set 2 hsc notes farming for the 21st century

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ELECTIVE- FARMING FOR THE 21ST CENTURY While Australian agriculture is composed of many traditional agricultural industries, new or alternative production methods are emerging as of a result of technological research and development The continued success of Australian agriculture in the global economy will rely on continued innovation at all levels within the industry INNOVATION, ETHICS AND CURRENT ISSUES The issues related to the research and development of technologies include: Funding sources In order to develop your innovation in an efficient, sustainable and competitive way, farmers must find funding sources and opportunities (e.g. producers, processors, industry/researches and students) to encourage skill-building capabilities that accelerate the adoption of R&D outputs. This will also promote the sustainability and competitiveness of the technology in the market. Farmers need funding sources to increase sustainability, profitability, and adoption of innovation Especially when the company has had no previous successes, there is difficulty in gaining funding sources, which affects the amount and money put into research and development. This causes many economic issues for the farmer Patents A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state (national government) to an inventor for a limited period of time in exchange for the public disclosure of an invention Patents should be obtained for research and development. Specialized varieties of crop plants, pest-control chemicals, advanced feed formulations for livestock, vet drugs, and mechanical equipment (eg crop planters) and harvesters are all examples of inventions that can greatly assist the farmer to achieve higher product yields and enhanced product quality They are also examples of technologies whose development may require many years of research and testing. The legal right to exclusive ownership, provided by the patent for a finite period of time, ensures that the individuals and companies who invest heavily in that research and development have an opportunity to recoup those costs and to provide a return for their investors through subsequent marketing of the technologies. Issues can arise when patent-protected components are used to develop a certain innovations, and the farmer must be required to enter into an agreement specifying terms of use. These terms may include the inability to save seed for future planting LEGAL ISSUES Opponents of agricultural biotechnology often claim that patenting of genetic technologies, plant varieties, and other entities reliant on living things is detrimental to farmers and to the progress of agricultural innovation.

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Page 1: SET 2 HSC Notes Farming for the 21st Century

ELECTIVE- FARMING FOR THE 21ST CENTURY While Australian agriculture is composed of many traditional agricultural industries, new or alternative production methods

are emerging as of a result of technological research and development

The continued success of Australian agriculture in the global economy will rely on continued innovation at all levels within the industry

INNOVATION, ETHICS AND CURRENT ISSUES The issues related to the research and development of technologies include:Funding sources In order to develop your innovation in an efficient, sustainable and competitive way, farmers must find funding sources and

opportunities (e.g. producers, processors, industry/researches and students) to encourage skill-building capabilities that accelerate the adoption of R&D outputs.

This will also promote the sustainability and competitiveness of the technology in the market.

Farmers need funding sources to increase sustainability, profitability, and adoption of innovation

Especially when the company has had no previous successes, there is difficulty in gaining funding sources, which affects the amount and money put into research and development. This causes many economic issues for the farmer

Patents A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state (national government) to an inventor for a limited period of time in

exchange for the public disclosure of an invention

Patents should be obtained for research and development. Specialized varieties of crop plants, pest-control chemicals, advanced feed formulations for livestock, vet drugs, and mechanical equipment (eg crop planters) and harvesters are all examples of inventions that can greatly assist the farmer to achieve higher product yields and enhanced product quality

They are also examples of technologies whose development may require many years of research and testing.

The legal right to exclusive ownership, provided by the patent for a finite period of time, ensures that the individuals and companies who invest heavily in that research and development have an opportunity to recoup those costs and to provide a return for their investors through subsequent marketing of the technologies.

Issues can arise when patent-protected components are used to develop a certain innovations, and the farmer must be required to enter into an agreement specifying terms of use. These terms may include the inability to save seed for future planting LEGAL ISSUES

Opponents of agricultural biotechnology often claim that patenting of genetic technologies, plant varieties, and other entities reliant on living things is detrimental to farmers and to the progress of agricultural innovation.

Patents can also limit the development of new opportunities in agriculture as using patent-protected components add additional expense and legal problems

Plant breeders’ rights These are exclusive commercial rights to a registered variety. The rights are a form of intellectual property, like patents and

copyright, under the Plant Breeder’s Rights Act 1994.

