Approvals

The appliances and systems used on boardcomply with the regulations (cf. the list in theAppendix).

They are approved. Approval is given bythe See-Berufsgenossenschaft on the basis oftype tests carried out by the Germanischer Lloydor some other official test establishment.Approval by the responsible authority in an EUMember State is accepted by the See-Berufsgenossenschaft if it is based on test andapproval regulations equivalent to thecorresponding German ones.

On the basis of the regulations, every ship isequipped with the requisite number and kind offire defense appliances and systems according toits type, size and service.

The arrangement of the appliances on board islaid down in the fire control and safety planposted in a generally accessible location.

Fire defense exercises are carried out at setintervals to familiarise the crew with theoperation of the systems and appliances. Everymember of the crew is obliged to take part inthese exercises.

Painstaking care and maintenance create thepreconditions for a trained crew to fight fires onboard successfully.

ATTENTION: The approved systems andappliances may differ not insignificantly indetail. There is room in this manual only todescribe the important characteristics in eachcase of a type of appliance or system, and not toetail these differences. For that reason it isabsolutely essential also to draw on the makers'operating instructions and technicaldocumentation for the initial and continuationtraining of the crew!

3.2 Reporting Fire - Alarms

Fig. 3.2 lonisation detector

The smoke aerosols (invisible products ofcombustion in the air) produced by every fireare taken up by the detector. They reduce thestream of ions flowing in the measuringchamber. The resultant weakening of theelectric current triggers the alarm actuator.

3.2.1 Fire alarm systems

To make possible early detection of a fire andidentification of its location, fire alarm systemsare installed on board.

These comprise detectors, a transmission systemand a central unit.

The detectors monitor their environs for themeasurable characteristics of fires: temperature,smoke and radiation. A limited number ofdetectors may be connected in series; thisarrangement is called a detector loop.

3. Fire Defense Appliances and Systems on Board


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3.2.1 Fire alarm systems

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Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram of a fire alarm system

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Fig. 3.2 lonisation detector

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3. Fire Defense Appliances and Systems on Board

36- Smoke detectors working on the scattered-

light principleSmoke or dust gets into the path of a directedray of light, making the light scatter. Aphotoelectric cell measures the weakening ofthe ray which this causes. When a certainthreshold value is reached, the actuator istriggered.

Heat detectors

Heat detectors are triggered when apredetermined temperature is exceeded. Thistemperature can be set at between 40 °C and100 °C at the maker's works.

Two versions are used on board ships, namely

- Bimetallic detectors

Fig. 3.3 Bimetallic detector

Heating causes unequal expansion of twostrips of different metals rolled together. Thebimetallic spring distorts and makes an electriccontact when the triggering temperature isreached. That actuates the alarm.

Thermal detector

Fig. 3.4 Thermal detector

An easily fusible solder holds two metalsprings together. As soon as a wave of heat atthe triggering temperature reaches the solder,it immediately melts. The springing apart ofthe two springs breaks the closed circuit of thedetector; the alarm is raised.

Flame detectors

Fig. 3.5 Flame detectorThe electromagnetic radiation emitted by theflame is led via an optical system to aphotoelectric cell. In the connected frequencyfilters the flicker frequency of the flame isamplified, separated from other light effects andevaluated. If the measured frequency coincideswith the preset typical flicker frequency, thealarm is raised.


3.2.2 Fire alarm raised by personsEvery outbreak of fire must immediately bereported to the nautical officer on watch. Hisplace while at sea is the bridge.Where persons are reporting a fire, technicalmeans should preferably be used to transmit themessage. Fire alarm press-buttons, telephonesand VHF walkie-talkies are available for this.There are fixed fire alarm press-buttons (manualfire alarms) in the passages needed foroperational purposes. Breaking the protectiveglass and pressing the button triggers a visual oracoustic alarm in the central unit. At the sametime the location of the alarm is shown on anindicator board.If the telephone or a walkie-talkie is used,particular attention must be paid to messagediscipline. The caller must provide the followinginformation unambiguously, concisely and clearly:

Who is making the report?Whereabouts is the reporting person?What is being reported (Nature and size of thefire)?How are conditions otherwise?

Runners are used for reporting fire only if thereare no technical means available for transmittingthe message.

3.2.3 Alarm systemsAlarm systems are fitted on board for a variety ofpurposes. A distinction is made between generalemergency alarm systems and alarm systemsindicating the triggering of certain technicalsafety systems.

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Fig. 3.3 Bimetallic detector

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Fig. 3.4 Thermal detector

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Fig. 3.5 Flame detector

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3.2.2 Fire alarm raised by persons

37The purpose of general emergency alarmsystems is, to alert everyone on board. Thegeneral emergency alarm can be initiated fromthe bridge or from other control stations. Itconsists of a sequence of seven short notes andone long one. This signal is made by bells orsirens in the accommodation and operationalspaces of the ship and constantly repeated. Ontop of that, it is made with the signal lamps. Ifinitiated from the bridge, the signal is also madewith the ship's siren.

Fig. 3.6 Automatic signaltransmitter to actuatethe general alarm system

As in the engine room there is not an adequateassurance that acoustic signals will be noticedbecause of the high noise level frequentlyprevailing there, machinery spaces additionallyhave all-round lamps and signal strip lights fittedto provide visual signals.

Fig. 3.7 Signal strip light

3.2.4 Alarm systems for operationalcompartments

Alarm before activating the CO2 systemBefore operational compartments are floodedwith CO2 an alarm is triggered automatically. Itconsists of a continuous note sounded by an airwhistle with a magnetic valve. The CO2 alarm isadditionally indicated by the signal strip light. Itmust be unambiguously apparent in all spacescapable of being flooded with CO2 - main andauxiliary machinery compartments, machinerycontrol rooms and all connected enclosedsecondary spaces like stores or workshops.

Alarm by the automatic fire alarm systemCertain operational compartments have anautomatic fire alarm system fitted. In unmannedmachinery spaces this system indicates that afire has broken out or is imminent, as soon as thecharacteristic quantities smoke, temperature orradiation have exceeded a certain presetthreshold value. The alarm consists of asequence of two notes repeated at short intervals(two-tone). It is sounded in the technical officers'accommodation by means of a horn and on thebridge by means of a buzzer. The signal striplight also shows it.

3.3 Fire extinguishing appliances

3.3.1 Portable fire extinguishersFire extinguishers are portable (mass less than20 kg) extinguishing appliances kept ready foruse.Because of their design, amount of extinguishantand relatively short operating time they areprimarily intended for use by a single person toextinguish fires in their initial phase. They canbe used without any special training providedthe operating instructions shown graphically onthe appliance are complied with.Fire extinguishers are approved appliances.Approval covers the appliance, theextinguishant and the propellent.The number of extinguishers is laid down inregulations.The type of extinguisher is selected on the basisof the nature of the fire risks in the compartmentsto be protected. Up for consideration are ABCpowder extinguishers, BC powder extinguishers,D powder extinguishers and CO2 extinguishers.Every portable extinguisher has a name plateand a test badge. Additionally there are simpleoperating instructions on every extinguisher.If a portable extinguisher is refilled on boardafter use, application of a home-made refillingcertificate next to the test badge isrecommended. In addition to the refilling date,this bears the warning that the extinguisher has


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Fig. 3.6 Automatic signaltransmitter to actuate

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Fig. 3.7 Signal strip light

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3.3 Fire extinguishing appliances

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3.3.1 Portable fire extinguishers

38

not been tested and must be sent ashore for testat the next opportunity.

Fig. 3.8 Name plate, test badge andgraphic operating instructions of a modem

fire extinguisher (in German language only)The fire extinguishers are positioned to be easilyvisible and ready to hand. Their position in theship can be seen from the fire control and safetyplan.

Fig. 3.9 Powder extinguisher

Contents Powder and compressed gas

Amount 6 kg 12 kg

Spraying time 15 sec. 30 sec.

Operating distance 3-5 m

Class of fire ABC or BC

Safety valve set pressure *) =22.5 bar

Extinguishing action Impeding reaction, smothering

Reserve According to ship safety decree

*) The safety device must ensure that the pressure inside the extinguiexceed 90% of the container test pressure. See Basic Test Principles according to circular of the Minister of the Interior of the Land Nordr26.4.1977.

Fig. 3.10 Table of pow


3.3.2 Powder extinguishers

Functioning mode of the applianceWhen the propellent flask has had the safetydevice undone and has been opened, thepropellent gas flows into the extinguishantcontainer. After 3 seconds the extinguishant hasbeen swirled up and driven into the rising tube.When the actuating element (extinguisher pistol)is operated the powder-propellent mixture issuesas a jet.

shant container does notfor Fire Extinguishershein-Westfalen dated

der extinguishers

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Fig. 3.8 Name plate, test badge

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Fig. 3.10 Table of powder extinguishers

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3.3.2 Powder extinguishers

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Functioning mode of the appliance

39

Fig. 3.11 CO2 extinguisher

Fig. 3.13 Mobile fire extinguishing appliance

3.3.3 Carbon dioxide extinguishers

Functioning mode of the applianceOperation of the actuating element causes theliquefied carbon dioxide to be driven by thegaseous CO2 above it through the rising tubeinto the ,"snow tube", expanded and therebycooled to -78 °C. The CO2reaches to the seat ofthe fire as a jet of snow/gas mixture.

Contents CO2 liquid

Amount 5 kg

Spraying time 50 sec

Operating distance 3 m

Class of fire B

Bursting disc set pressure =22. 5 bar

Extinguishing action Smothering

Length of hose about 1m

Reserve For every extinguisher one spare extinguisher

Fig. 3.12 Table of CO

3.3.4 Mobile fire extinguishing applianceMobile fire extinguishing appliances are keptready in the engine room, and on tankers alsonear the connecting position for the cargo lines.They permit effective combating of liquid firesin the initial phase, as a single person can easilytransport them to the seat of the fire and operatethem. The large amount - 50 kg - ofextinguishant and significantly longer operatingtune ensure a high extinction-effectiveness insituations where it is not possible to deployseveral portable extinguishers.The number of mobile fire extinguishingappliances is laid down in regulations.

The extinguishant used is BCpropellant is nitrogen (N2).

powder; the

2 extinguishers


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Fig. 3.11 CO2 extinguisher

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3.3.3 Carbon dioxide extinguishers

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3.3.4 Mobile fire extinguishing appliance

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Fig. 3.13 Mobile fire extinguishing appliance

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Fig. 3.12 Table of CO2 extinguishers

40Contents Powder and

compressed gas

Amount 50 kg

Spraying time 50 sec.

Operating distance 6-8 m

Class of fire BC

Safety valve set pressure = 22.5 bar

Extinguishing action Smothering

Length of hose 5 m or 10 m

Reserve According to ship safety decree

DivisionsFire doorsMeans of escapeFire pumpsConnectionsValvesFire extinguishing devicesRelease stations, remote controlAlarm devicesClosing appliancesSpace protection systemsEquipment of the ship

Fig. 3.15 Systems and equipment containedin fire control plans

Fig. 3.14 Table of mobile fire extinguishingappliances

The mobile fire extinguishing appliances arelocated in the engine room near doors to theshaft-enclosed emergency exit. From theirlocation, it must be possible to transport themwithout difficulty to those parts of the engineroom where it is possible for liquid fires to breakout.

Functioning mode of the mobile fireextinguishing appliance

Opening of the propellant flask valve causesgaseous nitrogen (N2) to flow through thepressure distribution line into the extinguishantcontainer. After 3 seconds, the operatingpressure is reached. The extinguishant issues asa jet of powder/propellant mixture when theextinguishing pistol is operated.

Fig. 3.17 Emergency fire extinguishing set

3.4 Fire extinguishing systems

Symbols for fire control plans according to IMO-Resolution A.654(16) and DIN 0087903-2 arelisted in table 3.

Fig. 3.16 Water fire ex


3.4.1 Water fire extinguishing systemsEvery ship has an approved fixed water fire-extinguishing system.Extensive regulations amongst other thingscontrol

- pumps: type of drive, working pressure,output, safety valves, number and location

tinguishing system

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Fig. 3.14 Table of mobile fire extinguishing

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3.4 Fire extinguishing systems

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Fig. 3.16 Water fire extinguishing system

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Fig. 3.15 Systems and equipment contained in fire control plans

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3.4.1 Water fire extinguishing systems

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Fig. 3.17 Emergency fire extinguishing set

− pipelines: run of pipes on board, pipe bore,number and arrangement of hydrants,accessibility when there is deck cargo

− fire hoses: material, length, diameter, standardhose couplings

− nozzles: design, minimum mouthpiece bore

− international shore connection: standarddimensions, working pressure.

Fig. 3.19 Firefighting station

Technical data of a water fire-extinguishingsystem:

Pump pressurePressure at nozzlesmouthpieceMouthpieceHose lengths, deckHose lengths, engine roomHose diameterOutputJet throwHeight of throw

Fig. 3. 20 Spray/jet fire nozzle to provide a personal protective spray

41

Fig. 3.18 Main fire pump

6 bar

2.8 bar12mm15 to 20 m10 to 15 m52 mmmore than 10 m3 /h20m15m

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Fig. 3.18 Main fire pump

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Fig. 3.19 Firefighting station

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Fig. 3. 20 Spray/jet fire nozzle to provide a personal protective spray

42

Functioning mode

When the fire pump is switched on, water fromoutboard is drawn in via the sea valve andconveyed to the site of the fire via pipelines,hydrants, fire hoses and nozzles.A spray/jet fire nozzle permits adjustment of theissuing jet.

Fig. 3.21 Solid jet, spray jet, with and withoutpersonal protective spray

Should the fire pumps break down, the waterfire-extinguishing system can, via theinternational shore connection, be pressurisedand made to operate from ashore, from otherships or by transportable pumps.

Fig. 3.22 International shore connection

Fig. 3.23 Sprinkler


3.4.2 Sprinkler systemsThe automatic sprinkler system protects thespaces used by the crew and the passengers. It isalways ready for immediate use.

system

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Fig. 3.21 Solid jet, spray jet, with and without

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Fig. 3.22 International shore connection

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Fig. 3.23 Sprinkler system

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3.4.2 Sprinkler systems

43

Fig. 3.24 Sprinkler system central unit

Fig. 3.25 Sprinkler headFor ships operating in temperate regions, thesprinklers arranged behind the suspendedceilings have a triggering temperature of 68 °C.When this value is reached after the outbreak ofa fire, the small glass capsule sealing thesprinkler bursts and releases the water. Theresulting pressure drop in the supply pipe causesa valve lid to lift in the distribution station, sothat fresh water from the pressurized-water tankcan flow through the main, distribution stationand the supply pipe to the opened sprinkler.There it impinges on the impact plate so that aconical spray is produced.

The working pressure for these systems is 8 bar.

If as a result of the water being drawn off duringthis operation the air pressure in the pressurizedwater tank drops to 5 bar, the built-in pressureswitch switches on, which starts the sprinklerpump. This draws in water from over the sideand forces it through the lines direct to thesprinklers.

When the fire has been extinguished the pumphas to be switched off by hand.

The automatic activation of the system isindicated by an electrical alarm in the fire alarmcentre, and in the space to be protected. Whenthe valve disc in the distribution station lifts, theopening to a service pipe is freed at the sametime. The water flowing through operates apressure switch.

3.4.3 Water-spraying systems for manualoperation

On ferries, Ro-Ro vessels and passenger vesselswith special compartments (for motor vehicleswhose fuel tanks have not been emptied),manually operated spray systems are provided.


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Fig. 3.24 Sprinkler system central unit

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Fig. 3.25 Sprinkler head

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3.4.3 Water-spraying systems for manual

44

Fig. 3.26 Water-spraying system for manual operationFunctioning mode of the systemIn the main control station the quick-openingvalve for the compartment to be protected isopened and the pump starter operated. Thepump draws in water from over the side via thesea valve and forces it via the pipelines and theopen quick-opening valve to the spray nozzles inthe compartment to be protected. Fitted pressure

switches at the same time actuate the alarmsystem.

Fig. 3.27 Main control station


3.4.4 High-pressure water-spraying systems

High-pressure water-spraying systems are usedto atomise fresh water in special nozzles under apressure of 100 bar into a mist with a droplet sizeof less than 50 microns. This mist behaves like a

for water-spraying system

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Fig. 3.26 Water-spraying system for manual operation

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3.4.4 High-pressure water-spraying systems

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Fig. 3.27 Main control station for water-spraying system

45

Fig. 3.28 High-pressure water-spraying systemgas: the droplets do not sink but rather float inthe air in the compartment and with it are evencarried into awkward comers to develop theirextinguishing potential there. By virtue of thevery fine atomisation, the effective surface of theextinguishing water is increased many timescompared with that in low-pressure systems.Evaporation extracts so much heat energy fromthe fire in a minimum of time that thecombustion process breaks down. The steam sogenerated at the same time creates a smotheringeffect; the air in the compartment is separatedfrom the combustible gases. Lastly, hot surfacesand any hot gases around are cooled.High-pressure water-spraying systems needonly one tenth of the quantity of water requiredby sprinkler systems to achieve the sameextinguishing effect. The time required toextinguish a fire is substantially less, so thatextensive heating of the environs of the seat ofthe fire can be avoided. That prevents thestability being endangered. The consequentialdamage from the extinction process is usuallyinsignificant. The environmental pollutioncaused by the extinguishing water is greatlyreduced. The whole system weighs less andneeds less space than other systems.

Structure of the system:

ATTENTION !The high-pressure water-spraying systems ofdifferent manufacturers differ in many details,

so that it is not within the scope of this manualto provide a universally valid description.

The high-pressure water-spraying systemcomprises

- high-pressure pumps,- fresh water storage tanks,- stainless steel pipelines,- special water-atomising nozzles,- valves for the various extinguishing-water line

branches,- activating stations,- control units.The atomising nozzles have glass capsule orfusible plug safety devices built-in. As soon asthese are set off by a rise in the compartmenttemperature above the selected threshold value(usually 68 °C), the pressure in the associatedpipeline drops below the closed-circuit value of10 bar. The high-pressure pumps are started,either by this pressure drop in the system or byan automatic fire detection system or by hand.They take suction immediately from the freshwater storage tanks; the tanks are continuallyrefilled by special pumps. The pumps havingstarted, the pressure in the pipes increases fromthe 10 bar in the quiescent condition to 100 bar.The valves for the various line branches can alsobe opened and closed either by hand or byremote control.


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Fig. 3.27 Main control station for water-spraying system

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46

Fig. 3.29 Foam fire extinguishing systemHigh-pressure water-spraying systems areproduced in various versions for fitting inaccommodation spaces. They must be approved.

- the foam concentrate tank,- the mixer,- the fixed foam monitors,- the hand-held foam nozzles,- the fixed foam nozzles in the machinery

spaces.The mixer is fitted in the system of pipesbetween the fire pumps and the extractionpoints. Either by means of the partial vacuumproduced by the high-speed water flow, or with aspecial foam concentrate pump the multi-region

3.4.5 Foam fire extinguishing systemsfor tankers

To protect the cargo tank decks, cargo tanks andmachinery spaces on tankers, approved foamfire extinguishing systems are fitted. Thetechnical details (reserve of foam concentrate,pump output, volumetric flow, etc.) are laiddown.

Structure of the system

The system comprises:- the main- and the emergency fire pump,- the pipe system,

agent is mixed with the water in a proportion ofabout 3%. At exit from the monitors heavy foamis generated by the admixture of air. The hand-held foam nozzles are connected to the pipesystem via hoses with Storz couplings. There areheavy and medium foam nozzles.

Fig. 3.30 Foam fire extinguishing system main control station


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Fig. 3.29 Foam fire extinguishing system

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3.4.5 Foam fire extinguishing systems

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Fig. 3.30 Foam fire extinguishing system main control station

47

Fig. 3.31 Medium foam nozzle, heavy foam nozzle, mixer, fixed water and foam fire station

Fig. 3.32 CO2 fire extinguishing system


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Fig. 3.31 Medium foam nozzle, heavy foam nozzle, mixer, fixed water and foam fire station

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48- fire extinguishing system for machinery and

cargo spaces.The same system of tubes is used for bothpurposes.

Fig. 3.35 Opened smoke detector cabinet withsmoke extraction tubes and three-way valves

Once the exhaust fans installed above thecontrol station (bridge) have been switched on,air is continuously drawn from the cargo spaces.This flows via three-way valves through glasstubes, such a valve and tube being provided inthe control station for each incoming suctionline. If the air drawn-in contains smoke or is insome other way clouded, a ray of light directedthrough the glass tubes onto a photoelectric cellis weakened and a visual or acoustic alarm istriggered.As the alarm can also be set off by substancesother than smoke, e.g. by dust raised when thespace is cleaned, a check on the origin of the fireis necessary in each case before any fire defensemeasures are initiated.When it has been ascertained that a fire hasbroken out in one or more cargo spaces, thespaces are first checked to make sure that thereis no longer anyone in them and they are thenclosed down. The lines from these spaces arethen connected to the CO2-cylinder room bychanging the setting of the three-way valvesconcerned from .SMOKE" to "CO2".At the activation station in that room, thequantity of CO2 required for the spaces on fire isestablished from the tables posted there. Thatindicates the number of CO2 cylinders to beopened.

Protection of the engine room by a CO2 fire ex-

Fig. 3.33 CO2 fire extinguishing systemcentral unit

3.4.6 Combined CO2 fire extinguishing and

smoke detection system

Fig. 3.34 Smoke detector cabinet in thecontrol station

tinguishing system

Functioning modeWhen the activation station door is opened, adoor-operated switch triggers the CO2 alarm inthe engine room. Next, the quick-opening valveis turned to "OPEN" and the CO2-controlcylinder opened. That sends its contents into the


Functioning mode

The combined CO2 fire extinguishing and smokedetection system serves as

- fire alarm system for closed cargo spaces inwhich no loading, unloading or other work istaking place,

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3.4.6 Combined CO2 fire extinguishing

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Fig. 3.34 Smoke detector cabinet in the

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Fig. 3.35 Opened smoke detector cabinet with smoke extraction tubes and three-way valves

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Protection of the engine room by a CO2 fire ex-tinguishing system

49

Fig. 3.36 Engine-room CO; fire extinguishing systemactivation cylinder in the CO2 cylinder room,which via rods opens all the connected cylindersin the batch dedicated to the engine room.

Fig. 3.37 Activation station with control cylinder

Safety noteWhen the CO2 alarm sounds, everyone leavesthe engine room and the adjoining secondaryspaces via the normal-use ladders or theemergency exits and proceeds to the assemblystation.

3.4.7 Powder fire extinguishing system

Gas tankers are equipped with a fixed powderfire extinguishing system to protect the cargoarea.

This system is capable of projecting at least 10 kgof extinguishing powder per second throughfixed monitors or 3.5 kg per second via pressurehoses and hand gun.


The powder fire extinguishing system consists ofone or more powder containers with associatedbatches of propellant-gas cylinders, and of theactivating and operating stations. These are soarranged on deck that every place which needsprotection can be covered with extinguishingpowder.

Functioning mode of the system:

Opening a control cylinder at one of the acti-vating and operating stations, via a control lineopens the batch of propellant-gas cylinders ofone of the powder containers. The propellant gas(nitrogen - N2) issuing from the cylinders swirlsthe powder in the containers and drives itthrough fixed pipelines to the operating stations.From there it is projected through fixed monitorsor via pressure hoses with hand guns and spreadover the area to be protected.


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Fig. 3.36 Engine-room CO; fire extinguishing system

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3.4.7 Powder fire extinguishing system

50

Fig. 3.38 Powder fire extinguishing system

Fig. 3.39 Powder fire extinguishing system central unit


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Fig. 3.38 Powder fire extinguishing system

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Fig. 3.39 Powder fire extinguishing system central unit

51

- an explosion-proof electric safety lamp(portable lamp) with a minimum burning timeof 3 hours,

- a fireman's axe with a handle insulated againsthigh tension,

- a crowbar,- a portable electric drill heavy enough for at

least a 10 mm bit, or- a cutting-off wheel; each with at least a 10 m

long connecting lead.The minimum number of fireman's outfit is laiddown based on the size of the vessel.Should additional fireman's outfit be carried,voluntarily or because of other regulations suchas those regarding the transport of dangerousgoods, the safety lamp, fireman's axe, crowbarand drill/cutting-off wheel may be omitted. Achemical protection suit may be providedinstead of the heat protection suit.

Fig. 3.41 Hose chest

Fig. 3.40 Monitor

3.5 Fireman's outfit

The term fireman's outfit has two meaningsattached to it.In a broad sense it is taken to refer to thepersonal protective gear which protects the crewmembers employed on fire defense againstradian heat, bums or scalds and against damageto their health from breathing-in poisonous orsuffocating gases or vapours.

3.5.1 Fireman's outfit according to SOLAS

In a narrower sense, according to the relevantregulations fireman's outfit comprises- a self-contained compressed-air-operating

breathing apparatus with a face mask andspare air bottles,

- a fireproof lifeline of adequate length andstrength,

- a rigid helmet (equipment with additionalhelmets for all members of the defense unit isrecommended),

- a heat protection suit (trousers, jacket, hood),- a pair of safety boots of rubber or some other

non-conducting material,

3.5.2 Fire protection clothingSpecial protective clothing for fire defense is notstipulated and as a rule not carried on board.However the normal working clothing, madefrom stout cotton material, provides almostcomplete protection for the wearer if he gets inthe way of a jet or a puff of flame.The members of the crew detailed for thedefense unit should therefore be dressed, forexercises and in an emergency, in- a boiler suit (if possible flame retarding

protective suit),- safety helmet,- working gloves,- safety boots.Particularly the crew members working in theengine room or doing painting need to be awarethat boiler suits soiled with oil, grease, solventsetc. catch fire easily and thus can endanger thewearer if worn for fire defense. If the clothingcannot be changed prior to such a service, soiledboiler suits must be drenched with water toeliminate any danger to the wearer.

3.5.3 Heat protection suitThe heat protection suit protects the weareragainst thermal radiation as well as againstbums and scalding by steam.It is made from a multi-layer composite materialand has a metallised outer surface for protectionagainst thermal radiation.The permissible length of service is at most7 minutes.Examples of service possibilities are therefore- for closing valves- for closing bulkheads, doors or skylights.


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Fig. 3.40 Monitor

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Fig. 3.41 Hose chest

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3.5 Fireman's outfit

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3.5.1 Fireman's outfit according to SOLAS

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3.5.2 Fire protection clothing

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3.5.3 Heat protection suit

52

Fig. 3.42 Fireman's outfit (SOLAS)


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Fig. 3.42 Fireman's outfit (SOLAS)

53

Fig. 3.43 Heat protection suit

The heat protection suit comprises

- a jacket with hood and exchangeable wrap-around transparent visor 15 x 25 cm, gold-tinted, with a detachable safety helmet insidethe hood,

- trousers with elastic or adjustable braces,- boots, electrically non-conducting, with heat-

protective coating,- three-finger gauntlets.Accessories include

1 spare transparent visor,

- 1 transparent visor for exercises,- carrier bag with instructions for use,

maintenance and packing.

Fig. 3.44 Various types of protective suits

The heat protection suit is stored immediately bythe breathing apparatus, packed in the carrierbag ready for use.

When the heat protection suit is worn forexercises, the transparent visor is to beexchanged for the exercise version; when theexercise is over, the exchange is to be reversedbefore the suit is packed away. The leafletproduced by the See-BG concerning the use ofheat protection suits contains additionalinformation.

Safety notes

The heat protection suit does not protect against

- the effect of flames over extended periods,

- the effect of touching live components,


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Fig. 3.43 Heat protection suit

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Fig. 3.44 Various types of protective suits

54

Fig. 3.45 Putting-on the heat protection suit- corrosive or poisonous liquids, gases or

vapours which can occur particularly withchemical fires.

The heat protection suit may only be worntogether with the compressed-air breathingapparatus.The wearer must remain at least 1.7 m clear ofthe flame.As the heat resistance of the boots is limitedbecause they are made electrically non-conducting and waterproof, care must be takenwhen walking on hot decks.

oxygen or in the presence of poisonous gases orvapours, and to protect him from detrimentalinfluences.Breathing apparatus must not be used as divingsets!For fire defense on board, only compressed-airsets are used. Certain tankers additionally carryemergency escape breathing apparatus,exclusively for life-saving purposes.

3.6 Breathing apparatusBreathing apparatus are intended to allow thewearer to breathe even in a non-respirableatmosphere, e.g. where there is not enough


3.6.1 Compressed-air breathing apparatus

Compressed-air breathing apparatus are bottle-supplied appliances independent of the ambientair.Normal-composition air is stored under pressurein one or two gas bottles, ready for use.

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Fig. 3.45 Putting-on the heat protection suit

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3.6 Breathing apparatus

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3.6.1 Compressed-air breathing apparatus

55

Fig. 3.46 Possible combinations of compressed-air breathing apparatus

Fig. 3.47 Compressed-air breathingapparatus - two-bottle set

Fig. 3.48 Compressed-air breathingapparatus - single-bottle set


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Fig. 3.46 Possible combinations of compressed-air breathing apparatus

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Fig. 3.47 Compressed-air breathing

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Fig. 3.48 Compressed-air breathing

56

When breathing in, the wearer receivesdecompressed bottle-air via a pressure reducer,a breath-controlled dosing unit (artificial lung)and a breathing attachment (face mask).The used air breathed out escapes through theoutlet valve in the face mask.

Fig. 3.49 Artificial lung, normal-pressureapparatus

Fig. 3.50 Artificial lung, overpressure apparatusThere are two types of compressed-air breathingapparatus, namely normal-pressure apparatusand overpressure apparatus.The significant difference between these twotypes is that- with the normal-pressure apparatus the air

pressure in the face mask is slightly lower thanthat of the outside air; as a result the rim of themask is pressed against the skin and a sealagainst the outside air effected;

and that- with the overpressure apparatus the air

pressure in the face mask is slightly higherthan that of the outside air; as a result there is asteady outward flow of air through betweenthe rim of the mask and the skin of the wearer,preventing the ingress of non-respirable air.