In relation to propagating material of the registered variety, successful applicants have exclusive rights to produce/reproduce the material, condition the material for purpose of propagation (cleaning, sorting etc), offer material for sale, import & export the material

In certain circumstances, if breeder has not reasonable opportunity to exercise the right on the propagating material, PBR extends to harvested material

Exceptions to the breeder's right are the use of the variety privately and for non-commercial purposes, for experimental purposes, and for breeding other plant varieties. A variety can be used for these purposes irrespective of the existence of Plant Breeder's Rights

Plant Breeder’s Rights causes many social (which can lead to legal issues) e.g. GM crops. Farmers must register their variety, and if that variety is used by another breeder to develop a new variety, the farmer has to be acknowledged (most probably receiving a share in profits)

Page 2: SET 2 HSC Notes Farming for the 21st Century

There is also issues for the ownership of intellectual property e.g. genes at work, as many GM crops have been developed through previous innovations

Animal welfare and legislation All animals in NSW are protected by the ‘Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979’, which deals with the cruel and

unconscionable treatment of all animals

In addition, animals used in teaching or research of any kind in NSW, are protected by special legislation, the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW). This Act was introduced to ensure that whenever animals are used for teaching or research, it is justified, humane and considerate of the animal's needs.

In addition to this legislation, there are codes of practice, guidelines and standard operating procedures for research and development

The main issues with this is ethical and social. Many people believe by testing animals in research and development, developing modified breeds, it is inhumane and disrupting natural order. This can lead to many disputes (which can extend legally too)

These legislations also limit research and development for many innovations

Contract Research and Development Contracts are negotiated with qualified domestic and foreign organizations to support basic,

applied, or developmental research and to test or evaluate a product, material, device, or component for use by the research community.

This links in with funding sources and finding funding opportunities in a way

Farmers need these contractual agreements to increase sustainability, profitability, and adoption of innovation

Especially when the company has had no previous successes, there is difficulty in gaining such support, which affects the amount and money put into research and development. This causes many economic issues for the farmer, and affect the success of their innovation

2) Evaluate a range of new technological developments that may assist agricultural industries.SATELLITE TECHNOLOGIES GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM The GPS is made up of a set of satellites orbiting the Earth in precise locations at elevations of about 17600 km above the

Earth’s surface. To locate your position, you must have a GPS receiver and be in line-of-sight contact with at least 3 satellites

Your position is determined through triangulation- the intersection of the different spheres

This technology, along with GIS (geographical information systems) made the development and implementation of precision agriculture or site-specific farming

GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications and yield mapping.

GPS allows farms to work during low visibility field conditions, such as rain, dust, fog and darkness.

GPS enhances precision agriculture, allowing more precise application and dispersion of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilisers. This reduces expenses, produces a higher yield and creates a more environmentally friendly farm.

GPS is more accurate, cost effective, and, user friendly. It’s effective for collecting geospatial information on soil-plant-animal requirements, and, applying site-specific treatments to increase agricultural production and protect environment.

GPS allows farmers to accurately navigate to specific locations in the field to collect soil samples or monitor crop conditions. It can be also used in more larger scaled farms to spray and water crops, and for cultivation tracking and tree clearing.

Overall, in agriculture, GPS systems enhance operations in the farming business through its accuracy and ease-of-use

Disadvantages: It’s benefits in precision agriculture are not significantly great on small farms, can be expensive for smaller farmers, and in navigation people tend to focus on GPS more than surroundings (can lead to accidents)

GLOBAL IMAGING SYSTEM

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The Global Imaging System for satellite technology provides satellite imagery data at different spatial, spectral and temporary resolutions for agriculture and crop assessment, crop health, change detection, environmental analysis, irrigated landscape mapping, yield determination, and soils analysis

It can be used for vegetation analysis- crop growth from planting through harvest. It makes it easier (especially for large-scale farms) to locate any problem on the farm (e.g. weed patches, soil compaction) through the satellite images

In addition to highlighting problematic areas, images will also help monitor the effectiveness of any corrective actions which may be implemented

Disadvantages: expensive (especially for low-scale farmers), ineffective for smaller farms as it is easier to do physical inspection, the images come out pixelated and in colour (requires expertise to understand and study this) which means extra costs

But, smaller farmers can use low satellite imaging technology to save costs

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIESCLIMATE/WEATHER FORECASTING Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location

at a given time.