Structure of the compressed-air breathingapparatusThe compressed-air breathing apparatuscomprises

- the carrying-frame,

- the pressure-reducer with pressure gauge andwarning device,

- the artificial lung, and

- the face mask.

The carrying-frame is intended to hold one ortwo compressed-air bottles. Carrying-straps withself-locking sliding buckles and a body belt withpress-button snap closure are fitted.

Material and padding, even on the carrying-straps, provide protection against the cold andcomfort in wearing. There are also securing-loops for holding the pressure gauge andintermediate pressure line.

A support-bracket and hinged strap near the topallow either one 6-litre air bottle to be fastened-in where the maximum working pressure is 300bar, or two 4-litre bottles where the maximumpressure is 200 bar.

Near the bottom of the carrying-frame are themountings for the pressure reducer and a toolhook-impact guard.

The pressure reducer reduces the bottle pressureto an intermediate pressure of 4.5 to 7 bar,depending on the type of set. It has a safety valvefitted which lifts if the intermediate pressurerises to more than about 11 bar. A pressuregauge, encased and splash-proof, shows thebottle pressure. It is connected to the pressurereducer by a flexible pipe. A warning device(signal whistle) is set at the manufacturer so thatit is activated if the bottle pressure drops belowabout 55 bar and continues to produce anacoustic signal until the reserve of air is verynearly exhausted.

The artificial lung (breathing-controlled dosingdevice) is connected to the pressure reducer by apressure hose.

The face mask is connected to the artificial lungvia a screw connection.

Functioning mode of the compressed-airbreathing apparatus

- in the case of normal-pressure apparatus:

When the wearer breathes in, a slight negativepressure is created in the face mask and thechamber of the artificial lung connected to it,which pulls the diaphragm of the artificial lunginwards. The rocker arm controlled by thediaphragm follows and opens the breathing-invalve.


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Fig. 3.49 Artificial lung, normal-pressure

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Fig. 3.50 Artificial lung, overpressure apparatus

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Structure of the compressed-air breathing

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Functioning mode of the compressed-air

57

When the wearer has finished breathing in, theair accumulates, the diaphragm is pressedback into its original position by theoverpressure. The valve spring closes thebreathing-in valve.The air breathed out escapes via the outletvalve in the mask. The breathing-in valveremains closed during this phase.With normal-pressure apparatus there is aresistance to breathing which must beovercome by the breathing effort of the wearer.m the case of overpressure apparatus:the breathing-in valve is set to maintain anoverpressure of about 3.5 mbar relative to theexternal air pressure in the face mask up to anair consumption of 450 1 per minute. Thiscorresponds to more than three times thequantity the wearer can breathe undermaximum stress.This additionally effects slight cooling of theskin of the face and continuous ventilation ofthe transparent visor which safeguards thisagainst misting.The air breathed out escapes through theoutlet valve.With overpressure sets there is no resistance tobreathing.

Safety note:

Normal and overpressure apparatus havedifferent screw connections. Face masks canonly be used for one type of set or the other!

Using the compressed-air breathing apparatus

The compressed-air breathing apparatus is keptready for use in exercises or emergency, checkedand serviceable in accordance with theinformation in the operating instructions.The serviceability of the apparatus is checkedeach time before it is used for exercise or inemergency. The information needed for thischeck is contained in the operating instructions.

Check each time before use

Set in general

All parts must be there; the handwheels on thecompressed air bottles turned shut and thepressure hose to the artificial lung connected.

Contents level and tightness

In the case of overpressure apparatus, bring theartificial lung to the ready setting in accordancewith the operating instructions.

Open bottle valve by two turns of thehandwheel.

Read the pressure gauge(Minimum pressure:270 bar for 6 V300 bar bottles180 bar for 4 1/200 bar bottles)Shut the bottle valveOn two-bottle apparatus have both bottleschecked for contents level individually in turn.The apparatus is tight if after a minute theindicated pressure has not dropped.With the pressure gauge connected to the maskconnection of the artificial lung showing 0 bar,start sucking. The apparatus is negativepressure-tight if there is no inflow of air.

Warning devicePress the button on the artificial lung until aircomes out; watch the pressure gauge whiledoing so.The acoustic warning signal must sound at about55 bar.Once you have released the button, theapparatus is ready for use.

Putting on the apparatus- Open compressed air bottles by turning the

handwheel; the bottles are opened fully, thehandwheel then closed one turn.

- shoulder the apparatus with the carryingstraps set loose

- adjust the carrying straps by pulling at the freeends until the set is sitting firmly andcomfortably

- fasten the body belt- slide the free ends of the carrying straps under

the body belt.

Fig. 3.51 Putting on a single-bottle apparatus


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Safety note:

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Check each time before use

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Set in general

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Contents level and tightness

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Putting on the apparatus

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58

hang the face mask around your neck by itscarrying-strap

Fig. 3.54 Inserting the chin in the mask

Fig. 3.52 Holding the face mask ready

Fig. 3.55 Tightening neck straps

Fig. 3.53 Spreading mask straps- insert the chin into the chin portion of themask, bring the mask in front of the face andpass the straps over your head until theforehead strap bears firmly

ATTENTION!Do not tighten so far that the temporal artery isconstricted!


- tighten temple straps evenly until you feel thesealing rim of the mask pressing slightlyagainst the skin

slide the buckle of the forehead strap tomidway along it

using both hands, spread the straps so thatneck and temple straps he between thumbsand index fingers

- smooth the head pad of the straps against theback of the head; tighten the neck strapsevenly by pulling backwards.

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Fig. 3.52 Holding the face mask ready

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Fig. 3.53 Spreading mask straps

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Fig. 3.54 Inserting the chin in the mask

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Fig. 3.55 Tightening neck straps

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ATTENTION!

59

fig. 3.56 Tightening temple straps

set the frontal strap so that the chin and templestraps are aligned with the cloth tabs fixed tothe body of the mask.

Fig. 3.57 Mask straps sitting properly

Fig. 3.58 Checking tightness of the mask with it on


Connect the artificial lung to the face mask bymeans of the round-thread connection (normal-pressure apparatus) or the handwheel withthreaded connection or plug-in connection(overpressure apparatus).By means of a few deep breaths, check whetherthe apparatus is working and whether the airbreathed out is escaping via the outlet valve.

Service time of the compressed-air breathingapparatus

„ Usage time" means the length of time availablebased on calculation and assuming a normal rateof air usage.

The compressed-air breathing set is kept readyfor use at a content of between 1600 and 18001.With an air usage rate by the wearer of 40 1 perminute, that gives a usage time of 40 to 45minutes.„ Service time" designates the period available,depending on the prevailing circumstances, inan emergency with an increased rate of airusage.Increased physical stress in service significantlyincreases the air consumption, so the „ servicetime" may be substantially shorter than the„ usage time".For that reason the quantity of air remaining hasgot to be checked from time to time duringservice by reading the pressure gauge.

That is only possible if no protective clothing isworn over the set.


Checking that the mask is fitting tightly

Using the ball of the hand, apply slight pressureto the connection-opening of the mask to close itand breathe in until there is a negative pressure.Repeat check two or three times. If air fromoutside still enters the mask, tighten the strapsuntil it fits tightly.

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fig. 3.56 Tightening temple straps

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Fig. 3.57 Mask straps sitting properly

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Checking that the mask is fitting tightly

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Fig. 3.58 Checking tightness of the mask with it on

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Service time of the compressed-air breathing apparatus

60If the acoustic warning signal sounds at itsactivating pressure of about 55 bar, animmediate retreat is called for. This appliesparticularly if under protective clothing there isno other possibility of ascertaining what thereserve of air is.The unit leader may order that retreat is tocommence already at a higher content.

After the apparatus has been in use- to remove the face mask, slacken the head

straps, hold the mask by the connection pieceand pull it backwards over your head.

- Shut bottle valves,- normal-pressure apparatus, de-pressurize by

pressing the button of the artificial lung- overpressure apparatus, bring to the ready

setting by pressing the button of the artificiallung

- unfasten body belt- lengthen shoulder straps by pushing up sliding

buckles- put the set down carefully, do not drop it!

Restoration of readiness for immediate furtheruse in emergency

- disconnect and mark used bottles- detach artificial lung from face mask- rinse face mask and artificial lung- connect full bottles- carry out a quick check of the set for degree of

fullness of newly-connected bottles and fortightness.

If there is a different wearer, if possible a cleanedand disinfected face mask should be used.

oxygen-enriched air flows into the breathing bagand is breathed in again by the wearer.

Packed

Fig. 3.59 Emergency escape breathing apparatus

Functioning mode of the emergency escapebreathing apparatusThe emergency escape breathing apparatus ispacked in a case, ready for use.

3.6.2 Emergency escape breathing apparatusThe emergency escape breathing apparatus is asmall breathing set independent of the ambientair.The appliance provides enough air for onlyabout 15 minutes, therefore it is only used forleaving an area contaminated by poisonousgases or vaporous quickly in order to get to onewhere there is respirable air. The appliance mayunder no circumstances be used if there is workto be carried out in the contaminated area.

Structure of the emergency escape breathingapparatusThe emergency escape breathing apparatus is acirculating appliance. The air breathed out bythe wearer flows through chemicals contained ina cartridge, which bind moisture and CO2 andrelease oxygen. A start-up device ensures thatsufficient oxygen is available immediately theappliance starts operating. The cleaned and

The case is supported on the chest, hung from aneck strap (quick-fastening).

The lid of the case is opened, the seal beingdestroyed. The protective goggles are taken outand initially hung over the left arm (they are puton last). The breathing bag is taken out andpositioned ready for use. The appliance is pulledup by means of the strap until the mouthpiece isat mouth-level.The breathing bag is folded forwards and thestarting lever rotated to its stop. The breathing


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After the apparatus has been in use

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Restoration of readiness for immediate further use in emergency

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3.6.2 Emergency escape breathing apparatus

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Structure of the emergency escape breathing

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Fig. 3.59 Emergency escape breathing apparatus

61bag is folded back again; it now inflates due tothe oxygen generated in the appliance.The plug is removed from the mouthpiece whichis placed in the mouth. The gripping-lugs areheld with the teeth and the flange insertedbetween teeth and lips and tightly enclosed.The nose clip is put on, the rubber pads beingpulled apart with both hands far enough for theclip to be pushed on to seal the nose.The anti-gas goggles are put on and the strapstightened so that the goggles provide gas-tightprotection for the eyes.The safety helmet is put back on again. The hookstrap is put on around the belt.ATTENTION!The air breathed warms up while theemergency escape breathing apparatus is in use- this is a sign that it is working properly. Theappliance must not be taken off until an areawith respirable air has been reached, even ifbreathing the hot air feels unpleasant.

Safety notes:Appliances which have been used for exercise orin emergency may not be used again until theyhave been checked and had a fresh chemicalcartridge fitted. Used appliances must thereforebe sent ashore at the next opportunity for this tobe done.For exercises using the emergency escapebreathing apparatus, there are special exerciseappliances. Instead of the chemical cartridge,these have a valve which replicates theresistance to breathing of the cartridge. Theseexercise appliances are specially labeled; theymust be kept under lock and key separate fromthe rest of the safety equipment. They do notrequire testing after use in exercises.

nitrous gasesoxygen, and forqualitative gas indication.

The test tube for qualitative gas indication givesan indication of traces over a wide range ofdangerous admixtures to the air. Informationabout the nature of the admixture anddetermination of the concentration can howevernot be provided.ATTENTION!The test tubes are usable only up to a dateprinted on the package. After the ,,Use-by"date, any unused test tubes must be replaced byfresh ones.

3. 7 Gas measuring instrumentsDesignated „ gas measuring instruments" are- gas detectors for measuring the air's content ofoxygen and noxious substances such assuffocating or poisonous gases or vapours,- gas concentration metering instruments formeasuring combustible gas-air- or vapour-airmixtures.

Fig. 3.60 Gas detector

Functioning mode of the gas detector

The gas detector pump draws compartment ail

3. 7. 1 Gas detectorsBasic components of the gas detector are- operating instructions with notes regarding theuseful life of the test tubes,- gas detector pump, comprising pump head andpump body (suction ball or bellows pump)- testing hose- 10 test tubes each, for measuringcarbon monoxidecarbon dioxide

through the test tube. The gas or vapour

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ATTENTION! The air breathed warms up while the emergency escape breathing apparatus is in use - this is a sign that it is working properly. The appliance must not be taken off until an area with respirable air has been reached, even if breathing the hot air feels unpleasant.

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3. 7 Gas measuring instruments

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3. 7. 1 Gas detectors

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Fig. 3.60 Gas detector

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ATTENTION!

62admixtures to the air react chemically with thetube contents, changing the colour of the latter.This colour change provides information aboutthe nature of the admixtures and about theproportion of them in the compartment air,measured in volume-% or ppm.

Using the gas detector

Use of the gas detector involves the followingsequence of actions:- seal the suction opening of the appliance with

an unopened test tube and compress the gasdetector pump to its stop. If after the intervalstated in the operating instructions the pumphas not extended, it is as tight as it need be.

- Break off both ends of the selected test tube- insert the tube in the pump head with the

arrow pointing towards the pump- fit the testing hose to the suction opening and

take the other end into the compartment to bechecked for noxious substance admixtures

- operate the pump for the number of strokesindicated in the operating instructions

- read off the degree of colour change from thescale on the test tube. The value read is themeasure of the concentration of the noxioussubstance in the compartment air.

Fig. 3.61 Explosimeter

3.7.2 Gas concentration meters- explosimeters

Explosimeters are used to determine theproportion of combustible gases or vapours inthe air of a compartment, and thus to establishwhether there is an explosive gas-air- or vapour-air mixture present.Such mixtures are particularly liable to occur inship's cargo and fuel tanks.With the aid of the explosimeter and appropriateventilation, a tank atmosphere can be keptbelow the lower explosive limit.Gas concentration measurements can also becarried out with fixed gas alarm systems.

Functioning mode of the explosimeter

The explosimeters on board have a battery-powered measuring device operating on theheat-of-reaction principle. The compartment airto be tested is drawn up through hoses or pipesusing an electrical or manual pump and fed intoa combustion chamber. Within this chamberthere are measuring elements which due to thecombustion produce a pointer deflection or adigital readout on the indicating instrument.The data necessary for evaluation of thedeflection/read out are contained in theoperating instructions.

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3.8 Recommended additional equipmentRegulations cannot go into detail regarding thecircumstances of every individual case. Theprovision of equipment in accordance with theregulations thus in many cases does not ensurecomprehensive readiness for service of the firedefense organisation on board.The task in particular of the defense unit can bemade perceptibly easier by means of a fewadditional appliances which can either beobtained from specialist shops for firefightinggear or home-made with the means on board.On ships which because of the low crewnumbers cannot provide any support unit orassistant personnel for the defense unit, it is inmany cases only by the addition of a fewappliances that effective firefighting withoutdangerous delays becomes possible.For that reason the acquisition of the appliancesdescribed below is strongly recommended:

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Using the gas detector

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3.7.2 Gas concentration meters - explosimeters

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Functioning mode of the explosimeter

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Fig. 3.61 Explosimeter

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3.8 Recommended additional equipment

63

Fig. 3.63 Lifeline bag

3.8.1 Case for face mask

The face mask of the compressed air breathingapparatus is in many cases stored without anyprotection in the safety-gear store. This producesquick ageing of the material; seal failure can alsodevelop if the mask is permanently deformed byobjects lying on top of it or even just by it lyingall the time on one side. This ageing anddeformation damage cannot be made good byrepairs; replacement of the mask is the only cure.

If on the other hand the mask is stored in a caseobtainable for this purpose from specialist shopsit is permanently protected against ageing anddeformation. The cost of the case is a fraction ofthat of the mask.

Fig. 3.62 Case for face mask

3.8.2 Lifeline bag

The lifeline bag, also obtainable from specialistshops for firefighting gear, houses the lifeline.Inside the bag it is fitted into loops and so coiledthat it can run out of the bag aperture freely andwithout kicking. The leading member of thedefense unit hangs the bag from his safety beltand on his way lets exactly as much line asnecessary run out of the bag. His hands remainfree. The free end is held at the starting point bythe defense unit safety sentry or made fast.However it is also possible to throw the line inthe bag over a distance of a few metres. Thenalso, the length of line that runs out correspondsprecisely to the distance to be covered.

The lifeline bag comes with a rope strop forcarrying as a shoulder bag. The rope has snaphooks at each end for hooking into rings at bothends of the bag. The strop can be detached andused for instance to secure a hose in acompanion hatch or on stairs against slippingdown or kinking.

3.8.3 Tool bagThe gear to be carried to the fire by No. 2 andNo. 4 of the defense unit includes amongst otherthings spare compressed air bottles, spare hoses,axe, crowbar, drill or cutting-off wheel.The tool bag is useful for transporting all thesethings. It makes it possible to bring along thewhole fire protection outfit straight away andavoids unit members having to make the journeyseveral times.The tool bag can be made with the means onboard. It is like a kit bag but has rope strops forcarrying, as with the life line bag with snaphooks for hooking into rings. They can bedetached if necessary and used for otherpurposes.The defense unit equipment needs two toolbags.

Fig. 3.64 Tool bag

3.8.4 Metal hose bandageThe metal hose bandage consists of a shortlength of iron pipe, cut in half lengthways. Thetwo halves are linked by hinges and can belocked together with a quick-fastening device.The pipe bore corresponds to the outsidediameter of the fire hoses.


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3.8.1 Case for face mask

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Fig. 3.62 Case for face mask

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3.8.2 Lifeline bag

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3.8.3 Tool bag

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Fig. 3.63 Lifeline bag

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Fig. 3.64 Tool bag

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3.8.4 Metal hose bandage

64If a hose is damaged in service so that it leaks, itcan be adequately repaired temporarily with thehose bandage so that the supply of water to thefire need not be interrupted to insert areplacement hose in the line.

The hose bandage can be obtained fromspecialist suppliers but can also be made withthe means on board. Fitting it additionally withan eye allows it also to be used for securing ahose.

Fig. 3.65 Metal hose bandage

Fig. 3.67 Hydroshield

3.8.5 Hose clasp

In an emergency it is the task of unit member No.2 to carry two hoses to the fire. The hoses areready in the safety store, coiled so that the endcouplings are on the outside. They are difficult totransport in that form without coming apart,particularly over stairs or ladders or if the ship ismoving in a seaway. That means delay, as theycan no longer be unrolled simply at theconnecting point.

The hose clasp is a clasp fitted diametricallyacross both sides of the coiled hose, with a boltthrough the middle. With a strop, the clasp canbe hung from the shoulder so that the personcarrying it has his hands free on the way to thefire.

Fig. 3.66 Hose clasp


3.9 Storing the fire defense gear

In an emergency it is of decisive importance thatthe defense unit can get ready for service andadvance to the seat of the fire in the shortestpossible time.A precondition for this is, a properly thought-through, orderly storage of the fire defense gear.All appliances are to be set out ready in thesafety-gear store so that each member of thedefense unit finds his part of the gear in a givenplace and can pick it up straightaway.Based on the space situation aboard the vessel,there is to be a stowage plan which ensuresthat nothing has to be searched for in anemergency.

3.8.6 Hydroshield

The hydroshield is a device with which asemicircular water-wall with a radius > 5 m canbe established. It constitutes a temporary fireboundary in compartments, service passagesand also on deck.The hydroshield consists of a semicircular ironplate of 20 to 30 cm radius to which a piece ofabout 60 mm bore iron pipe is welded at rightangles. The weld extends only around the lowerhalf of the pipe, the upper half is cut back about10 mm relative to the lower. The free end of theabout 50 cm long pipe is fitted with a size-CStorz coupling. Usefully, eyes are welded to bothsides of the plate, allowing it to be secured whenin use.To establish a fire boundary, the hydroshield istaken to the envisaged position and connected toa hydrant by a hose of the necessary length.When the hydrant is opened, the water impingeson the plate (baffle plate) and forms asemicircular water-wall.Once put into operation, the hydroshield needsno tending.

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Fig. 3.65 Metal hose bandage

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3.8.5 Hose clasp

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Fig. 3.66 Hose clasp

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Fig. 3.67 Hydroshield

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3.9 Storing the fire defense gear

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3.8.6 Hydroshield

65

Fig. 3.68 Fire defense gear

wound onto the reel or laid into the stowage.That ensures that in emergency there is no fataldelay because hoses start leaking while the fireis being fought and have to be replaced.

3.10 Maintenance of fire defense gear

3.10.1 HosesFire hoses are sealed internally with an elasticrubber compound. This dries out in time andbecomes brittle; the hose becomes useless andhas to be replaced.An effective way of preventing this is to subjecteach hose to water pressure once a year.For maintaining fire hoses therefore, every hoseon board is put into use once in the course of theyear in accordance with an established plan, atthe mandatory regular periodic exercises. Oncompletion of the exercise the hoses used arecleaned, dried out and starting from the middle

3.10.2 Fire extinguishers

Fire extinguishers used for exercises or inemergency must, in order to be ready for useagain immediately, be emptied completely andrefilled.

The refilling of fire extinguishers and testing forfunctional safety of the appliance and itscomponent parts is according to the existingregulations a task reserved for experts. Thesehave completed a training course and passed anexamination. They have an expertise certificateto prove this.

As a rule no crew members are available onboard who hold that certificate.

If it is not possible to dispense with refilling theextinguishers used because the number ofappliances remaining ready for use in anemergency is too small, this task is carried out bya crew member who has completed qualifiedprofessional training, e.g. a ship's mechanic,supervised by a ship's officer. In doing the work,the data in the maker's operating instructions areto be observed most carefully.

Fatal accidents have occurred when refilling fireextinguishers because stipulated steps in theprocess have been omitted accidentally.

If fire extinguishers are refilled on board inaccordance with the data in the operatinginstructions in order to be available for use untilthe end of the voyage, they must be handed overto an expert for testing in the next port wherethis is possible.


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Fig. 3.68 Fire defense gear

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3.10 Maintenance of fire defense gear

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3.10.1 Hoses

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3.10.2 Fire extinguishers

67

4. Conduct during Fire Exercises and in an Fire Emergency
-unusual deformation of floor coverings or-coatings,-unexplained generation of heat.
Safety notes

Take extreme care when dealing with nakedflames and when smoking!Obey smoking bans rigorously!Always set up ashtrays so that they cannot slip ortip over and if necessary (e.g. in a seaway)secure them!Ashtrays must be of incombustible material.They must be easy to empty and also emptied atregular intervals!Ashtrays part-filled with moistened sand areparticularly suitable for the public rooms and atparties, barbecues, etc.!Never throw lighted cigarette ends over the side!They can be carried inboard again by theturbulent air around the moving ship, and startfires.Coffee machines and other small electricalappliances are a particular source of danger if

4.1 Fire risk and fire prevention

Extensive international and national regulationsconcerning preventive fire protection ensurethat by the construction and equipment ofseagoing ships the likelihood of a fire breakingout is reduced to a minimum.If all stipulated measures of structural andoperational fire defense have been taken, and allplant is in a functionally proper condition at alltimes, a fire breaking out is in the great majorityof cases to be attributed to incorrect humanconduct.Examples of incorrect conduct are- failure to observe smoking bans,- use of unapproved operating material,- careless handling of naked flames,- disregard of joint-storage prohibitions

regarding dangerous substances.If in spite of all precautionary measures a firedoes break out, a well trained crew will inaccordance with predetermined procedures andusing the available means for fire defenserestrict it to its initial seat, impede its spread andfight it effectively.

after use they are not switched off and the plugpulled out of the socket. Electric irons, portable
4.2 Fire prevention - Individual conduct immersion heaters and other appliances withoutthermal cut-out may after use be laid down onlyon an incombustible surface.If accommodation spaces are going to be leftunoccupied for lengthy periods, disconnectingradio-, television- or video sets and suchlikefrom the mains is recommended.Be careful when laying down clothing on or nearheat sources! Even just the heat radiating from aradiator is sufficient to set clothing alight,particularly if this is contaminated bycombustible dangerous substances. Use only therooms or appliances provided for the purpose fordrying clothing!Piles of washing, clothing, etc. always representa special fire risk. These must never be left lyingabout in large quantities but rather mustimmediately be taken to the stores or cupboardsintended for them!Always run and fasten any leads for privateelectrical appliances so that they cannot wearthrough (risk of a short circuit!). Use of multipleplugs is forbidden as it can lead to overloading ofthe circuit! If in doubt, get the responsible experton board (ship's electrician or ship's engineer) toapprove the run and fastening!Lit filament bulbs can attain surfacetemperatures of several hundreds of degreesCelsius if they are not cooled adequately by thecompartment air. They must therefore never be
4.2.1 Conduct during time off work

From a German Federal Ministry of Transportdocument about „ Analysis of the fires on boardseagoing ships flying the Federal flag (1961 to1985)":„ Crew conduct makes a significant contributionto the causes of fires in the accommodation area.Cigarette ends, matches and smoking in thebunk keep on turning up as causing fires. Thesecauses can scarcely be dealt with by structuralmeasures applied to the ship. It is noticeable thatthe majority of fires have occurred at nightbetween 22.00 and 06.00, peaking in the periodbetween 00.00 and 02.00, whereas in the earlymorning between 06.00 and 08.00 and in theearly evening between 18.00 and 20.00 a clearminimum can be discerned. "This establishes the need for regular fire roundsduring the night and in silent hours. These mustalso check spaces not as a rule used during thenight, such as rooms for parties, hobby rooms,photographic labs., television rooms, laundryand ironing rooms. But also, every singlemember of the crew must during the hours from22.00 to 06.00 keep a special lockout for anysigns of an outbreak of fire and raise the alarmimmediately at any suspicion. Possible signs of afire are for instance:-development or smell of smoke,-unusual discoloration of bulkheads or doors,


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4. Conduct during Fire Exercises and in an Fire Emergency

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4.1 Fire risk and fire prevention

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4.2 Fire prevention - Individual conduct

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4.2.1 Conduct during time off work

68wrapped directly in paper or fabric, e.g. for partyillumination!

surface temperatures, fire risks arise particularlyas a consequence of inadequate care andmaintenance of the machinery installation andits auxiliaries and accessories.Inadequately controlled and cared-for deepfryers, grease filters in exhaust ducts fromgalleies, ironing rooms and linen stores canconstitute a fire risk.

Safety notes

Obey all mandatory and prohibitory notices!Obey SMOKING BANS! If possible avoidsmoking at the workplace even if there is nosmoking ban, rather smoke only during breaks,in the accommodation spaces.When working with combustible dangeroussubstances such as coating, spraying orlubricating materials, keep open containers asfar as possible from sources of ignition. Duringbreaks, close the containers securely and removethem from the danger area. On completion of thework, return the containers to the specifiedstorerooms.

Oils, greases and glycerinepresence of pure oxygen, sooxygen bottles or -pipelineslubricated.Work with fire, like welding, burning or forgingmay only be carried out by experts speciallytrained and tested for this.Throughout the work with fire there must be afare sentry on the spot. Suitable extinctionmaterials and appliances are to be there readyfor use. For work in enclosed spaces, ensureeffective ventilation or have a breathingapparatus ready.

Fig. 4.1 Fire sentry with extinction appliances

ignite in thethe fittings onmust never be

4.2.2 Conduct at workSafety-conscious conduct at work prevents fires!Before starting work. whilst carrying it out andafter completing it, all crew members must gainsome idea of the fire risk connected with it Fromthis the appropriate precautionary measures canbe deduced, and such fire defense gear as maybe necessary in each case be made ready.If the regulations have been observedconsistently, the storage of combustiblesubstances of fire class A - D is such as to reducethe fire risk to a minimum. However a fire riskarises in many cases when these substances aretaken out of the store and used as fuel orworking material.Omission of important safety precautions whenburning, welding or working with fire has beenthe cause of many shipboard fires. Weldingsparks glowing red have a temperature of 700 °Cto 900 °C. Even sparks cooled in flight, glowinggrey and even in the dark scarcely visible, stillhave a temperature of over 400 "C and can thusact as sources of ignition.Such work gives rise to temperatures at whichthe structure or strength of certain materials maybe reduced.The heat supplied to the material being workedon may also be conducted inside it beyond theimmediate environs of the work. Thus ignitionmay occur even over a wider area if allcombustible material has not been removed as aprecaution before the start of work. This meansremoving all movable combustible objects fromthe compartment where welding or burning istaking place and from all adjoiningcompartments. Fixed combustible objects are tobe covered with incombustible material asprotection against flames and sparks. Lining andinsulation is to be removed over the danger areaon both sides of the bulkheads.The risk also continues to exist for some timeafter the work has finished, until the partsworked-on and their environs have cooled downentirely.A further series of shipboard fires is to beattributed to spontaneous ignition of rags orcotton waste soaked with combustible liquid.These must therefore be collected and storedwhere air cannot reach them.Whereas fares in the accommodation area havebecome a rarity by virtue of the regulations forpreventive fire defense which have beenextended continuously over decades, it has notbeen possible to achieve this to the same extentfor fares in the machinery area. Owing to theamount of space taken up by the machinery andthe necessity for transporting and storing majorquantities of combustible liquids, some underhigh pressure, near components with high


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4.2.2 Conduct at work

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Fig. 4.1 Fire sentry with extinction appliances

69Entry into compartments where there has been afire which has been extinguished is alwaysdangerous, primarily because there may be alack of oxygen or a risk of poisoning from fumesor extinguishant. The precautions set out in the"Richtlinie uber das Betreten gefahrlicherRaume" (Instructions concerning entry intodangerous compartments) must be taken beforethe compartment is entered,Before the engineering personnel leave them,unmanned engine rooms are visited by a ship'sofficer and checked for fire risks. A primaryobject of this exercise is, to check all componentswhich convey fuel or lube oil and are exposed tovibration, particularly in the vicinity of dieselengines, for incipient leaks.

preparation for an emergency which occurs onlyrarely but when it does brings danger with it.