Farmers rely on weather forecasts to decide what work to do for a particular day e.g. drying hay is only feasible in dry weather

For example, if it is forecasted that there will be a prolonged period of dryness, farmers can implement techniques for crops such as cotton, wheat, and corn crops to receive the water and moisture they require. Farmers can prepare ahead for any unfortunate environmental conditions

Forecasts predict seasonal, rainfall, temperature outlooks and also the incidence of any natural disasters (esp. drought)

Weather & climate forecasts assist farmers with natural resource management, and farm planning.

Advantages: new computer technologies are more accurate than old techniques of weather forecasting (using a barometer), accurate, allows farmers to manage natural resources effectively and plan activities in the future

Disadvantages: Tedious to regular check for any updates/changes, based on probabilities (not 100% accurate),

LASER TECHNOLGIES (Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) Laser technology is being increasingly used in agricultural applications

The adaptation of laser control in land levelling and seedbed preparation has been introduced. Results show that laser-levelled fields achieve better irrigation and production performance

One such laser-controlled land levelling equipment has four essential elements- 1) the laser emitter, 2) the laser sensor, 3) the electronic and hydraulic control system, and 4) the tractor and grading implement.

The laser emission drive generates a rotating beam which can be used as the levelling reference

The beam is targeted and received by a light sensor mounted on a mast attached to the land grading implement.

The precision improves irrigation uniformity and efficiency and as a result the productivity of water and land.

Advantage: laser not affected by earth movement, achieves better irrigation and production performance from land, very accurate, less work required from farmers to level, enhances seed bed preparation, seed generation and land levelling

Disadvantage: mostly an unfeasible operation due to high cost of equipment unless a large number of farms form a co-operative or a govt programme to subsidise the costs and improve farm production. It is also not needed and worth the expense in many small farms.

COMPUTER RECORD-KEEPING SYSTEMS In order to support Australia’s reputation and safety in any agricultural product, it is important that producers keep good

records. E.g. for red meat

Through computer recording systems, this is made easier for the farmers, and it is also a more organised and efficient way of storing information. These records not only help with the overall management of the business, but in some cases, are a legal obligation.

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With good, ACCURATE records, a farmer is enabled to measure, monitor, benchmark and annually compare the enterprise’s performance. It also ensures that productivity and profitability are maximised, and increases sales as consumers have more confidence in the product.

Computer record-keeping systems enhance business managements and allow farmers to support any claims made against them.

Advantages: Increases sales, enhances business management, provides more marketing opportunities (through evidence to gain confidence in product), easy to use, helps farmer keep organised, helps farmer support claims against them

Disadvantages: Can be tedious to enter details (especially for farmers who are not used to using computers), the purchase of computer systems are an additional expense

BIOTECHNOLOGIES Biotechnology is the exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other purposes e.g. genetic modification and is a

term used to cover the use of living things in industry, technology, medicine, or agriculture

GENITICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS Involves the deliberate modification of an organism’s genetic material by moving, introducing or eliminating specific genes

Genetic engineering involves the manipulation of an organism's genetic material.

It provides the possibility of making rapid genetic gains that would take years with conventional breeding programs.

It involves four steps:

1. Identification- of DNA segments that code for a particular gene responsible for a desired feature

2. Isolation- the DNA segment is isolated

3. Cloning- the DNA segment is cloned by introducing it into a host, such as bacteria or yeast. As the host multiplies, so does the introduced DNA segment

4. Transference- the cloned DNA can then be transferred to other members of the species that it came from or to another species where it produces the desired effect

E.g. Transgenic cotton (BT COTTON): contains a gene from the bacteria Bacillus thuringenesis that produces a chemical that kills the Heliothis moth larvae, and another variety has been engineered to not become damaged by the Round-up chemical used to kill weeds.

The use of biotechnology to produce new varieties of agricultural crops has been adopted widely throughout the world, and is used to enhance food e.g. fruits, vegetables, broad acre crops. The most widely grown GM crops are GM canola, soybeans, corn and cotton

Advantages: organisms (plants and animals) can be engineered for certain characteristics which will improve its productivity and nutritional content etc., increase production (can be used to prevent diseases etc)

Disadvantages: causes social dispute, research into it is expensive, can be costly, there is a possibility of undetected mutations

ELECTRONIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMSNLIS (NATIONAL LIVESTOCK IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM) This system identifies and traces livestock (cattle, sheep, goats)

Cattle, sheep and goats can be traced from property of birth to slaughter for biosecurity, meat safety, product integrity, and market access

There are two types- a round tag and a square tag. They both contain the same information but belong to two different firms. The electronic tags record the Property Identification Codes (PIC's) for all the properties that have the stock during their lifetime.