4.3.1 DefinitionsIn recent years a vocabulary previously used inconnection with fire defense has happily falleninto disuse.Expressions like fire commando, extinctionassault and similar ones conveyed the idea thatthe fire was an enemy, a creature consciouslybringing danger and damage to belongings, tolife and to limb, which man had to fight valiantlyand with self-sacrifice.In this manual such expressions are as far aspossible no longer used.Fire is a process controlled by natural laws,whose initiation, development and dying away isdetermined by a small number of variables andparameters. Fire becomes dangerous if it breaksout in an uncontrolled fashion where it is notintended and spreads without direction.Fire does not have a will; it does not attack. Butfire also is not amenable to being intimidated orfrightened.Fire is a chemico-physical process. Oneintervenes in its course using technical meansdeveloped for the purpose, based on theknowledge of these natural laws. Applied at theright time in the right way and in adequatequantity they with certainty produce the rightresult: restriction of the fire by preventing itsfurther spread and its extinction by depriving itof its prerequisites for existence: combustiblesubstance, oxygen, ignition temperature,quantitative proportions.Defensive fire protection, in this manual calledfire defense or firefighting, consists of systematicand targeted use of technical means by trainedand experienced men acting coolly anddeliberately. It does not call for any heroics orany special application of physical force.The realisation of this truth is the basis for allexercises and instructions intended as

4.3.2 Basic principlesDefensive fire protection is successful if alldanger from fire to people, ship and cargo iseliminated- without accidents to own personnel.- in the shortest possible time,- with minimum damage from the extinguishant.This presupposes purposeful leadership andapplication of the correct extinguishing tacticsand extinguishing technique.

4.3.3 LeadershipIn shipping, following developments in societygenerally, a style of leadership called„ Collaborative Leadership " has becomeestablished progressively over recent decades. Itis characterised by a common orientation of allparticipants, towards superior economic settargets. Wherever possible, command andobedience has been replaced by a consensusbetween leader and led continuously renewedby dialogue and the transfer of task andauthority also called delegation of responsibility.However in an emergency this style ofleadership cannot be used for a number ofreasons:- Firstly, in an emergency the time factor is

decisive. Fighting a fire successfullypresupposes purposeful action without delay.Any attempt (e.g.) first of all to arrive at anagreed procedure by discussion within the firedefense party would mean that in themeantime the fire gets out of hand.

- Secondly, the material and personnel potentialavailable on board is limited and at sea cannotbe supplemented or replaced quickly. Thenecessity arising from this, of getting a fireunder control at the first attempt calls for theimmediate application of all available forcesand means. To want to economise with thiswould be totally wrong; there is no secondchance with a fire at sea.

- Thirdly, the conditions as regards space onboard have the effect that fires predominantlyhave to be tackled under unfavourablecircumstances. The seat of the fire is often onlyaccessible from above. If there is too muchdelay, smoke and heat may have become sointense in this area that an advance to the seatof the fire is n.o longer possible even whenwearing fire protection equipment- Theinevitable constriction on board has the effectthat in the course of a fire importantinstallations such as pipelines, power- andcommunication cables, etc. may becomeinoperative even if the fire does not extendbeyond the limits of the section.


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4.3.1 Definitions

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4.3.2 Basic principles

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4.3.3 Leadership

Fig. 4.2 Model of a leadership processThese reasons make it essential in emergenciesto go over to a different style of leadership whichreduces the threats to safety arising from theconstraints described above as far as possible.Leadership in an emergency is a purposeful,reiterative and complete sequence of thoughtand action for the execution of the stipulatedtask. It occurs at all levels of leadership, i.e. inthe case of the master as overall leader, the 1stofficer or chief engineer as Head of operationsand in the case of all unit leaders. It is initiatedby the event causing the damage or the servicetask.The leadership process has four progressivephases:- reconnaissance, determination of the situation;- assessment of the situation;- decision;- issuing of orders, reporting back to the next

higher leadership level.

There follows a success-check which at the sametime represents the assessment of the situationfor the next time „ round the course".The circular presentation can represent theactual sequences only incompletely and in asimplified form, in particular the cooperation ofthe separate leadership levels. Leadership is adynamic process continually under pressurefrom the need for swift action. Often the masteras (overall) head of operations has to makedecisions and issue orders before thereconnaissance and assessment of the situationhas been completed.


4.3.4 Extinction tacticsExtinction tactics are the deliberate and plannedactions of the defense unit taking into accountthe situation and its own safety, to completefighting the fire in the shortest possible time andwith a minimum of consequential damage.The task of fighting the fire is given to the unitleader by the ships command (head of

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Fig. 4.2 Model of a leadership process

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4.3.4 Extinction tactics

71operations). Any service by a unit is renderedexclusively on the orders of the unit leader or hisdeputy.Once the defense unit has drawn its gear fromthe safety gear store and has got near the seat ofthe fire, the unit leader must- reconnoitre the situation,- assess the situation,- make a decision and issue the appropriate

orders,- report the situation and the decision to the

service direction.In the meantime the members of the unit havegot themselves and their gear ready for theservice.

When fighting a fire, the following basic serviceprinciples are to be adhered to:

Fig. 4.4 Basic service principles
4.3.5 Extinction techniqueExtinction technique comprises the correcthandling of the appliances and systems, thecorrect use of the extinguishants and extinctionprocedures plus the correct conduct during firedefense on board.
Fig. 4.3 Extinct

4.4 Structure of the defense unit in case offire defense

To be able simultaneously to tackle the mostimportant tasks, rescuing people and restricting

ion tactics


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4.3.5 Extinction technique

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Fig. 4.3 Extinction tactics

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Fig. 4.4 Basic service principles

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4.4 Structure of the defense unit in case

72the fire, the defense unit must consist at least ofthe unit leader and four members. These havethe following individual tasks:

Defense unit leader:

check whether everyone ispresent

check advance to the fire as aunit, with complete set of gear

reconnaissance and assessmentof situation, planning of what todo next, report back to the head

of operations, action orders tothe members, continuous

success-check and assessmentof situationwrite down start and end of

service time of wearer.

Pick up gear intended for them at theassembly position and proceed in accordancewith the unit leader's instructions and under hissupervision to the vicinity of the seat of the fire.All unit members who are qualified lifeboat- andfiremen must be capable of exercising everyfunction within the unit, so that in the event of amember being missing, e. g. due to sickness orinjury, they can immediately take over hisfunctions.If unit members 2 and 4 are not qualifiedlifeboat- and firemen, they must at least becapable of substituting one for the other.That kind of role-exchange is also practisedduring the regular stipulated exercises.

Fig. 4. 5 Defense unit - structure and gearUnit member 1 (unit leader's deputy):Unit member 2:

Form the water group and without further orderson arrival near the seat of the fire prepare a C-

hose line (hose plus jet nozzle) for use. Water isactually brought into use only by specificcommand of the unit leader.Unit member 3:Unit member 4:

Form the breathing-apparatus group and alsoget their gear ready for use without furtherorders on arrival near the seat of the fire.The breathing-apparatus is checked and put on.The artificial lung is not connected to the facemask until the unit leader gives the order toadvance. The heat protection suit is only put onby specific order of the unit leader.


At the assemblyposition:

Starting theservice:

At the site ofthe fire:

If breathingapparatusare used:Unit members 1 to 4

4. 5 The defense units gear for fire defenseThe defense units gear is intended to enable it inan emergency without delay to start rescuingpeople and fighting the fire simultaneously.The gear is so distributed between the unitleader and the members that all necessaryappliances can be brought along whenadvancing without anyone having to make thejourney twice to fetch additional appliances.Assuming the additional gear described inSection 2. 10 has been provided, the followingmay be considered the optimum distribution:(the appliances underlined are part of theobligatory gear; those not underlined, part of therecommended additional equipment!)

Unit leader: Portable VHF radio apparatus.safety lamp,

lifeline in bag at safety belt,manifold note pad and pen

Unit member 1: spray/jet nozzle.1 C-hose in a clasp,

1 C-hose in a clasp,axe in case at safety belt

Unit member 2: 2 C-hoses in clasps,2 coupling keys,in the tool bag:metal hose bandage, spray/jetnozzle, crowbar, portable drillor cutting-off wheel with 10 mconnecting-lead and plug

Unit member 3: breathing apparatus, lifeline inbag on safety belt

Unit member 4: in tool bag:heat protection suit. axe.hydroshield, spare air bottle (s),rescue sheet

If because the crew numbers 8 men or fewer, onemember of the defense unit must temporarily beentrusted with other tasks, member 4 is the onechosen for this. If that is so, member 2 ifnecessary and ordered by the unit leader goesback to fetch the former's gear as soon as the firehose line has been rigged and connected.

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Fig. 4. 5 Defense unit - structure and gear

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4. 5 The defense units gear for fire defense

73At the same time, the crew members detailed to
4.6 Service by the units in emergency look after the passengers or other persons notbelonging to the crew carry out their checkwhether everyone is present and also reportcompleteness or absences to the head ofoperations.The reports are made in person.The head of operations reports the result to themaster.
4.6.1 Conduct in the event of a generalemergency alarm

If the general emergency alarm sounds,everyone on board proceeds as quickly aspossible to the assembly position laid down inthe muster list.Exceptions:- watchkeepers remain at their post until they

are relieved or receive the order to leave itfrom the head of operations,

- crew members who have already started firedefense measures continue these until the firedefense unit arrives or the head of operationsgives other instructions,

- on passenger vessels, the crew membersdetailed to look after the passengers stay bythe cabins allocated to them until everypassenger has picked up his/her life jacket,and then accompany the passengers to theassembly position. The same applies on cargovessels which carry passengers or on whichpersons not belonging to the crew (relatives ofcrew members, maintenance personnel) aretravelling.

Before leaving the workplace, electrically,pneumatically or hydraulically driven powertools are switched off. In accommodation oroperational spaces, windows, portholes anddoors plus the entrance opening of the air-conditioning or the ventilating fan are shuttightly.Stout clothing covering the entire body, stoutfootwear and headgear are put on. The lifejacket, if stored in the accommodation area, istaken along to the assembly position, but notput on.As time is wasted by going from the workplaceto the assembly position via the accommodationspace, at that position there is, as well as the fireprotection gear, to be the following for eachmember of the defense unit:- safety helmet;- boiler suit;- safety boots;- gloves;- safety belts.This additional gear is not mandatory. Howeverit is to be acquired and kept ready as itsubstantially augments the readiness for serviceof the defense unit, at no great cost.

4.6.2 Check whether everyone is presentFollowing arrival at the assembly position, theunit leaders check whether everyone is presentand report to the head of operations that the unitis complete or that members are missing.

4.6.3 Portable VHF radiotelephone forinternal communication

An approved portable VHF radiotelephoneshould be available at least for each unit leader,if possible also for one other member of eachunit.When not in use for operational purposes, thesets are kept in the charging station which isinstalled somewhere around the bridge.The head of operations hands the sets over to theunit leaders as soon as these have reported theresult of the check whether everyone is present.Before the service tasks are assigned, all sets aretuned to the predetermined frequency and aspeech test is carried out, conducted from thebridge. Each individual equipped with aportable VHF radiotelephone is called up in turnand reports back.

ATTENTION!

Do not use radios which are not approved! Theyfrequently transmit on frequencies, e.g...Citizens' Band" (CB-radio sets), which do notpenetrate to the inside of the ship. Only theapproved portable VHF radiotelephoneguarantee that even from inside enclosedcompartments radio communication can beestablished!

4.6.4 Instructions from the head of operationsAs a first step, the master now decides whether adefense against the danger shall be undertakenor whether the ship has to be abandoned.If he decides on a defense against the danger,depending on the situation he gives thefollowing instructions to the head of operations:- search for missing persons and rescue these if

(e.g.) they have been trapped by the fire;- initiate fire defense in accordance with the

procedures predetermined for the fire-area inquestion;

- render the life-saving equipment safe and ifnecessary turn it out or launch it.

Only on ships with larger crews will it bepossible to carry out these specific taskssimultaneously. If on ships with a small crewthere is only the ship command unit and thedefense unit, the head of operations in


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4.6 Service by the units in emergency

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4.6.1 Conduct in the event of a general

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4.6.2 Check whether everyone is present

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4.6.3 Portable VHF radiotelephone

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4.6.4 Instructions from the head of operations

74consultation with the master decides in whichorder the tasks are to be executed.On the fundamental principle that

SAVING PEOPLECOMES BEFORE SAVING THINGS

search for and rescue of persons always has thehighest priority.

smoke escape opening must be cooled. For this,the water party (members 1 and 2) of the defenseunit can be employed, or else the support unit.When the unit leader gives the order to advance,unit member 3 connects the artificial lung to theface mask he has already put on and checked fortightness, takes the jet nozzle from unit member1 and advances to the seat of the fire or to thecompartments around the seat in which themissing persons are thought to be.If during his advance he encounters smoke orheat, he protects himself against both with theprotective spray. In an operational passage forinstance this forms a temporary, movable fireboundary which provides effective protectionagainst heat and smoke.Persons who have been surprised in their sleepby the outbreak of fire have often sufferedpoisoning by smoke inhalation and areunconscious. Stretchers can only be used if thereare at least three breathing sets available, toprotect the wearer of breathing apparatus andtwo more persons who bring the injured personout. If that is not the case, improvisation isnecessary. If the proximity of the seat of the fireposes a direct threat to life, it may even benecessary to accept the risk of injury to theunconscious person when being dragged orcarried out of the danger zone. This can besubstantially avoided if as a precaution a rescuesheet has been acquired or made using themeans on board.If there is a suspicion that the missing personsare cut off and can only be saved by goingthrough the immediate vicinity of the fire, thewearer of breathing apparatus puts on the heatprotection suit. This situation can arise if thesecond escape route stipulated for everycompartment is blocked.Rescuing trapped persons through sections onfire is however only possible if appropriateprotective measures are taken.If there are still spare heat protection suits withbreathing or emergency escape breathingapparatus available, these are first taken to thetrapped persons and put on by these. If there isno spare protective clothing, the clothing ofthose to be rescued is thoroughly soaked withwater and if possible additional protectionprovided by means of dripping-wet blankets. Inthe immediate vicinity of the seat of the fire thisprovisional protection is however effective onlyfor a short time. They then follow the wearer ofbreathing apparatus through the zone on fire.The latter makes use of personal protective sprayand spray jet to shield those to be rescued aseffectively as possible.Verbal communication between the wearer ofbreathing apparatus and the unit leader or the

4.6.5 The defense unit as rescue unitIf there are thought to be persons in the areawhere the fire has broken out, the defense unitassumes the role of rescue unit. It alone has thetraining and the gear for instance to advancewith any prospect of success into fume-filledparts of the accommodation area to reachtrapped persons and bring them out of thedanger area with the least possible injury.For this, the same procedures are used as forfighting the fire:When the unit leader has received the servicetask from the head of operations, the unitproceeds to as near the service point as ispossible without protective gear. The unit leaderdefines this point as the starting point; if possibleit should be to windward of the seat of the fireand between bridge (head of operations) and theseat of the fire. The manifold is set up at thestarting point.Unit member 1 readies a hose plus jet nozzle foraction and connects it to the left-hand (LH) outletof the manifold; at the same time unit member 2runs a hose line from the nearest hydrant to themanifold and connects it to the inlet.The unit leader in the meantime hasreconnoitered the environs of the seat of the fireand made a situation report to the head ofoperations. He now decides on the way to beused in searching for and rescuing any missingpersons.If there are several possible ways, it is usual toadvance with the movement of the air and frombelow upwards.The closed-down state can now no longer bemaintained, as, in order to allow the rescue unitto proceed, a door on the deck where the seat ofthe fire is or on a deck lower down, if possible onthe windward side, has to be opened.Even if there has not yet been any heavygeneration of smoke, it is advisable to let unitmember 3, with the breathing apparatus, goahead.If there is a lot of dense smoke, a door on theleeward side of a deck above that with the seat ofthe fire is opened. The smoke being drawn offmakes it easier for the rescue unit to advance.However, with the smoke also a lot of heat getsout into the open, so the surroundings of the

head of operations is unlikely to be possible,


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SAVING PEOPLE COMES BEFORE SAVING THINGS

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4.6.5 The defense unit as rescue unit

75because to transmit speech comprehensiblythrough the speech diaphragm built into the facemask of the breathing apparatus to themicrophone of the VHF radiotelephone of thewearer of breathing apparatus has to bespecially trained. So the wearer of breathingapparatus is almost completely on his own. Thatdemands a high degree of training and ifpossible practical experience in fire defenseunder real service conditions, but also prudenceand drive.

Fig. 4.6 Defense unit as rescue unit

in the engine room, the defense unit is employedas rescue unit. As the stairs/ladders used foroperation are no longer usable because of thedeveloping heavy smoke, the shaft-enclosedemergency exits are now used for access.At the same time by command of the head ofoperations the engine room is brought to theclosed-down state, except for the access throughwhich the defense unit is advancing. Ventilatingfans are stopped; the fuel line quick-closingdevices outside the engine room are actuated.The emergency generator and the emergencyfire pump are started by hand if they are notconnected to feed the mains automatically or byremote control. The emergency lighting isswitched on.If the ship is near the coast or other ships, the.not under control' signals for daytime ornighttime in accordance with the regulations forpreventing collisions at sea are to be hoisted atonce. In addition, a safety report is made by VHFto warn shipping.If there is no-one to be rescued, the closed-downstate is brought about completely straight awayand the engine room flooded with CO2 . Byblocking the further supply of combustiblesubstance and air, the fire is extinguishedquickly, before it has damaged or destroyedparts of the, or the entire, installation. The soonerCO2 is used, the less will be the damage - whichparticularly affects the electric cables.Once the drop in temperature has confirmed thatthe fire is out, the defense unit enters the engineroom wearing breathing apparates and taking ajet nozzle, to extinguish any remaining fires andprevent the fire flaring up again because theclosed-down state has been lifted.This way of fighting an engine room fire makes itpossible to resume the voyage after a shortinterval and to get back to the daily routine orthe normal operating condition for unmannedengine rooms.In relation to a conceivable small fire, e.g. fromthe spontaneous Ignition of dirty cleaning-rags,that effort looks somewhat excessive. Butfighting a small fire of this kind using portablefire extinguishers may only be attempted, if it ispossible at the same time to warn the bridge andthus make it possible to raise a generalemergency alarm, i.e. when there are at leasttwo people in the engine room. In all other casesraising the alarm has priority.

Fires In the accommodation area

Experience indicates that fires in theaccommodation area break out especiallyfrequently at night, at a time when there is quietin the ship. This is also the time when there is a

4.6.6 The defense unit on defensive Fireprotection

Experience shows that the great majority of fireson board can be separated into three units:- engine room fires in which combustible liquid

substances issuing under pressure areburning,

- fires in the accommodation area, which maydirectly endanger people, and

- fires in the cargo area.For each of these three types of fire, there arespecial procedures for the defense unit whichhave proved optimal.

Engine room firesEngine room fires are without exception to beconsidered medium fires whose expansion tolarge fires, e.g. by spreading to theaccommodation area, must be prevented with allavailable means.In this, the time factor plays a decisive role, sothat particularly rapid, drastic and resoluteaction is needed for engine room fires.If it appears from the check whether everyone ispresent that there might still be persons trapped

particularly high likelihood that people will be


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Fig. 4.6 Defense unit as rescue unit

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4.6.6 The defense unit on defensive

76trapped by the fire or rendered unconscious bypoisoning due to smoke inhalation.If it is established from the count that there arepeople missing, the defense unit is employed asrescue unit.If no-one is missing, the defense unit starts tofight the fire.At the same time the support unit establishes theclosed-down state and then renders the life-saving equipment safe.A number of precautions are to be taken whendeploying the defense unit:- Always wear a breathing apparatus when

entering enclosed spaces!- Keep the way back free! Remove every

obstacle at once! Secure doors in the openposition!

- At the slightest sign of indisposition ordizziness, retreat immediately!

- Before advancing, check that the jet nozzlewill work in all its settings!

- When advancing, take care that there are nofires still burning beside or at the back of thewithdrawal path, which could cut off theretreat!

- During service always wear gloves! Shouldthey be lost, use only the back of the hand forfeeling ahead! (Bums on the palm of the handmake continuing with the service impossible. Ifthe palm of the hand comes into contact withlive components it may cause the hand tograsp the conductor convulsively.)

- When running the hose, see to it that theperson holding the jet nozzle is neither pushedfrom behind nor stressed or hindered byhaving to pull the hose along.

- To open bulkhead- or other doors, hatches, orflaps always bend down and use the door orbulkhead as a shield! (The ingress of air isliable to produce a jet of flame! Such flameslick out through the upper part of the opening!)

- Point the spray at the door before opening it!- After opening the door to a space completely

or almost completely on fire, keep the spraydirected into the upper part! (Most of the waterwill evaporate, which produces a smotheringand a cooling effect. Heat and flames areperceptibly reduced.)

- Hold tightly onto the jet nozzle! (Opening thejet nozzle produces a powerful recoil effect.)

- Do not look directly at bright flames! (Risk ofbeing blinded!)

Fires in the cargo area - no dangerous goodsinvolvedFires in the below-deck cargo area are fought ina similar way to engine room ones, by closing

down and employing the fixed extinguishingsystem (usually CO2).Fires in the deck cargo are fought by the defenseunit, by establishing temporary fire boundariesusing the hydroshield and by the application ofwater. The latter is limited only by the pumpoutput available.For fires in the cargo area, the jet nozzleoperator(s) is/are deployed wearing breathingapparates predominantly if the possibility of jetsof flame or a gush of heat cannot be excluded.

Fires in the cargo area - dangerous goodsinvolvedFrom the cargo manifest, the head of operationsestablishes the nature of the dangerous goodswhich have caught fire or are near the seat of thefire.From the „ Emergency Procedures for ShipsCarrying Dangerous Goods (EMS)" held onboard, its members gather what protective gearand which extinguishant is to be used.The defense units equips itself for the specialservice. The head of operations informs the unitleader of the service task and about any specialconduct to be observed in fighting the fire.


4.7 Establishing the closed-down stateA ship or section of a ship is in the closed-downstate if- all openings in the watertight bulkheads have

been closed with the means provided for this,and

- all openings above the waterline throughwhich air can get inside the ship have beenclosed and all powered ventilation equipmenthas been shut down.

The closed-down state is established in order to- limit flooding, for instance from a leak due to

collision or grounding, to the section which hassprung the leak or delay its spread to othersections,

or- prevent a further reduction in stability due to

water getting in, if the ship has a list,or

prevent the access of air to the seat of a fire andthe spread of heat and smoke within thesection.

The openings in each section to be closed toestablish the closed-down state are shown inclosing-down plans or check-lists. The membersof the support unit charged with establishing theclosed-down state are handed these check-listsby the unit leader during exercises and in anemergency and close all doors, windows,ventilation flaps, skylights, installation openings,

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4.7 Establishing the closed-down state

77etc. in the order indicated. At the same time thetechnical officer designated for this task in themuster list stops the ventilation appliances.To establish the closed-down state for the cargo"area in dry-cargo ships, it is often necessary notjust to close the cargo hatches but also to setthem down.In the case of engine room fires, on orders fromthe head of operations the quick-closing devicesof all pipelines or tanks containing combustibleliquids are closed at the same time as the closed-down state is established.

Fig. 4.7 Principle of closing-down check-list

The Federal Ship Safety Service Training Schoolat Neustadt/Holstein has provided manylicensed officers and ship's master mechanicswith comprehensive information and skills in firedefense and also in damage control in courseslasting several weeks.The supplementary courses stipulated forlicensed officers on tankers also go intoquestions of ship safety.Foreign crew members in many cases have hadsafety training in their own or a third country. Insuch cases there may not only be the problem ofverbal communication, but also the fact maybecome clear that internationally there arebasically differing ideas concerning the theoryand practice of the safety service.The safety-service training on board can onlybuild on the basic training which the individualcrew member brings with him. To carry out suchbasic training on board will not be practicable inmost cases, not just because of a shortage of timebut also because lengths of service on a givenship are relatively short.Only with considerable effort in training andexercises is it possible to make crew memberswithout basic safety service training capable ofbeing included in the ship's safety organisationwithout restrictions. In such cases the training on
4.8 Fire defense training on board board will aim at providing full competence incarrying out certain functions whose execution ispossible even without the full knowledge of thebackground and data.The establishment of the closed-down state for acertain fire section on the basis of the check-list,for instance, does not require knowledge of thephysics and chemistry of fire or of theextinguishing effect of the exclusion of oxygen.In the case of the qualified lifeboat- and firemenit is a matter of maintaining the standards ofknowledge and skill attained in the basictraining and of extending these taking intoaccount the specific design, size, fittings andequipment of the ship in question.The ships command will make it its particularconcern above all to transmit to the lessexperienced licensed officers its experience inleadership within the framework of the ship'ssafety organisation.Relevant to safety training at all levels on boardis the recognition that regular and realisticexercises with full involvement of all levels ofcommand provide all participants with the firmconviction of being able to cope with anyemergency at any time.

The safety training on board is limited by the factthat it is not possible to create a dangeroussituation which in every respect corresponds tothe actual emergency. Unlike in static trainingestablishments which have sites for fires ashoreor in decommissioned ships at their disposal fortraining, on board it is not possible either to starta fire for exercise or to introduce complicatingfactors like the list of a ship.The crew is made up of individuals with widelydiffering standards of training:All members of the deck- and engine room crewhave done a 2-week safety course. Since 1992 allnewly-joined members of the catering andsteward branches undergo a 1-week safetycourse. These safety courses form the commondenominator.All crew members who have completedprofessional training on board to the level of ableseaman or ship's mechanic, plus all licensedofficers hold the certificate of competence asqualified lifeboat- and firemen. The training forthis certificate is to be considered the basictraining for the safety service.The See-BG training establishment on thePriwall (Travemunde) holds further trainingcourses for holders of the certificate ofcompetence as qualified lifeboat- and firemen.

4.8.2 Psychophysical problemsIn his phylogenesis extending over more than amillion years, man has acquired the ability tothink. Unlike his animal ancestors, his behaviour


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Fig. 4.7 Principle of closing-down check-list

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4.8 Fire defense training on board

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4.8.2 Psychophysical problems

78

is no longer exclusively or predominantly guidedby instinct.Man's mind can function properly, however, onlyif he does not feel threatened in his physicalexistence. In a situation where his existence isendangered, his instinct of self-preservationinherited from his animal ancestors cuts outreason, and he follows his instincts. The culturalhistory of mankind, extending over only a fewtens of thousands of years, has made very littledifference to this.If a person feels that a situation is a threateningone, he experiences anxiety. He tests the wind inall directions and exerts all his energies toascertain whether there really is a danger, and ifso from which side it threatens. This behaviour istotally independent of whether there is anyactual danger.In his anxiety, he is prepared at any time, at theleast sign of actual danger, to take flight withmaximum exertion without any further thought,in line with what his instincts teach him.If he becomes aware of something threatening,he experiences fear. This fear is directed at aspecific object and instantaneously releases theforces already prestressed by the anxiety.Nothing is recognised except the direction fromwhich the danger threatens, and perhaps itsnature. Determination of its magnitude is nolonger possible - that would require a time-consuming thought-process, and primitiveexperience from his phylogenesis has taught himthat this time is not available to him if he wishesto survive. This inherited behaviour patternresults in a significant overestimate of themagnitude of the danger, that is the only way inwhich the last remaining reserves of physicalenergy are released for flight or resistance.In fire-fighting, in an emergency he is in a fear-inspiring situation right from the moment thegeneral emergency alarm sounds. Even just theloud and unpleasant-sounding signal createsuneasiness. The uncertainty regarding thedangers which actually threaten him reinforcesthis uneasiness. Darkness, the violent motion ofthe ship on the high seas, and eerie sounds makea further contribution.Just the sight of leaping flames or heavy smoke-formation can then lead to a suspension ofrational self-control, and he rushes away inheadlong flight, dragging others nearby alongwith him.A panic-stricken crew will no longer be capableof an organised, effective defense againstdanger.On the other hand man has the ability to learnand apply modes of conduct which neutralise hisatavistic instincts for flight or resistance.

Danger inspires fear as long as an individualhesitates to face it. The fear decreases if he canassess the danger and adjust to it.By habituation to certain dangers, he can reachthe stage that even in extreme situations he canact rationally. We call this rational behaviourcontrol.If habituation to the danger is not possible, hecan by practice acquire certain patterns ofbehaviour which protect him from descent intopanic even when rational thinking has alreadybeen suspended. In a situation of danger theindividual behaves as he has practiced onprevious occasions. We call this reflectivebehaviour control. It has the characteristic that ittakes over very quickly, without requiringlengthy deliberation - but it can take effect onlyin the way in which it has been practiced. Achange in the pattern of behaviour could takeplace only by rational control, of which theindividual in the danger situation will in manycases not be capable.For the exercises on board, these three levels ofbehaviour control are of great importance.The overriding requirement is, if possible tobring the entire crew to such a pitch that even insituations which look very dangerous they arecapable of reflective behaviour control, so thatthe activities learnt and practiced individually orin a unit are carried out confidently, ,,with theireyes shut", as it were.This objective is attainable by means of theexercises and instruction on board.However at least the members of the shipcommand unit, plus the unit leaders andmembers 1 and 3 of the defense unit, are to havebeen brought by practice in extinguishing realfires to the stage where they can still actrationally even in the face of flames apparentlyas high as a house.The latter objective can generally not beattained on board, as there is no possibility oflighting fires for practice; for that reasonpossession of the fire- and lifeboatman certificateof competence is an absolute necessity for theabove-mentioned crew members. The only wayin which the groundwork of 'fire security' can beacquired which is reinforced by the exercisesand instruction on board is, by means of thecourses leading to that certificate.