The central tracking system (i.e. this is the database which is in Canberra) can tell the vendor of each cow. Ear tagging IS handy but time-consuming.

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Advantage- ease of traceability, making access to overseas markets more secure, maintaining consumer confidence in Australian livestock markets (for products e.g. beef, milk, wool etc), accurate traceability for disease management, reduction in need for paperwork

Disadvantages- Expensive, easily lost, labour costs, time-consuming, build-up of grime on the tags (which can obscure barcodes)

Impact on production and marketing:

- It is becoming increasingly important for beef producers to be able to use carcase information in order to maintain farm viability, enhance domestic beef demand and sustain Australia’s share in international trade.

- The importance of meeting market specifications is reflected in the discounts incurred by carcases that do not comply.

- It also allows buyers to compare

ROBOTICSMILKING MACHINES Modern robotic milking machines milk the cows without anyone being present. The machine includes teat cups that contact the cow’s teats and remove the milk, a claw where milk pools as it is removed

from the four teats, vacuum tubes that provide vacuum to the teat cups, and, a milk tube that removed milk away from the claw.

Many robotic milking machines today have an automatic take-off device that removes the machine from the cow when milking is completed. Some even are linked to a computer system that both regulate the machine and generates data about the cow and its milk as milking is occurring

Advantages: elimination of labour, milk consistency (milking not influenced by different people milking), increased milking frequency, perceived lower stress environment, herd management (as data is collected), efficient

Disadvantages: expensive equipment, studies indicate that there is a lower milk quality (after a somatic cell count), decreased contact between farmer and herd (can result ill cows to be neglected), can spread contamination (esp mastitis) easily if the equipment isn’t sterilised properlyq

SHEARING MACHINES Machine shears, known as handpieces, have a power-driven toothed blade, known as cutter. It is driven back and forth over

the surface of a comb and the wool is cut from the animal

The motor is in the handpiece

Advantages: quicker, more efficient (more sheep can be sown) and therefore less labour required

Disadvantages: Slightly more expensive, greater chance in cutting/wounding sheep (so shearer must be careful)

3) Evaluate methods that companies may now use to market technological developments New technology is adopted by farmers in Australia for many reasons e.g. subsidies (financial assistance by government etc)

and it increases the farm’s competitive edge in the market

New technology is marketed in a number of ways e.g. field days, rural newspapers and magazines, industry-based newsletters, web sites, direct marketing, local TV and radio

Impediments (barriers) to the rapid uptake of new technology in agriculture is the level of exposure (certain marketing strategies do not target ALL audiences), cost, availability of transport, education and training, conservatism, and changing markets

Two examples: #1- MLA offers free information updates via email through the form of “eNewsletters” to advertise any latest key market

news, developments and industry events in the livestock industry. The advantage of this is that it is free, sent directly to your email (no inconvenience in needing to purchase), organised method where technological developments are clearly described in the various articles. The disadvantage however is the need for a computer and the need to regularly check email. Also, eNewsletters does not JUST market technological developments – it also markets other information (e.g. events), which may cause readers to skim these promotional articles

#2- NLIS in victoria is mainly advertised through the website. It also offers incentives (subsidised retail price for tags) for those who want to use it, and thus increasing its marketability. Advantage of this method of marketing is that it is easy to

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navigate around site, solid evidence about the benefit of NLIS is provided. The disadvantage however is the need for computer and internet, and the tediousness in actually getting to the site in comparison to just having a brochure.

4) Explain the reasons for adopting technologies in agriculture Technological changes in the more biological aspects of farm systems are rapidly adopted by farmers, especially where such

changes can be easily integrated into existing farm management structures

E.g. improved variety of crops, pasture plants or animal species, or more effective drenches or fertilisers

The innovators (those adopting the new technologies) are benefited. Biological innovations are less disruptive than mechanical innovations, as they require little or no reorganisation of the farm

The adoption of mechanical innovations (e.g. new irrigation systems, harvesting equipment, broadacre farming equipment) does require farm resource reorganisation and so takes time

The initial people to adopt the new mechanical-type technologies are risk takers. They are innovative people who often contract with dealers to be the first in a region to use a new style of tractor, harvester or plough.