4.8.3 Exercise objectivesThe principal objectives of the exercises andinstruction on board are:- to habituate the entire crew to such an extent

to the correct behaviour when the generalemergency alarm sounds, even at night or withthe ship moving violently in heavy seas, that inan emergency it is possible to count on

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4.8.3 Exercise objectives

79

immediate readiness for service of the unitsonce they have arrived at the assemblyposition,

- to familiarise the units with the stowage fortheir gear and achieve confident skill inpicking up and putting on their personal gear,

- depending on the service task, individually orwithin the unit to carry out the actionsconfidentlyfor the advance of the defense unit,

for the establishment of the closed-down stateand

for the readying and rendering safe of thelife-saving appliances.

are equally dangerous in an emergency andmust be avoided at all costs.

Fig. 4.8 Service distance

4.8.4 Training the individual

Service distanceThe critical element in the exercising andinstruction of the individual is, to accustom himto the service distance to be maintained whenusing extinguishing appliances.The untrained individual feels the fire to besomething particularly threatening. Heinstinctively endeavours to maintain a distancefrom this threat which to him seems adequate.This safety distance varies from one individual toanother; for one it may be only 10 m, for anothermore than 25 m.From that sort of distance, the extinguishingsystem and appliances on board are almostcompletely useless against a fire.The service distance is the distance between thedischarge opening of the extinguishingappliance and the seat of the fire at which- the cross-sectional area of the cone of

extinguishant emerging has become adequate,- the velocity of the extinguishant particles is

sufficient for them to penetrate the curtain ofair in front of the flame and go on to the core ofthe target region,

- the total physico-chemical extinguishing effectof the extinguishant used is as high as possible.

The service distances for the extinguishingappliances and systems available on board are:- powder extinguisher 4 m- spray water jet 4 m- solid water jet more than 4 mThat the correct service distance is taken upinitially and maintained must be a focal point ofthe regular exercises. Estimation of the distancein metres can be replaced by graphic imagerylike ,,two men and a dog".Optimistic assessment of the service distanceleads to infringement of the safety boundary andthus to the risk of injury; pessimistic, todiminished effectiveness of the appliance. Both

Target regionIn order to achieve the optimum extinguishingeffect, the extinguishant must be conveyed tothe region above the combustible substance inwhich the gas or vapour generated mixes withthe incoming air and reacts chemically with theoxygen it contains.This region lies just above the surface of thecombustible substance and below the visibleflame.Only in that region can the extinguishantdevelop its cooling, smothering or reaction-impeding extinguishing effect and therebyachieve the extinction of the fire.Extinguishant which gets into the region of theflames themselves remains ineffective and isthus wasted.As an aid for exercises on board, a flame at least2 m in height can be painted on ablackboard/panel. This can be used to trainevery member of the defense unit in how tomaintain the service distance and how to aimcorrectly.

4.8.5 Training the unit

Going down a companion way carrying aportable extinguisherIt is of course desirable to be able to approachthe seat of a fire from below or from the samedeck. However on board it will not always bepossible to avoid also having to approach acompartment or a deck where a fire has brokenout from above.The defense unit going down companions mustbe practiced particularly thoroughly andcarefully, if in the emergency situation there arenot to be delays in the fire defense or risks to theunit.Going down a companion wearing fireprotection gear and carrying a portableextinguisher is thus an ever-recurring basicexercise:The unit member approaches the companion sothat the steps lead down in front of him. The


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4.8.4 Training the individual

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Fig. 4.8 Service distance

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4.8.5 Training the unit

80portable extinguisher is carried in the left hand,the right grasps the handrail on the RH side ofthe companion as seen by the unit member. Theright foot is placed on the top step, foot and bodybeing turned so far to the right that the foot isparallel with the step. The left foot is now placedon the second step parallel with it and rotation ofthe body continued until the line of sight makesan angle of about 135° with the axis of thecompanion. The extinguisher now hangs freefrom the left hand, the right arm runs from thechest to the handrail. The unit member can lookover his left shoulder in the direction of furtheradvance.

Standing like this, the soles of the shoes bearfirmly and are safe against slipping. The totalweight of body, breathing apparatus andextinguisher has a joint centre of gravity abovethe bearing surface and a favourably short leverarm to the gripping-point on the handrail.

The unit member now descends diagonally stepby step. Arrived at the bottom of the companion,he turns his body 135° to the left so that it onceagain faces in the direction of further advance. Ifthere are other unit members to follow, he takesthree steps forward to clear the foot of thecompanion for those following.

Fig. 4.9 Going down a companionwaycarrying a portable extinguisher

Going down a companion way carrying aC-nozzle

The unit members advancing with a C-nozzlehold the hose along the RH side of their body athip level. With the jet nozzle shut off, the hose isrelatively stiff, so care must be taken to see thatthose following the unit member approachingthe companion do not push him over the sill ordown the companion with the hose. As soon asthe nozzle-holder has reached the companion,he turns his body about 135° to the right and atthe same time seizes the hose behind the nozzlewith his left and jams the hose in his left armpit.With the right he grasps the handrail on the RHside of the companion, reaching across his chestand under the hose. Hose and handrail form theholds for the further descent. At the foot of thecompanion the hose is transferred back to theright hand and the body turned 1350 to the left,so that body and nozzle once again face in thedirection of further advance. The unit memberswho come behind follow the same procedure.

Fig. 4.10 Going down a companion waycarrying a C-nozzle

Opening a door

An important element of exercises is, practicingopening a door. In the case of fires in theaccommodation area, particularly at night, it will


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Fig. 4.9 Going down a companionway

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Fig. 4.10 Going down a companion way

81

often be necessary to open a cabin door to rescuesomeone believed to be asleep behind it and toextinguish the fire. Smoke coming out throughthe cracks makes the need clear.Standing in the passage, it is not possible todetermine the scale already attained by the firein the cabin. Only rarely is it possible to look intothe cabin from outside through a window.It might just be a matter of a smoldering fire,e.g. in a waste paper basket, but it can equallywell be fire which has spread to part of thefurniture, generating a lot of smoke and using upmuch of the oxygen in the cabin air. Anyone inthe cabin may still be alive, but is certainlyunconscious and unable any longer to make anycontribution to his rescue.Whatever the situation, opening the cabin doorwill allow fresh air in, and the fire which has dieddown substantially because of lack of oxygenwill bum up again fiercely.When a cabin door behind which a small fire hasbroken out is opened, two things happen. Hotgases, smoke and flames escape through theupper part of the opening; fresh air flows into thecabin through the lower part.In every case therefore, opening the door bringswith it the risk of the fire spreading to otherspaces, i.e. of a breach of the fire boundary.Precautions are taken against this beforeopening the door.At least one, if possible two, C-nozzles must beready on the spot. The nozzle-holders must bewearing full personal protective gear. The sprayjet is pointed at the door at handle-level, theprotective spray turned on. The spray jet mustdefinitely cover the entire surface of the door.Only now does another member of the unit openthe door. If it opens outwards, he remainsshielded by the door leaf and leaves as soon ashe has opened the door, with his face turnedaway. When opening a door that opens inwards,personal protective gear including a heatprotection suit must be worn. The axe is used topush the door leaf inwards. Stuck between doorleaf and frame, it prevents the door closingagain.

Fig. 4.11 Opening a door

Cabin fires may also be extinguished usingpowder extinguishers. However in that case itmust be ascertained that there are no helplesspersons remaining to be rescued from the cabin.If that is so, instead of opening the door a 13 mmdia. hole is drilled with the portable drill and thecontents of a powder extinguisher are blown intothe cabin through this hole. Only then is the dooropened and are any remaining smoldering firesput out with water.When extinguishing fires in the accommodationarea it must always be assumed that everythingin the cabin has already been destroyed by thefire. Under no circumstances must one save onextinguishant in order to be able to save somematerial assets undamaged.

Using the lifeline

The principal purpose of the lifeline is, to makepossible a safe return through dark or smokyspaces for the unit members advancing from thestarting point towards the seat of the fire, and toallow the rescue without a lengthy search for anyunit members who have become casualties. Thelifeline is therefore primarily considered an aidto orientation forwards and backwards.The lifeline may also be used as an aid, e.g. forslacking away to the deck from endangeredspaces in the superstructure and in anemergency to safeguard the way back.If a lifeline is not available for every member ofthe defense unit, the lines which are availableare to be given to those unit members who areadvancing without hose and nozzle.

4.8.6 Leadership training

Emergencies make heavy psychologicaldemands on all members of the crew engaged infire fighting. Above all, young, incompletelytrained and inexperienced individuals aresubjected to extremes of stress in the anxiety andfear-inspiring situation of a fire on board.Unfortunately it is not possible on board toaccustom the fire defense personnelsystematically, step-by-step to the sight of fireand to the effective extinguishing of fires ofincreasing size.All the more important is it, to practise themanoeuvres to be carried out in fire fighting sooften and so thoroughly that in emergencies theycan be carried out without thinking orquestioning via the reflective behaviour control.That lessens the instinctive urge of theindividual to take flight when danger threatens,or even as a unit to panic.However not every emergency situation can bepractised and worked through in advance. In anemergency it will always be necessary to actrationally and as the specific situation demands.


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Fig. 4.11 Opening a door

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4.8.6 Leadership training

82This presupposes that the members of the crewwho in the muster list have been entrusted withleadership tasks have in exercises thoroughlycome to terms with their function as leaders andare psychologically prepared for emergencies.There are no exceptions to this: even those mostsenior and experienced, including the masterand senior officers, must consider carefully howthey would deal with their task in an emergency,every time they change ships or there is achange of crew.

The leadership training within the framework ofthe exercises must above all inspire those beingled with a firm feeling of confidence in thecapability of their superiors to be able to cope inan emergency situation at any time. That is thebasis for the inevitable deployment in firefighting also of seamen less well trained and lessexperienced than one might wish.

Special care is needed in the training of the unitleaders; they are in the forefront of fire defense.Above all their example, their issuing ordersclearly and convincingly, keeps the unittogether. The leader of the defense unit musttherefore be picked from the 'fire resistant' circleof the crew so that in an emergency he has onlyto worry about the tactics and technical points ofthe management of the unit, without having toworry about his efforts to maintain his self-control in an unfamiliar dangerous situation.

The unit leaders must be trained, when onservice to take action with the unit in a swift butcontrolled manner and without haste. In thisconnection exercises are useful in whichrecurring operations are carried out against astopwatch. Examples of such recurringoperations are, picking up the gear, advancing tothe starting point, putting-on the gear andarranging the hoses, the manifold, the jet nozzlesas laid down in the muster list. None of this mustturn hectic, as that increases the inevitableagitation and takes the members of the unitcloser to the point where rational and reflectivebehaviour control is suspended anduncontrollable flight or else unrestrainedaggression take over. Careful practicing of thecorrect speed of working is an importantprecondition for keeping the unit at all times inthe control of its leader.

The unit leaders must also be given practice inrecognising early when a member of the unit isbeginning to lose his self-control. A quiet wordcan then be as appropriate as short, sharp orderswhich bring out practised patterns of behaviour,thus contributing to the emotional steadiness.

The unit leaders must on the other hand alwayshave the certainty of solid support from the headof operations. Above all during radiotelephone

traffic between head of operations and defenseunit, great care must be taken that messagediscipline is maintained in both directions.Practice in using a radio telephone is thus a partof leadership training.

Past accidents at sea have shown that a firebreaking out during the night, when the majorpart of the crew as well as the master and officersare asleep, makes particular demands on thewatchkeeping officer - often young andinexperienced. The watchkeeping officers musttherefore have clear and unambiguousinstructions regarding the measures to be takenin emergencies. These must also be worked-through and practised on a role basis if they areto be effective. The master cannot be awake andready to intervene at all times. The moreimportant is it, that he himself familiarises hispermanent or temporary deputies with thisfunction and that they do not have the feelingthat in taking the immediate measures necessaryin an emergency they may be exceeding theircompetence and authority.

Within the framework of the mandatoryexercises, leadership training and instructionhas the same status as the training inextinguishing tactics and technique on board.


4.8.7 Fire defense training and exercises -organisation

The International Convention for the Safety ofLife at Sea, London 1974, as amended, in itsregulation IIV18 lays down the outline fortraining and exercises on board.

A basic feature is, that „ abandon-ship" exercisesand fire protection exercises involving allmembers of the crew must take place at intervalsof not more than four weeks.

If more than 25% of the crew have changed, an„ abandon-ship" exercise and a fire protectionexercise must take place within 24 hours ofsailing.

These regulations were developed in more detailin § 54 of the UVV See. In the fire defenseexercises, the crew is to be familiarised with allmeans of fire protection. Depending on the kindof place chosen for the assumed fire, limiting andfighting it practised.

Within this outline, it is open to the shipmanagement to organise these exercises in sucha way that the routine of running the ship is notdisturbed any more than necessary.

This can be achieved by carrying out exercises ofvarying scope in a predetermined sequence.

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4.8.7 Fire defense training and exercises

83

4.8.8 Types of exercise

Notes to the table:

Individual trainingIndividual training takes place if for instancefollowing a crew change there are fewer than25% new members on board. Content is decidedon the basis of the scope of the knowledge andskills the new members bring with them. Therewill at any rate be instruction regarding theship's safety organisation based on the musterlist, and regarding the ship's fire defense systemsand appliances based on the fire protection- andsafety plan.Individual training can also be applied tofamiliarise individual crew members with e.g.special protective gear for the transport ofdangerous goods, or for instance unit leadersand their deputies with the use of the portableVHF radio apparatus.Unit trainingIn unit training, the units identified in the musterlist ship command unit, defense unit, supportunit and possibly additional units) are separatelyfamiliarised with their tasks in emergencies bymeans of coordinated exercises becomingprogressively more difficult.The objective of unit training is, to ensure theunrestricted readiness of all units for service inemergencies, even under adverse circumstances(darkness, bad weather, list of ship).Training of parts of the crew (e.g. only the engineroom personnel or only cooks and stewards alsofits within the framework of unit training.Partial exerciseAll crew members take part in partial exercises,just as they do in full exercises.Partial and full exercises are initiated by thegeneral emergency alarm, having previouslybeen announced.Within the scope of partial exercises, the contentis easier to grasp for individual participants and

leaders. It is easier to recognise and correctmistakes; exercise elements carried outincorrectly can be repeated immediately. Thedegree of difficulty and the influence of externalfactors adding to the difficulties can be increasedfrom one partial exercise to the next asappropriate to the crew's degree of training.By coordinated planning of the partial exercisesfor, e.g. a year ahead, it can be ensured that allcomponent parts of the safety system are madeto operate at least once under conditionsresembling those of an emergency.The exercises due to be carried out at intervals offour weeks may be represented by respectivelyan „ abandon-ship" partial exercise and a firedefense one.Another objective of partial exercises is, toestablish the time needed by the crew foreveryone to arrive at the assembly position, andfor the units to be ready for service. A record ofthis, using a stopwatch, is recommended.

Full exercise

The full exercise is an „ abandon-ship" and firedefense exercise carried out simultaneously inaccordance with § 54 sub-para. (2) and (3) of theUVV See regulations.On the basis of a realistic assumed dangersituation, the ships command can determinewhether in a real emergency an effectivedefense against the danger would be possible, orif that failed, orderly abandonment of the ship.The full exercise shows up defects in the safetytraining. It is the precondition for correctingthese in unit training and partial exercises.There is no element of training in the fullexercise. However a successfully executed fullexercise imparts on the crew a feeling ofconfidence in their own capability to cope with areal danger situation.

Exercise type Participants

Individual training

Unit training

Partial exercise

Full exercise

new crew memberscrew members withspecial responsibilitiesdefense unit

whole crew

whole crew

FrequencyScope of exercises of repetition

introduction to ship safetye.g. extra gear for transport ofdangerous goods, operational RTbasic exercises moving weeklymembers between tasksclosed-down state according to weeklycheck list for accommodation,machinery or cargo arearescue drill half-yearly

fire defense exercise monthly

"abandon-ship" exercise monthly

combined rescue drill, fire quarterlydefense- and "abandon-ship"exercise

support unit

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4.8.8 Types of exercise

84

Full exercises are carried out regularly, at nomore than quarterly intervals.Exercise plan annualThe exercise plan for the year set out below isintended as a basis for the practice on board. Its

use ensures compliance with the relevantregulations. Deviations made necessary e.g. bytypes of cargo or operating area must be workedinto the plan as appropriate by the shipscommand.

Notes:

In the weeks where there is no partial or fullexercise, training and instruction of parts of thecrew is carried out.One full exercise each year is to be carried out indarkness.In the course of a year, each lifeboat must belaunched and driven at least four times.

Each month, one fire extinguisher is to be usedfor exercise in emergency-simulating conditions,thus using a fire extinguisher is to be part ofevery fire defense and full exercise. This meansthat for training and instruction purposes fourextinguishers still remain available per year.


Month TopicType ofexercise Notes

1. " Abandon-ship "

2. Fire defense

3. "Abandon-ship'+ fire defense

4. " Abandon-ship '

5. Fire defense

6. "Abandon-ship"+ fire defense

7. " Abandon-ship "

8. Fire defense

9. "Abandon-ship"+ fire defense

10. " Abandon-ship "

11. Fire defense

12. " Abandon-ship "+ fire defense

partial

partial

full

partial

partial

full

partial

partial

full

partial

partial

full

Readying lifeboats for launching and manningthemAction of defense unit to erection of fireboundaryBringing about closed-down state for oneclosing-down sectionHandling fire defense gearFighting an imaginary medium fire in a closing-down section under aggravated circumstances(darkness, internal lighting switched off)Bringing about closed-down state andrendering life-saving gear safeReadying, manning and launching a lifeboatReadying lifeboats for launch and manningthem; operating life-saving equipmentDefense unit action following fighting anengine room fire with CO2

As '3' but in a different closing-down sectionof the shipReadying lifeboat for launch and manning it;embarking injured people (buoyant stretcher)Defense unit rescuing trapped persons withsupport unit helpRescue drill, rescuing trapped people fromspaces sealed-off by fireReadying, manning, embarking casualties andlaunching a lifeboatConduct in boat in distressReadying for launch and manning a rescue boatPreparations for handing over/acceptingcastaways to/from rescue boatExercise using several breathing apparatus withextra demands(going down companions, carrying loads)Readying, manning, launching a rescue boatPicking up castaways from the water and takingthem over from a boatTreating people suffering from injuries orhypothermia

85

4.8.9 Example of a fire defense exerciseFollowing the sounding of the general alarm, allpersons on board proceed to the predeterminedand publicised assembly position. Unit leaderscheck whether everyone is present and reportthe result to the head of operations.Once it has become clear that no-one is missing,a start is made with fighting the fire.The defense unit picks up its gear and wheninstructed by its leader goes to the starting point.If possible this is windward of the seat of the fireand between seat of the fire and servicedirection, as close to the point of service as it ispossible to go without protective gear.At this point the unit leader sets up the manifoldand then reconnoitres the situation. At the sametime, unit member 1 runs a hose with a jet nozzlefrom the manifold to the seat of the fire andconnects it to the manifold's LH outlet.Unit member 2 runs a hose line from the nearesthydrant to the manifold, connects this to themanifold's inlet and opens the hydrant.Unit member 2 then runs a second hose with a jetnozzle from the manifold to the seat of the fire,ready for use, and connects it to the manifold'sRH outlet.Unit member 3 with the aid of member 4 puts onthe breathing apparatus and gets it ready foruse. The face mask is put on; the artificial lung isonly connected on the unit leader's orders.The unit leader has in the meantime completedhis reconnaissance and reported the situation tothe head of operations.He now gives the order (for example):„ Cabin fire in cabin X. Advance throughstarboard forward bulkhead. Breathingapparatus group forward with the 1st hose tofight the fire! Water on! "At this order from the unit leader, unit member 2opens the manifold's LH outlet (for the 1st hose).

Unit member 3 connects the artificial lung to thebreathing set face mask, picks up a jet nozzleand proceeds to the fire defense.The unit leader notes the time the wearer ofbreathing apparatus (member 3) started hisservice.Unit member 4 opens the indicated bulkheaddoor and secures it against accidental closure, bythe means provided or provisionally.The wearer of breathing apparatus now goesahead and, as soon as he encounters smoke andheat, opens the jet nozzle to the 'spray jet plusprotective spray' setting. As much of the lifelineas necessary runs out from the bag fastened tothe safety belt. The free end of the lifeline ismade fast near the manifold at the starting point.Unit member 4 makes sure that the wearer ofbreathing apparatus can take the necessarylength of hose with him without extra effort.If the seat of the fire is accessible from two sides,the unit leader orders the erection of a temporaryfire boundary.He orders (for example):„ Water group set up fire boundary in starboardpassage by cabin X, using hydroshield! Accessthrough bulkhead starboard aft! "Unit member 1 takes the hydroshield, connects itto the hose lying ready and goes to the bulkheadindicated. Unit member 2 helps him with takingthe hose along.At the order ,,2nd hose, water on!" themanifold's RH outlet is opened. The bulkheaddoor is opened and secured open. Unit member 1now advances into the passage to the positionindicated, holding the hydroshield in front ofhim, then lays this down and secures it in placewith the strops provided. He then returns to thestarting point and reports to the unit leader ,,fireboundary set up in starboard passage by cabinX, using hydroshield. "


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4.8.9 Example of a fire defense exercise

87

5. Life-Saving AppliancesDescription of Appliances, Installations and Gear

On ships with totally enclosed lifeboats, threeapproved survival suits are available on boardfor every boat. On ships with open lifeboats, anapproved survival suit is held on board for everyperson permitted to be on board according to thesafety certificate.The survival suit protects the wearer in distressagainst hypothermia. It covers the entire bodyincluding head, hands and feet and leaves onlythe face uncovered. The gloves are firmlyfastened to the suit and have at least threefingers.The survival suit is made either from closed-cellneoprene or from plastic-coated fabric withthermally-insulating material applied on theinside and a reserve of buoyancy. Depending onthe type, it is worn either with or without a lifejacket. A watertight zip fastens the suit. The waythe hood seals against the face ensures that anangle of vision of at least 120° remains.

5.1 Personal life-Saving appliancesThere are approved personal life-savingappliances available for all persons on board, asrequired.

This includes- survival suit- thermal protective aidslife jacket- work vest

Type and minimum quantity of personal life-saving appliances is required by rules. It isstored in the vicinity of the muster station.Additional personal life-saving appliances heldon board may also be stored elsewhere, e.g. lifejackets for those on watch, on the bridge.

Newly-arrived members of the crew are toldwhere the personal life-saving appliances arestored.

The survival suit can be worn lightly clothed aswell as fully clothed. There are suits to be wornwith shoes or boots, and ones where shoes orboots have first to be taken off.The survival suit allows the wearer- to climb up or down vertical ladders- to carry out the tasks involved in abandoning

ship- to jump into the water from a low height- to swim a short distance and board a survival

craft- to remain in water at 0 °C for at least 6 hours

without suffering from hypothermia.A survival suit with adequate inherent buoyancyand intended to be worn without a life jacket isequipped with an approved light and a signalwhistle.If the survival suit has to be worn with anapproved life jacket, that jacket has to be wornover the suit. The life jacket can be donned bysomeone wearing such a suit without outsidehelp. On ships equipped with that type ofsurvival suit, the life jacket instead of the suit isequipped with an approved light.The survival suit is provided with a connecting-line to allow several persons floating in the waterto link up or fasten onto a floating object. It isalso fitted with approved retro reflectivematerial.The survival suit is packed in an easy-to-opencarrier bag. Printed on the bag are instructionsfor putting it on and, if necessary, the notes- No shoes I (with symbol)

5.1.1 Survival suit

Fig. 5.1 Survival suit


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5. Life-Saving Appliances Description of Appliances, Installations and Gear

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5.1 Personal life-Saving appliances

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5.1.1 Survival suit

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Fig. 5.1 Survival suit

88- Only to be worn with life jacket!The place where the survival suits are stored isshown in the fire defense and safety plan.Every approved survival suit carries thefollowing information clearly and permanentlyprinted-on:- See BG approval No.- maker- model name or number- date of manufacture

A life-jacket light with an operating time of atleast eight hours is fixed to the upper side.Imprinted on the chest pieces there is- the maker's name- the See-BG approval number- pictorial instruction on how to put it onThe smaller life jacket, intended for children, isclearly identified with the inscription CHILD onboth sides.The above-water parts have reflective strips (atleast 400 cm2).
5.1.2 Rigid life jacket
There is at least one approved life jacket forevery person on board. It is kept ready for use inbox specially provided for this purpose on theboat deck or near the muster station. Additionallife jackets must also be stored elsewhere, e.g.on the bridge for those on watch there.

Fig. 5.2 Life jacketThe neck piece and chest pieces made eitherfrom rigid-foam blocks covered with coatedfabric or foamed-in-the-mould soft plasticwithout any covering.The materials are resistant to wetting, washing,cleaning and rinsing agents, and to oil and oilproducts. They are mould- and rot-proof, saltwater- and ageing resistant, hard to ignite andresistant to microorganisms.The outside surfaces are dyed orange-yellow orluminous red.The life jackets are fitted with straps with plug-in fasteners.On older life jackets there are two separatestraps. Each strap is fixed to one of the chestpieces and is led in hard-plastic sleeves throughboth chest pieces to the side.A non-metallic two-tone whistle is fastened tothe jacket via a lanyard. The whistle is stowed ina pocket in the clothing or in a hole in the bodyof the jacket.


5.1.3 Inflatable life jacketThe inflatable life jacket also has to meet thebasic requirements for life jackets regarding thestability and strength of the material, thebuoyancy and distance of the mouth above thewater, the ability to turn, the color, the fittingwith retro reflective tapes, light, whistle,connecting-line and quick-acting fasteners forthe straps plus the marking and inscription.Furthermore it must meet the followingrequirements:- it must have two separate buoyancy cells, each

of which meets the requirements for a lifejacket regarding buoyancy, ability to turn anddistance of the mouth above the water;

- it must inflate automatically upon immersion(automatics), must be fitted with a devicewhich permits inflation by a single movementof the hand (manual initiation), and be capableof being inflated by mouth (mouth-inflationvalve);

- it must be maintained and checked fortightness annually by the maker or a specialistfirm designated by him.

Fig. 5.3 Inflatable life jacket

5.1.4 Work vestAn adequate number of approved work vests isheld on board as personal protection gear. They

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5.1.2 Rigid life jacket

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5.1.3 Inflatable life jacket

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Fig. 5.2 Life jacket

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Fig. 5.3 Inflatable life jacket

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5.1.4 Work vest

89are worn for all work where there is a risk offalling into the water.

Fig. 5.4 Work vest (Component parts)The work vest is made from hard-wearing, oil-,petrol- and rot-proof material.The fully-automatic inflation system fills thebuoyancy chamber of the vest automaticallyafter the fall into the water. The system workswith a blocking pill; this pill disintegrates as soonas it is fully submerged.That releases a spring-loaded striking-pin whichpenetrates the compressed-gas cartridge.Atmospheric humidity, mist, rain or spray on theother hand do not cause initiation.Inflation can also be initiated by hand.The vest additionally has a mouth-valve - viawhich the buoyancy chamber is also to beemptied of air after use.Work vest must be checked at 2-yearly intervalsin an approved workshop.

Thermal protective aids protect the wearer inopen lifeboats against getting soaked andagainst hypothermia.Thermal protective aids consist of a waterproof,sack-shaped covering with closed sleeves, hoodand zip-fastener.

The material is a coated waterproof foil with aspecific thermal conductivity, reinforced toincrease resistance to tearing.

Thermal protective aids

- are worn on top of the clothing,- cover the entire body except for the face,- can without outside help be unpacked and put

on in a survival craft- can be removed in not more than two minutes

in the water if they impede the wearer'sswimming,

- are effective and perfectly easy to handle overa temperature range from -30 oC to 20 °C.

Fig. 5.5 Thermal protective aids
5.1.5 Thermal protective aidsCargo and passenger vessels are equipped withapproved thermal protective aids. For everylifeboat or liferaft there are thermal protectiveaids for three people or ten per cent of theapproved number of persons, whichever is thegreater.
5.2 Lifeboats and rescue boats

Cargo- and passenger vessels are equipped withapproved lifeboats or rescue boats.Number, type and carrying capacity are requiredby rules.


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Fig. 5.4 Work vest (Component parts)

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5.1.5 Thermal protective aids

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Fig. 5.5 Thermal protective aids

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5.2 Lifeboats and rescue boats

90

by hose to the ship's fire main. That allows theboat to be sprayed already in its stowed position.By virtue of airtight buoyancy-reserve cellseither built-in or provided between the inner andouter shells, the boats fully equipped and withthe approved number of persons on board arestill capable of floating even when swamped. Toretain this property even if the buoyancy cellsare damaged, these are subdivided or filled withclosed-cell foam.Totally enclosed lifeboats are self-righting if allopenings are closed watertight and the personson board are belted into their seats. That is thenormal condition even at launch. If a totallyenclosed boat capsizes with the access orventilation openings open, it will in adversecircumstances adopt an attitude which makes itstill possible to leave it above water. To allow thisto be achieved, there are buoyancy cells also inthe canopy. In less extreme situations it is oftenalso possible to right the boat again.Partially enclosed lifeboats are also used,particularly on passenger vessels. In emergencythese can be occupied by more persons morequickly. They are not suitable for free-falllaunching and are always stowed underneathspecial launching appliances.Free-fall boats are totally enclosed lifeboatsstowed on a specially designed launchingappliance at the stem. They are fitted withspecial bucket seats and safety belts.

5.2.1 LifeboatsThere are wooden, steel, aluminum and glass-fiber reinforced plastic lifeboats. There are open,partially enclosed and totally enclosed types.Totally enclosed boats are made self-righting;they may be equipped with an air supplyindependent of the ambient air and with specialfire protection (water spray system).Lifeboats on tankers must be of non-combustiblematerial or be equipped with an air supplyindependent of the ambient air and special fireprotection.Rescue boats may also be made of rubber.Wooden, aluminum and steel lifeboats have askin fitted over frames. The joints used to beriveted; in the case of metal boats they arenowadays predominantly welded. The boatshave a strong keel, and stem- and sternposts ofthe same strength.Wooden or metal lifeboats require significantmaintenance. Metal boats tend to corrodequickly if neglected; wooden ones can dry outand then become leaky.Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) lifeboats onthe other hand have a high corrosion resistanceand a low maintenance requirement. For thatreason, almost all lifeboats built nowadays are ofGRP.GRP lifeboats are constructed in moulds. By thismeans large component parts are obtainedwhich can be bolted or glued together. Lifeboatsare usually built up from three moulded parts:Outer shell: outer skin with keel, stem/stern

post, nibbing strakes, skates andgunwale

Inner shell: seats, stowages, buoyancy-reservecells, floor with drain holes

Canopy: canopy shell with turret, access,window and ventilation openings.

In the construction of the moulds, all fittings dueto be fastened to it are already taken intoaccount, so that expensive subsequent fittingcan be substantially avoided. Nevertheless a lotof boat-specific work is still needed installing theengine with its seating, fuel tank, coolingsystem, shaft, stem tube, propeller, fittingheating, grab- and life lines, grab rails, therudder, and last but not least the electrical andradio equipment.in the case of totally enclosed boats, the canopyrails, windows, access and ventilation openingclosures have to be added, plus the water spraysystem and the ventilation system for oil, gas andchemical tankers, independent from ambient-air.The system of pipes for the water spray systemhas a size C Storz coupling, allowing connection


5.2.2 Rescue boatsRescue boats have two principal purposes,namely- the rapid rescue of persons floating in the

water, and- the gathering, keeping in position and towing

of liferafts.They are built and equipped with thesedesignated purposes in mind.Rescue boats may be of rigid or inflatableconstruction, or of a combination of both. Theirlength must be not less than 3.8m and not morethan 8.5 m. They must be capable of holding atleast five persons seated and one person lyingdown. They must either have an adequate sheeror have a bow canopy extending over at least15% of the length.Rescue boats have either an inboard or anoutboard motor. That enables them to achieve aspeed of at least 6 kn running free and 2 kntowing.Rigid rescue boats are subject to substantiallythe same construction regulations as lifeboats.For inflatable rescue boats there are different,special regulations:

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5.2.1 Lifeboats

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5.2.2 Rescue boats

91They are so constructed that, hanging in inflatedcondition in their launching and recoveryappliance with a full crew and fully equipped,they can be launched or recovered.Stowed on the open deck without protection,they must be capable of withstanding all

weather conditions on the open sea. The sameapplies afloat for 30 days.The buoyancy of the inflated boat is ensured byat least one hose subdivided into five roughlyequal compartments, or by two separate hoses ofroughly the same size. The volume of the hoses

Fig. 5.6 Totally enclosed lifeboat

Fig. 5.7a Partially enclosed lifeboat


1 Permanently fixedskates

2 Painter which can beslipped from inside theboat (not visible)

3 Hoisting-hook withcentral release

4 Forwardwindow flap

5 Lateral accessopening

6 Guardrail, in the case ofboats with special fireprotection in the form ofa water pipe with spraynozzles

7 Turret for thecoxswain’s seat

8 Access door9 Fixed canopy10 Propeller with steering

nozzle(not visible)11 Buoyancy chambers in

the canopy, foam-filled12 Remote control wire for

lowering/launching13 Socket for electricity

cable14 Ventilation flaps

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Fig. 5.6 Totally enclosed lifeboat

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Fig. 5.7a Partially enclosed lifeboat

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Fig. 5.7b

Fig. 5.8 Free-fall boat

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Fig. 5.7b

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Fig. 5.8 Free-fall boat

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Fig. 5.9 Rigid rescue boat

Fig. 5.10 Rescue boat with rigid floor and inflatable tubesis laid down. A positive freeboard must beretained even if one compartment is damaged.Every compartment is provided with a non-return valve for pumping up by hand plus a reliefor discharge valve. Rubbing strakes are fittedunder the bottom and along the sides of the boat.

There may be a transom, not more than 20% upthe length of the boat. Furthermore there arefittings for the painter, the lifeline running rightaround the boat and the towrope.The rescue boat must at all times be kept fullyblown up and equipped, ready for use.


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Fig. 5.9 Rigid rescue boat

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Fig. 5.10 Rescue boat with rigid floor and inflatable tubes

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vessels, packing in a waterproof carrier bag isexceptionally also approved provided the liferaftis one for launching fully manned. The weight ofa liferaft including its packaging and full distressgear lies between 100 kg and 185 kg, dependingon the size of the raft.Every inflatable liferaft complies with thefollowing requirements:- Material and type are approved. A liferaft

afloat withstands all weather conditions at seafor 30 days.

- It is operable over an air temperature rangefrom -30 °C to +66 °C.

- It is stowed in a buoyant container.- It can be thrown into the water in its container

without the raft or its gear suffering anydamage.

- Inflated, it has adequate stability in a seaway.- The buoyancy hoses are subdivided into an

even number of compartments in such a waythat the raft still floats even if only half thecompartments are inflated.

- The floor is waterproof and can be inflated for

5.3 LiferaftsCargo- and passenger vessels as well as fishingcrafts are equipped with approved liferafts. Thenumber, type and carrying capacity derive fromregulations and additional requirements.Approved are- liferafts for 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 25 or 50

persons, throw overboard type- for 35 persons, davit launched type- large liferafts for 30, 35, 60 or 65 persons,

without any protective canopy and usableeither way up.

Liferafts are automatically inflatable. Forlaunching they may be thrown overboard ordesigned and positioned near launchingappliances for launching fully manned.All liferafts are so installed that they can belaunched quickly, securely and safely - ifpossible by one man - even with 20° list, over thehigh side. For that reason liferafts are nowadaysalmost always stowed on swinging-out storageframes, inclined ramps or equivalent appliances.

5.3.1 Inflatable liferaftEvery inflatable liferaft is made from coatedsynthetic fabric and as a rule is packed tightlyfolded in a plastic container. On passenger

insulation against cold.- It has a canopy of a clearly visible colour,

which protects the occupants from the effectsof the weather. It has a light on the top, inside

Fig. 5.11 Inflatable liferaft


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5.3 Liferafts

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5.3.1 Inflatable liferaft

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Fig. 5.11 Inflatable liferaft

95

and outside, an arrangement for collectingrainwater and a fitting for the radartransponder or the aerial of the portable radioapparatus.For inflation and to connect the inflated raft tothe ship there is a release painter line which iscut using a knife. Life lines are provided allaround, inside and outside.Carbon dioxide CO2 is used for inflation whichis initiated by hauling on release painter line.Means for topping-up with air (bellows or airpump) are provided.Fitted to every opening is a boarding-arrangement for persons in the water. A liferaftfor 6 or 8 people has one boardingarrangement, every larger raft two.If it has inflated upside-down, it can easily berighted by one person.it has a fitting for securing a towrope.A liferaft for launching fully manned isconstructed differently and reinforced,reflecting its task. It can be manned from theembarkation deck and is lowered to the waterby means of a special launching appliance.This liferaft is so arranged that if the releasepainter line is made fast on board it can also beused as a droppable raft.

is pulled out of the container as the ship sinksfurther. If this tautens, the inflating-gas bottle isopened and the raft inflated.The sinking ship further parts the release painterline or a special breaking wire (weak link).

Water-Pressure operated releaseThe lashing is unlocked manually by means of apatent retractive shackle or slip hook fittedbetween the water-pressure operated releaseand the eye on the lashing. The release painterline with breaking wire (weak link) is fastened tothe water-pressure operated release.

Fig. 5.12 Liferaft lowerable fully mannedFig. 5.14 Function of the water-pressure

operated release

Fig. 5.13 Water-pressure operated release

5.4 Liferaft release deviceLiferafts are so stowed that they can float free ifthe ship sinks. If liferafts are secured in theirstowage by lashings they are therefore providedwith an approved, efficient release device. Inpractice various types of water-pressureoperated releases have become accepted asmeans for unlocking the lashings automatically.The water pressure increasing with depth as theship sinks acts on one side of a diaphragm whichon the other side has a spring in an air space, setto the release depth, pressing on it. The waterpressure reduces the size of this air space, so thatat a depth of between 2.00 m and 3.70 m therelease unit unlocks which in turn releases thelashing. The raft container floats to the surface;the release painter line firmly secured to the ship

5.5 Inflatable lifeboats

Fishing vessels engaged in large-scale deep-seafishery, fishery protection vessels, seagoingcutters, seagoing tugs and ships of less than 1600GRT may be equipped with inflatable life boats.Number, type and carrying capacity arespecified.The buoyancy hoses of all inflatable life boatshave partitions dividing them into severalcompartments. Hoses, bottom and partitions aremade of ageing-, weather-, fuel- and abrasion-resistant coated synthetic fabric whose tear andtear propagation resistance and breakingstrength are specified.


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Fig. 5.12 Liferaft lowerable fully manned

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5.4 Liferaft release device

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Fig. 5.13 Water-pressure operated release

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Fig. 5.14 Function of the water-pressure

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5.5 Inflatable lifeboats

Fig. 5.15 Double-tube inflatable life boatSingle-hose boats have the whole hose, double-hose boats the upper hose coloured luminousyellow; all the rest is black.

The individual compartments of the hoses arepumped up with air through filling valves.

Inflatable boats are divided according to typeinto

— single-hose boats of class KK 604, used as„ man-overboard-boats "

and

- double-hose boats of classes KK 610, 615, 620,625

and

- motorisable double-hose boats of classes KK612, 617, 623 and 627,

used as lifeboats on fishing vessels.

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5.6.2 List of equipment and fittings The equipment of lifeboats, rescue boats orliferafts comprises:

*) 2 buoyant bailers in rafts capable of carrying more than 12 persons

Consecutivenumber

Item Lifeboat Rescueboat

Liferaft

1 Oars, buoyant, thole pins crutches, attached to the boat sufficient sufficient2 by lanyards or chains

boathooks2

3 bailer, buoyant 1 1 1*)4 buckets 25 survival manual 16 binnacle with approved compass, luminous or 1

illummable, fixed or with mounting7 sea anchor with adequate-length hawser and tripping line 1 1 28 painter line of adequate length 2 19 hatchets 210 waterproof vessel with 3 1 drinking water for each 1 5

person the boat can carry, or 2 1 water and approveddistilling apparatus


5.6 Lifeboats and Liferafts

5.6.1 Equipment and fittingsLifeboats and rescue boats are provided withwaterproof stowage compartments for smallpieces of equipment plus mountings and otherfixing arrangements for the equipmentgenerally. It must be possible to stow or securethe entire equipment so that it does not get in theway during launching or running.

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Fig. 5.15 Double-tube inflatable life boat

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5.6.2 List of equipment and fittings

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5.6 Lifeboats and Liferafts

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5.6.1 Equipment and fittings

97

Consecutivenumber Item

Lifeboat Rescueboat

Liferaft

11 rustproof dipper with lanyard12 graduated rustproof drinking vessel 1 1

13 food ration of 10000 kilojoule per person the boat can 1 1carry, in airtight pack in watertight container14 approved rocket parachute flares

4 4

15 approved hand flares 6 6

16 approved buoyant smoke signals 2 2

17 watertight torch suitable for Morse signalling with 1 1 1

spare bulb and spare batteries18 daylight signalling mirror with operating instructions

1 1

19 life-saving signal table 1 1

20 signal whistle 1 1

21 first aid outfit in waterproof case reclosable after use 1 1 122 anti-seasickness medicine, doses of 6 6

23 seasickness bags, per person the boat can carry 1 1

24 jack knife attached to the boat by lanyards 1

25 tin openers 3 226 quoits, buoyant, each with 30 m buoyant heaving line 2 2 127 manual pump 1

28 fishing tackle, set 1 129 tools for engine, set 1

30 portable fire extinguisher, powder, 6 kg, ABC 1

31 searchlight

32 radar transponder or reflector 1

33 thermal protective aids for 10% of persons the >2 1 >2

boat can carry34 towrope, buoyant > 50 m

1

Only for rigid rescue boats

35 boathook

36 bucket37 knife or hatchet 1

Only for inflatable rescue boats and liferafts

38 buoyant safety knife39 sponges 2 2

40 bellows or manual air pump

41 repair kit in container42 safety boat hook

43 buoyant paddles 2

44 survival instructions 1

45 instructions regarding immediate steps 1

46 knife for cutting release painter line 1**)

* *) 2 knives for cutting rip cord in rafts capable of carrying more than 12 persons


98

Fig. 5.16 Lifeboat underneath davits

1. Grab lineextends in bights lengthways alongboth sides from forward to aft. Itconsists of buoyant material or is fittedwith floats.

2. Lashing 3. Painteris secured slipably forward in theboat. Extends three times the distancefrom the boat deck to the surface ofthe water with the ship at minimumdraught. An additional painter of thesame length is permanently fastenedforward inside the boat.

5.6.3 Illustrations

Fig. 5.17 Heaving line

Sea anchorconsists of a truncated-cone canvasbag whose major aperture is keptopen by a rigid ring. Fastened tothis is a three-part bridle with thesea-anchor line. The inhaul isfastened to the minor aperture.

Fig. 5.20 Hand flare

Buoyant smoke signalgenerates thick, orange smokewhich even in a light wind lays asmoke trail; lasts about 4 minutes.

Fig. 5.21 Buoyant smoke signalFig. 5.18 Sea anchor

Rocket parachute flarewhen fired climbs to at least 300 m,unfolds a parachute to which abright-red light is fastened, visiblefor about 40s, for up to about25 nm on a clear night.

Electric torchis waterproof and suitable forsignalling Morse. Appropriatespares for replacing exhaustedbatteries or defective bulbs areprovided.

Fig. 5.19 Rocket parachute flare

Hand flarewhen lit, for about 1 minuteproduces a bright-red light visiblefor about 10 nm on a clear night.

Heaving linecoloured to be easily visible, 30 mlong and floats. In lifeafts fittedwith a buoyant ring.

Fig. 5.22 Electric torch


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Pig. 5.16 Lifeboat underneath davits

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5.6.3 Illustrations

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Fig. 5.17 Heaving line

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Fig. 5.20 Hand flare

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Fig. 5.18 Sea anchor

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Fig. 5.21 Buoyant smoke signal

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Fig. 5.19 Rocket parachute flare

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Fig. 5.22 Electric torch

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Daylight signalling mirrorcomprises a metal mirror with asighting device for reflecting lightfrom the sun.

Hatchetstowed respectively forward andaft in the boat to allow lines to becut in emergency.

Fig. 5.23 Daylight signalling mirror Fig. 5.29 Hatchet

Radar reflectorpermanently fitted or loose, reflectsthe radar beams from a searchcraft.

Jack-knifewith tin opener, marline spike andlanyard.

Fig. 5.24 Radar reflector Fig. 5.30 Jack-knife

Signalling whistleor equivalent sound signal, e.g.foghorn for producing acousticsignals in poor visibility.

First aid kit(first aid box) is kept in a water-proof, sealed storage box. The con-tents are listed on the lid.

Fig. 5.25 Signalling whistle Fig. 5.31 First aid kit (first aid box)

Rescue-signal table& leaflet

"Survival at Sea"makes recommendationsregarding the correctuse of the signallingmeans and conductin the survival craft.

Fig. 5.26 Compass . Fig 5.32 Rescue signal table

Manual bilge pumpconsists of the pump plus suctionhose which reaches down to thebottom of the boat. The watersucked-in is pumped overboardthrough another hose.

Food rationis stored in airtight and waterproofcontainers.

Fig. 5.27 Manual bilge pump Fig. 5.33 Food ration

Drinking water3 liters per person are stored inseveral non-corroding containerswith dippers or in smaller packssuch as cans or plastic bags.Graduated non-corroding drinkingmugs are provided.

Fig. 5.28 Pail and bailer Fig. 5.34 Drinking water


Compassis housed in a protective casing. Itcan be read even at night withspecial lighting.

Pall and bailerused for gettingrid of theremaining water.

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Fig. 5.23 Daylight signalling mirror

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Fig. 5.29 Hatchet

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Fig. 5.24 Radar reflector

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Fig. 5.30 Jack-knife

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Fig. 5.25 Signalling whistle

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Fig. 5.31 First aid kit (first aid box)

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Fig. 5.26 Compass

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Fig 5.32 Rescue signal table

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Fig. 5.27 Manual bilge pump

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Fig. 5.33 Food ration

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Fig. 5.28 Pail and bailer

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Fig. 5.34 Drinking water

100

Repair kitconsists of wooden plugs andrubber patches with adhesive forsealing leaks.

Fig. 5.36 Repair kit

Boathookwith point, hook and wooden shaft.

Fig. 5.37 Boathook

Air pumpor bellows with filling hose fortopping-up the hoses and forinflating the double bottom.

Fig. 5.38 Air pump

Powder extinguisherOperating instructions. Undo thesafety device in front of the fire.Remove the pressure hose from itsstowage. Open the propellantcylinder. Wait for about threeseconds until the propellant whichhas flowed into the extinguishantcontainer through the gas pipehas swirled-up the powder andpushed it up the rising tube.Operation of the actuating element(extinguishing pistol) releases thepowder-propellant mixture.


Radar transponder

Fig. 5.40 Radar transponder

Fig. 5.41 Emergency position indicatingradio beacon (EPIRB)

Two way VHF radiotelephoneapparatus

Fig. 5.42 Two way VHF radiotelephoneapparatus

Fishing gearcomprises fish-hooks, weight,fishing line and illustrations ofpoisonous fishes.

Fig. 5.35 Fishing gear

Emergency position indicatingradio beacon (EPIRB)

5.7 Propulsion systemsThe propulsion systems in the survival craft areprovided in order that they may be maneuveredclear of the danger zone around the damagedvessel.

5.7.1 Diesel engineThe propulsion system consists of the dieselengine with starter, the fuel system with a fueltank, the electrical equipment, the gearing,shafting and the propeller.The diesel engine can be air- or water-cooled.

The electrical equipment comprises

- charging generator, voltage regulator andbattery

- power supply to radio apparatus andsearchlight

- electrical starter and preheating equipment(not on all diesel engines).

The starter can take the following form

- Manual starter, e.g. starting handle.This is kick-back-proof, disengagesautomatically once the engine starts and cannotbe ejected from its guide.- Mechanical starter, e.g. spring power starter.A disc-spring pack is wound up by means of awinding crank or lever. When the triggering-lever is operated, the energy in the wound-upspring pack is transmitted to the enginecrankshaft.


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Fig. 5.35 Fishing gear

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Fig. 5.36 Repair kit

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Fig. 5.37 Boathook

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Fig. 5.38 Air pump

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Fig. 5.41 Emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB)

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Fig. 5.42 Two way VHF radiotelephone

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5.7 Propulsion systems

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5.7.1 Diesel engine

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Fig. 5.40 Radar transponder

101

Fig. 5.43 Propulsion system of a lifeboat with a diesel engine

Fig. 5.44 Grafic operating instructions - operating console

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Fig. 5.43 Propulsion system of a lifeboat with a diesel engine

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Fig. 5.44 Grafic operating instructions - operating console

102

- Electrical starters.Actuation of the starting arrangements causesthe battery-driven starter automatically to startthe engine.- Hydraulic starters.The propulsion systems of survival craft areapproved.The illustrations that follow are basic diagrams.The actual design and arrangement of lifeboatpropulsion systems can in individual cases differsignificantly from these. Careful study of theoperating instructions held on board is thereforeabsolutely essential.

The engine has a manual starter; electric startingfacilities may also be provided.

Outboard engines for rescue boats are approved.

5.7.2 Outboard enginesRescue boats are powered by petrol or dieseloutboard engines.The outboard engine is fitted to the transom ofthe rescue boat and secured by tightening theclamping screws. Trimming bolts are used tobring the engine to the appropriate anglerelative to the boat's hull.The fuel container is portable and isaccommodated in the boat separately from theengine. The fuel is conveyed to the enginethrough a hose line with a built-in hand pump.

Fig. 5.45 Outboar


5.8 Launching appliances

Launching appliances are used to get heavysurvival craft (lifeboats or liferafts) from the shipto the water even in the fully manned state.

Number, type, dimensions and stowage isspecified. All launching appliances are approvedby the See-BG.

The launching appliances include also gearwhich secures the survival craft in their stowageposition (lashings), the emergency guardrail andthe emergency lighting in the launching zone,plus remote-operating arrangements forstopping pumps which discharge into thelaunching zone and for retracting the stabiliserfins.

The launching appliances are so dimensionedand arranged that launching is still possible oneither side with a trim of up to 10° or a list of upto 20°, up to 15° for ships whose keel was laidbefore 01.07.1986.

1 Gipping-recess2 Engine hood3 Cooling water check outlet4 Water plug5 Tilting block6 Propeller shaft casing7 Cavitation plate8 Anode9 Secondary cooling water inlet

10 Propeller11 Hand-starting handle12 Gear lever13 Speed control twist-grip14 Clamping screw15 Fitting for hanging from transom16 Trimming bolts17 Gear oil filler plug18 Cooling water inlet with strainer19 Gear oil drain plug20 Battery cable21 Stop button22 Choke button23 Fuel hose connection24 Ignition lock25 Fuel tank26 Fuel tank lid27 Venting screw28 Feeder ball (pumping ball)29 Fuel hose connector/fuel cock30 flexible tubes

d engine

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5.7.2 Outboard engines

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Fig. 5.45 Outboard engine

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5.8 Launching appliances

103

lifeboat hangs at an adequate distance from the
5.8.1 Davits and accessories ship's side.
Gravity-Type davitDue to its own weight and that of the survivalcraft, the pair of gravity-type davit arms swingsinto the lowering position by itself.With the aid of fairlead-rollers the boat's fall istaken via the davits from the boat winch to thelifeboat. There the fall is connected to the lifting-hooks of the boat via hoisting-plates.Based on the nature of the movement of the davitarms, gravity-type davits are divided into- single pivot davit, or- roller track davits.

1 Davit horn2 Davit arm3 Boat support pad4 Control lever for electric winch drive5 Winch brake lever (for lowering)6 Winch casing7 Winch drum8 Roller track

Fig. 5.47 Roller track davit

Pivot davitThe single pivot davit has rigid arms swivellingabout pivots at their feet. As the centres ofgravity of the lifeboat and the davit arms are onthe seaward side of the pivot, once the winchbrake has been released the davit arms swiveloutwards about the pivots into the loweringposition.If the lifeboat is not held against the ship byadditional means (tricing pendant or bowsingtackle), it will hang vertically underneath thedavit at an adequate distance from the ship'sside.

1 Davit arm (movable)2 Boat's fall3 Davit pedestal (fixed)4 Pivot point5 Arm rest (on deck when the davit has been swung out)6 Boat's winch (symbolised! For real appearance see roller

track davit)

Fig. 5.46 Singel pivot davit

Fig. 5.48 Tricing pendants and bowsing tackles

Roller track davitThe roller track davit has rollers on the arms ableto run on the standing part which is a roller track.In the stowed position the arms rest in the toppart of that track.Once the winch brake has been released, thedavit arms run down the sloping tracks. Theselead them down to the end position, in which the

Tricing pendants and bowsing tacklesTricing pendants are strong wires of precisely-measured length, shackled in between the davitarms and the hoisting plates to pull the boat tothe ship's side for embarkation. A thimble andshackle fastens them to the davit arm, a patentslip hook which can be slipped under load to thehoisting plate.


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5.8.1 Davits and accessories

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Gravity-Type davit

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Pivot davit

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Fig. 5.46 Singel pivot davit

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Roller track davit

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Fig. 5.47 Roller track davit

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Tricing pendants and bowsing tackles

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Fig. 5.48 Tricing pendants and bowsing tackles

104Bowsing tackles hold the lifeboat to the ship'sside after the tricing pendants have beenslipped. Each consists of two blocks and the fall;each has one block fastened to the ship's side orthe davit arm, the other to the hoisting plate for'dand aft. The fall is belayed around a cleat usuallyfastened to the block at the hoisting-plate end.Belt falls have special lowering arrangements.

slip hook is opened, i.e. if when the boat wasbeing prepared the lashings have not been castoff.In another version a rocking lever secures a boltwhich holds the moving davit arm to thestanding part, and which can only be removedafter the lashings have been cast off. This boltprevents the davit being swung out until thelashings have been cast off.
Boat lashings
In its stowed position, the boat is held in place bywire pendants and bottle screws. To protect theboat, the wire is usually plastic-coated.

Fig. 5.49 Boat lashings

Fig. 5.50 Boat lashings for free-fall boatAs a rule the lower fastening of the lashing to thedavit is so arranged that it releases automaticallyif the davit is swung out before the bottle-screw


5.8.2 Liferaft Launching Crane

The launching crane serves as launchingappliance for rescue boats or liferafts. Thesurvival craft hangs from a single fall. This is ledover a swivelling cantilever mechanicallypowered to swivel out and in.In the case of a launching crane for liferafts, thewinch brake can be released from inside the raftby means of a wire. After that, the loweringprocess can no longer be influenced - the raft islowered all the way to the water. That makes itunnecessary to leave a man behind to operatethe winch.

Fig. 5.51 Liferaft launching crane

5.8.3 Free-fall launching appliance

This system has the totally enclosed lifeboatstowed at the upper end of a launchwaymounted over the stem, bows facing outboard.Fully manned, it can from there- run down the rollers of the launchway once the

unlocking arrangement has been triggeredand then enter the water in free fall from thestem, or

- be lowered into the water with the aid of thelaunching appliance, or

- float free when the vessel sinks.

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Boat lashings

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Fig. 5.49 Boat lashings

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Fig. 5.50 Boat lashings for free-fall boat

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5.8.2 Liferaft Launching Crane

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Fig. 5.51 Liferaft launching crane

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5.8.3 Free-fall launching appliance

105

Fig. 5. 52 Free-fall boat on boardMS HANSA LUBECK

Fig. 5. 53 Free-fall boat - triggering device

Fig. 5. 54 Lifebuoy with life line

The life-buoys, ready for immediate use, are

- distributed all over the ship- accessible to everyone- painted in easily-discernible colour (luminous

red, orange-yellow) on the outside andprovided with retro reflective material

- marked with the ship's name and port ofregistry and

- provided with an all-round grab line firmlysecured.

It must always be possible to throw themoverboard quickly, so they must not be lashedinto their stowage.The number, supplementary fittings andpositioning of the life-buoys is specified on thebasis of the vessel's size and operating region.

Fig. 5. 55 Lifebuoy with Lifebuoy light

The unlocking arrangement is triggered frominside the boat by manually operatedmechanical or hydraulic devices.

5. 9 Lifebuoys

Life-buoys are made from approved materials.The filling is in one piece. Minimum inside andmaximum outside diameter plus minimumweight are specified. They retain their buoyancyand shape in salt water even in contact with oiland oil products, and in spite of variations intemperature. They are able to support an ironweight of 14. 5 kg for 24 hours in fresh water. Thisis confirmed by a trial.


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Fig. 5. 52 Free-fall boat

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Fig. 5. 53 Free-fall boat - triggering device

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5. 9 Lifebuoys

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Fig. 5. 54 Lifebuoy with life line

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Fig. 5. 55 Lifebuoy with Lifebuoy light

106It is mandatory that

- at least one lifebuoy on each side of the ship isprovided with a 30 m long, buoyant life line,

- a certain number of the total of lifebuoys isequipped with an efficient, automatically-igniting light,

- a heavy lifebuoy is mounted on each side of thewheelhouse, joined by a line to a light/smokefloat ("man overboard buoy"), and

- a lifebuoy is mounted near the stem.

Fig. 5. 56 Man overboard buoy

Fig. 5. 58 Emergency Position IndicatingRadio Beacon

5. 10 Radio Life-Saving Appliances

Radio life-saving appliances are held on boardfor sending out distress calls, for voice radiocommunication with search and rescue units andfor location of survival craft by search and rescueunits.

In contrast to the rest of the gear they are as arule not stowed permanently in the lifeboats orrafts. However they are portable. In anemergency they must be removed from theirstowage on the bridge or near the survival craftand taken along to the lifeboats or rafts.


5. 10. 1 Emergency Position Indicating RadioBeacons (EPIRB)

Emergency position indicating radio beacons onceactivated automatically send out a sea distresscall which reaches one or more shore radiostations via satellites and from there is forwardedto the Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre.

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Fig. 5. 56 Man overboard buoy

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5. 10 Radio Life-Saving Appliances

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5. 10. 1 Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB)

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Fig. 5. 58 Emergency Position Indicating

107The distress call contains the ship's identificationand other information useful for the execution ofsuccessful search and rescue operations.The distress position is either- inserted into the distress call by GPS built into

the EPIRB, or- input manually continually during the voyage,

or- established by detection from another ship.During the voyage the emergency positionindicating radio beacon is kept in a stowagesomewhere around the bridge. Beforeabandoning ship, it is to be embarked in one ofthe survival craft used; if that is not possible itcan simply be thrown overboard. If even thatdoes not happen, it will automatically float freeto the surface when the ship sinks.It begins to transmit when switched-on by hand,thrown overboard or when it has risen to thesurface automatically.The emergency position indicating radio beaconis coloured luminous orange/yellow, providedwith reflective material and on top has a flashinglight to make it easier to find in an emergency inthe dark.It is important in an emergency that the survivalcraft and the emergency position indicatingradio beacon remain together, as the search andrescue operation is targeted on the position ofthe beacon.

Fig. 5. 59 Search and rescue radar transponder

5. 10. 2 Radar transponder (or search and rescue)The equipment on board ships includes one ormore radar transponders. They are kept instowages near the bridge and must inemergency be embarked in the survival craftwhich are used. They are buoyant and in anemergency can also be thrown overboard if it isnot possible to take them into a survival craft.If a radar impulse from a ship or aircraft reachesthe receiving aerial built into the radartransponder, the transponder sends a reply onthe same frequency. That produces aninternationally agreed pattern on the radarscreen of the ship or aircraft whichis accepted as an emergency signal in

accordance with Appendix IV of theRegulations for Preventing Collisions andobliges the receiver to give assistance, and

- marks the position of the radar transponder onthe screen.