They undertake high initial establishment and tooling-up costs in the hope that the increased productivity gained through using the new equipment will not only cover up costs but also provide an increase in profit

Due to competitive pressure, other farmers will adopt proven technology because of gains in either time use or profit once the benefits of adopting this new technology can be assessed

Eventually, even the laggards are forced to adopt new proven technology- or else sell up due to poor profit margins in comparison with surrounding farms

New technology increases the level of product supply onto the market. Consequently, market price falls, unless demand also can be stimulated

The benefits of adopting new technology are:

- Increased efficiency results in a lowering of operational cost

- Lower selling prices for farm goods in some instances may assist where natural products compete with synthetic products

- Increased production levels can increase potential returns from overseas markets

One disadvantage that CAN occur but doesn’t usually is that when production levels increase to such an extent that product prices fall, and the money saved from acquiring and using the machinery may be less than the fall in market price.

Recent technologies are always adopted as they increase efficiency in the production process and save money and time in management.

For example, in GM crops it increases profit, disease resistance, weed control, marketability and product quality. This thus reduces managerial costs, as well as improves it’s marketability through new incentives

5) Adopting a new technological development- NLIS (National Livestock Identification System) GENETIC MODIFICATION (GENETIC ENGINEERING) – GM CROPS e.g. cotton, canola, soybean and corn (Description, Advantages & disadvantages at the top!) If they ask specific- say GM cropsReasons for the development The former method of improving an organism- Selective Breeding- is a long and tedious process that has limits- it is

impossible to mix traits from two different species

GM allows the possibility to make rapid genetic gains that would take years with conventional breeding programs

Enhances production and quality (nutritional content) of crops and thus increases profits

Can eliminate undesired characteristics and, improve and add desirable characteristics

Can combine useful genes from different species and breed new “better” variety e.g. growth rate and disease resistance

Reduces cost of production and management

Better resistance to weeds, pests and disease reduce the need for chemicals to be used, thus reducing costs

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Better flavour and nutritional value for crops

Enhance shelf life of crop, making it easier to ship and export opens new markets internationally

Increases yield of crop

Historical development For several thousand years, farmers have been altering the genetic makeup of the crops they grow through selective

breeding

The pioneer of modern genetics is in the 19th century- Gregor Mendel, who experimented on peas- cross-breeding tall ones with short ones. He deduced that there were discrete inherited factors responsible for the way they turned out

1953- The next stepping stone was when James Watson and Francis Crick cracked the genetic code, identifying the double helix structure of DNA. Since then, genetic engineering has been a possibility

Transgenic plants were first created in the 1980s by four groups working independently at Washington University, the Rijksuniversiteit, Monsanto Company and the University of Wisconsin.

In January 1983, the first three groups announced that they had inserted bacterial genes into plants, and in April that year, the fourth group announced that they had inserted a plant gene from one species into another species.

In the 1990s, biotechnology moved out of the laboratory and into farms and shops, becoming a ‘boom’ in the industry.

In 1990- the first GM food, a yeast, was approved in the UK

In 1992, vegetarian cheese (made out of a GM ingredient) went on sale in the UK

In 1995, the company ‘Calgene’ commercially released a GM tomato “tomato puree”

After this, controversy erupted over GM crops with Dr Arpad Pusztai publishing research that GM potatoes were modified with an insecticide gene poisonous to rats. This lead to many more social disputes over GM.

The worldwide adoption of GM crops has rapidly increased every year since their commercial introduction in 1995, including in Australia.

Technological development Genetically modifying plants involves four basic steps:

i. Identification- of DNA segments that code for a particular gene responsible for a desired feature

ii. Isolation- the DNA segment is isolated

iii. Cloning- the DNA segment is cloned by introducing it into a host, such as bacteria or yeast. As the host multiplies, so does the introduced DNA segment

iv. Transference- the cloned DNA can then be transferred to other members of the species that it came from or to another species where it produces the desired effect

The techniques and technology for this has developed throughout the years, including: bacterial carriers, biolistics, calcium phosphate precipitation, electroporation, gene silencing, gene splicing, viral carriers

BACTERIAL CARRIERS- The bacterium Agrobacterium can infect plants, which makes it a suitable carrier for delivering DNA. The selected gene is inserted into a plasmid and dropped into a solution of Agrobacterium. The solution if heated, allowing the plasmid to enter the bacterium, forming a new gene. This gene is allowed to grow and then inserted into plant cells

BIOLISTICS- The selected DNA is attached to microscopic particles of gold or the metal tungsten. Like firing a gun, these DNA-laden particles are shot into the target cells using a burst of gas under pressure. Most plants are GM’d through this method

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE PRECIPITATION- The selected DNA is exposed to calcium phosphate. This mixture creates tiny granules. Target cells respond to these granules by surrounding and ingesting them (endoocytosis), allowing the granules to release the DNA and deliver it to the host nuclei and chromosome(s).

ELECTROPORATION- THE prepared target cells are immersed in a special solution with the selected DNA. A short but intense electric shock is then passed through the solution. The result is small pores/tears in the cell walls, which allow the new genetic material access to the nuclei. Then, the cells are placed into another solution and encouraged to repair their

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breached walls, locking the ‘donor’ DNA inside the cell. The selected DNA is incorporated into the host chromosomes to provide the host with a new gene.

GENE SILENCING- One method of ‘silencing’ a particular gene is to attach a second copy of the gene the wrong way around. This technique is used to prevent plants like peanuts and wheat from producing the proteins (allergens) commonly responsible for human allergies. Another approach is to insert foreign DNA within a gene to ‘inactivate’ it.

GENE SPLICING (THE PLASMID METHOD) - Bacteria contain restriction enzymes that form the bacterium’s ‘immune system’. The restriction enzymes attack the foreign DNA by cutting it into precise sections and preventing it from being inserted into the bacterium’s chromosome. Different bacteria produce different restriction enzymes that cut any DNA at different places, making the DNA ‘sticky’ in some cases, which means they can be ‘pasted’ directly onto the target organism’s prepared DNA.

VIRAL CARRIERS (THE VECTOR METHOD)- A virus that will invade the target cells but not cause damage or death is chosen. The selected DNA is added to the genetic makeup of the virus and then the virus is allowed to infect the target. As the virus invades cells and replicates, the selected DNA is added to the target cells.

Impact of technological development- economic, environmental, social, legal and managerial factorsBlack=positive impacts, orange= negative impacts ECONOMIC

- Many supporters of genetically engineered crops claim they lower pesticide usage and have brought higher yields and profitability to many farmers, including those in developing nations.

- For example, a 2010 study by US scientists, found that the economic benefit of BT corn to farmers in five mid-west states was $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years

- The cost into research and developing successful variety is quite high, but once developed profits are huge. If using an already developed variety, ‘Plant Breeder Right’ fees must be paid.

ENVIRONMENTAL

- Reduces/removes the need for chemicals, insecticides and herbicides to be sprayed through the development of pest, disease and weed resistant varieties

- Reduces pesticide application and reduces soil erosion from tiling

- Conservation of soil, water and energy through development of fast-growing varieties

- More efficient processing and better natural waste management

- Unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination unknown effects on other organisms (e.g., soil microbes)

- Loss of flora and fauna biodiversity

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL

- Raises controversy- GM violates the natural organisms’ intrinsic values and is an unnatural method. Some religious members even believe that this plays with God as we’re tampering with nature by mixing genes among species.

- There are some objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vise versa

- New advances in technologies may be skewed to interests of rich countries

- Increases food security for growing populations

LEGAL

- Access and intellectual property Domination of world food production by a few companies and increasing dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries

- Biopiracy, or foreign exploitation of natural resources

- Labelling is not mandatory in some countries (e.g. USA), leading to many legal disputes. GM crops are often mixed with non GM crops, without notification in such countries

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- Genetically Modified Crops Act 2004- all conditions and regulations a crop must be genetically modified in, in Australia. The GM Crops Act has provision to ensure proper accountability where there are risks to markets, and ensures producers are liable to any damage/sickness etc.

- Several Australian States have placed bans on planting GM food crops, beginning in 2003. However in late 2007, NSW and VIC lifted their bans, and WA lifted their’s in 2008. SA and TAS still have a ban.