For that reason radar transponders are alsocalled radar reply beacons.The range of the radar transponder is about 5nautical miles, depending on the height of thetransmitting/receiving aerial and the state of thesea.

5. 10. 3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephoneapparatus

The equipment on board ships includes two wayVHF radiotelephone apparatus.They are portable and allow RT communicationover short distances between survival craft, theship, and search and rescue units. For this theycan switch to the emergency and call-upfrequency (channel 16) and at least one workingfrequency (channel 6 or 10). They can also beused for internal operational RT traffic on boardif they can be operated on the frequenciesprovided for this (channel 15 or 17).As the same frequency is used for transmittingand receiving, simultaneous speaking andlistening is not possible. If RT is to be used inemergency, it must therefore be used withheightened discipline. That can above all beexpected from holders of a general operatorcertificate. Nevertheless the sets must be sodesigned and made that they can also beoperated by untrained persons.The sets have batteries as an emergency powersupply. These permit eight hours of operation,10% of which can be transmitting, 10%receiving and 80% standing by. In an emergencythe sets are therefore not to be switched on untilthere are search and rescue craft in the vicinity. Ifthere are several sets available, as far as possibleonly one is to be operated at any one time.For use in routine ship operation, rechargeablebatteries are additionally fitted. Operation usingan external power supply is permitted.The range is determined by the power of thetransmitter and the height of the aerial above the


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5. 10. 2 Radar transponder (or search and rescue)

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Fig. 5. 59 Search and rescue radar transponder

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5. 10. 3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephone

108surface of the water. It is about the same as therange of vision.In an emergency the portable tow way VHFradiotelephone apparatus must be taken into thesurvival craft used.

In lifeboats, there may also be permanentlyinstalled VHF radiotelephone apparatus. Theseare subject to substantially the same regulationsas portable sets.

Fig. 5. 60 Portable two way VHFradiotelephone apparatus

5. 11 Pyrotechnic distress signals

The equipment of ships and survival craftincludes approved pyrotechnic distress signals.

Ships are equipped with at least 12 rocketparachute flares.

Survival craft are equipped with

- rocket parachute flares,- hand flares, and- buoyant smoke signals.

The number is specified depending on the typeof life-saving appliance, (see inventory listSection 5. 6. 2.)


5. 12 Line-Throwing Apparatus

Cargo and passenger vessels and fishing craft 24m or more in length carry an approved line-throwing apparatus.

The equipment comprises the firing device,propelling charges with built-in igniters and linebins each holding a 250 m long braided line.

Propelling charges and igniter cartridges have alimited life. Their. use-by" date is printed-onand must be observed.

Fig. 5. 61 COMET line-throwing apparatus

5. 13 Helicopter rescue sling -Buoyant stretcher

The helicopter rescue sling is not part of ships' orsurvival craft equipment, it is provided by theSAR helicopter.

Fig. 5. 62 Buoyant stretcher

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Fig. 5. 60 Portable two way VHF

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5. 12 Line-Throwing Apparatus

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Fig. 5. 61 COMET line-throwing apparatus

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5. 13 Helicopter rescue sling -Buoyant stretcher

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Fig. 5. 62 Buoyant stretcher

109

The buoyant stretcher is used for the transport ofinjured or sick persons. It is provided with bridleand fittings which allow to transport also bymeans of lifting appliances or the winch rope ofhelicopters. The person transported can beprotected by means of permanently securedcoverings and belted-in to prevent falling out.

5. 14 Organisation of SAR-Operations at seaEvery master of a ship at sea who receives areport from any source that a ship or aircraft or itslifeboats or rafts are in distress is obliged tohasten to the assistance of the persons in distressat maximum speed, and to inform them of this ifat all possible (of. SOLAS Regulation V/1Oa).Every government of a nation participating inthe SOLAS convention is obliged to make allnecessary provisions for a coastguard serviceand for the rescue of any persons in distress atsea along its coasts (cf. SOLAS Regulation V/15).The International Convention for Search andRescue at Sea, Hamburg, 1979, additionallyprovides for the voluntary undertaking bynations also to accept responsibility for a searchand rescue service for certain areas of the highseas. For this the convention provides for formsof organisation fixed in every detail, in particularas regards transmission of informationconcerning distress at sea.The Federal Ministry of Transport as theauthority responsible for the sea areas adjoiningGermany's coasts has in a contract charged theGerman Lifeboat Institution (DeutscheGesellschaft zur Rettung Schiffbriichiger -DGzRS) to perform these tasks. The DGzRS hasbeen active in the rescue from distress at seaalong the German North Sea and Baltic Seacoasts since 1865 as an independent, charitable

organisation, voluntarily and using its ownmeans.The Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre -MRCC - Bremen of the DGzRS has overallresponsibility in a distress-at-sea situation for theconduct of the operation to its conclusion. In theevent of distress at sea it provides for theinitiation, coordination and conclusion of SARmeasures and their documentation. The DGzRSwhich deploys its own rescue cruisers and rescuelifeboats is supported in the execution of servicesby SAR helicopters and aircraft of the militarySAR organisation. The execution of SARmeasures in cases of distress at sea is based onan SAR task plan. This plan in addition toexplanations regarding raising the alarm andexecution also contains data about the SARseagoing vessels and aircraft, passing ofinformation on SAR service and otherinformation needed by everyone involved inSAR services.Objectives and tasks of the DGzRS are

- saving life in distress at sea- coordinating all measures taken in distress-at-

sea situations and where assistance is givenwithin the SAR zone for which it is responsible

- execution of safeguarding tasks for ships indanger and their crews

- assistance with the freeing from immediatedanger of crews of seagoing vessels andaircraft services to aircraft as regional searchcentre 8-sea

- transport of sick and injured persons, first aidand initial medical care of emergency patients

- all activities which help to prevent potentialemergencies or accidents.


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5. 14 Organisation of SAR-Operations at sea

110

Fig. 5. 63 Diagram “The German search and rescue service at sea “


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Fig. 5. 63 Diagram “The German search and rescue service at sea “

111

6. 1 Personal life-Saving appliances

The handling of the personal life-savingappliances must be mastered by every memberof the crew. This can only be achieved byplanned instruction and specific practice on theoccasions of the mandatory safety exercisescarried out at regular intervals.

6. Handling/Operation of Life-Saving Appliancesand Installations

In this Section the handling/operation of theappliances and installations will be described forone example of each item of safety equipment.

Because of the large number of approved types,the appliances and installations on board mayvary from ship to ship and differ inhandling/operation from those described here.

For that reason every newly-arriving crewmember must familiarise himself with theappliances and installations actually present onboard, using the operating instructions.

This purpose is served by the training andappliance manuals held on board, available to allmembers of the crew. They can be consideredappendices to this manual and contain theoperating instructions for all appliances andinstallations on board which form part of thesafety equipment.

The maintenance instructions must be observedcarefully to ensure that the survival suitremains in the impeccable condition necessaryfor an emergency and to prevent it beingdamaged.

Fig. 6. 1 Survival suit

So that the zip-fastener, watertight andtherefore somewhat stiff, can always be dosedquickly and easily it is after every exercise to betreated with the substance provided or rubbedwith a candle. The zip-fasteners on survival suitsnot used must be treated in this way at least oncea year.

Following an exercise, the survival suit may onlybe repacked in its carrier bag if it is undamaged,having been dried thoroughly inside and out.Contact with hot objects during this process is tobe avoided.

Damaged survival suits may not be kept in thesafety gear store together with those ready foruse. They are to be repaired or replaced at thefirst opportunity.

To ensure that it can be put on quickly and toavoid damage to the zip-fastener, the survivalsuit is always packed in its carrier bag with thezip open.

6. 1. 1 Survival suit

Handling of the survival suit is practised duringthe mandatory safety exercises. For thesepractices, only a few and always the same suitsare used. The rest remain in their originalpackaging.

The putting-on procedure is as follows:

All details are to be taken from the instructionsfor use printed on the carrier bag and to beobserved.

- put on the survival suit as you would anoverall, don the hood, pull-on the sleeves,

- zip the suit right up,- pull the straps or bands at the feet or legs really

tight and secure them with the Velcro fasteneror buckle,

- fasten the mouth strap.(This strap may impede work in preparation forabandoning ship. As its purpose is to protectmouth and nose of persons floating in thewater against spray or splashing waves it mustbe fastened at the latest before jumping intothe water!)


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6. Handling/Operation of Life-Saving Appliances and Installations


6. 1 Personal life-Saving appliances


6. 1. 1 Survival suit

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Fig. 6. 1 Survival suit

112

Fig. 6. 4 A jump into the water

6. 1. 2 Life jacket

Putting-on the life jacket

Fig. 6. 2 Seepilz graphic instructions for use

How the life jacket works

The life jacket turns the body of a person in thewater regardless of its position into a safeinclined supine position, even if that person isexhausted or unconscious, and within 5 secondslifts the face out of the water to free nose andmouth.

Fig. 6. 3 How the life jacket works

Jumping into the water wearing a life Jacket

Try if possible to get into the life-savingappliance dry-shod. If you must jump into thewater, look for a place as close as possible to thesurface.

Grasp the life jacket with both hands at the frontnear the top and pull it downwards, otherwise itwill strike your chin and lower jaw from below asit becomes immersed. That could cause aninjury.

The legs must be slightly bent at entry to avoidsprains.


6. 1. 3 Thermal protective aids

In lifeboats and -rafts are provided withapproved thermal protective aids. These aresack-shaped coverings of insulating materialwith the sleeves cut in one with the garment,gloves and a hood.

Their purpose is primarily the protection of sickand injured persons in the survival craft againsthypothermia.

6. 2 Survival craft

Designated survival craft are, lifeboats, rescueboats and liferafts.

If danger threatens, the master will order one ormore survival craft to be prepared even beforethere is any immediate threat to passengers orcrew. However the possibility cannot beexcluded, that an accident at sea happens andcreates a dangerous situation so suddenly thataction has to be taken with all possible speed.

Preparing the survival craft is therefore practisedat the specified short intervals just as realisticallyas it would have to be done in an emergency.

At every practice, just as in an emergency, thereare certain basic rules to be observed which areclearly demonstrated in the example thatfollows:

6. 2. 1 Preparing and launching lifeboats

Sequence of events of a boat drill (practice oremergency)

If it is a practice drill, it will have beenannounced beforehand

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6. 1. 2 Life jacket

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Fig. 6. 2 Seepilz graphic instructions for use

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Fig. 6. 3 How the life jacket works

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Fig. 6. 4 A jump into the water

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6. 1. 3 Thermal protective aids

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6. 2 Survival craft

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6. 2. 1 Preparing and launching lifeboats

113Master:

Head ofoperations:

Unit leaders:

Head ofoperations:

Unit leader:

Head ofoperations:

bridgesounds general emergencyalarm ••••••------

receives the service task fromthe master:„ Carry out a boat drill"muster stationcarry out check whethereveryone is present and reportthe result to the Head ofoperations: unit all present orunit members missing.The crew members put on theirlife jackets only when ordered toby the unit leader.On passenger ships when thegeneral emergency alarm hasbeen sounded the passengersproceed to the assemblypositions allocated to them.Those who have been in thecabins bring their life jacketswith them to the assemblyposition. Passengers who do notbring a life jacket are given onefrom the reserve stowed near theassembly position. Passengersput on their life jackets as soonas they have arrived at theassembly position. The crewmembers detailed for this, checkthat every passenger has a lifejacket and that it is being worncorrectly.

Following receipt of the report,issues the task to the unit leader:„ defense unit (or: support unit),prepare and turn out No....lifeboat!"In the case of lifeboats which canbe manned in the stowedposition, the turning out isomitted.Has lifeboat No....- prepared inside and outside in

the stowed position,- turned out and lowered to the

embarkation deck by his unit.The details depend on the factwith which type of lifeboats andlaunching appliances the ship isequipped.He then reports to the Head ofoperations:.. lifeboat No.... readyfor manning and lowering. "

passes on the readiness-report tothe master on the bridge.The lifeboat is not manned untilthe Head of operationscategorically orders this.

Head ofoperations:

Master;

Unit leader:

Gives the order: " Man lifeboatNo....!"No lifeboat, rescue boat orliferaft is launched without anorder form the master!The order to launch is given bythe master directly to the unitleader:"Unit leader, this is the master,lifeboat No.... LAUNCH!"On receipt of the orderLAUNCH, action is taken asappropriate to the boat and thelaunching appliance.

Note:

Note.

6. 2. 2 Preparing and launching liferafts

ATTENTION!

In contrast to the lifeboats, practices withliferafts are generally not possible on board, asafter every time they have been used these haveto be taken to an approved workshop to bemade ready for use again. The followingexplanation therefore applies to emergencies.

Launching a liferaft by hand

When the order is given to launch a liferaft, thefollowing actions are to be carried out:

- in darkness, provide emergency lighting,- hang embarkation ladder over the side,

additionally rig climbing nets, ropes or othermaterial suitable for climbing down,

- check whether the release/painter line of theliferaft is secured to the ship,

- cast off the lashing, (Fig. 6. 5)- check whether the surface of the sea is free

from obstructions, flotsam or leaked-out fuel,- throw the liferaft container over the side

(Fig. 6. 6).Only when the container is floating in the water:

- haul in the slack of the release/painter lineuntil you can feel a resistance,

as soon as the writing on the container becomesvisible:- open the inflating-gas bottle by a sharp tug on

the release/painter line, (Fig. 6. 7)once the lower, upper and canopy hose of theliferaft is inflated:- haul the liferaft in under the embarkation

ladder,- man the liferaft, (Fig. 6. 7a)- cut the release/painter line with the knife hung

near the embarkation point,- use the single paddles to take the liferaft clear

of the immediate vicinity of the ship.


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6. 2. 2 Preparing and launching liferafts

114

The falls of the launching cranes are fitted withautomatic-release hooks. There are severalapproved systems; the details of the system onboard and how this is operated are to be takenfrom the operating instructions.When the order to launch the liferaft is given, thefollowing actions are to be carried out:

- hook-on the crane hook, cast off the lashings(Fig. 6.8)

Fig. 6.6 Throw raft-container over board

Fig. 6.7 Release gas bottles


Fig. 6.5 Remove lashing

Fig. 6.7a Man the liferaft

Fig. 6.8- secure tricing line and release/painter line, turn out liferaft

Fig. 6.9

- inflate by pulling on the release/painter line

Fig. 6.10

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Fig. 6.5 Remove lashing

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Fig. 6.6 Throw raft-container over board

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Fig. 6.7 Release gas bottles

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Fig. 6.7a Man the liferaft

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Fig. 6.10

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Fig. 6.9

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Fig. 6.8

115- man liferaft- cut tricing lines, lower away

Fig. 6. 11

- as soon as the raft is in the water, release cranehook

- cut release/painter line and paddle awayfrom the vicinity of the ship

The; device to make the handle kick-back-proofhas the effect that the starting handle is notentrained - i.e. does not kick back - if the dieselengine does not go over TDC or starts to runbackwards. Some older diesel engines have notyet been fitted with this device so extra care isneeded when starting engines by hand.The following preparatory actions are to becarried out:

- set fuel shut-off valve in " OPEN " position- open decompression valves- gear lever in neutral- engage starting handle- turn the engine over a few times to build up

lubricating oil pressure and thus reducefriction

- set speed adjusting lever in “ FULL SPEED “position

- initiate start with decompression levers open,build up adequate momentum by energeticturning over

- close decompression valves by hand if there isno automatic closing arrangement

- carry on turning until the engine starts.
6. 3 Survival craft propulsion systemsThe variety of approved propulsion systems onboard makes it impossible to go into every detailin this manual. Study of the operatinginstructions available on board is thereforeimperative.
Fig. 6.13 Starting with starting handle

Starting with a spring power starterThe spring power starter is so constructed thatthe crankshaft is only turned through 3/4 of aturn with full torque. The best starting positionfor the diesel engine is therefore at"precompression" just short of TDC. The way tofind this position is to turn the engine by starting

6. 3. 1 Diesel engines

Fuel and lubricating oilBecause of the danger of paraffin precipitation,only winterproved diesel fuel is to be used asfuel.

ATTENTION!The marine diesel fuel available on board foruse by main or auxiliary engines is not alwayswinterproved; for that reason a reserve of fuelfor the life boat engines is kept on hoard. Downto -16 °C the boat engine fuel must not have atendency to precipitate paraffin |cloud point-16 °C).

Starting the diesel engineThere are operating instructions provided onboard for the lifeboat diesel engine; they are alsoin the training manual. As soon as possible afterjoining, every crew member is to be familiarisedwith the starting arrangements of the dieselengines. (See also § 8 UVV See)

ATTENTION!If the lifeboat is not in the water, the water-cooled engine may be run only in neutral andfor no more than 5 minutes!

Starting with a starting handle

ATTENTION!Not every starting handle is kick-back-proof!


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6. 3 Survival craft propulsion systems

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6. 3. 1 Diesel engines

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Fig. 6. 11

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Fig. 6.13 Starting with starting handle

116handle with the decompression valve closeduntil strong resistance is felt.

ATTENTION!The spring power starter may only be operatedwith the decompression valve closed, otherwiseIt could be destroyed

The following preparatory actions are to becarried out:

- set fuel shut-off valve in “ OPEN “ position- open decompression valves- gear lever in neutral- engage starting handle- turn the engine over a few times to build up

lubricating oil pressure and thus reducefriction

- close decompression valves- turn the engine until there is noticeable

resistance- remove the starting handle- set speed adjusting lever in " FULL SPEED"

position- wind up the spring power starter- operate the spring power starter

Fig. 6. 14 Loading of a spring starterby tension handlever

Starting with electrical starting equipment

The following preparatory actions are to becarried out:

- set fuel shut-off valve in " OPEN" position- gear lever in neutral- set speed adjusting lever in " FULL SPEED"

position- start the engine

Should the electrical starting equipment fail, theengine is started by hand using the startinghandle or by the spring power starter.

2 Control lamp for batterycharge, oilpressuremotor-temperature3 Lever for speed control4 Motor: stop5 Motor: start

Fig. 6. 15 Operation and control consolewith electric starter


1 Safety switch for mainswitch, motor switch,switch for internal lightingtop light, radio-telephonyapparatus

6. 3. 2 Petrol outboard engines

ATTENTION!

Water-cooled outboard engines must not bestarted until the survival craft is in the water !

Fig. 6. 16 Starting outboard engines

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Fig. 6. 14 Loading of a spring starter by tension handlever

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Fig. 6. 15 Operation and control console

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6. 3. 2 Petrol outboard engines

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Fig. 6. 16 Starting outboard engines

117

The following preparatory actions are to becarried out:- connect to the fuel tank- set fuel shut-off valve in the,, OPEN" position- pump up fuel with the pumping-ball- gear lever in „ NEUTRAL"- pull out CHOKE if there is one-turn speed-control twist-grip to „ START"

position- start.For a manual start, pull the starter cord slowlyuntil the claws engage, then pull sharply.- once the engine is running, push CHOKE back

in again
6. 3. 3 Maintenance and checking of
propulsion systemsInformation concerning the execution of themaintenance work is contained in the operatinginstructions held on board.The checks to be carried out monthly cover thefollowing points:- Is the fuel tank full and de-watered?

If necessary top up with cold-proof fuel.Operate dewatering shut-off device.

- Is the lube oil level as it should-be?If necessary top up with multigrade oil.

- Is the battery liquid level as it should be?If necessary top up with distilled water.

- Is the battery fully charged?If necessary top up the battery charge.

- Does the electrical installation show signs ofcorrosion or other visible defects?If necessary take remedial action.

- Clean off deposits of salt and dirt from surfaceof solar cells.

- Is the diesel engine difficult to start?If necessary vent fuel line.

After loosening the union nut on the fuelinjection valve, the fuel injection system isvented by operating the fuel injection pumpmanually. In the case of some injection pumpsadditional venting can be achieved by means ofa venting screw on the pump. Details are in theoperating instructions.- Is it easy to engage the gears so that the

propeller can be turned in both directions?If any defects are identified, make sure thatremedial action is taken.

ATTENTION!Before operating the gear lever, close off thedanger zone around the propeller and make itsafe!

- In the case of outboard motors, after runningthem flush the cooling system with fresh water.

6. 4 Sea anchors

The purpose of the sea anchor is- to slow down the leeward drift of the lifeboat,

and- to hold the bow of the boat up into the seas.The sea anchor is laid out using the hawser. Thisis veered at least far enough for the largeropening of the sea anchor to be submerged,because it is not until then that the anchor beginsto hold. The distance of the sea anchor from theboat at which the boat's motion is least isestablished by trial and error. If the sea anchorline is not long enough, it is lengthened usingthe lifeboat's fixed painter. The tripping linemust at the same time be lengthened with theheaving line provided in the lifeboat.

Fig. 6. 17 Functioning mode of the sea anchor

6. 5 Pyrotechnic distress signalsPyrotechnic distress signals are intended to drawthe attention of any search and rescue craft invisual range to the lifeboats or -rafts and tofacilitate their being found and recovered.Pyrotechnic distress signals contain explosivesand can therefore if inexpertly handled causeserious injuries or damage life-saving appliancesso badly that they can no longer be used.In all exercises the Head of operations musttherefore see to it that if any unit members aregiven pyrotechnic distress signals, the unitleaders hand these to them personally, explainthe operating instructions printed on them andabove all indicate the correct firing direction.Pyrotechnic distress signals have only a limitedapproved service life; once this has expired theycan no longer be relied upon to functionproperly. Date of manufacture and service lifeare printed on every pyrotechnic distress signal.The procedure in the event of misfires is:If ignition has not occurred after triggering,rocket parachute flares and hand flares arethrown into the water in the firing directionindicated by an arrow.

Rocket parachute flares

Operation of the rocket parachutecomprises the following processes:

flare


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6. 3. 3 Maintenance and checking

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6. 4 Sea anchors

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Fig. 6. 17 Functioning mode of the sea anchor

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118- read the operating instructions printed on the

rocket parachute flare,- take up a firm stand for firing vertically

upwards,- remove the rocket parachute flare from its

wrapping,- hold the device with its red head and arrow

pointing vertically upwards, clear of anyobstacles,

- take off the protective cap,- grasp the device firmly by its lower end, hold it

above eye level with the arm slightly bent,pointing vertically upwards, and actuate thepercussion fuse by pulling the ring.

The flare fired vertically upwards unfolds itsparachute and sinks down to the water at aspeed of about 5 m/sec.Fired vertically, the ceiling is at least 300 m.

The burning time is about 40 sec.

In good visibility it can be seen for up to 25nautical miles.

Fig. 6. 18 Rocket parachute flare

Hand flare

Operation of the hand flare comprises thefollowing processes:

- read the operating instructions printed on thehand flare,- remove the hand flare from its wrapping,- unfold the handle and let it lock,- remove the protective cap,

- extract the cord of the yank-fuse,- hold the hand flare over the side to leeward,turn your head away to avoid injury fromsparks,- yank the fuse.

The hand flare burns for about one minute.

In good visibility, it can be seen for about 10nautical miles.

Fig. 6. 19 Hand flare

Buoyant smoke signalWhen operating the buoyant smoke signal thefollowing is to be noted:- read the operating instructions printed on the

buoyant smoke signal,- remove the buoyant smoke signal from its

wrapping,- remove the protective cap.

Fig. 6. 20 Buoyant smoke signalOnly aircraft can sight buoyant smoke signalsover greater distances.


6. 6 Lifebuoy

The lifebuoy serves as a swimming-aid foranyone who has fallen overboard; in addition itmarks the spot of the accident.In an emergency the lifebuoy is immediately tobe taken out of its mounting and thrownoverboard in the direction of the person in thewater.If the lifebuoy is equipped with an electric nightlight, that is taken out of the mounting andthrown over the side together with it. The night

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Fig. 6. 18 Rocket parachute flare

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Fig. 6. 19 Hand flare

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Fig. 6. 20 Buoyant smoke signal

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6. 6 Lifebuoy

119light on reaching the upright position in thewater makes a mercury switch, causing thefilament lamp to be supplied with power fromthe internal battery.If at the shout of,, man overboard" someone onwatch on the bridge pulls out the locking-pin ofthe bridge-wing mounted lifebuoy, this slides outof its mounting taking its light/smoke signaloutboard with it. Light and smoke are producedautomatically as soon as the device is in thewater.When work outboard is in progress, near thegangway and when embarking the pilot alifebuoy with its line is to be kept ready forthrowing as a precaution. The end of the linemust be left lying clear, so that it can be heldonto when the buoy is used.

- turn the twist grip of the firing device into theloading position (BLACK on BLACK),

- push the line-throwing rocket into the barrelup to the stop,

- take up a stand 1 m behind the line box,- grip the firing device with both hands, label

upwards, forward hand behind the guard ring- hold the firing device alongside the body at

thigh level, firing angle about 20° above thehorizontal, never aim over the barrel!

- fire the shot by turning the twist grip to the leftin the direction of the arrow (RED on RED).

Time and place of the firing is determined by themaster or his representative.Strong wind can affect the trajectory and resultin misses. A miss can also result if the operator isnot standing securely and the ship is rollingheavily in a seaway.Handling of the line-throwing apparatus is to beexplained during the regular safety exercises. Apractice shot with charge and line is onlypossible and approved if an appliance for fakingdown the used line properly and an extra chargeis held on board.

6. 7 Line throwing apparatusThe purpose of the apparatus is to provide a linkby line from one ship to another or to the shore.When operating it, the operating instructionsprovided with the apparatus are to be compliedwith carefully.

Fig. 6. 21 Graphic operating instructionsfor „ Comet 250"

For example:- remove the lid of the line bin and put it to one

side,- secure the (GREEN) end of the line coming

from the bottom to a firm point on board nearthe firing point,

6. 8 Radio life-saving appliances

6. 8. 1 Emergency position indicating radiobeacon (EPIRB)

While at sea emergency position indicating radiobeacons are mounted in stowages on thecompass platform or somewhere near the bridge.Switching-on in emergency is possible either atthe appliance or by remote control. Otherpossible means of activation are by detaching aconnecting cable, lifting out of the stowage,throwing over the side and lastly by automaticfloating to the surface if the ship sinks.When abandoning ship the emergency positionindicating radio beacon must be taken into oneof the survival craft used. Light weight(maximum 10 kg) and small size (about the sameas a portable fire extinguisher) make thispossible without a great deal of difficulty.If in totally enclosed lifeboats or -rafts it isdifficult to mount the apparatus on the outside ofthe canopy, it can continue to operate alongsidefloating in the water. It is important that theapparatus transmits in the open. It should bescreened from the satellite as little as possible bythe survival craft or its equipment.However a connection with the survival craftmust be maintained by means of the painterfastened to the beacon, to prevent craft andbeacon drifting apart.Emergency position indicating radio beaconshave a built-in power source which guarantees


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6. 7 Line throwing apparatus

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Fig. 6. 21 Graphic operating instructions for „ Comet 250"

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6. 8 Radio life-saving appliances

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6. 8. 1 Emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB)

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48 hours of operation in accordance with theIMO performance standards.The radio beacon can be switched off manually.However this should in an emergency be doneonly if and when the rescue of all the castawaysis assured before the 48 hours are up.

information, e. g. when casting off or making fast,or for anchoring manoeuvres.The appliances are approved and meet the IMOperformance standards.The appliances consist of

- transmitter- receiver- microphone- loudspeaker, plus- aerial andbattery/ies

all installed in one casing.The operator's controls are mountedon thecasing.The on/off switch is so designed that it is visuallyrecognisable whether the appliance is switchedon or off.There is a control for adjusting the sound level ofthe receiver.There is a channel selection switch for selectingthe frequencies; manual tuning is not necessary.There is a noise level regulator for suppressingthe disruptive noise.All usable VHF channels are simplex channels:the same frequency is used for transmitting andreceiving. Pressing the speech key switches thetransmitter on, the receiver off. Once a messagehas been transmitted the speech key must bereleased so that the receiver is switched onagain.For VHF radiotelephone communication inemergency, channel 16 is to be selected usingthe rapid selection key. As soon ascommunication has been established with asearch and rescue unit, the person in charge ofthe ship or aircraft decides which channel is tobe used.ATTENTIONIn order to conserve the limited reserves ofpower, strict radio discipline is to be observed.The radiotelephones are to be used only brieflyfor radio communication between the survivalcraft; otherwise switched on only if search andrescue craft are in the vicinity. That can bedetermined from the indication of the radar

6. 8. 2 Radar transponder for search and rescueWhile at sea radar transponders are mounted instowages around the bridge, at the musterstation or near the survival craft.In an emergency they must be taken along intothe survival craft. They can float, but must not beoperated from the surface of the water as therange for sea search and rescue attainable fromthere is too short, particularly in a seaway.Switching the radar transponders on and off canonly be done manually. The switch is so markedthat even an untrained person can operate theappliance. Readiness to operate and activationby an external radar are indicated by lightemitting diodes.Details regarding operation and operationalcontrol are obtainable from the operatinginstructions held on board.The power reserve is sufficient for 8 hourscontinuous operation. If several appliances areavailable, it is advisable to operate only one at atime so as to save the power reserves.As the range is determined by the height of theaerial above the surface of the water, theappliance must be set up as high as possible. Ifthe survival craft has no permanent fitting forthis, a mast, boat's oar or something of that sortcan be used as a temporary mounting for theradar transponder.The radar transponder signal is an internationaldistress signal, so radar transponders must notbe switched on except in an emergency. This isonly done on the orders of the master or hisrepresentative - in the survival craft, thecoxswain.Switching the appliance on to test it, or forexercise, is permissible only exceptionally ifthere are no other vessels within radar range.The appliance must only be left switched on for afew seconds, until the interrogation indicatorlights up and the transponder signal has beenobserved on the ship's own radar.

transponder.