SAFETY

- Potential human health impacts, including allergens, transfer of antibiotic resistance markers, unknown effects

- VERY SAFE IN AUSTRALIA- In Australia, foods or ingredients that have been genetically modified (GM foods) must be subjected to a pre-market safety assessment by the government food regulator – Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ). Apart from certain exemptions, GM foods offered for sale must have their GM status identified on the food label

MANAGERIAL FACTORS

- Reduces cost of production and management by improving plant varieties

*Note* The ease of the operation is made easier by farmers saving several seeds for each batch, so new seeds do not have to be genetically engineered every time

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH 6) Analyse a research study of the development and/or implementation of ONE recent agricultural technology in terms of design of the study, methodology, collection of data, presentation of data, analysis of data and conclusions and recommendations The basic elements of scientific research is necessary for the adequate study and analysis of a piece of research: a literary

review (not necessary but useful), a clear objective/aim, appropriate experimental design, data collection, data analysis, data presentation, AND, conclusion, discussion and recommendations

CASE STUDY- QUANTIFYING FODDER QUALITY ASSESSMENTS USING MACHINE VISIONCLEAR OBJECTIVE/AIM Areas that needed to be explored and formulated were identified with a CLEAR objective

The project aimed to deliver a low-cost bench prototype system to automatically measure the following characteristics from fodder samples: stem width, colour and, leaf to stem ratio. It aimed to find an objective may to measure fodder quality (instead of using an assessor)

BACKGROUND INFORMATION Fodder crops cover a wide range of crop and pasture species that are grown, harvested and processed to facilitate both on-

farm use and domestic and export trade

The subjective nature of classifying fodder quality characteristics leads to confusion in the market place and reduces the competitiveness of the Australian industry

Disputes between buyers and sellers over the quality of hay traded frequently occur. The AFIA (Australian fodder industry association) fodder grading meeting in 2005 recommended their support for funding a project to assess the potential for using image analysis technology for quantifying a range of hay characteristics including overall colour, leaf:stem ration etc.

Such technology would improve the accuracy with which fodder crops could be characterised and graded

This project leans more towards development than research. It will draw heavily on other research experience concerning palatability and nutritional content and any other microspectral analysis. It is concerned with the exploitation of any such knowledge into the design of an instrument.

DESIGN OF THE STUDYTreatments Manual assessment of stem width, colour and leaf:stem ratio for fodder crops vs. objective assessment (through image

analysis technology) of fodder crops for stem width, colour and leaf:stem ratio

Control The control treatments were the manually tested fodder crops to which the objective machine-tested ones were compared

to

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Standardisation All the fodder crops had received same treatment- water, nutrition oil, sunlight

The same prototype was used to test each one for each grading characteristic to prevent any difference in prototype affecting results

Replication 58 samples of lucerne and oaten hay were used

This improves the accuracy of results through the use of the mean and reduces chance of experimental error

Randomisation There was no need for random selection as all samples were tested by each prototype, and the order of testing did not

matter

Evaluation of experimental design Pretty good experimental design! Use of appropriate experimental procedure and equipment to satisfy aim. There were no

factors that affected the results other than the two treatments.

METHODOLOGIES OF STUDY (how they collect data, how they analyse data etc) The potential of detecting micro-spectral differences between samples, using a precision spectrophotometer, was

investigated

This gave readings of the reflectance of each sample all the way from the ultra-violet 2.5nm, deep into the infrared

Wherever differences in spectra could be discerns, it would be possible to use a monochrome camera with appropriate colour filters to perceive the same effect, provided the difference lay in a band that could be detected by the camera

Using a spectral analysis device (ASD) 58 samples of lucerne and oat hay’s reflectance under solar radiation was recorded.

The camera would have the added advantage of inspecting small image features, rather than taking a measure of colour of the whole image

Image analysis software was applied to determine features such as leaf-to-stem ratio and stem width.

This automatic process if much more exhaustive (comprehensive) than manual management, in which only a few samples would be taken out and measured

A hardware system has been devised and assembled to perform the relevant measurements by machine vision. The system comprises of a laptop attached to a webcam and lightproof sampling enclosure:

Using machine vision software platform developed at NCEA, a custom application was developed for this project, which can process saved images or streaming videos

STEM WIDTH- Each sub-sample was made independent of colour and lightning effects, and we use a histogram of all stem widths as it is a better reflection of the characteristics of that sample. An algorithm has been created to accumulate this data. Calibration of this algorithm was performed using a set of templates

COLOUR- (no more manual processed) Testing box with average chromaticity in each of the red, green and blue channels is used to objectively grade samples. Image is displayed as white dots overlaid onto image. The colour triangle is used to determine colour using a variety of derived formulas

STEM TO LEAF RATIO- Uses algorithm to identify bright areas in image as stem, check texture of areas and determine length of stem or leaf by the edges of each brought ear using s-psi graphs.