For use in routine ship operation, rechargeablenickel-cadmium cells are used; for use indistress, lithium cells. These are colouredluminous yellow/orange.In an emergency the Ni-Ca cells must beremoved and replaced by Li cells before any RTcommunication is undertaken.

6. 8. 3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephoneapparatus

Two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus are forsurvival craft to communicate with one another,with the ship, and in emergency with search andrescue craft.They can also be used in day-to-day operation ofthe ship for internal exchange of operational


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6. 8. 2 Radar transponder for search and rescue

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6. 8. 3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephone

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6. 9 Distress signalsThe distress signals are laid down internationallyin Appendix IV of the Regulations for PreventingCollisions (COLREG). Transmitted individuallyor collectively by seagoing vessels or aircraft onthe water, they signify distress and the need forassistance. They may only be used or displayedin emergencies. The use of signals which couldbe mistaken for distress signals is prohibited andis punished as an Infringement of theregulations.Distress signals are:- gun fire or other explosive signals at intervals

of about a minute,- continuous sounding of a fog signal apparatus,- rockets or flares with red stars separately at

short intervals,- the morse signal •••--- ••• (SOS)

transmitted by radio-telegraphy or as signal insome other form,

- the spoken word „ MAYDAY" on the RT,- the distress signal NC of the international code

of signals,- a signal consisting of a rectangular flag with a

ball or something that looks like a ball above orbelow it,

- flare-type signals on the vessel, e. g. burningtar barrels, oil drums or the like,

- a red rocket parachute flare or a red hand flare,

- a smoke signal making orange smoke,

- slow and repeated raising and lowering of thearms stretched out to both sides,

- the radio-telegraphy alarm signal,

- the RT alarm signal,

- the radio signals radiated by an emergencyposition indicating radio beacon (EPIRB),

- the radio signals radiated by a radartransponder.

Additionally attention is drawn to the followingsignals:

- a piece of orange sailcloth with a black squareor circle or some other similar sign (forrecognition from the air),

- a dyed patch of sea water.


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1. The RT signal consisting of the spoken word "MAYDAY".

2. The Morse signal ••• ——— ••• (SOS) made by radiotelegraphy or someother means of transmission.

3. Rockets or Very lights with red stars, singly at short intervals.

4. A red parachute light rocket or a red hand flare

5. A smoke signal giving off orange smoke.

6. Gunfire (detonator) or other explosive signals at intervals of about one minute.

7. Continuous sounding of a fog-signal device.

8. The distress signal (flags) "NC" of the International Code of Signals.

9. A signal consisting of a square flag, above or below a ball or something similar.

10. Flare-type signals on the vessel, e. g. burning tar barrels, oil drums or the like.

11. Slow and repeated raising and lowering of the arms stretched out to both sides.

12. Radar transponder signal.

Fig. 6. 22 Distress signalsShip Safety Service; February 1996

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Fig. 6. 22 Distress signals

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xercises and in EmergencyThe effectiveness of exercises is checked in thefollow-up discussion. The comparison betweenhow they actually went and how they wereplanned brings facts to light which form the basisfor the shaping of subsequent exercises.

7. Conduct during Lifeboat EPreliminary remarks

The success of a safety exercise depends on howwell the individual participant is prepared for histask. Only he will collaborate willingly whoknows his place in the scheme of things, isfamiliar with the moves to be expected andwithin the unit can make his contribution tosuccess. Every training measure must take thisfact into account. So here also the valid guidingprinciple is

only he succeeds who keeps calmobtains an overviewacts with carefulconsideration.

The purpose of the exercises carried out onboard is, to prepare for an emergency. Courseand content of the exercises are to be directed atthat objective. The trainer must therefore

- plan every exercise carefully,- prepare those taking part theoretically,- demonstrate details practically,- let every individual practise,- supervise the combined exercise,- in a final discussion, point out mistakes made

and explain the correct conduct.From this training manual for the ship securityservice, based on the equipment in one's ownship, an exercise plan can be compiled. Oncewritten down and posted on the mainnoticeboard, in the messes or in other suitableplaces it is available to every member of thecrew. New arrivals on board must have theirattention drawn to it during their initialinstruction.As the exercise requires a large number ofindividual activities, these must be well-known,their execution practised and the way in whichthose taking part collaborate made quite clear.If possible, everyone should be familiar with allactivities. Exchanges of function must bepractised. This involves being shown how to doit right and doing it again until every move canbe carried out confidently.

Before every exercise, all the details are settledin a preliminary discussion. This includes thescope, course in time, composition of the units,muster station and the appliances andinstallations to be used. An interesting, realisticstructuring of the exercise encourages a positiveattitude in those taking part. Everyone takingpart must at the end of the exercise have thefeeling that he is better prepared foremergencies than he was.

7. 1 Handling lifeboats and liferaftsThe smooth cooperation of all crew membersduring exercises as in emergencies can lead tosuccess only if everyone

KEEPS CALMRETAINS AN OVERVIEW

ACTS WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION

Everyone must be able to rely on everyone else.

7. 1. 1 On boardCalm and orderliness are the most importantprerequisites for the success of a manoeuvre,whether during exercises or in an emergency.On the way to the muster station position hurryand haste must be avoided, particularly aroundstairs, ladders or coamings.At the muster station, tasks or instructions areaccepted attentively. If an instruction is notunderstood, it is queried at once. Everyinstruction is repeated back and thenimmediately carried out conscientiously.There is no conversation of any kind, to avoiddisturbing the unit leaders as they issue tasksand instructions. There is no discussion aboutcontent or execution of tasks or instructions.

7. 1. 2 EmbarkingThe Head of operations instructs the unit leaderto man the life-saving appliance.The unit leader supervises the orderlyembarkation. He determines the order in whichpeople embark.The positions in the boat important for thelowering process, are taken by crew memberswho are familiar with and experienced in themanipulation, and able to communicate verballywith the unit leader.Everyone climbing into the boat is helped bysomeone already in it.Families remain together. Passengers, childrenand casualties are treated with special care.Everyone sits down in the appointed place. No-one stands on the thwarts.In open lifeboats everyone on board holds ontothe lifelines.Before climbing into free-fall boats, life jacketsare taken off and stowed forward in the boat.


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7. Conduct during Lifeboat Exercises and in Emergency

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7. 1 Handling lifeboats and liferafts

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7. 1. 1 On board

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7. 1. 2 Embarking

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Then the places are taken up and the safety beltsbuckled-on.The supplementary equipment is stowed in thelife-saving appliance, located firmly and lashed-in. Personal luggage is taken along only if of akind useful for survival in distress, such as warmclothing.As soon as everyone is on board and in the rightplace, the unit leader reports execution of theinstruction to the Head of operations.The Head of operations reports to the master.

Any angled pull on the davits must be absolutelyavoided; they are not designed for such loading.This is achieved by having a precisely-measuredpainter of adequate strength, which, once theboat is in the water, holds it exactly verticallyunderneath the davits. It is not slipped until thelifting hooks have been disengaged.The boat must be released either just before orimmediately after reaching the water, by meansof the central release gear for the lifting hooks. Ifthis is done too late, the boat is dragged bows-under or the davits are damaged by the angledpull. If it is done too soon, the boat drops into thewater which may cause serious injuries to theoccupants.As on modem ships life- and rescue boats underdavits are mostly mounted near the stem andthus only a short distance from the propeller,such manoeuvres retain an extraordinaryelement of danger even if carried out with thegreatest circumspection.If the ship management nevertheless considersthat launching while the ship is travelling aheadmust be practised, the following additionalprecautions are to be taken:- Practices are to be carried out with a ship's

officer in charge, under the best possibleconditions for supervision, in still water. Evenonly a slight sea brings additional difficultiesand dangers.

- Practices are if possible to be carried out whenthe ship is loaded to its deepest draft. Thatabove all reduces the danger from thepropeller.

- Should an incident occur, it must be possible togive immediate assistance to the boatlaunched for practice.A second boat must therefore be kept ready forlaunching.

- At a preliminary discussion, the ship's officer incharge of the practice gives detailedinstructions regarding its execution. Hesatisfies himself that every member of the crewinvolved understands what he has to do.

- The only crew members in the boat are thoseessential for launching it and casting off.

7. 1. 3 Launching and casting off

The master gives the order „ lower away! "The unit leader independently initiates loweringthe boat and casting off.The bowsing and tricing are only operated onthe orders of the unit leader.All occupants of the boat remain seated at alltimes. Only for tasks which can only be carriedout standing-up is it permissible to stand up for ashort time.In enclosed survival craft the unit leaderprovides the occupants with a runningcommentary about the situation while the craft isbeing lowered.In free-fall lifeboats, after belting-in the head ispressed firmly against the neck support until theboat is in the water.No-one puts his hand between the boat and theship, or uses his hands to try to bear-off the boathitting against the ship's side.The lifting hooks are disengaged simultaneouslyat the command of the unit leader, unless hedoes this himself using the central release gear.The lifelines are let go only after the hooks havebeen released, and in the case of motor boatshanded aft, clear of the screw.The boat tackle blocks, dangling from the fallsafter release from the lifting hooks, have to bewatched.If the survival craft is under threat fromoverhanging parts of the ship or the propeller, itis to move off ahead at once.

- Everyone in the boat wears a survival suit andlife jacket.

- The skates are removed before lowering.- In the case of totally enclosed lifeboats, all

openings are closed before lowering.- RT communication using VHF radiotelephones

is established between the bridge, the personin charge of the practice and the boat'scoxswain before the launch and maintainedthroughout the practice.

- The boat is lowered with the engine running.

7. 1. 4 Launching and recovery with the shipunder way

Only lifeboats launched in free fall over the stemcan be got into the water safely even when theship is going ahead.Launching boats which are lowered from davitson falls on the other hand is a difficult anddangerous manoeuvre when the ship is goingahead. It is only to be considered for extremeemergencies.


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7. 1. 3 Launching and casting off

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7. 1. 4 Launching and recovery with the ship under way

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- The ship's propeller is not turned during thelaunch or while the boat is still in the dangerzone.

The experience gained in the practice is to beenhanced in a final discussion. Detaileddocumentation of the course and result of thepractice is recommended. Records on video orfilm, and photographs, are useful aids for thepreparation of future practices.As even in future it is unlikely that merchantships will be equipped with swell-compensatinggear for the survival craft launching andrecovery appliances, any attempt to recover aboat in a seaway has little chance of success. Theship management decides case-by-case, takinginto account the possibilities existing, whether alifeboat can be used, whether it has to be toweduntil conditions have improved, or in the mostunfavourable case whether it has to beabandoned.If the ship is rolling heavily, recovery of a boat isnot to be attempted.Boats can be towed at slow speeds of up to 5 kn.Ships with sufficiently powerful cargo-handlinggear can in the first instance bring lifeboats backon board temporarily using that gear and thentransfer them back into their stowage positionunder the launching appliances when conditionshave improved.

into the respiratory organs. That can quicklylead to a life-threatening condition.Persons and life-saving appliances floating inthe water are approached upwind, carefully, andat moderate speed.Liferafts automatically lie to a sea anchor. Whenapproaching them, the sea-anchor line must bewatched for to avoid the propeller becomingfouled.The fuel reserve of a motor lifeboat is sufficientfor 24 hours' continuous full-speed operation.However lifeboats are not to travel significantdistances under power. After leaving the dangerzone, picking up any persons drifting in thewater, assembling the other life-savingappliances and laying the sea anchor the engineis stopped to save fuel.The strain on the boat's occupants from the noiseof the engine running at full power can beconsiderable. For that reason also, the enginemust be run at reduced speed wheneverpossible.If the boat is equipped for operating the portableradio apparatus (converter and socket), theengine is run slowly in neutral when the set is inuse.

7. 1. 5 Running lifeboats

Immediately after entering the water, a lifeboatmust leave the danger zone around the damagedship as quickly as possible.The biggest danger to the boat and its occupantscomes from the damaged and sinking ship itself,by its capsizing, by explosions, the deck cargogoing over the side, drifting pieces of cargo orthe wreck, and fuel leaking out.The best course is at right angles away from thedamaged ship. Motor life- and rescue boats canin still water reach speeds of up to 6 knots. In aseaway or when towing other survival craft, thatspeed will not be reached.Damaged ships usually drift athwartships to thesea. A boat launched on the leeward side thusseems to,, stick" to the ship's side, but by goingfull ahead and putting the rudder hard over itcan be manoeuvred clear. Propeller nozzles areparticularly effective as rudders. Care ishowever necessary when putting the rudderhard over, to avoid the boat going out of control.If there is a fuel leak from the damaged ship, thatpart of the water surface must be avoided or leftimmediately. In the case of open boats, fuelbeing swept into the boat makes it so slipperythat those in it can no longer hold on to it. Heavyfuel in the face glues up eyes and ears and gets

7. 2 Survival in distressSurvival in distress is possible if the survival craftwith the equipment accommodated in it hasbeen brought into operation properly and allphysical and mental forces are directed at theobjective - the rescue - with deliberateapplication of the will to survive. Only hesucceeds who

KEEPS CALMRETAINS AN OVERVIEW

ACTS WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION:

7. 2. 1 Conduct at the scene of the accidentThe first target of any search and rescueoperation is always the last position of the shipreported by radio (distress position). Later, thesearch concentrates on the position determinedat certain intervals by the emergency positionindicating radio beacons and transmittedautomatically.For that reason the survival craft always remainnear the distress position.In every occupied survival craft a VHFradiotelephone is to be switched on and RTcontact established with the other survival craft.The subsequent activities will then be under thecontrol of the master or his representative.One of the emergency position indicating radiobeacons is secured by means of the painterfastened to it and put into the water about 10maway from the survival craft.


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7. 1. 5 Running lifeboats

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7. 2 Survival in distress

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7. 2. 1 Conduct at the scene of the accident

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One of the radar transponders is fitted into themounting provided for it or else in some otherway set up as high as possible above the waterand switched on.As soon as possible, a check of whethereveryone is present is carried out. Until it hasbeen established with certainty that everyone onboard the damaged ship has been rescued, alockout continues to be kept for persons floatingin the water and any such picked up. So thatshouts for help can be heard, there is nounnecessary conversation in the survival craft.In open lifeboats, all occupants remain in theirplaces except for two who help persons in thewater to climb aboard or lift them inboard. Theplace for this is midway along the boat, wherethe freeboard is least. To avoid excessive list,particularly in the case of small boats, the otheroccupants move over to the opposite side tocounteract the list. Persons who are weak,unconscious or suffering from hypothermia arebrought alongside and lifted into the boathorizontally by several helpers. The remainderof those in the boat counteract the list.In the case of enclosed boats without a recoveryplatform, the forward entrance is opened for thelockout and the side opening for embarkingpeople. All occupants remain belted-in in theirplaces, apart from the lockout and two crewmembers for attending to persons floating in thewater. Heaving lines are kept ready and theladder is brought out. The helpers always protectthemselves with heaving lines beforeundertaking any further measures.In the case of enclosed boats with a recoveryplatform aft, all occupants remain belted-in intheir places except for the lockout in the openedfor'd entrance and two helpers who climb outonto the recovery platform when the boat getsnear the person to be rescued. These helpersbeforehand protect themselves with life jacketand heaving line against falling overboard. Theperson to be rescued is pulled to the stem,brought parallel to the flat stem floatinghorizontally in the water and pulled or rolledonto the platform.The survival craft drifting around the scene ofthe accident remain close together and arelinked by lines, e. g. the fixed painters. Ifnecessary, survival craft without engines arebrought together by a boat with an engine. Thepainter provided can be used for towing; it iscarefully made fast to both craft. Only bitts,cleats or lifting hooks strong enough to take thestrain of towing are used for this. On liferafts, thetowrope may only be fastened to the towingfitting (bridle).Unoccupied lifeboats and -rafts are also secured,as they contain equipment important andvaluable for survival.

The sea anchor prevents the survival craft beingdrifted a great distance by the wind. If the seaanchor has been lost, in each case a replacementis to be constructed from suitable objects andlaid.Properly laid and veered far enough for thelarger opening to be submerged, the sea anchorkeeps the bow of a lifeboat head on to the windand sea. That is the most comfortable and safestposition, best achieved with the laid sea anchorand steering oars.As soon as these measures have beencompleted, watches are organised and rudderand lockout manned continuously. The lockoutis not only to report the sighting of search andrescue craft, but also pay attention to changes inthe weather. This for instance makes it possibleto make timely preparations to catch rainwater.


7. 2. 2 Conduct in the survival craftThe castaway is in danger from wetness, wind,cold or heat and insolation. He must therefore doeverything he can to protect himself againstthese dangers.In open boats, only the cover which is part of theequipment provides protection, this is thereforerigged as soon as possible.If the weather permits, the climatic conditions inthe survival craft can be improved by opening orclosing ventilation flaps or access openings.It is important for the wellbeing of the occupantsthat the survival craft is dry and clean. Any waterthat has got in or vomit, is therefore removed assoon as possible.Dry clothing is an important prerequisite forsurvival. Wet clothing is to be exchanged for dry;if there is none of that available the wet clothingis to be removed, wrung out hard and then puton again.Chilling greatly saps the strength, so allpossibilities for preventing loss of heat areutilised. The survival craft occupants move closeto one another, wrap themselves together inwoollen blankets, turn their backs to the wind.Survival suits are always to be kept on. Thetemperature inside them can be adequatelyadjusted by opening or closing the zip.Head, neck and eyes are particularly at risk tobecome sunburned and are therefore to beprotected against this.Sitting still for a long time adversely affects thecirculation. Individual limbs can,, go to sleep".Small-movement exercises are of some help,butevery movement consumes energy, which in thesurvival craft can only be replaced to a limitedextent by eating and drinking. Any work is

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7. 2. 2 Conduct in the survival craft

127therefore considered carefully and carried outdeliberately.Seasickness leads to a generally weakenedstate. The anti-seasickness medicine is thereforetaken every 6 hours.The occupants remain belted-in in the survivalcraft, or lash themselves in.If around the survival craft there is danger fromsharks, nothing is done which could attract theanimals' attention. Above all no garbage isthrown overboard and no parts of the body aredipped in the water.

Equipment

All measures for survival reach their limits in thecomposition and scale of the equipmentprovided in the survival craft.For that reason, an inventory-check is carried outat the first opportunity. If this should show thatpieces of equipment are not adequatelysafeguarded against loss, straightawayeverything possible is done to prevent loss ordamage from wash of the sea.Each item of equipment is returned to itsstowage immediately after use and securedthere, so that when required at any time it can befound at once.

First aid box for survival craft

Survival craft are equipped with a first aid box.These boxes have a watertight closure and aresealed to ensure completeness and goodcondition of the contents.Scale and composition of the first aid kit isspecified. Every box contains:

Fig. 7.1 First aid box inventory

It is recommended that a copy of the first aidleaflet published by the German Red Cross beput by the first aid equipment.Opiates or other narcotic medicines are notincluded.

Use of the first aid equipment

Action in emergency must be based on theassumption of a lengthy stay in the survival craft.That means the first aid equipment has to beused sparingly.- The analgesics (pain killers) and the anti-

seasickness medicine are issued in accordancewith the instructions to be found on thepackaging or in the accompanying leaflet.

- The anti-seasickness medicine is to be takenalready before the onset of the rocking thatleads to seasickness, before leaving the ship oras soon as possible after the survival craft hasbeen launched. The times when it is to betaken are to be obtained from the leaflet withthe medicine.

- Anti-seasickness suppositories are for peoplewho cannot keep tablets down because ofcontinuous vomiting or who are in a dangerouscondition because of long-lasting seasickness.

- PH5-Eucerinsalbe is a non-irritant, mild skincream. It is used to treat dryness and chafing ofthe skin. Minor wounds can be dealt withEucerinsalbe and an adhesive dressing.

- Sticking plaster is used for keeping dressingsin place.

- The purpose of the bandaging cloth (black,triangular) isto protect bandagesto immobilise broken armsto secure splints or similar aids in cases ofbroken bonesto act as tourniquet in cases of arterialbleeding.The first aid leaflet published by the GermanRed Cross contains many examples of how touse the triangular cloth.

- Dressing packs are used to treat more seriousand bleeding wounds. The size is to be sochosen that the wound can be coveredcompletely.

- The scissors are for cutting sticking plaster andadhesive dressings to size.

- Bandages or bandaging cloths can be fixedwith the safety pins.

- Medicaments for widening the coronaryvessels (e.g. Nitrolingual capsules) are given topeople with cardio spasms (angina pectoris) inaccordance with the instructions on thepackage or the leaflet with it. Crush thecapsule and let the contents act on the tongue.


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Fig. 7.1 First aid box inventory

128

- Leather finger stalls are for putting on overbandages on fingers if tasks are necessarywhich involve using the hand.

Food in the survival craftSurvival in distress at sea is decisivelydependent on how the drinking water, theprovisions and the materials additionallybrought along are subdivided and used.Man can survive for 3 minutes without oxygen,for 3 days without water and for 30 days withoutfood.A person normally needs 2.6 litres of water perday. If in the first 24 hours after the start of thedistress nothing is drunk, the body reduces itsrequirement to 0.8 litres per day. As 0.3 litres perday are produced by personal metabolism, thatleaves a daily requirement of 0.5 litres which hasto be met by drinking. Body fluid is lost bysweating, the passing of urine or faeces,vomiting or remaining in the water for lengthyperiods. Alcohol binds body fluids. Drinking seawater results in death from lack of water - thesalts in sea water bind body fluid before they canbe expelled. To expel 100 g sea water, the bodyis deprived of 120 g fresh water.The following rules therefore apply to theissuing of drinking water and provisions:- During the first 24 hours no water is issued,

except to children and casualties.- On subsequent days, a daily water ration of 0. 5

litres is issued subdivided into three portions,in the morning, at midday and in the evening.

- Drink every ration of water slowly in sips; firstmoisten Ups, oral cavity and pharynx andgargle.

- If the reserves of water are getting low, the lastdays' ration is stretched further to 0. 1 litres perday.

- Every possibility for obtaining fresh water isexploited. For catching rain water, the saltcrusts are first removed from the catchment.Even the flesh of fishes can be squeezed dry.

- The distribution of dry provisions depends onthe quantity of water available. The dryprovisions provided in survival craft are solidnutrient bars (Feststoffnahrungsriegel). Onebar per person is issued every 5 hours.

- Castaways have also supported themselvessuccessfully on fish, sea birds and turtles.

- Do not drink sea water!- Do not drink alcohol!

The will to surviveThe attitude of the unit leader is decisive for thecollective seeing through of the distresssituation. It is his task to keep alive the will tosurvive of the occupants of the survival craft,even if the situation appears almost hopeless.

As soon as possible, the unit leader gives theoccupants a situation report. In this he talksprimarily about proximity of land, traffic densityplus weather and climate around the distressposition, and gives prominence to anycircumstances which can reinforce the hope ofan early rescue.The unit leader emphasises the proven reliabilityof the survival craft and its equipment.The unit leader gives his instructions clearly andusing terminology easy to understand. He sees toit that the tasks arising are shared equitablyamong the occupants.The unit leader keeps an eye on all theoccupants, to be able to intervene encouraginglyat once if there are signs of anxiety oraggression. In these endeavours he involvesthose occupants who are mentally and physicallyup to being stressed, and induces them to helpthe weaker ones.Clear and strict leaderhips and close cohesion ofthe unit form the basis for survival in distress atsea.

Sighting rescuersThe appearance of search and rescue craft cancause discipline to break down, excitement andrashness to break out, and thereby in the lastminute endanger the successful conclusion ofthe rescue operation.This situation places a special burden on the unitleader. He must use all available means, inparticular the support of the more circumspect ofthe occupants, to ensure that everyone in thesurvival craft remains calm and collected.The transmission indicator of the radartransponder lighting up will often be the firstsign of the approach of search and rescue craft.That is an indication that the search radar of anassisting ship has already locked onto thesurvival craft or will shortly do so.The first thing now is to switch on the VHFradiotelephone and send a distress report; afterthat the set is switched to receive. If there is noanswer from the searching craft, the distressreport is repeated after a few minutes.The lockout is backed up. Depending on thetime of day, visibility and weather conditions, allsignalling means are made ready.For bringing the castaways to the attention of therescuers primarily sails, protective canopy,brightly-coloured clothing and the daytimesignalling mirror can be used in daylight inaddition to watching the radar and the distressradio traffic.During twilight or in darkness, the pyrotechnicsignalling means are used.


129

In reduced visibility, the horn or the signalwhistles can be used.As soon as a rescue craft approaches, it is to beclarified by the use of the VHF radiotelephonehow the rescue is to be effected.The unit leader now explains the rescue methodto be used, issues the necessary instructions andfixes the order in which the occupants will berescued.No occupant leaves the survival craft unlessinvited to do so by the unit leader.

- Before the helicopter rescue starts, anythingprojecting above the survival craft such asmasts, aerials and the like is taken down.

- All occupants of the survival craft remainseated or lying down for as long as possible, toreduce the risk of capsizing due to thedownwards-directed flow of air (downwash)from the helicopter rotor.

- While the rescue is in progress, engine, seaanchor or steering oars are used to hold thesurvival craft as steady as possible in the sea.

- The technician on board the helicopteroperates the rescue winch. Its line is about 75m long.

- As a rule a helper who takes charge of therescue operation in the survival craft iswinched down from the helicopter. Hisinstructions are to be obeyed. If no helper iswinched down, the unit leader determines theorder of rescue of the occupants.

- Before someone from the survival craft graspsthe rescue-sling hanging from the rope, this isbriefly dipped into the water by the helicopterto dispose of any electrostatic charges.

- The helicopter winch rope must be held wellclear of any obstructions. It must above all nothook in behind access flaps, clips, bitts orcleats.

- The unit leader checks that the rescue slinghas been put on properly and then with hisarms gives the signal to hoist away.

Meanings arearms up, thumbs up

arms horizontal,fists clenched

arms horizontal,thumbs down

There is no special signal for VEER AWAY as thetechnician on board can see for himself whetherthe winch rope can be veered.However the helicopter crew also understandsthe seafaring signals normally used to control acargo winch.- As well as the rescue sling other appliances,

like a rescue anchor, rescue net, rescuestretcher and ambulance hammock may beused.

HOIST AWAY orAFFIRMATIVE

STOP

NEGATIVE

7. 2. 3 Rescue by helicopter

Helicopters are eminently suitable for rescuingcastaways. Only poor visibility and weatherconditions with the risk of icing set limits to theirdeployment possibilities.The types used by Germany are primarily theproven SEA KING MK 41 and BELL UH ID.These have a range of 300 nautical miles. Inaddition to the crew they can if necessary carry adoctor.For search and aid, BREGUET ATLANTIK BR1150 type aircraft are also used. They have acruising speed of 280 kn and an endurance of 6hours.Once these have found surviving castaways,they attempt to improve their circumstances bydropping distress equipment, and to facilitatetheir being found again by other search andrescue units.The canisters for dropping have colour markingsand clear inscriptions. They contain for instance- liferafts, emergency position indicating radio

beacons, VHF radiotelephone or visualsignalling equipment in black canisters,

- food and drinking water in blue canisters.For helicopter rescues the following rules are tobe observed:- If aircraft are heard or seen to be approaching,

all possible means are used to attract theirattention.

- The radar transponder is switched on.- A distress report is made with the VHF

radiotelephone.- In twilight or darkness pyrotechnic distress

signals are deployed - rockets parachute flaresonly while the searching aircraft is somedistance away; hand flares only if the aircraftapproaches the survival craft. Additionally thelights in the boat or raft can be used to indicateits position.

- In daylight and good visibility visual signallingmeans and smoke signals are used.

7. 3 Rescue of castawaysEvery ship is by international law required toprovide assistance to castaways.The specified life-saving appliances on boardare suitable also for use in castaways rescuing.Ships are either equipped with a special rescue.,boat or one of the lifeboats available carries thespecial equipment which allows it also to beused as a rescue boat.


Ship Safety service

7. 2. 3 Rescue by helicopter

Ship Safety service

7. 3 Rescue of castaways

130The rescue of castaways and the welfaremeasures during and following the rescuerequire special care and attention.Here again only he succeeds who

REMAINS CALMRETAINS AN OVERVIEW

ACTS WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION

- Having cast off, the rescue boat guided by thecoxswain heads for the accident spotidentified, or indicated by radiotelephone fromthe bridge, and takes the casualty on board.

7. 3. 1 Man overboardThe successful recovery of someone who hasfallen over the side calls for especially rapid andprudent action.As the casualty in most cases is not wearingwarm clothing, let alone a survival suit, orwearing a life jacket, death from hypothermiacan occur after quite a short time even withaverage air and water temperatures.

Anyone who notices someone falling over theside- immediately throws a lifebuoy over the side,

thereby marking the accident spot and at thesame time offering the casualty a swimmingaid,

- immediately alerts the bridge. The report mustbe clear and precise, e. g. " MAN OVERBOARDSTARBOARD SIDE AFT".

All subsequent measures are then initiated bythe officer on watch:- The lifebuoy with the combined light/smoke

signal (man overboard buoy) on the side of theship in question is released.

- The general emergency alarm is sounded.- Those on watch on the bridge keep the person

who has fallen overboard in sight whateverhappens. The crew members arriving at themuster station are immediately sent, withbinoculars, to lockout positions higher up toprovide a better lockout from there.

- The officer on watch immediately initiates theprocedure laid down in the manoeuvringdiagram on the bridge, to steer the ship back tothe accident spot.

- The flag signal OSCAR is hoisted if there areother ships nearby. A priority report is made byradio.

- One unit prepares the rescue boat forlaunching.

- The rescue boat's crew puts on life jackets andsurvival suits.

- Radio contact with the bridge is established byVHF radiotelephone and kept up throughoutthe entire rescue operation.

- As soon as the ship has reached a position fromwhich the person who has fallen overboard canbe recovered, the master gives the orderRESCUE BOAT LOWER AWAY!


7. 3. 2 Picking up castaways

If the ship receives a distress report from a shipor aircraft, or a repeated sea distress report fromanother sea- or shore radio station, the shipmanagement will establish at once whetherassistance can be provided. If so, the course islaid for the distress position and the ship headsfor this with all possible speed.

The details of the procedures to be used for thisare described in the „ SEARCH AND RESCUE"manual which is on the bridge.

The passage to the distress position will oftenrequire so much time that the preparations forpicking up the castaways can be considered andmade without haste.

Above all, compartments are prepared foraccommodating the castaways; blankets and dryclothing are placed ready. The galley prepareswanning food. The sickbay is prepared forlooking after injured or sick persons.

The rescue boat is made ready as farcircumstances permit.

The ship management gives orders for the othernecessary measures.

As arrival at the distress position may well signalthe beginning of a lengthy period of great stressfor all members of the crew, the shipmanagement will make provision for this also;for instance it will arrange the issue of a hot mealeven outside the usual times, or order anadditional rest period for the off-dutywatchkeepers and the crew members detailedfor daywork.

Following arrival at the distress position notifiedby radio, the lockout is first of all backed up. Theship in concert with others in the vicinity will runsearch patterns to find the castaways dependingon the time of day or night, the weather, visibilityand other conditions. As well as the lockoutbeing backed up, the radar set and radioequipment are kept permanently manned.

Only when the castaways have been sighted bythe lockout or the radar the general emergencyalarm is sounded and then a start is made withpicking up the castaways in accordance with themaster's instructions.

Apart from the order LOWER AWAY which isgiven by the master directly, the unit leaders aregiven their tasks by the Head of operations andcarry them out independently.

Ship Safety service

7. 3. 1 Man overboard

Ship Safety service

7. 3. 2 Picking up castaways

131

The thermal conductivity of water is 10 timesthat of air. For that reason hypothermia developscorrespondingly more quickly in water.Movement of the water due to current or seawayand own movement of the person whenswimming, particularly in a panic, increases theheat release by the additional consumption ofenergy.As hypothermia progresses, the first effect is toreduce the circulation in the limbs, particularlythe legs. These are therefore affected more thanthe vital organs of the trunk of the body.If a person suffering from hypothermia is movedabout, or himself moves, the cold bloodpredominantly in the legs can get from there intothe trunk and lower the core temperaturefurther. This can cause critical deterioration ofhis condition, especially due to cardiacarrhythmia.If a person suffering from hypothermia is pickedup in an upright position, the blood runningdown into the lower parts of the body can causea reduction of the blood flow through the brainleading to dimming of consciousness. Thedisappearance of the hydrostatic pressure towhich the body was subjected in the water hasan additional adverse effect ascribed to it.This makes it all the more important that thecastaway be kept in a horizontal position at alltimes during recovery and subsequent transport.

7. 3. 3 Treatment of castawaysIn every case of rescue from distress at sea itmust be expected with that the castaways are- totally exhausted,- suffering from hypothermia,- injured, and- act unconsciously and without control.For that reason all measures are so planned thatcooperation from the castaways is not required.They are to be encouraged to remain totally stilland passive, as active movement can lead to aworsening of their state of health.When being picked up from the water, thecastaways are if possible to be individually liftedout of the water horizontally by several helpersand transported thus in the rescue boat and latertransported and positioned on board.The transfer from the rescue-/lifeboat to the shipis if possible carried out in a horizontal positionin the floatable marine-stretcher.Once the castaways have been embarked theyare immediately laid down in a horizontalposition and still in their wet clothing wrappedin dry blankets. Only after that are they movedto a compartment in which they are protectedagainst being chilled further by the effects ofthe weather. This compartment is to bemoderately warm but not overheated. (Airtemperature 20 °C)The castaways are moved about as little aspossible. They are on no account to walk andclimb stairs or ladders but are carried.If a number of castaways are picked up, thosewhose health is most seriously adverselyaffected are treated first.In cases of unconsciousness, the respiratorytracts are cleared first of all.

7. 4 Hypothermia and its treatment

7. 4. 1 Hypothermia

How does hypothermia arise?Man as an „ isothermal" living creature iscapable under normal conditions of keeping hisbody temperature constant at 37 °C. Thistemperature control results from thecombination of heat generation by thecombustion processes arising in the course of theintake and digestion of food, and heat releasethrough the skin, the lungs and bodily excretion.Hypothermia arises when the bodily heatgeneration is no longer sufficient to balance theheat release. Depending on duration andseverity of the influence of the cold, the coretemperature drops below the normal value of37 °C.

7. 4. 2 Treatment of hypothermiaThe nature of the first aid for caseshypothermia depends on its severity.All measures are carried out under medicalsupervision or in consultation with the doctorashore.

Rapid warming by means of a hot bath or a hotshower can result in serious complications.

Absolutely forbidden are:- hot showers, hot baths,- drinking of alcoholic beverages,- smoking,- rubbing of the limbs,- „ running to get warm",- pouring liquid into someone's mouth if they are

unconscious.To permit an estimate of the severity of thehypothermia, the following questions are to beanswered:- Is there muscle tremor?- What is the pulse rate per minute?- What is the respiratory rate per minute?- What state of consciousness is he in?- How long was the patient in the water?

of


Ship Safety service

7. 3. 3 Treatment of castaways

Ship Safety service

7. 4 Hypothermia and its treatment

Ship Safety service

7. 4. 1 Hypothermia

Ship Safety service

7. 4. 2 Treatment of hypothermia

132- What was the water temperature?- If it can be measured, what is the rectal body

temperature?

First degree:Findings:Rectal body temperature 34 °C to 37 °C. Oftenshivering. Pulse rate 60 to 80 per minute or more.Fully conscious. Often agitation.First aid:Do not move. Give plenty of hot fluidssweetened with sugar to drink.When the shivering has died down, dry but donot rub down. Provide with warm, dry clothing.The patient is to be kept awake by continuousconversation.No other measures necessary.

Second degree:

Findings:Body temperature 24 °C to 34 °C. Muscularrigidity. Pulse slow, often irregular.Consciousness clouded.The main danger is cardiac arrhythmias,particularly at core temperatures around 30 °C.First aid:If required, cardiac massage and mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. No other treatment.Wait until shivering starts.Then continue with first aid as for first degree ofhypothermia.Third degree:

Findings:Body temperature below 24 °C. Deeplyunconscious. Pulse and breathing no longer, orscarcely, perceptible.First aid:Continue cardiac massage and mouth-to-mouthresuscitation for at least two hours, or until pulseand breathing restart if that is sooner.Particularly where the hypothermia is due tovery cold water, successful resuscitation ispossible even after a significant length of time.Further measures:Once life-threatening conditions have beeneliminated by the First aid measures describedabove, any injuries are to be treated within thelimits of the means available on board.Everyone who has spent a significant length oftime in the water or suffered from hypothermia isafter disembarkation to be admitted forobservation for at least 48 hours to a hospital

with intensive-care facilities life-threateningrespiratory or renal disorders can arise evensome considerable time after the rescue.


7. 5 Abandon ship in case of emergency

If after a sudden accident at sea it becomes clearthat the ship has to be abandoned, the first actionis not to sound the general emergency alarm butrather to sound the abandon-ship signal.If it becomes clear that measures alreadyintroduced to save the ship such as firefightingor damage control, rendering the life-savingequipment safe, have been unsuccessful and theship must be abandoned without delay, againthe abandon-ship signal is sounded.

The abandon-ship signal - a continuous •- •- •- •- •- - calls on everyone on board to proceed tothe survival craft at once.The abandon-ship signal •- •- •- •- •- is onlysounded on the orders of master or hisrepresentative.This signal means that the method for preparing,manning and launching the survival craftprovided for in the muster list and used in theregular safety exercises has to be departed fromto a greater or lesser extent.Such a situation makes especially high demandson the unit leaders and everyone else on board.In this situation everything depends on everyone

REMAINING CALMRETAINING AN OVERVIEW

ACTING WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION:

Abandoning Ship

Following sounding of the signal •- •- •- •- •-the ship is to be abandoned quickly, safely and ifpossible without getting wet.Everyone proceeds to the survival craft; thesurvival suits and life jackets are put on.Any further instructions issued by the shipmanagement, the Head of operations or the unitleaders are obeyed.If there are no, or only incomplete instructions,every member of the crew is required to use hisown initiative.Should circumstances make it impossible to waitany longer for missing prospective occupants,the survival craft are launched even though theyare unmanned or only partially manned.For anyone still wanting to embark it is now amatter of getting into the survival craft if possiblewithout getting wet. Jumping into the water isalways risky; it must only be done as a last resort.It is better to use rope ladders, rope's ends, lines,nets, hoses and suchlike hung over the side.

Ship Safety service

7. 5 Abandon ship in case of emergency

133Disabled persons are given assistance asnecessary.Personal property is left on board, but articleswhich might make survival easier may be takenalong. This includes particularly warm clothingor blankets/rugs.The ship management sees to it that thelogbooks are saved as is mandatory.

In the water

If it has not been possible to launch survival craftso that the castaways are floating in the water,specially high demands are made on the will tosurvive of every individual.However even in the cases of accidents at seawhich happen very quickly, the automatictriggering of the sea distress alarm andtransmission of the distress position by theemergency position indicating radio beacon willlead to the initiation of a search and rescueoperation. The situation of the castaways istherefore serious but not hopeless.The very limited horizon which a person floatingin the water has, places him under great mentalstress. It is easier to bear this if the castawaysremain close together and try to fetch in anyonefloating further away, to join the unit. Themembers of the unit use lines to tie themselves toone another to make sure no one is lost,particularly in the dark.The greatest danger to human beings in thewater is from hypothermia. If the bodytemperature drops below 37 °C, consciousnessrapidly becomes clouded, then unconsciousnessfollows and finally death from cold.For that reason nor item of clothing, nor the lifejacket, may be taken off. They also contribute tothe retention of warmth.The zip-fastener of the survival suit must on noaccount be opened. Any water getting in wouldseriously reduce the insulating effect and makeclimbing into a survival craft later very difficult.The spray protection on survival suit or lifejacket is put on. If possible, drifting with the faceturned into the sea is avoided to prevent seawater being swallowed accidentally.Movement accelerates the loss of heat, somovements are restricted to the minimumnecessary. The only stronger movements whichare inevitable are those to take up a secureposition in a seaway, to fetch persons drifting inisolation or to get away immediately fromregions where the surface of the water is coveredin fuel.Human contact is of great importance in thissituation. Conversation, storytelling, concertedsinging have proved effective in such situations

in keeping up people's spirits and delayingweakening from cold.If search and rescue craft are sighted no effort isspared to attract their attention, But even now;hectic and uncontrolled movements are to beavoided, as they rapidly cause fatigue.

Beaching survival craftIf it becomes necessary to beach the survivalcraft, the following measures are to be takenbefore and while traversing breakers:- The unit leader explains the sequence of

events and gives the necessary instructions.- The sea anchor is laid at the full length of its

hawser. Boats are turned head-to-sea.- All openings are closed.- The seat belts or makeshift safeguards are put

on. Every occupant holds on to somethingsolid.

- All available means are used to prevent theboat broaching-to.

- Following beaching, the survival craft isabandoned as quickly as possible.

- The survival craft is made safe against driftingaway. Attention in tidal waters!

7. 6 Sea distress alarm - Pyrotechnicdistress signals

Burning hand flares only makes sense if- the coloured sidelights of search and rescue

vessels are visible, orif aircraft are heading straight for the lifeboat

or raft.Rocket parachute flares are to be fired as soon asthe white toplights of search and rescue vesselsare in sight.The capacity for safe use of the hands inemergencies may have been adversely affectedby long-lasting cold.Therefore the greatest care and circumspectionis to be exercised!

7. 7 Sea distress alarm and bringing up rescuecraft by means of radio equipment

In emergencies the ship management will makeevery effort to set off the sea distress alarm bymeans of the ship's radio equipment and toestablish radio contact with search and rescueunits.The ship management is to announce, if this ispossible before the survival craft are manned,whether it has succeeded in already establishingsuch a contact.If no time remains for this or the equipment hasfailed, the alarm will be raised automatically bythe emergency position indicating radio beacon


Ship Safety service

7. 6 Sea distress alarm - Pyrotechnic 7. 6 Sea distress alarm - Pyrotechnic

Ship Safety service

7. 7 Sea distress alarm and bringing up rescue craft by means of radio equipment

134as soon as the set is taken out of its mounting orfloats free as the ship sinks.When abandoning ship, every effort must bemade to remove the radio equipment from itsmountings near the bridge and take it along tothe survival craft. The equipment comprises- the emergency position indicating radio

beacon (s)- the radar transponders- the VHF radiotelephones- the portable radio apparatus for survival craft.If the emergency position indicating radiobeacon has already been launched it should ifpossible have the position updated and be takeninto the survival craft or secured afloatalongside. If there are several beacons available,only one at a time is to be switched on toeconomise on power.The radar transponders will float, but are not tobe operated floating as their position-indicatingrange in a seaway is inadequate. They must bemounted as high as possible above the survivalcraft to provide an adequate pick-up range forthe radar on search and rescue craft. If there areseveral transponders available, only one at atime is to be switched on to economise on power.The VHF radiotelephones will not float, but areso constructed that spray or a brief contact withsalt water or oil does not damage them. If theemergency has involved the use of severalsurvival craft the first function of theradiotelephones is to establish radio contactbetween these. However the exchange ofinformation is to be limited to essentials to savepower. For that reason also, the survival craft arepreferably to be kept close together.If the operation indicator of the radartransponder shows that search and rescue craftare within radar range, one radiotelephone is tobe used to establish radio contact. This is bestcarried out by the holder of a general operatorscertificate, who knows the sea-distressprocedures. If there is no one with that certificatein the survival craft, untrained persons also mayuse the radiotelephones in an emergency.If that is the case, the call-up is to be structuredas follows (press speaking key!):

MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY

DELTA ECHO (or: THIS IS)

SURVIVAL CRAFT (or: LIFEBOAT/LIFERAFT)

OF „ .....” (name or call sign or MMSI of the ship)

WITH (number of castaways) SURVIVORS

OVER

(release speaking key)

If there is no immediate answer, the call-up is tobe repeated at about 5 minute intervals for aslong as the transponder operation indicatorremains alight.The reply could for instance be

MAYDAY

LIFEBOAT LIFEBOAT LIFEBOAT OF (name, callsign or MMSI)DELTA ECHO (or,, THIS IS")name, call sign of the search and rescue craft,repeated 3 times)WE HEAR YOU LOUD AND CLEAR

STOP

WE HAVE LOCATED YOUR RADARTRANSPONDER SIGNALSTOPWILL ARRIVE AT YOUR POSITION IN THIRTYMINUTESOVER (if confirmation is expected),

or

OUT (if there is to be no further radiocommunication for the time being)The search and rescue craft then takes charge ofthe radio traffic. Until further notice all stationsin the surrounding area are obliged to keep radiosilence unless they are invited to speak.cf. “Handbuch Seefunk” (Maritime RadioManual) §§ 44 and 45,,, VOPunk" article 39


7. 8 Maintenance and repairAlthough all the sets and installations are madefrom the best of materials, because of thepermanent pressure on them due to the severeweather conditions at sea they requiredcontinuous care and maintenance to beunrestrictedly usable in emergencies.Every partially or totally enclosed lifeboat orliferaft is provided with a user's andmaintenance manual.The maintenance requirements of the individualinstallations are to be taken from themaintenance manuals on board. Repairs tosurvival craft are carried out by approvedspecialist firms.

Repairs to lifeboatsTemporary repairs by the crew to keep thelifeboat in usable condition are permitted. Theyare to be made permanent by a specialist firm assoon as possible.The technical installations of lifeboats such asthe engine, gearing, clutch, shaft, propeller,electrical plant, fire protection and air supplysystems are maintained in accordance with the

Ship Safety service

7. 8 Maintenance and repair

135

instructions in their manuals and repaired asnecessary.

If survival craft of glass fibre reinforced polyesterresin (plastics boats) are provided with a repairkit, the instructions included with this are to befollowed.

Damage to the foam-filled parts requires onlysealing of the surface to prevent the ingress ofwater, buoyancy foam is a closed-cell materialand will continue to keep the boat afloatwhatever happens even though the surface hasbeen damaged.

Straightforward side- or bottom components canbe dealt with like wood. It is also possible to useglass fibre and resin held on board for otherpurposes for the temporary repair of life- orrescue boats, provided the directions for use areobeyed.

Repairs to inflatable liferaftsIf inflatable liferafts are damaged in use, thefollowing action can be taken:- Expose the damaged area, dry and clean it well.- Roughen the area thoroughly using glass

paper.- Spread adhesive over the damaged area, leave

to dry for 3 or 4 minutes, then spread more andleave to dry again.

- Pick a repair-patch large enough to extendbeyond the damaged area by at least 30 nun allround.

- Remove the protective foil from the adhesiveside of the patch and apply the patch to thedamaged area with a rolling motion. Press it onusing the fingers and go over it rubbing hardwith a paper knife.

- Wait for a few minutes, then inflate.


137

8. Closing RemarksThis manual is the product of a thorough revisionof the basic manuals

Lifeboat Service Training Manualand

Fire Defense Training Manualissued by the See-Berufsgenossenschaft.

Numerous adaptations, changes andamplifications of the existing material becamenecessary because in the almost ten years sincepublication a host of changes had taken place inthe regulations on which they were based,because ship construction and ship operationtechnology had made great strides forward andbecause, not least important, the numbers, the

composition and the qualifications of crews haveundergone substantial change.Wherever possible, proven material has beenretained. Newly-introduced parts have beendesigned to match the old closely in form andlayout.The progressively ever closer interlocking oflifeboat service on the one hand and fire defenseon the other made it appear imperative now tocombine the two earlier manuals in a singleunified one.The endeavor to be comprehensive conflictedwith the need for clear and crisp formulationwherever possible.


Ship safety Training

8. Closing Remarks

139

9. Appendix
9. 1 Regulations important to the ship safety
service on board

The file (Schiffssicherheitsvorschriften) is part ofthe mandatory outfit and to be found on boardevery ship. It contains, among other things:

- International Convention for the Safety of Lifeat Sea (SOLAS '74 in the version of severaladdenda)

- Decree concerning the safety of seagoing ships(ship safety decree)

- Dangerous goods decree (sea)

The file (Schiffssicherheitshandbuch) is also partof the mandatory outfit and predominantlycontains instructions for the compliance with thesaid regulations.

Accessible to all crew members at all times bydisplay in the messes are the- accident prevention regulations for enterprises

engaged in shipping (UVV See)- Richtlinien und Merkblatter der See-

BerufsgenossenschaftAvailable on board is the- Verordnung liber die Gesundheitspflege auf

KauffahrteischiffenGenerally not available on board are the- Rules of the Germanischer Lloyd for

Classification and Construction of SteelSeagoing Ships

- Prufungs- und Zulassungsbedingungen derSee-Berufsgenossenschaft

9. 2 Data concerning solid and liquid combustible substances (Table 1)

Ignition point Flash point Minimum combustion

temperature/fire pointPetrol/gasoline

Benzene

Diesel oil

Lubricating oil

Ethanol

Wood

Paper

Propane

Hydrogen

210 °C to 260 °C

220 °C to 350 °C

425 °C

ca. 300 °C

ca. 200 °C

ca. 455 °C to 510 °C

560 °C

-45°Cto60°C

- 11 °C

55 °C and higher

165 °C

12 °C

--

--

--

--

ca. 1200 °C

ca. 1200 °C

ca. 1100°C to 1300°C

ca. 1100°C to 1300 °C

ca. 1200 °C

9. 3 Upper and lower flammability limits(Table 2)

Flammability limit

PropaneHydrogen

Petrol/gasoline(as vapour)

Ethanol (as vapour)Ammonia

lowervol %

24

ca. 13, 515

uppervol %

11,775, 6

ca. 71530



Appendix


9. 1 Regulations important to the ship safety service on board


9. 2 Data concerning solid and liquid combustible substances (Table 1)


9. 3 Upper and lower flammability limits (Table 2)

9.4 Symbols for fire protection plans according to IMO-Resolution A.654(16) and DIN 0087903-02

9.4.7 Fire extinguishing devicesSprinkler/water fog/foam installation

Indicate in the graphical symbol:S SprinklerW Water togF Foam


Item Symbol Item Symbol

9.4.1 DivisionsA class division

Bulkheads

Decks

Additional the fire class according to SOLAS(AO, A15, A30, A60) shall be indicated.

B class division

Bulkheads,

Decks

9.4.3 Means of escape

Primary means of escape

Secondary means of escape

9.4.4 Fire pumps

Fire pump

Emergency fire pump

9.4.5 Connections

International shore connection

Additional the fire class according to SOLAS(BO, B15) shall be indicated.

Main vertical zone

9.4.2 Fire doors

A class lire door

A class fire door,sliding door

9.4.6 ValvesFire main withfire valves

Section valveIndicate near the graphical symbol:D DrenchsystemS Sprinkle systemF Foam system

Remote controlled fuel/lubricatingoil valves

A class fire door,self-closing

A class fire door,sliding door,self-closing

B class fire door

B class fire door,sliding door

B class fire door,self-closing

CO2 - battery

Halon 1301 battery

B c lass fire door,sliding door,self-closing

Halon 1301 bottlesplaced inprotected area


9.4 Symbols for fire protection plans according to IMO-Resolution A.654(16) and DIN 0087903-02

141Item Symbol Item Symbol

CO2-/ nitrogen bulk installationIndicate near the graphical symbol:C02 C02-installationN2 Nitrogen installation

Portable foam applicator

Locker with

High expansionfoam supply trunk

fireman's outfit

Locker with additionalbreathing apparatus

Powder installation

Locker with additionalprotective clothing

Drenching system Fire axe

9. 4. 8 Release stations, remote control

Inert gas installation Release stationIndicate near the graphical symbol:CO2P Powder

Monitor F FoamH Halon

Indicate near the graphical symbol:P PowderF FoamW Water

Remote control for firepumps or emergency switchesIndicate near the graphical symbol:

Powder hose and handgun MFP Main fire pumpEFP Emergency fire pumpES Emergency switch

Foam nozzle

Remote ventilationshut off

Remote controlledskylights

Hose box with

Spray/jet fire nozzle 9. 4. 9 Alarm devicesPush-button/

Portable fire extinguishers switch for fire alarm

Indicate near the graphical symbol:H Halon

Horn fire alarm

P PowderW WaterF FoamC02

HornIndicate nearly the graphical symbolS Sprinkler alarmCO2 CO2 alarm

Wheeled fire extinguishers H Halon alarm

The capacity in litre (1) or kilogram (kg)shall also be indicated nearthe graphical symbol.

Smoke detector


142

Item Symbol Item Symbol

Heat detector Space protected byIndicate near the graphical symbol:SPRINKLERC02

Flame detector H HalonF FoamD Drenching systemW Water fog

Gas detector 9. 4. 12 Equipment of the shipEmergency generator

Emergency telephone station

Emergency switchboard

Bell fire alarm

Bilge pump

Manually operated call point

Emergency bilge pump

Fire alarm panel

Control station

9. 4. 10 Closing appliances

Fire damper inventilation duct

Breathing air compressor

Closing appliance forventilation inlet or outlet

Fire control plan

9. 4. 11 Space protection systemsSpace protected byautomatic fire alarm

Fire station


143

the fire alarm system. The main engines weredeclutched and stopped. The quick-closingvalve controlling the fuel supply to the auxiliarydiesel was opened again by the 2nd engineer tobring in the emergency lighting in lieu of themain lighting. The crew, alerted in themeantime, completed closing down and once itwas clear that no-one remained in the engineroom CO2 was released. This attempt atextinction was a success. After about 30 minutesthe engine room fans were started again to drawoff smoke and CO2. The fire defense partyextinguished a few still-glowing wooden plankson the platform of the cooling water tank.Following this, the engine room could again beentered without a breathing set and the searchfor the cause of the leakage started.When the fuel transfer pump was switched on,leaks due to defective 0-ring seals showed up atthe fuel injection pump of cylinder No. 3 of theport main engine, i. e. at the pump flange of thefuel return line as well as at the flange of thefuel-return shut-off valve. Following repairs asnecessary, and renewal of the turbocharger airfilter the voyage was resumed at 23. 20 hours.An investigation by the technical supervisoryservice revealed that the 0-rings haddeteriorated prematurely. These 0-rings in thefuel system must therefore be renewed at shorterintervals.In contrast to older ships, where the fuel arrivesat the pump at a low temperature and understatic pressure, it is nowadays necessary to workwith high supply pressures and temperatures.The possibility of premature deterioration cantherefore not be excluded.

9. 5 Engine room fires

Example 1:MS CONTI BRITANIA was en route fromRavenna to Haiphong when on 23 August 1984at 05.50 hours while she was in transit throughthe Suez Canal a fire broke out. The cause of thefire was established to be the parting of the mainengine fuel distribution line at cylinder No. 1 bythe pressure controller. The main engine is aMaK Diesel type 6M551AK. Diesel fuel underpressure spurted from the parted line andignited on the exhaust system.As the ship was in convoy, the main engine couldnot be stopped at once; the fuel continuing tospurt out spread the fire. Early intervention bythe personnel on watch, and firefighting usingportable extinguishers had to be abandonedbecause of the strong smoke and heatgeneration.Not until the closed down state had beenachieved and the engine room been flooded withCO2 did the crew get the fire under control.Various lighting fittings and cableways weredamaged; subsequently repaired in Suez roads.There were no injuries to personnel.The technical supervisory service during itsinspections pays particular attention to hot partsof the exhaust system being covered by sheet-metal-clad insulation. The parts not thusprotected like thermometer stubs and flangesare to be so arranged or protected by guardplates that oil dripping onto them cannot ignite.The exhaust system sheet-metal cladding mustbe replaced immediately following completion ofany repair work.

Example 2:On 20. December 1986 an engine room firebroke out in the TMS MANDAN. The cause wasignition of fuel spurting out under pressure andgetting onto hot parts of the exhaust system.At 21. 17 hours the alert was triggered in theofficers' mess, where the chief engineer and the2nd engineer were. The 2nd engineerimmediately went to the engine control room todetermine the cause of the alert. The chiefengineer was informed by him by telephone thata fuel pipe to the port main engine wasdamaged, recognisable by the emergence ofheavy fuel. The chief engineer then went to theengine control room. As he was putting on earprotectors he observed, through the window tothe engine room, a flame flaring up in the portengine room. He shut off the engine room fanand the fuel transfer pump; then the quick-closing valves on the fuel tanks were shut andthe other electrical emergency switchesoperated. The 2nd engineer informed the bridge,which at 21. 19 raised the fire alarm by means of

9. 6 Obsolescent plant and appliances

9. 6. 1 Obsolescent plant and appliances for usein boats

Portable radio apparatus for survival craft

Until 1. February 1995, the equipment providedfor many ships will include a portable radio setfor survival craft.Where this is the case, it can continue to be useduntil 1. February 1999 in addition to the setsdesignated in the preceding sub-sections, as upto that day ships, aircraft and coastal radiostations will also remain equipped withtransmitting and receiving units for the samefrequencies and operating procedures.The portable radio set contains a transmittingand receiving unit for sending out sea distresscalls and reports, plus DF signals on theinternational distress frequencies 500 kHz and2182 kHz.Furthermore all information of significance tothe execution of a search and rescue operation



9. 5 Engine room fires


9. 6 Obsolescent plant and appliances


9. 6. 1 Obsolescent plant and appliances for use in boats

144

can be received and transmitted. For this, thefrequency 8364 kHz is additionally available.The transmissions are received- on 500 kHz by ships with radiotelegraph

equipment, and by coastal radio stations,- on 2182 kHz by all ships of over 300 GRT and

by coastal radio stations.The range varies, depending on the type ofaerial and the height at which it is mounted. It isto be at least 25 nautical miles.The apparatus is housed in a bright-orange orbright-yellow casing. It may be dropped into thewater from a height of up to 18 m, is waterproofand will float in the closed state.The apparatus is equipped with a telescopic or awire aerial. For earthing, a copper cable with asinker and an earthing clip is provided.For power supply, the apparatus has an integralhand-crank-operated generator or batteries. Itmay also be connected to a 24 V power supply bya connecting cable and powered by this. Manymotor lifeboats have that supply.The radio apparatus can be set to work andoperated even by an untrained person, if theoperating instructions provided with it arecarefully followed.

Line-Throwing apparatusFor the rescue of persons from grounded vessels,some coastguard stations are equipped with aline-throwing apparatus. This consists of alaunching-stand, solid-fuel rocket, throwingline, rescue rope, tailblock with hauling line andbreeches buoy.

The range of the solid-fuel rocket lies between400 and 800 m.

Other obsolescent plant and appliances

Rigid Liferafts, Water Pressure Releases (oldSystem), Sails, Oars


9.6.2 Obsolescent plant and appliances forfire defense

Protection of engine rooms by means of ahalon-1301 fire-extinguishing system

The use of halon 1301 has been prohibited since1. January 1992. Ships whose keel was laid afterthat date may no longer be equipped with halon-1301 fire-extinguishing systems.For existing ships, an interim regulation appliesuntil 31. December 1998.

How the system works

Opening the door of the halon triggering stationcauses one switch to sound the halon alarm inthe engine room and a second to switch off theengine room ventilation.By opening the handwheel-operated valve onone of the two control bottles and operating theassociated control valve, the bottle valves of thehalon bottles are opened by remote control.

Safety notes

When the halon alarm sounds, the engine roomis to be abandoned as quickly as possible via theoperating stairs or the emergency exits, and theway made to the muster station.


9.6.2 Obsolescent plant and appliances for fire defense

ship safety training

Documents

new chapter

crew numbers

life savingappliances

safety of life atsea

standard crew

general cargo ship

solas convention

current technology aswell