Areas bound by straight edges= stem, and all others are leaf

DATA COLLECTION, PRESENTATION AND ANALYSISWhat data was collected? The Results collected for each Sample # were:

- Colour score (/5 Lucerne, /60 Oaten) (for each sample- red, green and blue colour score to give final raw colour result)

- Average Stem diameter (mm)

- Min stem diameter (mm)

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- Max stem diameter (mm)

- Leaf: Stem ratio

- Stem %

- Leaf %

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These are the variables for the experimentHow was data collected? Method mentioned above.How was data presented? COLOUR- Table for raw results (has raw colour, red & green & blue colour score, and chromaticity)

STEM WIDTH- Table for raw results (file, median, skew, max, average weight), and also histogram for 10 samples (line graphs)

STEM TO LEAF RATIO- Table for raw results (with file, stem:leaf ratio, and avg, std deviation and std error measured at end

Manual results and Automatic results were compared using tables to highlight the inaccuracies in subjective grading of fodder

Also, histogram with automatic average stem width vs. manual stem width and automatic stem vs manual stem:leaf ratio was graphed. This highlighted the accuracy of the progeny for objective measurements rather than using a subjective assessor.

How was data analysed? The full process was undertaken with single sub-samples for 10 each of lucerne and oaten hays randomly

selected from the hay provided by the UA project

Data was analysed for looking for differences between treatment groups- manual and automatic- and proving the accuracy for using objective methods (image analysis technology) instead of subjective methods (assessor)

The difference was significant- which emphasises the importance of developing such technology and implementing it in the agricultural field

It is proven through the statistical measurements from stem width managements that it is more reliable for classification systems

Could the fata collection, presentation and analysis have been improved in any way? It would have been even more easier to understand if more context was provided to make graph

meaningful

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The project has demonstrated the feasibility of machine vision technology for the measurement of fodder

characteristics

The prototype developed is a full functional system which can provide and record the information as fast as the human operator can load samples

Objective measurement of colour will be most beneficial to the follow-on project to determine rules for a grading system

This colour may also be correlated with the Balco TrueGrade grading system for oaten hay

Delivering a histogram of stem widths, rather than a single numerical average, provides valuable additional information for the odder grading process

The histogram is built by identifying every edge component in the image

The stem to lead ratio is identified using a combination of colour and shape information

Implications (Effects) for relevant stakeholders At the right price and with the right ‘user-friendliness’, the instrument will have appeal for growers,

traders and consumers. This will also have appeal for the manufacturers of such an instrument

The availability of an objective assessment should go far to quell any disagreement between parties

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It is, of course, necessary for policymakers to determine how the quoted grades should be related to the features that can be measured

Recommendations Field testing must be performed, to ensure that the laboratory results can truly extend to practical use

Further research is needed in relation to palatability. The flavour of the sample might be affected by small amounts of a contaminant that would not influence to overall colour. With a system based on imaging, it is possible, though by no means certain, that ‘specks’ of such material could be perceived.

It is predicted that expert classification advice will be required to determine a conversion scale from the automatically measures physical characteristics to a grading scheme.

LEGAL, ETHICAL AND WELFARE ISSUES INVOLVED IN THIS RESEARCH Proper research methodology was carried out

Safe and appropriate methodology used

7) Explain the need for research in the development of agricultural technologies Organisations involved in research are the CSIRO, government, universities, private companies, and meat

and livestock australia Advances in agricultural technology offer great potential to increase farm productivity. It allows better & higher quality products/organisms to be created, give a farm a “competitive edge”,

reduce managerial costs to control the negative factors (that can be removed), and can improve farm efficiency.

For example, MLA researches on a range of topics such as grazing management, meat quality, genetics for improved efficiency to enhance its competitiveness and sustainability and to develop a competitive advantage for the industry.

Example 2- CSIRO researches into genetically engineering different crop varieties to combine desires characteristics (fast growth, high eating quality) and eliminate undesired characteristics (forming disease and weed resistance for example)

The research the development of agricultural technologies can also be undertaken to improve current technologies reduce the cost of the technology, improve sustainability (reducing detrimental effects on environment) improve efficiencies

All in all, research for the development in technology is vital in:- Improving efficiency of farm less human labour required- Lowering costs and increasing yield for crops- Creating a “better” organism with all the desired characteristics improves marketability and sale

of product- Create a “competitive edge” for the farm- Enhance sustainability and marketability for the product of the technology